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Condensate Removal

Condensate Removal
Heat Exchangers and Stall The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger and Steam Load Relationship Oversized Heat Exchangers Example: Selecting the Trap The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature The Stall Chart - Varying Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Varying Outlet Temperature Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

Heat Exchangers and Stall

This tutorial discusses the particular problems associated with the removal of condensate from temperature controlled heat exchange equipment, including the causes, symptoms and effects of stall. Use the quick links below to take you to the main sections of this tutorial:

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Foreword
This Block discusses the removal of condensate from heat exchange equipment supplied by saturated steam and fitted with: A temperature control valve on the steam line to the heat exchanger. A steam trapping device on the condensate line from the heat exchanger. The primary side of the heat exchanger will be referred to as the 'steam space', and the steam trapping device will be referred to as the 'trap'. The 'trap' can be a 'steam trap', a 'pump trap', or a 'steam trap and pump' fitted in combination. On these installations, a control sensor monitors the temperature of the outgoing heated fluid in the secondary circuit. The control valve endeavours to maintain a temperature determined by the controller, regardless of variations in heat load. The valve achieves this by opening or closing to alter the flowrate of steam, thereby varying the steam space pressure. The discharge from the steam trap may be subject to a lift and/or pressure in the condensate line, or may fall to an open end where it is subjected only to atmospheric pressure. This Block will refer to condensate pressure as 'backpressure'. The heat exchange equipment can be almost anything that meets the above criteria. Examples include: Shell and tube heat exchangers. Plate heat exchangers. Air heating coils or batteries in ductwork. Pipe runs or pipe coils in process equipment, tanks, vats etc. For brevity, this Block will refer to all such devices as 'heat exchangers' or 'heaters', and the passage of fluid being heated by the heat exchanger will be referred to as passing through the 'secondary' side of the heat exchanger. The performance of steam heat exchangers is often reduced due to condensate flooding the steam space and waterlogging. The two main causes of waterlogging are: Fitting the wrong type of trap. Stall.

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Examples of Typical Solutions

Draw ing and component sheet for removing condensate from a heat exchanger subjected to stall.

Important note

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Some systems aim to achieve control of temperature by positively encouraging partial flooding of the steam space of the heat exchanger. In these cases, the modulating action of the control valve at the condensate outlet varies the condensate level in the steam space. This changes the area of heating surface exposed to steam, and the effect is to change the heat transfer rate so as to control the secondary outlet temperature. With systems of this type, it is important that the heat exchangers be designed and manufactured specifically to withstand the effects of flooding. Where this is not done, the presence of condensate in the heat exchanger will have an adverse effect on operating performance and will reduce service life.

This method of control can have certain benefits if the system is designed correctly. One is that the condensate sub-cools in the heat exchanger before it is discharged. This can considerably reduce the amount of flash steam in the condensate pipework, which may improve the performance of the condensate system and also reduce heat losses. The main operational disadvantage is that systems of this type are slow to respond to variations in heat load.

What is meant by stall?

Stall is the reduction or the cessation of condensate flow from the heat exchanger, and occurs when the pressure in the heat exchanger is equal to, or less than, the total backpressure imposed on the steam trap. Lower than expected pressure in a heat exchanger may occur as a result of any of the following circumstances: The secondary fluid inlet temperature rising as a result of a falling heat load.
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The secondary fluid flowrate falling as a result of a falling heat load. The secondary fluid outlet temperature falling due to a lowering of the set point. As the control valve reduces the steam pressure to meet a falling heat load, the lack of differential pressure across the steam trap causes condensate to waterlog the steam space, as shown in Figure 13.1.1.

Fig. 13.1.1 An air heater battery suffering the effects of stall Due to applied safety factors and because heat exchangers are sold in pre-determined sizes, they often have more heating area than required. This has the effect of increasing the heat transfer capability of the exchanger above that required. It also means that the operating steam pressure will be lower than in a comparable heat exchanger perfectly sized for the same duty. The result is that less steam pressure is available to push out the condensate than may be expected. The steam pressure in the heat exchanger is important because it influences the stall condition, which in turn affects trap selection. Before any trap selection and sizing can take place, it is necessary to determine whether or not stall will occur, and if it does, to what degree. If this is not done, it is likely that the heat exchanger will suffer from waterlogging for some or all of its operating life. This, when it occurs, may not be immediately recognised by the observer or operator, as operating performance might not be reduced in an oversized heat exchanger. However, waterlogging can have severe financial consequences, short and long term, unless the heat exchanger is designed to operate this way.

