Strength of Materials, Vol. 32, No.

5, 2000
THRESHOLD FATIGUE AND FRETTING FATIGUE OF METALS
V. T. Troshchenko UDC 539.4
General regularities in the variation of threshold stress intensity factors of metals are considered taking
into account the influence of various factors. Justification is offered of the possibility of predicting
fatigue limits for smooth specimens and specimens under conditions of fretting from the known
characteristics of threshold stress intensity factors.
Keywords: threshold stress intensity factor, fatigue limit, fretting fatigue.
Introduction. The criteria of fracture mechanics (mechanics of cracks) are used both for describing the
regularities in the propagation of macroscopic fatigue cracks and for constructing models, which are based on
consideration of structural and service defects accumulated in materials and make it possible to describe general laws of
their fatigue failure. The latter approach appears to be particularly efficient for structurally inhomogeneous materials,
e.g., titanium alloys, wherein we can generally detect structural elements acting as structural stress concentrators, and
also for the cases of loading (e.g., fretting conditions) where microcracks appear at the earliest stages of cyclic loading
and the entire subsequent process of fatigue is the process of propagation of those cracks.
The main characteristic that governs the onset of crack propagation and therefore defines the value of the fatigue
limit is the threshold stress intensity factor K
th
.
1. Experimental Procedure. This paper presents a generalization of the results of a wide range of investigations
into the characteristics of fatigue and crack-growth resistance of various metallic materials.
Since it is impossible within the scope of this paper to consider in detail the experimental procedures used, we
shall give only references to the works where they are described.
Thus, in [1] one can find the description of the procedures for the investigation of fatigue and crack growth
resistance of alloys in bending, in [2, 3] methods for studying fatigue and crack-growth resistance of alloys in
tensioncompression and methods for the investigation of crack growth resistance in pure shear, and in [24] methods
for studying fretting behavior.
Fretting fatigue was studied under conditions of axial loading with fretting initiated by pressing bridge-shaped
fretting pads against specimen surfaces with the help of elastic rings. The results of those investigations were used to plot
fatigue curves on the coordinates stress vs logarithm of the number of cycles to fracture lg N for a test duration of
10
7
cycles.
The investigation of crack growth resistance involved construction of diagrams in the coordinates crack
propagation rate da dN / vs the range (K) or the maximum value (K
max
) of the stress intensity factor. The tests were
performed at frequencies in the range from 20 to 100 Hz.
The stress intensity factor range was taken to be equal to K
max
at R 0 and to K K
max min
at R 0, where
R K K
min max
/ is the load ratio. The quantity K K
th th max
( ) , which is the threshold stress intensity factor, was taken
as the maximum value of the stress intensity factor at which a crack does not grow during a specified number of load
cycles [1].
In the literature, an effective value of the stress intensity factor K
eff
is used, which is determined from the
formula
K K K
eff op

max
,
where K
op
is the stress intensity factor that corresponds to the crack opening displacement.
00392316/2000/32050427$25.00 Copyright 2001 Plenum Publishing Corporation 427
Institute of Problems of Strength, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine. Translated from
Problemy Prochnosti, No. 5, pp. 34 43, September October, 2000. Original article submitted June 26, 2000.
A typical relation between the magnitudes of the threshold stress intensity factors K K
th th max
, , and K
th eff
for
various cycle asymmetries is shown in Fig. 1 using steel 15Kh2MFA as an example [5].
2. Correlation between Parameter of the K
th
and Other Mechanical Characteristics of Materials. A
comparative analysis of the magnitudes of the threshold stress intensity factors, K
th
, and of corresponding values of the
offset yield stress,
0 2 .
, ultimate strength,
u
, and fatigue limits in bending,
1
, for a large group of chromium and
heat-resistant steels and titanium and nickel alloys in symmetrical bending was made in [6].
The results of this comparative analysis revealed that there is no clear-cut correlation between the values of
K
th
and
0 2 .
,
u
, and
1
. The absence of a correlation between the values of K
th
and
1
, which are both
characteristics of fracture resistance under cyclic loading, is attributed to the dependence of the fatigue limit not only on
the magnitude of the threshold stress intensity factor, but also on structural features of the alloy under study. We shall
illustrate this by the relationships following from the linear elastic fracture mechanics.
In the general form, the stress intensity factor is equal to
K Y a a
I
+
0
,
(1)
where is the stress, a is the crack size, a
0
is the size of a structural defect, and Y is a geometrical factor.
For K K
th I
,
1
, and a 0, we have
K Y a
th

1 0
and ( ) .

