-lammond, S.

ific Spreading
urn from Sea

Processing and Analysis of Simrad Multibeam Sonar Data

NEIL C. MITCHELL
Present address: Department of Geological Sciences, University of Durham, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham DHl 3LE England; and Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton Canada

'. Geol. Congr.

8, Automated p-Sea Bottom

~ractal?, 1989,

rization of the

(Accepted 7 March 1996)

iphy, Geophys.

.ng of

Seafloor

Key words: Bathymetry, mapping, multi

beam echosounder, data

The longer-term aim of this software effort is to

make the interpretation more objective. At first glance,

nd-Order Stafe Processing,

processing

this might seem an impossible task, given its potential

Abstract. The common approach to analysing data collected with

complexity. For example, a human interpreter wil as-

J Morphology i Rate, 1. GeoWiley & Sons,

rerm Behavior

multibeam and sidescan sonars is to visually interpret charts of

contoured bathymetry and mosaics of seabed images. However, some
of the information content is lost by processing the data into charts

sess the seafloor's geology by recognising the shapes of geological features in contour maps, by recognising
typical textures and shapes in shaded-relief

maps, gra-

because this involves some averaging; the analysis might uncover more information if done on the data at an earlier stage in the
processing. Motivated by this potential, I have created a software

dient maps and sonar images, by assessing differences of tone in sonar images related to different seafloor
materials, and by recognising angle of incidence effects in sonar images which give the appearance of a seafloor

'. and Stauffer,

system which can be used to analyse data collected with Simrad

Survey Profes1986, Applica'requency Bot-

EMIOOO (shallow water) and EMl2 (deep water) multibeam sonars,

as well as to generate bathymetry contour charts and backscatter

mosaics. The system includes data preprocessing, such as navigation

filtering, depth filtering (removal of outlying values), and amplitude

mapping using the multi

10-1422,
ships Between
je Deposits in

beam bathymetry to correctly position image pixels across the swath. The data attributes that can be analysed
include the orientation and slope of

the seafloor, and the mean signal

l5-505,
pisodicity and

strength for each sounding. To determine bathymetry attributes such

as slope, the soundings across a number of beams and across a

series of pings are grouped and a least-squares plane fitted to them.
Bathymetric curvature is obtained by detrending the grouped data
using the least-squares plane and fitting a paraboloid to the residuals.

iluminated by an artificial sun. (The term 'sonar images' is used here for backscatter images created from either multibeam or sidescan sonar data.) However, a number of these characteristics can be calculated from the data, and this can potentially make the interpretation at least partly objective, as wil be shown. This paper describes how various attributes of Simrad EM 1000 and EM 12 soundings can by studied to

:theast Pacifc

Geophys. Res.
: Crest Conver-

The magnitudes and signs of the paraboloid's coeffcients reveal

depressions and hils and their orientations. Furthermore, the sea-

explore the seafloor's geology. (The term 'attribute' here means any information that can be attributed to
a sounding, such as the depth, local slope, curvature

t, 700-712. I Longitudinal '. Res. Let!. 6,

Nature, W H.
age Processing

floor geology can be classified using a simple combination of these

attributes. For example, flat-lying sediments can be classified where the backscatter, slope and curvature fall below specified values.

or echo strength (Table I).) The sounding attributes

can be plotted in profile to study geographic variations, or they can be plotted together to . find correlations between them. Alternatively, they can be gridded and studied in map form (I use the GMT system to display the grids (Wessel and Smith, 1991)), or they can be combined to produce simple seafloor classifications.

, SeaMARC II 7469-7490.
:ion of Statisti-

Introduction
Multiple-beam echo

,"

i Its Slope Disds for Describ14(10), 1061-

sounders were originally designed the seafloor (e.g., Kleinmore rock, 1992). However, these sonars are becoming
to measure the topography of

There are further potential advantages of calculating attributes from the raw data, rather than from DTMs
or backscatter mosaics. For example, seafloor gradi-

versatile, with the newest generation also capable of

Lphy: A Record
0), 1541-1544.

producing seafloor images from the backscatter, which are similar to those produced by sidescan sonars. Fur-

: Method and
Computers and

ther developments include the introduction of multiple-frequency sonars and multiple narrow-beam
profilers. With this present rapid evolution of the technology, a re-evaluation of the methods we use to pro-

ents or shaded-relief images may show detail closer to the resolution limit of the sonar if computed from raw sounding data; surface statistics wil be more represen-

gi, R. Y, Neal, tion fKilauea

ne 8, 1984, in

cess and analyse these data could be fruitful if we are

to make the most of the diverse and large datasets that
are to follow.
Marine Geophysical Researches 18: 729~739, 1996.