Short-term problems
Consider an oversized heater battery operating as a frost coil and fitted with the wrong type (or size) of trap, as in Figure 13.1.1. In this example, the frost coil is preheating chilled air before it passes on to the main heater battery. Though the frost coil is fulfilling its thermal expectations (because it is oversized for the duty), it will do so with the bottom half of its coils waterlogged. Incoming cold air approaching 0C (typically flowing at 3 m/s) passing over the coils can easily cause the water in them to freeze. This results in having to repair or replace the heater battery, either causing inconvenience or unexpected outlay.

Waterlogging and freezing will not arise if the application is correctly designed.

Long-term problems
Traps that are undersized will sometimes show no immediate adverse effects on heater performance if the heater is oversized. Ironically, the wrong type of trap fitted to a heat exchanger can often exaggerate a superficial improvement elsewhere in the condensate system. For instance, a thermostatic or fixed orifice fitted to any heat exchanger will hold back condensate so that it sub-cools below the steam saturation temperature. This will have the effect of reducing flash steam from any natural outlet such as a condensate receiver vent. The casual observer can interpret this as a way to save energy and can easily be tempted to fit these devices. Unfortunately, the situation is not as straightforward as it seems. The reality is that holding back condensate until it sub-cools implies waterlogging to some degree. Condensate that continually floods the steam space will cause corrosion with costly results. The service life of the heat exchanger is reduced, and the overall lifetime costs of the installation will increase. The effects suffered by a waterlogged heat exchanger depend upon the circumstances of the particular installation. The symptoms and effects of stall are itemised later in this Tutorial.

How does stall occur?

To understand stall it is necessary to appreciate that saturated steam is a condensing vapour, which gives up its heat as it condenses to water. This condensation always occurs at a constant temperature when the pressure in the steam space remains constant. For example, saturated steam at atmospheric pressure has a temperature of 100C and will also condense back into water at 100C, whereas at a gauge pressure of 1 bar, saturated steam has a temperature of 120C and will condense back into water at 120C. Steam can also exist inside heat exchangers at below atmospheric pressure i.e. steam at 0.5 bar below atmospheric pressure has a temperature of about 82C, and will also condense back to water at 82C. The pressure and temperature relationship of saturated steam is entirely predictable and is documented in steam tables. Basic heat exchanger theory states that the higher the steam temperature above that of the secondary fluid being heated, the greater the potential heat transfer rate. To vary the transfer of heat from condensing steam, the temperature (and thus the pressure) of the steam in the steam space is varied. For example, if a heat exchanger uses steam at 160C at maximum load, and the load is reduced by 50%, steam at a lower temperature is required. To achieve this, the steam pressure must be reduced, and, in many cases, becomes less than the backpressure.

Example
A heat exchanger running at full-load uses saturated steam at 1 bar g (120C) to heat water from 40C to 60C. Full-load therefore occurs when the water temperature rises by 20C, and the mean water temperature is:

The difference between the steam temperature and the mean water temperature is termed the Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD, and the heat transfer rate is proportional to this. The full-load AMTD in this example is 120C - 50C = 70C. Consider the situation where the process load falls to /3 load. At full-load, the water temperature rise is 20C. If the load falls to /3 full-load, and the outlet water temperature remains constant at 60C, this means that the temperature rise must be /3 of 20C Therefore: At /3 load, temperature rise = /3 of 20C = 13.3C and the inlet temperature = 60C - 13.3C = 46.7C Consequently at /3 load, the return water temperature will have risen to 46.7C, and so the mean water temperature is now:

At /3 load, the heat transfer needed will be /3 of that at full-load, and equally the AMTD will be /3 of that at fullload, i.e.

It follows that the steam temperature at /3 load has to be the mean water temperature at /3 load plus the AMTD at /3 load, i.e.