1
0
p
th
K
Y a

(2)
If we take the effective value of the threshold stress intensity factor to be the governing one, we obtain
K Y a
th eff

1 0
and ( ) .
*

1
0
p
th eff
K
Y a

(3)
The justification of the possibility of using formulas (2) and (3) to describe the relationship between
1
and
K
th
and K
th eff
for titanium alloy VT3-1 after various regimes of thermomechanical treatment will be given below.
3. The Influence of Various Factors on the Value of K
th
. The magnitude of the threshold stress intensity
factor of metals K
th
depends on the stress ratio in a cycle, temperature, test medium, overload, and other factors.
The investigations of carbon and chromium steels and titanium, aluminium, and nickel alloys showed that the
value of K
th
decreases as the stress ratio in a load cycle increases. An appreciable scatter in the results is observed [1].
428
Fig. 1. The dependence of K
th max
(1), K
th
(2), and K
th eff
(3) on the stress ratio
in a cycle for steel 15Kh2MFA.
K
th max
, MPa m K K
th th eff
, , MPa m
Earlier in [6] it was shown that for chromium steels and for titanium and nickel alloys a considerable reduction
(down to 50%) in the threshold stress intensity factors is observed with a rise in temperature.
The authors of [2, 7] present the results of an investigation of the influence of the vapors of a sea-salt solution on
the value of K
th
for chromium steels and titanium alloys under fully-reversed load cycles. They found that in this case
the decrease in the value of K
th
reached 40% and higher. An appreciable difference is observed in the degrees of the
reduction of K
th
for titanium alloys of different chemical compositions and thermal treatments.
Overloads were found to have a significant effect on crack propagation. Upon overloading, deceleration of crack
growth is observed, which is attributed to both crack blunting and the formation of a residual compressive stress zone at
the crack tip [1]. Overloads also lead to an increase in the threshold stress intensity factors.
The influence of overloads on the magnitude of the threshold stress intensity factor for high-temperature steels
and titanium and nickel alloys at room and high temperatures was studied earlier in [1]. A reduction in the intensity of
the increase of the value of K
th
after overloading with a rise in the test temperature was shown.
4. Interrelation between Fatigue Limits and Threshold Stress Intensity Factors. The investigations were
performed on titanium alloy VT3-1, which was subjected to various thermomechanical treatments (Table 1), to obtain
different structures and mechanical properties [8]. A typical microstructure of the investigated alloys is a combination of
two phases in the form of -globules, -plates, and ( + )-matrix. We denote the size of -globules by d and the
thickness of secondary -plates by b; their values for VT3-1 alloy are listed in Table 1.
It is universally accepted that the level of cyclic strength of two-phase titanium alloys is defined by the
properties of a component of lower strength, and for VT3-1 alloy this is the -phase.
Fatigue limits and threshold stress intensity factors were determined in bending in one plane [8]. As follows
from the data listed in Table 1, there is a clear-cut relation between the size of -globules and the value of the fatigue
limit.
Using relation (2), which defines the value of the fatigue limit, and substituting the values of K
th
and a d
0

into it, we get the calculated values of the fatigue limit ( )
1 p
listed in Table 1. As is seen, the calculated values of the
fatigue limits exceed appreciably the experimental ones. Fatigue limits were also calculated by formula (3), wherein the
effective values of the threshold stress intensity factors were used, which were calculated according to the
recommendations of [9] by the formula
K E
th eff