tative if computed from raw data; attributes such as beam quality factors and depth variability can be used to exclude noisy data; and the direct mapping of shaded-relief imagery and seafloor gradients reduces
artefacts at overlapping swaths due to navigation,

ds.), Volcanism

sound velocity, roll, pitch or draught errors. If shaded-

71-508.
g 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

!l

730

N. C. MITCHELL TABLE I

beii
des)

Multibeam data attributes

Processing

Attribute
The three orthogonal Cartesian components of the surface normal vector". Angle between the surface normal vector (directionn of surface tilt)". Azimuth of the surface normal vector (direction of surface tilt)'.

arte var)

Bathymetry

dd
T
beat than resu The
(7 tit

vari

Angle of incidence (degrees)'.

Standard deviation of depths about the surface (m)'.

Three coeffcients a, b, c (m -I) of the paraboloid, and the depth standard deviation about the paraboloid surface (m)b. The two coeffcients a' and b' and rotation angle e for the paraboloid surface in the rotated coordinate frameb.
Backscatter

Mean of signal strengths for each sounding (dB).

Mean of signal strengths for each sounding with the manufacturer's Lambert Law correction removed (dB). Standard deviations of signal strengths for each sounding (dB).

bean ager:
B2

Raw amplitude values (dB). I.e. list full trace for each specified sounding.

Further

Latitude of the sounding.

Longitude of the sounding.

Time (in seconds from the start of the year 1900). Beam number from I to 60 (EMIOOO) or 81 (EMI2).

syste (198:

brati
termi stren:
the v

Ping number (counted from start of file or as provided by the sonar). Sounding quality factors, which also indicate bottom detection method. Heading (gyro heading of the vessel or towfsh).
Roll (in degrees at the time of transmission).

for th
(the (

Number of amplitude samples for each sounding.

" From plane fitted to groups of soundings. b From paraboloid fitted to groups of soundings.

scribt furthe scatte may l

used i

relati,

relief images are required in near realtime, this kind of approach may be desirable because it avoids the
need for gridding and other processing. In addition,

angle is detected by the slight time delay of echoes

tween:

the mapping may be more effcient where the data

consist of sparse transit lines because the software need not search through empty sections of grids. This kind of approach may also be desirable for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (Stewart, 1988), where a com-

between the two beams, where the time delay is measured as a difference of signal phase. Within the central
beams, the phase difference is small so the systems

Initial!

resort to the older method of determining the centre of

the echo (which is called 'amplitude detection' below). The sonars are therefore hybrids, combining the older multibeam design with phase-difference techmass of

Then! strucd
of dati
differei packet: linearl~ data si
cycle, ~

bination of the amplitude and bathymetry attributes

described her,could be used to classify the vehicles'

niques that have previously been employed with

towfish sonars (Blackinton et aI., 1983). Data collected

with these sonars show fewer artefacts than previous

environment.

systems (de Moustier and Kleinrock, 1986), except for a 'w' -shaped dragging of con tours parallel to the ship

The Simrad EMIOOO and EMU Multibeam Sonars

track in EM12 data which is caused by a depth bias

in amplitude-detected beams at ~ 10 off

areas fc

vertical (these

ence d
could l bottom

also have greater noise). The artefact is probably

These systems operate by ensonifying a narrow strip of seafloor across track, and detect the bottom echo with narrow (across-track) listening beams, similar to
older multibeam designs (e.g., de Moustier, 1988).

caused by the sonar's time-varied amplifier gain (TVG)

which may be too rapidly varying and distorts the

bottom echo (E. Hammerstad, pers. commun., 1993),

so that
througl structui
possible

However, unlike with the older designs in which the bottom echo is detected within single beams, the Simrad systems use a split array to form pairs of parallel
beams (Hammerstad et aI., 1991). The echo arrival

causing the bottom-detection algorithm to locate the

bottom echo too late. It occurs at the transition be" tween the phase-difference and amplitude detection
methods, where the phase difference detections appear' to be generally more reliable. This problem is currently

soundii tern (W bathymi

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF SIMRAD MULTIBEAM SONAR DATA

731

being addressed by the manufacturer, though a redesign of the sonar may not completely remove this artefact because the TVG must compensate for the
varying backscatter with angle of incidence, and this

Navigation

Within a small moving window of navigation points, the software computes the median longitude (X) and

)id surface (m)b.