As the temperature of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure is 100C, this means that the pressure in the steam space is now atmospheric. Consequently, there is no steam pressure available in the steam space to push the condensate through a steam trap. Even if the condensate line fell to an open-ended steam trap, the condensate might not drain out of the exchanger. The condensate will 'back-up' the drain line and waterlog the heat exchanger unless proper precautions are taken. If condensate backs up into the exchanger, the surface area available to condense steam is reduced, the heat flow drops and the temperature of the outgoing heated water begins to fall. When the temperature sensor detects this, the controller opens the control valve a little more and the inflow of steam increases. This raises the pressure in the steam space above atmospheric (in this case) and soon becomes high enough to push condensate through the trap. The condensate level falls, but now the steam space pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure needed to just heat the water to 60C. The water temperature then climbs. When the sensor detects this, the controller closes down the control valve. The steam space pressure falls to atmospheric - and the flooding begins again. The result is a continual cycling of the water temperature above and below 60C. If the secondary medium were other than water this could, in many cases, affect its quality.

What are the symptoms and effects of stall?

One or more of the following symptoms may be evident:

In summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Cold or cool steam trap. Hunting control valve. Fluctuating outlet temperature. Stratified heater temperatures. Waterhammer. Reduced heat output. Reduced product quality. Corroding heat exchangers. Leaking heat exchangers. Failing heat exchangers.

In detail:
The steam trap goes cold, or is noticeably cooler than the temperature of the steam pipe inlet to the heat exchanger. The control valve is prone to 'hunting', i.e. it cycles regularly somewhere between its open and closed positions. The temperature of the secondary fluid flowing from the heat exchanger is less accurate than is expected or required. There is stratification of temperature on the output side of the heat exchanger. This will be more apparent on heater batteries and unit heaters. For example, it is almost certain to be detectable on the air heater battery depicted in Figure 13.1.1. The design is such that the face of the heat exchanger surface is usually accessible, often via an access panel or door in the side of the ducting. If stall is happening, the top of the battery closest to the steam inlet will be very hot, whereas lower down, it will be much cooler or even cold, and the trap will be cool or cold. The temperature of the air flowing through the top of the battery will be

noticeably higher than that flowing through the bottom. The heat exchanger makes crackling, banging or thumping noises either continuously or intermittently. Sometimes these noises are associated with severe waterhammer that can cause physical damage to the heat exchanger and any equipment fitted to it. The hot steam condensing into the waterlogged condensate causes the waterhammer and resulting noises, especially when the waterlogging level varies with changes in load. In process applications, the result of one or more of the above symptoms may be poor or unreliable product quality. Increased corrosion. The waterlogged condensate cools to temperatures much lower than the steam temperature at the inlet to the steam space. Carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolve much more readily into cooler water. Carbon dioxide is a common by-product of incorrect boiler water treatment and is carried over into the heat exchanger with the steam. When it dissolves into water it forms carbonic acid, which causes corrosion. Oxygen is present in raw water, and if not completely removed by the water treatment process, it too will get carried over with the steam. Its presence in water, especially cool water in which it will readily dissolve, also aggravates corrosion. Corrosion rates are greatly accelerated when both gases are present. The degree of corrosion will depend upon the heat exchanger material. Copper, carbon steel, and stainless steel will each be affected differently. Mechanical stress. The hot steam in the top of the steam space will cause the heat exchanger to expand there, while the cool water in the bottom of the steam space has the reverse effect. This uneven expansion/contraction can cause mechanical stress to the heat exchanger structure, notably to the soldered, brazed, welded or expanded joints in 'plate' and 'shell and tube' heat exchangers, and air heater batteries. The most common result is leakage of steam to the surroundings in the former, or into the secondary airflow in the latter. The stress tends to be worse if the waterlogging level continually varies, especially if it varies quickly. The level of waterlogging will vary as the load changes, and as a result; the control valve and steam trap will struggle to achieve stable control. It should be said that a properly engineered plate heat exchanger with gasket joints suitably designed for steam will be very resilient to such stress. The ultimate effect of stall is increased maintenance and shorter service life of the heat exchanger and associated equipment. This increases overall running costs.

Do all heat exchangers suffer from stall?