16 10
5
. ,
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
The magnitudes of the fatigue limits ( )
1 p
obtained in this way and presented in Table 1 in the last column
are in close agreement with those obtained by experiment.
5. Fretting Fatigue. Fretting takes place when contacting surfaces move (slide) a small distance
( . . 10 10 2 5 10
6 1


mm) relative to each other. This results in fracturing of one of the contacting surfaces and in the
formation of local cracks. The further process of fatigue fracture consists in the propagation of those cracks and can be
described using the approaches of fracture mechanics [2, 1012].
429
TABLE 1. Regimes of Thermomechanical Treatment of Alloy VT3-1, Corresponding Sizes
of Structural Elements, and Mechanical Properties
Alloy Treatment regime
0 2 .
,
MPa

u
,
MPa
d,
m
b,
m

1
,
MPa
K
th
,
MPa m
( )
1 p
*,
MPa
( )
1 p
**,
MPa
I As received 1065 1114 2.0 0.1 700 4.74 1740 725
II Quenched for 0.5 h at 1323 K,
rolled at 1073 K and annealed
for 5 h at 1073 K
1009 1069 3.0 0.7 600 5.06 1445 591
III The same but rolled at 1123 K 1027 1084 1.8 1.5 650 4.60 1460 648
IV The same but rolled at 1173 K 1011 1070 1.8 750 5.06 1930 764
V The same but rolled at 1223 K 1100 1210 4.0 4.0 500 4.11 1060 512
VI The regime used in industry 998 1026 10.0 320 5.06 820 324
* Calculated by formula (2); ** calculated by formula (3).
5.1. Main Regularities of Fretting Fatigue. The investigated materials, testing conditions, and fatigue limits in
the presence of fretting are given in Table 2.
Except for specially indicated cases, the tests were performed under axial loading with a fully-reversed cycle.
The degree of decrease in the fatigue limit under fretting is characterized by the value of K
f
, which is equal to the ratio
between the fatigue limits of specimens without fretting and of those with fretting.
Figure 2 shows the dependence of the value of K
f
on the number of cycles to fracture for various cycle
asymmetries for aluminium and titanium alloys [4]. The results presented show that for the alloys investigated the
presence of fretting reduces fatigue limits appreciably. The degree of influence of fretting increases with increasing
number of cycles to fracture, and fully-reversed load cycles are the most dangerous in this respect.
The data form the literature show that under conditions of fretting the fatigue limit decreases as the contact
pressure increases to a certain level [4].
Fatigue cracks are initiated at an early stage of loading (5 to 10% of the total lifetime) in a surface layer under
the action of surface forces in the zone of fretting.
A scheme of the forces acting in the fretting zone is shown in Fig. 3, where F

is a variable external force, F

p
is the pressure force, and F F
Q p
is the friction force, where is the coefficient of friction.
430
TABLE 2. Investigated Materials, Testing Conditions, and Fretting Fatigue Limits
Material
0 2 .
,
MPa

b
,
MPa
, % Material of a
counterbody
Pressure in the
contact zone,
MPa
Fatigue limit for test
duration 10
7
cycles, MPa
K
f
without fretting in the presence
of fretting
Steels
15kp
20kp
08GSYuT
22G2TYu
15G2AFV
230

403

410
380
390
540
600
532
27
27
30
16
32
Steel 45 120
120
120
120
120
180
195
250
290
250
130
175
125
150
120
1.40
1.12
2.00
1.93
2.10
Aluminium alloys
AMg6
AMg6N
AMg6N
D16AT
157
343
343
322
360
430
430
424
19
7
7
10
Alloy AMg6
Steel 30KhGSA
Alloy AMg6N
Alloy D16AT
50
50
100
50
190 (R 0)

112
120 (R 0)
56
70
55
1.58

2.04
Titanium alloys
VT9
VT14
1030
980
1140
1040
7
6
Alloy VT10
Alloy VT14
80
50

485
140
300

1.62
Fig. 2. K
f
vs number of cycles to fracture for aluminium D16AT (1, 2, 3) and AMg6 (4) and
titanium VT-14 (5) alloys at R 1 (1), R 0 (2, 4, 5), and R 0.5 (3).
K
f
N, cycles
The stress intensity factors K
I
and K
II
induced by the stresses P and Q (Fig. 4) can be found from the
following formulas [13]:
K
P
a
P I
+ + +

( )( . . . . . 1 0 824 0 06 0 84 15 41 53 38 5
2 2 3 4
9 74 2182
1 12949 0 0044 0128
5 6
2
. . ),
( )( . . .

+ + K
Q
a
Q I
1 10 89 2214 10 96
1 1294
2 3 4 5
2

+ +

. . . ),
( )( . K
P
a
P II
1184 5 442 2814 418 22 38
2 3 4 5
. . . . . ), + + +
K K
Q
P
Q P II I
.