: frameb.

variation varies between different bottom types (e.g., de Moustier and Matsumoto, 1993). The beam forming software can optionally provide beams spaced almost uniformly across track, rather than at equally spaced angles, and this gives improved results for some bathymetry attributes described below. The swath width to water depth ratio is much greater (7 times water depth or more) than with previous multibeam sonars, and this results in improved sonar imagery (Hughes Clarke, 1993).

median latitude (Y), and a standard deviation of X and Yabout the medians. Position spikes are rejected
where either the latitude or longitude exceed more than
a specified number of standard deviations away from the median. Filtered navigation is given by computing

the mean X and Y within the window and with

Gaussian weights about the central position. While

this method is unsophisticated, it is simple and the

filter variables are easily understood by the user.
Depth Filtering

(dB).

Backscatter amplitudes are logged by the Simrad systems as seafloor backscatter strengths (see Urick
(1983) for definition), which are computed using calibration values for the electronics and transducers determined at the time of manufacture. The backscatter
strength values include a further partial correction for

Some preliminary despiking of the depths can be done by comparing each beam with its across-track neighbours and flagging soundings where the slopes on both sides of the beam are greater than a specified threshold.
For a more robust error rejection, the despiking can

be achieved by computing the standard deviation of

depths about their median average (computed within

the varying angle of incidence, using Lambert's law

for the variation with angle and assuming a flat seafloor

(the correction can be removed by the software described here (Table I)). Note that, unless there is a

further calibration at the time of the survey, the back-

scatter strength values may be inaccurate and there

may be a d.c. bias in the backscatter values (the data

groups of beams), and flagging depths which are greater than a specified number of standard deviations from the average. This can be done during the initial format conversion or later by comparing depths across a series of pings, and the results can be checked visually using an interactive multi beam display program
(Hughes Clarke et aI., 1993).

ay of echoes

used in this paper were uncalibrated). However, the relative signal level is still useful and differences between materials are clearly visible in the data.
Initial Processing
The raw Simrad data are translated into a flexible data

The above mentioned error that causes the Wshaped dragging of contours in EM12 data is more
diffcult to correct because the magnitude of the depth error is unpredictable. For the moment, the only solu-

delay is meaiin the central

i the systems
~ the centre of

ide detection'

tion seems to be to remove the beams containing this artefact altogether, so an algorithm is used which searches for the transition between phase and amplitude detections and removes two amplitude-detected

s, combining
fference tech-

structure which later forms the basis for the analysis of data attributes. Depths, amplitudes and raw phasedifference data are bundled together from separate data

soundings on' either side.

Projection of Beam Amplitudes to Form Seafloor Images

iployed with
)ata collected

han previous
:6), except for

packets, and combined with position information by linearly interpolating the processed navigation. The
data structure then includes, for each transmission

lel to the ship

a depth bias

cycle, a header, ship or fish positions and expandable areas for bathymetry, raw amplitude and phase difference data, and the seafloor imagery. Further areas

beam sonars consist of amplitude traces representing the echo level with time for each beam (de Moustier, 1986). To provide seafloor
Amplitudes supplied by multi

vertical (these
is probably

could be included for additional frequencies or subbottom profiler data. The structure is relatively verbose

images, the amplitudes must be translated from the tim~ ordinate to across-track distances. Unlike with
sidescan sonars, which commonly require a flat bottom assumption to achieve this, the bathymetry information can be used to correctly position the amplitudes and reduce layover and foreshortening effects (Mitch-

:r gain (TVG)
I distorts the

so that as much information as possible is retained

throughout the processing sequence. The software's structure is modular and uses UNIX~ 'pipes' where
possible to pass data between processes. The processed

rmun., 1993),
to locate the

ransition beide detection

ctions appear m is currently

Sounding data can then be imported to the GMT system (Wessel and Smith, 1991) to produce traditional bathymetry contour maps or images.

ell, 1991; Reed and Hussong, 1989). The translation can be done by determining the travel time to points along a curve fitted through each profile of soundings, for example onto a cubic spline (Talukdar et at., 1992;
Talukdar and Tyce, 1991). However, the sounding pre-

732
I:
,'f.

N. C. MITCHELL

f.
i !

ex

of 1 ca
IDi

st~

ed

C~

T~ bel ! the

Projection line

eXF

rel~

f
go

a
go

wi~

wi1

for
tiO~

.. l-

lI

be an9
sam

~ lI

Fig. I. The geometry for projecting the amplitude data for a single beam onto the across-track dimension. The illustration in the upper right
shows the general beam geometry. For greater software effciency, the amplitude trace for each beam is projected onto a straight line (f-g), which has a slope given by the adjacent beams. I.e. the data are projected onto a line that passes through beam k and lies parallel with a