No. The conditions may be such that there will always be sufficient positive pressure upstream of the steam trap to clear the condensate so stall cannot occur. As a general rule, the higher the secondary temperature above 100C, and the more stable the running load, (especially if near to the maximum output of the heat exchanger), the less likely for stall to occur. However, each application is unique and will require individual consideration. The only ways to determine the dynamics of the installation are to either plot the application temperatures on a chart or to perform a mathematical calculation. This is explained in Tutorial 13.2, 'Condensate Removal from Heat Exchangers'. Some applications can appear to operate with partial waterlogging, and show little effect of waterhammer. These tend to be steady load applications, or where the load changes only slightly and very slowly, and/or applications that employ very robust heat exchange equipment. One such example would be large bore corrosion resistant heating coils inside tanks correctly arranged to have a positive fall towards the trapping points. Even in applications of this type, if the installation is designed or corrected to eliminate stall, improved operation, improved reliability, and reduced lifetime costs are virtually guaranteed.

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Steam Engineering Tutorials

Condensate Removal

Condensate Removal
Heat Exchangers and Stall The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger and Steam Load Relationship Oversized Heat Exchangers Example: Selecting the Trap The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet Tem perature - Constant Outlet Tem perature The Stall Chart - Varying Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Varying Outlet Temperature Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet Tem perature - Constant Outlet Tem perature

The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature
A simple method of calculating stall is to use a stall chart. This tutorial explains the use of a chart to calculate stall for a constant secondary flowrate with a varying inlet temperature. Use the quick links below to take you to the main sections of this tutorial:

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By definition, stall will occur when the steam pressure in the heat exchanger is less than or equal to the condensate backpressure. Good results are obtained from heat transfer calculations as shown in Tutorial 13.4. Those not wishing to use a mathematical approach can use a simpler method to arrive at a practical result. This method is graphical and involves the use of a 'stall chart'. It gives slightly less accurate results, but is perfectly adequate for most practical purposes. A reduction in heat load is usually due to an increasing inlet temperature or a reducing secondary fluid flowrate, and requires a fall in steam pressure for control to be maintained. Sometimes stall may be caused by a combination of these, or perhaps a fall in outlet temperature due to a change in the set point.

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Constant secondary flowrate with varying inlet temperature

In this type of heat exchanger, the secondary flowrate and outlet temperature remain constant while the inlet temperature varies with changes in heat load.

Audits
Find out how plant audits can pinpoint and overcome heat exchanger operating problems.

Examples of Typical Solutions

Draw ing and component sheet for removing condensate from a heat exchanger subjected to stall.

Fig. 13.5.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger with primary control valve At full-load the inlet temperature will be at its lowest. With a constant secondary flow through the heat exchanger, any reduction in the heat load will cause the inlet temperature to rise. The stall chart can show how the steam temperature and the inlet temperature change as the heat load changes, and predict the inlet temperature at stall and the minimum load condition. Under full-load conditions, the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid will be large. Conversely, under no-load conditions there is no heat exchange so the steam and secondary fluid must be the same temperature, and the temperature difference between them is zero. By proportionality, it follows that at 50% load this temperature difference is 50% of its maximum value. From this basic principle of proportionality, two straight lines can be drawn onto a chart to represent all these conditions. At full-load the lines are furthest apart, showing that the temperature difference is at a maximum. At no-load the lines converge to a single point, showing that the temperature difference is zero. A typical stall chart is shown in Figure 13.5.2. It considers a steam temperature of 120C heating a constant flow of secondary water from 20C to 80C. Note that the steam temperature of 120C is arrived at by one of two means: It has been calculated from LMTD design figures, as per the calculations in Tutorial 13.4, which take into consideration the heat exchange surface area.

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The steam space pressure has been observed during operation and the temperature calculated. Firstly, the steam temperature in the heat exchanger under full-load conditions (Point A) is marked upon the left vertical axis in the stall chart in Figure 13.5.2. Secondly, the desired secondary fluid outlet temperature is marked on the right vertical axis (Point B). The secondary fluid inlet temperature (Point C) at full-load is then marked on the left vertical axis. If a straight line then joins the points A and B, the line AB will represent how the steam temperature alters relative to changes in heat load. Similarly, if a straight line joins the points B and C, the line BC will represent the changing inlet temperature of the secondary fluid as the heat load varies.

Fig. 13.5.2 Constant flowrate / Varying inlet temperature - Stage 1 It is then necessary to add a horizontal line to represent the equivalent steam saturation temperature of the condensate backpressure. This temperature should be marked on the right vertical axis, as shown in the Figure 13.5.3 (Point D). A straight line should then be drawn in to connect this point with the same temperature on the left vertical axis at point E.