(4)
In the presence of fretting, a fatigue crack is generally initiated at an angle to the surface, which is close to 45
o
,
and then moves on into the plane perpendicular to the latter.
Figure 5 presents some results of investigation of the kinetics of fatigue-crack angle variation for aluminium
AMg6 and titanium VT9 alloys as the crack grows deep into the material [2].
5.2. A Model of Fatigue Crack Propagation under Fretting. Earlier the authors of [12] proposed a model for
fatigue crack propagation under fretting that takes into account regularities in the growth of such cracks observed in an
experiment (Fig. 6). The propagation of a crack at the initial stage is assumed to be defined by the shear stress intensity
factor K

[14]:
K K K

+
1
2 2
3 1 cos [ sin ( cos )],
I II (5)
where K
I
and K
II
are the stress intensity factors from all the stress components acting in the surface layer. It is
suggested that at stage I the crack propagates at an angle that corresponds to the maximum values of K

.
At stage II, the crack growth is governed by the normal stress intensity factor [14]:
K K K

,
]
]
]
cos cos sin .
2 2
3
2
2
I II (6)
The condition for the transition of a crack from stage I to stage II (Fig. 6) that occurs at stresses above the
fatigue limit (curve 1 in Fig. 6) can be written in the following form:
K K K K
th th
, .
431
Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5
Fig. 3. A loading scheme for a fretting fatigue specimen.
Fig. 4. A scheme of crack loading.
Fig. 5. Fatigue crack slope vs its depth for aluminium AMg6 (1, 2) and titanium VT9 (35) alloys:
(1)
a
90 MPa; (2)
a
75 MPa; (3, 4)
a
210 MPa; (5)
a
160 MPa.
The condition of nonpropagation of a crack that corresponds to the stresses below the fatigue limit has the form
(curve 2 in Fig. 6)
K K
th
< .
In the above relationships K
th
and K
th
are the threshold stress intensity factors in tension and in shear,
respectively.
The values of K
th
and K
th
for some of the alloys studied are listed in Table 3.
With the magnitudes of K
th
and K
th
determined for the alloy investigated and plotting the stress intensity
factors K

and K

vs crack size a, as follows from Fig. 6, we can estimate the magnitude of the fatigue limit under
conditions of fretting.
For stresses above the fatigue limit with the given da dN / vs K diagrams for the corresponding loading
schemes, the stress intensity factors for fretting cracks considering the components from , P, and Q, the direction of
crack propagation, the tribotechnical characteristics of the contacting pairs, and the characteristics of the material cyclic
plasticity, we can calculate, as was shown earlier in [12], the number of cycles required for the crack to reach a given
size.
Figure 7 illustrates the results of this calculation for steel 15kp made on the assumption that the initial crack size
is 0.01 mm and the critical size is 3.0 mm [12]. A fairly good agreement between the calculated and experimental results
is observed.
432
TABLE 3. Threshold Values of the Stress Intensity Factors in Cyclic Tests
Material R K
th
, MPa m K
th
, MPa m K K
th th
/

Steels:
15kp
08GSYuT
22G2TYu
0
1
0
1
0
1
7.86
5.07
5.54
4.18
4.72
3.05
5.00
2.95
3.48
2.46
3.10
1.83
1.54
1.72
1.60
1.70
1.52
1.67
Titanium alloy VT-9 0
1
2.70
1.65
1.86
1.08
1.45
1.53
Aluminium alloy
AMg6N
0
1
4.30
3.82
2.94
3.70
1.46
1.42
, MPa
N, cycles
Fig. 6 Fig. 7
Fig. 6. A model for the propagation of fretting-fatigue cracks.
Fig. 7. Experimental (points) and calculated (lines) fatigue curves for steel 15kp:
without fretting (1) and with fretting (2).
Conclusions. General regularities in the influence of the load ratio, temperature, medium, and overloading on
the threshold stress intensity factors are considered. The possibility of predicting fatigue limits for a titanium alloy
subjected to various thermomechanical treatments with the use of effective values of the threshold stress intensity factors
and the size of structural elements has been established. The model for crack propagation under conditions of fretting has
been justified, and the essential role of the threshold stress intensity factors in the prediction of fatigue limits under
fretting conditions is shown.
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