:~
No tratl

line drawn through beams k+ i and k- i (the soundings are shown by the solid rectangles). In areas of rugged topography, illustrated by the thick grey line, the projection error with this flat bottom assumption is the difference between f and l and g and g'.

and squ, PreJ

be J

cision probably does not justify this level of sophistication so a more computationally effcient method is
used here by

projecting the amplitudes onto a straight

Given that the angular

Figure 1 shows the distortion that would occur if the seafloor profile were significantly curved (thick

surei i mas)
and

line with an aross-track slope determined from adjacent soundings (Figure 1).

line); the echo trace is projected onto f-g, whereas it

should be more correctly projected onto f'-g'. In prac-

surf2
and

sweep across each beam is small and if the angle ( - ex)

is not too small, the following simple expression can

tice this error is small because the true seafloor curvature is usually less than the sounding precision.

surf~

be used to compute the across-track distance from the nadir:

The amplitude samples are binned into an acrosstrack array, averaging coincident samples and (optionally) interpolating across any gaps. Since the swath

leng i

d=do+(i-io)11 cos ex/sin(-ex),

(1)

width varies with changing water depth, the array size

is kept constant but the across-track spacing of array elements is varied so that the image resolution is a constant proportion of the swath width. This is preferable to maintaining a constant spacing because the

prod; vectq orien

the t1
face

where do is the across-track distance to the beam's

centre, i is the amplitude sample number, io is the sample number corresponding to the centre of the
beam, 11, is the sampling interval in slant range (m), is the beam inclination angle and ex is the acrosstrack slope.

along-track dimension of a resolution cell (the sonar 'footprint' for a narrow beam sonar (1.7 for EMI2 and 3 for EM 1000) is defined by the beam width in

scalai repre:

ofea(
arcco whicl

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF SIMRA MULTIBEAM SONAR DATA

733

radians times the slant range, and therefore the actual

image resolution is proportional to water depth. Some

1-. :~-

further processing may be desirable at this stage, for example removing beam pattern artefacts and angleof-incidence effects, where the processing could use the
coregistered depth data. It is then a relatively easy
k.

a: normal vector
k.: vertcal vector

~:5

matter to reformat the data in a form readable by

standard sidescan sonar mosaicking software so that

maps can be produced (e.g., Chavez, 1986; Malinverno
et al., 1990).

Calculation of Sounding Attributes

The attributes of the soundings which presently can be listed by the software are given in Table 1. Besides the bathymetry and backscatter attributes, which are
explained below, the software can list various system-

Fig. 2. Computing a least-squares plane to groups of soundings and determining the surface normal vector n. The software groups
soundings from a series of transmission cycles and across a number
of beams, which surround the central beam labelled 'beam axis',

related data, which can be useful to diagnose faults with the system. For example, the roll values listed with depths from an outer beam can be used to check
for a roll-meter error, which would produce a correla-

tion between roll and the bathymetry. The ping and beam numbers can be listed with the depths to locate and isolate erroneous data. The number of amplitude
samples are needed, for example, when computing the standard errors of the mean signal strengths.
Seafloor Orientation, Gradient and Incidence Angles Normal vectors to the seafloor are determined as ilus-

and fits a least-squares plane to the depths. The small vertical bars connect the data (dots) with the surface; the sum of the squares of these is minimised to determine the 'best fitting' plane. The slope is then given by the angle between the surface normal vector and the vertical, and the incidence angle is the angle between the
surface normal and the axis of the central beam of the group.

ness or sounding noise, is given by the standard devi~

ation of the soundings about the least-squares surface.

There are further uses of these attributes besides

simple mapping and interpretation. To assist the interpretation of sonar images, incidence angles could be

: upper right
ht line (f-g),

trated in Figure 2. Soundings from adjacent beams

and adjacent pings are grouped together and a least-

Lrallel with a
llustrated by

g'.

squares plane is computed for them (e.g., Miler and Freund, 1965). The number of beams and pings can be adjusted to vary the lengthscale of the slope measurements. Data from the corners of the group are

used to generate synthetic sonar images from the bathymetry assuming a Lambert law or other angular dependence for the backscatter. The standard deviation of the soundings could be used to exclude areas
of poor data (for example, to exclude data from the

d occur if
ved (thick
whereas it
( In pracoor curva-

masked out to keep the data set approximately elliptical and prevent edge bias. Two vectors in the plane of the
surface are forre,4 using the coeffcients of

cross-over region between amplitude and phase detection methods), or could be used as a general diagnostic
of data quality.