Fig. 13.5.3 Constant flowrate / Varying inlet temperature - Stage 2 The condensate backpressure takes into account the pressure in the condensate system plus any static pressure that may be due to a lift in the condensate discharge line from the bottom of the heat exchanger. A column of liquid will exert a pressure at its base due to its own mass. This is often referred to as 'static lift' when it is exerted on the outlet of the trap. A 1 metre column of water under atmospheric pressure will exert a pressure at the bottom of the column of approximately 10 kPa or 0.1 bar g (actually 9.806 65 kPa or 0.098 066 5 bar). Any lift in the condensate discharge line will thus exert a static lift due, to the column of condensate held in the line, in addition to any pressure in the condensate system.

The horizontal line DE will either intersect the line AB, or will be above point A on the chart. The point of intersection between the lines AB and DE represents the 'stall point', where the steam pressure and the backpressure are the same. If the line DE is on or above point A, the system permanently operates under stall conditions. (In vacuum condensate systems, or when B is greater than 100C, point D may also be below point B, if this is the case, the system will not stall at any heat load). A vertical line should then be dropped down from the stall point. The point at which this vertical line crosses the bottom horizontal axis (Point F) marks the percentage stall load relative to the full heat load. The percentage stall load can also be quickly calculated using Equation 13.5.1.

Equation 13.5.1 Where:: A = The steam temperature in the steam space at full-load (C) B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature (C) D = Saturated steam temperature (C) equivalent to the backpressure The vertical line connecting the stall point with point F will also intersect the line BC. If a horizontal line is drawn from this intersection point to the left vertical axis, this will mark the secondary inlet temperature at which stall occurs (Point G).

Example 13.5.1
The steam pressure in a heat exchanger at full-load is observed to be 7 bar g. Condensate pressure is 1 bar g, and there is a lift after the trap of 10 m. At full-load, the secondary fluid enters the heat exchanger at 25C and leaves the heat exchanger at 80C. 1. What is the percentage heat load at stall? 2. What is the secondary inlet temperature at stall? The saturation temperature of saturated steam at 7 bar g is 170C. Therefore the steam temperature in the heat exchanger at full-load is 170C. This can then be plotted as point A in Figure 13.5.4:

Fig. 13.5.4 Stall chart for Example 13.5.1

What is the percentage heat load at stall?

The secondary fluid outlet temperature of 80C should be plotted as point B in Figure 13.5.4, while the secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load of 25C should be plotted as point C. The lift in the condensate line of 10 m creates a backpressure of 1 bar, in addition to the 1 bar g pressure in the condensate system. Therefore, the total system backpressure is 2 bar g. As the saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 135C, the horizontal line DE representing the backpressure is added at this temperature. The stall chart in Figure 13.5.4 shows that the percentage heat load at stall (Point F) is approximately 61%. The mathematical calculation can be validated by use of Equation 13.5.1:

Equation 13.5.1 Where: A = The steam temperature in the steam space at full-load B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature = 170C = 80C

D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature = 135C

What is the secondary inlet temperature at stall?

The stall chart in Figure 13.5.4 also indicates that the inlet temperature at stall (Point G) is about 46C or 47C. The mathematical calculation can be validated by use of Equation 13.4.1:

Equation 13.4.1 Where: T x = The secondary inlet temperature at any load factor 'x' T 1 = The secondary inlet temperature at full-load T 2 = The secondary outlet temperature at full-load x = The load factor For example; the minimum heat load of 61% load is equivalent to a load factor of 0.61

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Condensate Removal
Heat Exchangers and Stall The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger and Steam Load Relationship Oversized Heat Exchangers Example: Selecting the Trap The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature The Stall Chart - Varying Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet Temperature - Varying Outlet Temperature Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

Home Resources Steam Engineering Tutorials Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

Condensate Removal

Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

This tutorial considers methods of overcoming condensate drainage problems, such as ensuring gravity drainage, installing an automatic pump trap device, or controlling the pressure in the steam space.