the surface,

and the cross product of these two vectors gives the

surface normal vector, which is normalised to unit

length to give n.

l1athy~etric ~urvature

sion.
an across-

While the orientation and slope of the seafloor are

useful for interpretation, they do not provide a measure of shape that could be used to objectively map out geological features (for example, as would be needed for an automated mapping routine). Two previous studies ilustrate how bathymetric shape can be characterised using simple geometric functions. Shaw (1992) and Shaw and Lin (1993) located fault scarps in grid-

id (optionthe swath

The slope of the seafloor P is given by the scalar product of the surface normal n with the unit vertical
vector k and taking the arccosine of the product. The

: array size

ig of array

orientation (slope facing dirction) is computed from the two horizontal Cartesian components of the surface normaL. The angle of incidence (J is given by the

lution is a
.s is preferecause the
(the sonar

scalar product of the surface normal with a vector representing the inclination of the beam at the centre
of each group ('beam axis' in Figure 2) and taking the

for EM12 n width in

arccosine of the product. The sounding variability, which is potentially a measure of bathymetric rough-

ded Sea Beam data over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge by fitting a quadratic surface to the bathymetry and flagging areas where the coeffcients of the quadratic were less than a threshold value chosen to highlight the

734

N. C. MITCHELL

(a)

least-squares plane surface and centred so that x and

yare the positions of

the soundings in local coordinates

i'
,~~:

(metres north and east from the central beam of the

group).
z = ax2 + by2 + cxy.

~:

(2)

i;: ~!

(b)
z

Fig. 3. Examples of paraboloids. The paraboloid is fitted to the

soundings after they have been detrended using the plane in Figure 2 and centred, and the coeffcients a' and b' of the paraboloid fit
indicate the shape of the seafloor's topography. (a) Upward-curved

elliptic paraboloid (a' and b' positive); (b) Hyperbolic paraboloid (a' positive and b' negative). A cross-section drawn through the
paraboloid in (a) at constant z is an ellipse with semi-minor axis q

and semi-major axis r (where qlr=-l(b'la').

faults. Malinverno (1990) measured the width and

depth of mid-ocean ridge median valleys by fitting an inverted Gaussian to single beam profiles.

A paraboloid is used here as a measure of curvature

and shape because it provides a general description

of surface curvature in two dimensions, and because paraboloids resemble the bathymetric shape of many geological features and therefore may be useful for
characterising them. For example, an upward-curved

elliptic paraboloid with various aspect ratios (Figure

3(a)) may represent iceberg scours, pock marks,

troughs between abyssal hills or the change in slope at the edge of basement outcrops; a downward-curved elliptic paraboloid may represent abyssal hills, seamounts or other mounds; and a hyperbolic paraboloid (Figure 3(b)) may represent the saddle points found along abyssal hills or between adjacent seamounts.
The following function is fitted to circular groups of

soundings after they have been detrended using the

It

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF SIMRAD MULTIBEAM SONAR DATA

735
Co

T"

~~5- "0 "t ~ 0

~frca .. .. ~ i: . o: '" 0
. .D i. '.0

lU S .. ..

.~ 1) ~ b

rn .6 t: 0-

8~~~
~.g~ ~

he central
idings by

Z'" 1l '" .. : en i: "" i. ,..

measured , which is
)d of gen-

.ebB..~ .. .5 5.5

ge&gf

and solvL Freund,

~ 1J .5 -5 ~ ~ ~ ~ o: o:

:I-t ~l2 ~ ~ ~

CI i. c. 0

or fabric .
and c by
'), rotated last term
ation is

t J2 .~ .~

~.g~ & 0. B tI ~
lU s o: '" -5:g .5 ~ ~ ct . 1l~a-gg ~~~~ U (I en 0. cn

~~~i-

~ C\
o

~-5~g

C'

~ ~'5 3- ~

(0

"5._ :g .. .~ ;: ~ ;: e "'
.. "'~ i: Q)~OJ~ cn (I .. t)

r~bh~~~

x', y', we
hence a'

~ "2 =c i: t;

~g.00
io
C\
o

.- 0 .. 0 cd

ure. Maps terms of direction.

C'

(0

)effcients agnitudes )ographic ;riminate, hills from

i is given

~~t:dO ....~i-~ '~oo bh~ 5-5 i.

._.~ ~ .~ VJ

8 "0 ~ i: Q: t: i. . ". ~ Q) 0.._ I: i.

o ;:'- 1l ~.~~~VJ "'"'.- .. (.

:i s ' '" :. ~ ci 0 ~ ~

~tn0.8OJ ci'_ cd t) 0
(0
C\
o

~ei:~'
(I ~-oi5
~ cd i:

u (\ 0 (J +-

C'

araboloid araboloid

(0

-5 .5 ~ '
"0 i. .D en

.8 g.s', C'rn~3

rstanding
LtiO q/r in

"23~~ .. '"
gY~~
' ~ .

longation
,f the two
an aspect
T"
o

~ :: 3 ~
~ ~ ~ g

(. e i: ui

s o: 0 .:
.D .. .- Q)

~ .~ -B d

a narrow

; oriented

"' "'

'.ogh~~ gifr : .~ = (!
g i. E ~

gh would
ircular in

a' and b'. b', but b'

est downid the x'.

o C\
o

n T"
o

"' "'

"' "'

,~
'-

0-8.20 :: -0 ~ ~IU.D~ ~ ~ r... "0 (\ ~ to

e.o ~ ;.
.5 .9 -g 1J

CI .."" cd

~ g ~ ~

~ientation

.~ e;~
i ro __":

736

N. C. MITCHELL

(a)
-60 -70 -80
"

.i
"0

-90

-100
-110

i5 (!

-120 -130
-140
0
10
15

20
ii

(b)

.. (!
'"

35

:: (!
Vi

~ bl (!

30
25

ii

tl
Ci

Q,

20
15

l(
II
a'

0 i; '"
'"

.. 0

10

(!

tl
5 10
15

20

(c)

(1 r~

.g

i:
..
(!
'"

di
3.0
2.5

be

'S:

2.0

"0 "0 .. "0

1.
1.0

d
ir
tH

ai

.i
"0

z: '"

i:

0.5

i5 (!
5 10
15

. '1 Ili "-"':

20

sl)
fiG

(d)
I:; : Ii

thi
0.002
0.001

~ ~
'
'-

sd:

i: (!
(!

0 0.00 .. .g -0.001 .. 0
"0
: -0,002

i. ..

is i i de,

on
ani

Ile,
wi)
0

tia
5 10
15

20

(e)

~ :: .i
b

-10
-15

i:

-20
'25

l-

~ '"
B

..

Fig; (wil soul

give!

, i

.; '.D
'"

.. ''"

-30
-35

10

15

survey time (minutes)

20

tical plan par~ dotti

i

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF SIMRAD MULTIBEAM SONAR DATA

737

would be e). Saddle points can occur, for example, at

a small depression along an abyssal hil (a' small and

hi large), between two adjacent seamounts (a' and b' large), or at a talus fan around the edge of a sediment pond (a' large and b' small or large depending on the
shape of the talus fan).

Gridding of Attributes Multibeam soundings are more regularly spaced than

other types of marine geophysical data so iterative surface-fitting algorithms (Briggs, 1974; Smith and
Wessel, 1990; Swain, 1975) are unnecessary for determining values over a grid, while weighted mean

methods are more effcient (e.g., Slootweg, 1978). A

of'

Characteristics of Sonar Image Data The image interpretation is slightly different from that of sidescan sonar images, and therefore attributes of the images, displayed separately, may be helpful for interpretation. Multibeam sonar images are collected with a smaller swath width to altitude ratio resulting

method similar to that of Ware et al. (1991) is used

here, in which a stream of longitude, latitude, value

in more of the image at high incidence angles and

therefore with unfamiliar relief effects; due to the processing time between pings, the scan rate is usually

(and optionally, weights) is read, and each value distributed over a circular region of the grid centred on its geographic location. The values are distributed with a Gaussian weight field rather than with the conic used by Ware et al. (1991) because grids produced with Gaussian weights wil be smoother and can potentially be analysed with Fourier methods. The images shown
in Figures 4(b) and 4( c) were produced by gridding the

lower resulting in a pixelated image; and the hullmounting commonly results in a noisier image. To average out the effects of noise, this software can list the mean signal strength for each beam as an attribute (Table I), which can be easier to interpret than the raw data. Figure 4(a) shows this attribute gridded and
displayed as an image.

despiked soundings and computing artificial shading

coeffcients for this grid (Mitchell, 1991). Figure 4(a)

was produced by gridding the mean amplitudes for

each beam.

The standard deviations of signal strength for each beam (computed in decibels) can potentially highlight areas of heterogeneous seafloor. This is because the data variability that is due to Rayleigh speckle (Good-

Simrad EMIOOO Data from the Nova Scotian Shelf

The data in Figure 4 from the Nova Scotian shelf

include a variable geology of sediments and rocky outcrops which ilustrates the potential for interpretation using a number of attributes in combination. The data
were collected with a Simrad EMlOOO system in 100 m

man, 1976) is constant on a logarithmic scale, and

'i,

therefore an anomalously high standard deviation may