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If stall conditions are inevitable, potential problems can be overcome by designing the installation around one of three basic solutions: 1. Ensure the steam pressure in the steam space can never drop below atmospheric pressure, and that the condensate can drain by gravity to and from a ball float steam trap. 2. Accept that the pressure in the steam space may be less than the backpressure, and provide an alternative means of removing condensate, by installing a pump-trap. 3. Ensure the pressure in the steam space is stable and higher than the backpressure. This will entail having the temperature control system on the secondary side of the system. Taking these three options in turn:

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1. Installations that ensure the conditions in the steam space can never drop below atmospheric pressure, and that the condensate can drain by gravity to and from a steam trap:
1a) Condensate removal by vacuum breaker method (see Figure 13.8.1) The steam trap cannot be subject to any backpressure higher than atmospheric, and must drain condensate either to an open end (which may be wasteful), or to a nearby vented receiver and pump, enabling the energy contained in the condensate to be reclaimed. There are two criteria that must be satisfied: A vacuum breaker must be fitted to the steam inlet to the heat exchanger after the control valve. The trap must be installed at a discreet distance below the heat exchanger outlet such that sufficient static head is created to pass the requisite amount of condensate when stall occurs. A distance of between 0.5 to 1 m is usually sufficient; however, smaller distances can be accommodated with larger traps, if less head is available.

Audits
Find out how plant audits can pinpoint and overcome heat exchanger operating problems.

Examples of Typical Solutions

Draw ing and component sheet for removing condensate from a heat exchanger subjected to stall.

Feature
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A comprehensive best practice guide to saving energy and optimising plant performance, this book covers all aspects of steam and condensate

systems. Order your copy today

Fig. 13.8.1 Static head and vacuum breaker method of dealing with stall 1b) Auxiliary drain trap method (see Figure 13.8.2) A standard float trap set is installed with condensate returning to a condensate system, which is either pressurised and/or elevated above the trap. An auxiliary float trap may be fitted, discharging condensate via an open end to drain. When there is sufficient steam pressure to overcome the backpressure, the main float trap will function, but when stall occurs, condensate will back-up and drain through the auxiliary float trap thus preventing condensate flooding back into the heat exchanger. As this condensate will drain to waste, this method should only be used if stall occurs infrequently. The auxiliary trap should be sized on static head to pass the stall load as in method 1a, and the 'main' trap should be the same size, but fitted at least 150 mm below the auxiliary take-off tee-piece. Apart from the obvious disadvantage of energy loss, this method also requires available head between the trap inlets and the heat exchanger outlet.

Fig. 13.8.2 Auxiliary drain method of dealing with stall

2. Installations which allow the steam pressure in the steam space to drop below the backpressure, but where the condensate can drain by gravity to a pump-trap arrangement:
2a) A pump and float trap installed in combination (see Figure 13.8.3) This method uses a pump and float trap installed in combination. It is better suited to heat exchangers with nominal heating capacities in excess of 1.5 MW (nominally 2500 kg/h of steam). The steam pressure changes relative to changes in heat load. At high loads the steam pressure will be higher than the backpressure, but at low loads it will be lower. The pump is a mechanical pressure-powered type, in which an auxiliary steam supply automatically takes over to provide the motive power to discharge the condensate when stall occurs. If the steam space pressure is higher than the backpressure, condensate passes through the pump body to the float trap, which allows the condensate to discharge. This method is more practical and economical on larger installations; for example, those using condensate drain lines of 40 mm or more.

Fig. 13.8.3 Combination pump and steam trap method of dealing with stall 2b) A pump-trap with constant flow heat exchanger (see Figure 13.8.4) The secondary flowrate does not change as it passes through the heat exchanger, consequently the steam pressure changes relative to changes in the secondary inlet temperature. At high loads the steam pressure will be higher than the backpressure, but at low loads it will be lower. This method uses a pump-trap device, which offers the functions of a pump, steam trap and check valves in one body. The Spirax Sarco APT14 automatic pump-trap is designed to occupy a minimum amount of space, and can be fitted to heat exchangers with nominal heating capacity of up to 1.5 MW. It is most suited to installations with condensate drain lines up to 25 mm, but can be used on drain lines up to 40 mm in some circumstances. A typical installation is shown on Figure 13.8.4.

Fig. 13.8.4 Pump-trap method of dealing with stall 2c) A pump-trap device with varying flow heat exchanger (see Figure 13.8.5) This method is similar to 2b), but the secondary flow through the heat exchanger varies with the heat load, due to the action of the secondary mixing valve.