indicate more than one bottom type, acoustic

shadowing or angle of incidence effects across the seafloor covered by the beam (e.g., Mitchell, 1995). For
.:'"

of water in the approaches to Halifax and have a typical

swath width of 400-500 m here. The geology is described in detail elsewhere (Loncarevic et al., 1994;

the small number of samples in each beam of Simrad

sonars, however, this statistic is relatively noisy so it is probably better computed over several beams. To determine the importance of angle-of-incidence effects on the image (image variation due to seafloor relief) and beam-pattern effects, amplitudes can be listed with
incidence angles,"and the rate of change of backscatter with angle (e.g., Keeton and Searle, 1996) could poten-

Mitchell and Hughes Clarke, 1994) but essentially includes Cambro-Ordovician sandstone and shale beds that have been folded during the Devonian period and
later faulted. These were differentially eroded by gla-

tially be displayed as a further attribute.

ciers or wave action during the last ice age and many topographic depressions are now filled with silts revealed by the low backscattering areas in Figure 4a. A valley formed by erosion along a fault can be seen Figure 4 near running east-west along the top-right of
4420.5' N, 6323' E. Up-turned sedimentary beds strike approximately parallel with the swath in the
centre of Figure 4b, for example near 4419.7' N,

l- F'

ig. 5. Along track profies of attributes computed for beam 17

6325' E.

!. (White line in Figure 4(c)). The data were collected travelling from

Figure 5 shows profiles for the highlighted beam

running from southwest to northeast in Figure 4(c),

Southwest to northeast in Figure 4(c). (a) Bathymetry; (b) slope

-

~,

given by the angle between the surface normal vector and the vertical; (c) standard deviation of depths about a local least-squares
plane (30 m lengthscale); (d) coeffcients a' and b' of the least -squares

,f
,,'

paraboloid (200 m lengthscale). The continuous line is a' and the

dotted line is b'; (e) mean backscatter strength, uncalibrated and

including along-track bathymetry (Figure 5(a)), seafloor slope (Figure 5(b)) computed from groups of 54 soundings (a group size of ~30 m), and (Figure 5(c))

with the Simrad Lambert law correction not reversed.

the standard deviation of depths about the leastsquares plane used to compute Figure 5(b). Figure

738

N. C. MITCHELL

5(d) shows the coeffcients of the paraboloid surface

fit to groups of 1500 soundings (a group size of

shaded-relief image because the spatial scale of the

paraboloid was chosen to locate relatively large features, which are not well revealed in the image. Further spatial scales could be analysed by computing the

~ 200 m). The continuous line is the a' coeffcient and

h
L

dotted line the b' coeffcient. Figure 5(e) shows the mean of the amplitude samples for each transmission
i , I

cycle for this beam, where the mean was computed in dB and given as backscatter strengths.
The bathymetry shows sediment ponds at 6-7 and

paraboloid over more or less soundings. However, the

information is not easily displayed; imagine the Com-

ti
w w A

plexity of Figure 4(c) if the ridge and trough vectors

were computed for each of

Ii n'
Ii

12-14 minutes survey time, with a number of peaks

and troughs to either side of

the beams and for different

if

them. The sediment ponds

,i

f (
H J~ f~

produce regions of low slope in Figure 5(b), low depth

standard deviation in Figure 5(c), low bathymetric cur-

length scales. A solution may be to develop algorithms that can map out the ridges and troughs by linking

ci m

their locations on adjacent swaths, and present their

locations and curvatures in a form that is similar to

at

vature in Figure 5( d), and low backscatter strength in

Figure 5(e), forming a contrast of 15-20 dB with the
surrounding materials. The edges of the ponds, in particular at 12-14 minutes survey time, show an increase

maps produced in structural geology of faults and

folds.
.lj
o~ v.: $~

R4

!f j ~
~~ 'i. j~ ~j

BII

of slope and higher curvature. The backscatter strength

H
i~ H

appears to rise by ~ 5 dB earlier than the slope and curvature (e.g., at 13 minutes), suggesting that the edges of the sediment ponds are rippled or contain a
more highly backscattering material such as gravel.
The major peaks and troughs are revealed by the curva-

Concluding Remarks

Bn

Previous authors have shown that the seafloor can be"

classified according to its topographic roughness (e.g., \i'
Fox and Hayes, 1985; Goff and Jordan, 1988; Malin- -

Ch
I

de.

!,
I;
,

ture coeffcients at the start and end of the profile,

for example, a major trough at 17.5 minutes, which

verno, 1989), and according to various properties of ;t

sidescan sonar imagery (e.g., Pace and Dyer, 1979; ~. Pace and Gao, 1988; Reed and Hussong, 1989; Reut .~

j
i

de.
~

il
I!
~ i

produces a large value for a' and small b'. Much of the smaller variations in curvature, such as those at
16 minutes, indicate saddle points rather than ridges

et al., 1985; Tamsett, 1993). However, there has been little effort to develop numerical classification algo~ rithms based on attributes of both topography and:

de'

1
de ,

F
, .

or troughs becau~e the coeffcients have similar magnitudes but opposite signs.

sonar imagery. The preliminary results presented here .~

These attributes can be combined to produce a

simple geological classification. Figure 4(c) shows the
seafloor along the beam classified into sediment ponds (white circles), ridges (dark arrows) and troughs (light

suggest that simple geological structures can be classified using a combination of attributes. For example,

n
S

Fo~
i

areas can be classified as sediment ponds where they

have a combination of low amplitude, low slope and

low curvature, where curvature is determined by fitting

arrows). Sediment ponds were defined as areas where the magnitudes of both the paraboloid coeffcients are less than 0.0002 m-i, where the seafloor slope is less
than 3, and where the backscatter strength is less than
- 30 dB. The ridges were defined as areas where the

a second order surface (a paraboloid) to groups of

soundings. The coeffcients of

Gol .l ti
GO(
1.

the second order surface

can also be used to locate ridges and troughs in the topography, and to measure their elongation and ori-

Hai
1

coeffcient b:)s less than -0.0009 m-i, the elongation

1,

entation.

Ci

Hu~

value 1(1a'1-lb'I)1 is greater than 0.006 m-i and the slope is less than 8. The direction of the vector shows the orientation of the x'-axis computed from e of Equa-

U
Pi

Acknowledgements

m
ti(

tion 3 and its length is proportional to the coeffcient

b' (representing curvature perpendicular to the vector

This software was developed at the Universities of

Hug

'sharpness' of the ridge). The troughs were defined as areas wh-e the coeffcient a' is greater
or the degree of

New Brunswick and Durham with the support of the

Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council

at
Bi

0,
Keet
th:

than 0.001 m-i, b' is greater than -0.001 m-I, the

elongation value is greater than 0.00066 m - i and the

of Canada and the Natural Environment Research

Council (UK). I am grateful to the Department of

Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering at the University of New Brunswick and the Department of Geological

the vector shows the orientation of the y' -axis and its length is proportional to the coeffcient a'.
slope is less than 10. The direction of

lai KIeii Su

Sciences in Durham for the use of facilities, and to

Paul Wessel and Walter Smith for the use of the GMT
beam sonar and processing with John Hughes Clarke, Larry
system. I am also grateful for discussions on multi

of
CL

The ridge and trough annotation in Figure 4(c) provides information that is complementary to the

Lone Pii

PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF SIMRAD MULTIBEAM SONAR DATA

739

:cale of the'
y large fea-

Mayer, Erik Hammerstad and Jane Keeton, and for

R. R., 1994, Sonography of a Glaciated Continental Shelf, Geo-

ige. Further
iputing the

helpful comments on this paper by Martin Kleinrock, David Caress and an anonymous reviewer. The vessel
time used to collect the EMIOOO data presented here

logy 22, 747-750.

Malinverno, A., Edwards, M. H. and Ryan, W B. E, 1990, Processing of SeaMARC Swath Sonar Data, IEEE 1 Oceanic Eng.
15(1), 14-23.
Malinverno, A., 1990, A Quantitative Study of

:owever, the
ie the Com-

was provided by the Canadian Hydrographic Service, with help from John Hughes Clarke, Andr Godin,
Andrew Morley, Ziquin Du and Glen Rogers. The

the Axial Topography

of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 1 Geophys. Res. 95(B3), 2645-

ugh vectors for different

i algorithms

2660.
Malinverno, A., 1989, Segmentation of Topographic Profiles of the Seafloor Based on a Self-Afne Model, IEEE 1 Oceanic Eng. 14, 348-359.

crew of CSS Frederic G Creed are acknowledged, with

many thanks, for their work in collecting these data

and for their hospitality.

; by linking
resent their
s similar to

Miler, i. and Freund, J. E., 1965, Probabilty and Statistics for

Engineers, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 432 pp. Mitchell, N. c." 1991, Improving GLORIA Images Using Sea Beam
Data, J Geophys. Res. 96(Bl), 337-351.

faults andl
:;t
t;.

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