The heat exchanger delivers a constant temperature water flow which is blended by the secondary mixing valve according to load. As the secondary flow varies, the steam pressure changes to maintain a constant outlet temperature, such that, at high loads, it is above the backpressure, and at low loads it is below.

Fig. 13.8.5 Pump-trap method of dealing with stall

3. Installations which ensure the steam pressure is kept constant and can never drop below the backpressure, and that the condensate can drain to and from a steam trap:
3a) Steam trap with temperature control valve in secondary circuit (see Figure 13.8.6) This method requires temperature control to be carried out with a 3-port mixing or diverting valve in the secondary circuit. The steam supply to the heat exchanger is held at a constant pressure (usually less than 1 bar g) with a pressure control valve, and as such, condensate can always be cleared from the heat exchanger against a lower backpressure. This method is not always practical or possible. It is unsuitable on steam/air heater batteries or liquid systems where the secondary system is at such a low pressure that it is unable to prevent the liquid from boiling. Like all methods, it has both advantages and disadvantages, which must be assessed before an option can be chosen.

Fig. 13.8.6 Constant steam pressure - Secondary temperature control 3b) Steam trap and modulating valve in condensate drain line (see Figure 13.8.7) Condensate drainage is achieved with a modulating valve in the condensate drain line. This method also maintains the desired steam pressure in the steam space regardless of load conditions. However, it encourages (instead of eliminates) waterlogging in the heat exchanger, as control is achieved by deliberately flooding the steam space with condensate as the load reduces. Usually this method is only considered if: The heat load is steady or changes very slowly. The heat exchanger is designed to withstand the effects of waterlogging. The likely stratification of temperatures of the secondary fluid is acceptable.

Fig. 13.8.7 Constant steam pressure - Condensate level control

On/off control should not be used with heat exchangers

An on/off temperature control valve does not modulate depending on heat load, but is either fully open or fully closed. An example would be a solenoid valve. When open, full steam pressure will be maintained in the heat exchanger to clear the condensate against the backpressure. At first glance, this method of control would seem to overcome any backpressure problems, but is not recommended on processes such as heat exchangers, where the secondary fluid has to be heated to its required temperature as it passes through. There are three main reasons for this: An 'on/off' control system is activated by a thermostat which relies upon a product overtemperature to achieve control. As steam has high heat content, a significant amount of heat can be held in the steam space after the solenoid valve has shut. The overall effect is a higher product temperature than required. Should the thermostat setting be lowered to counteract this effect, the 'on' temperature may be lower than the system parameters may require. It can result in poor control of the system temperature and the potential for product spoilage. The continual and rapid changes in pressure and temperature will impose thermal and mechanical stresses upon the heat exchanger which will probably reduce its service life. It is never a good idea to subject steam systems to an instantaneous increase in pressure. Any condensate present in the steam space and condensate pipe is instantly pushed, by the sudden inrush of steam, through the system towards the steam trap. This can cause waterhammer, and damage the heat exchanger and steam trap. On/off control is normally only suitable for 'non-flow' or 'batch' type heat exchange processes, notably tanks with robust heating coils, or jacketed pans, where the desired steam pressure is applied over a long heating up period (usually over many minutes or even hours). The rise in product temperature is much slower than that experienced with flow-type systems that are expected to heat the product in the short time it takes to pass through a heat exchanger.

Conclusion
The most suitable type of steam trap for heat exchange equipment in general, and especially if stall is likely, is a ball float steam trap with integral balanced pressure air vent. If there is any likelihood of stall, a pump-trap is generally the most effective way of dealing with it, as it benefits from being: Simple. Cost effective. Compact. Please note: The diagrams in this Tutorial are schematic only, and for simplicity do not contain all the ancillary equipment that would be necessary or advisable for a specific installation. The exception is Figure 13.8.8, which shows a detailed, actual, installation of an APT14 automatic pump-trap.

Fig. 13.8.8 Detailed installation of a pump-trap with plate heat exchanger

Footnote
The subject of stall can become somewhat complex, especially when selecting and sizing the most appropriate equipment and designing its installation such that it can be guaranteed to work when commissioned to do so. This Tutorial is not so much intended to make the reader an expert in the subject of stall, but rather: To allow him or her to understand what it is. To understand why it exists. To know what can be done to prevent it. To know who to contact for proper advice.

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