WELDING DEFECTS AND REMEDIES INTRODUCTION:

With the correct welding conditions, techniques and material quality standards, the arc welding process willyieldaveryhighqualitywelddeposit.However,welddefectscanoccur.Mostdefectsencounteredin welding are due to an improper welding procedure. Once the causes are determined, the operator can easily correct the problem. Defects usually encountered include incomplete penetration, incomplete fusion, undercutting, porosity, and longitudinal cracking. This paper deals with the various welding defects,theircausesandcorrectiveactionthatshouldbetaken. WhatisthedifferencebetweenDiscontinuitiesandWeldingdefects? A discontinuity is an objective lack of material, an interruption in the physical consistence or uniform natureofapart.Examplesarecracks,seams,laps,porosityorinclusions.Itmayormaynotbeconsidered a defect depending if its presence endangers or not the integrity, the usefulness and the serviceability of thestructure. A defect is a rejectable discontinuity, which occurs in an amount great enough to render a particular objectorstructureunsuitableforitsintendedservicebasedoncriteriaintheapplicablecode. Adefectisalwaysadiscontinuitybutadiscontinuityneednotnecessarilybeadefect. Welding discontinuities / defects should be judged and interpreted by qualified and trained welding inspectors by visual examination or by other non destructive testing methods like radiography, ultrasonic testing,magneticparticletesting,liquidpenetranttesting,eddycurrenttesting,etc. ClassificationofDefects: Thewelddefectscanbebroadlyclassifiedintothreetypes: 1. Planar defects / two dimensional defects: Planar defects such as cracks, lack of fusion, lack of penetration,arecriticalinnatureandarenottoleratedtoanyextent. Voluminardefects/threedimensionaldefects:Voluminardefectssuchasslaginclusion,cavities, porosities, etc are tolerated to a certain extent depending on the product class and applicable code. Geometric defects: Geometric defects such as excess reinforcement, underfill, root suckback, and distortion are also permitted to a certain extent. If they form sharp notches, they are smoothenedoutwhereveraccessibletoavoidstressconcentration. IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage1

2.

3.

TYPES OF WELD DEFECTS:

IncompletePenetration
Thistypeofdefectisfoundinanyofthethreeways: Whentheweldbeaddoesnotpenetratetheentirethicknessofthebaseplate. Whentwoopposingweldbeadsdonotinterpenetrate. Whentheweldbeaddoesnotpenetratethetoeofafilletweldbutonlybridgesacrossit.

Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration is usually caused by the use of too low a welding current and can be eliminated by simply increasing the amperage. Other causes can be the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch angle. Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll in front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on the leadingedgeoftheweldpuddle.

Figure1ExamplesofLackofPenetration

Lackoffusion
Lack of fusionoccurs when there is no fusion between the weld metal and the surfaces of the base plate. ThisdefectcanbeseeninFigure2.Themostcommoncauseoflackoffusionisapoorweldingtechnique. Either the weld puddle is too large (travel speed too slow) and/or the weld metal has been permitted to roll in front of the arc. Again, the arc must be kept on the leading edge of the puddle. When this is done, theweldpuddlewillnotgettoolargeandcannotcushionthearc.Anothercauseistheuseofaverywide weld joint. If the arc is directed down the center of the joint, the molten weld metal will only flow and cast against the side walls of the base plate without melting them. The heat of the arc must be used to meltthebaseplate.Thisisaccomplishedbymakingthejointnarrowerorbydirectingthearctowardsthe side wall of the base plate.When multipass welding thick material, a split bead technique should be used whenever possible after the root passes. Large weld beads bridging the entire gap must be avoided. Lack offusioncanalsooccurintheformofarolledoverbeadcrown.Again,itisgenerallycausedbyaverylow travel speed and attempting to make too large a weld in a single pass. However, it is also very often IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage2

caused by too low welding voltage. As a result, the wetting of the bead will be poor. When welding aluminum, the common cause of this type of defect is the presence of aluminum oxide. This oxide is a refractorywithameltingpointofapproximately35000F(19270C).Itisalsoinsolubleinmoltenaluminum. Ifthisoxideispresentonthesurfacestobewelded,fusionwiththeweldmetalwillbehampered. The best safeguard against this is to remove all oxide as soon before welding as possible. Although iron oxide(rust,millscale)canbeweldedoverinmildsteel,anexcessiveamountcancauselackoffusion.

Figure2ExampleLackofFusion

Undercutting
As shown in Figure 3, undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the parent metal directly along theedgesoftheweld.Itismostcommoninlapfilletwelds,butcanalsobeencounteredinfilletandbutt joints. This type of defect is most commonly caused by improper welding parameters; particularly the travel speed and arc voltage. When the travel speed is too high, the weld bead will be very peaked because of its extremely fast solidification. The forces of surface tension have drawn the molten metal along the edges of the weld bead and piled it up along the center. Melted portions of the base plate are affected in the same way. The undercut groove is where melted base material has been drawn into the weld and not allowed to wet back properly because of the rapid solidification. Decreasing the arc travel speed will gradually reduce the size of the undercut and eventually eliminate it. When only small or intermittent undercuts are present, raising the arc voltage and using a leading torch angle, are also correctiveactions.Inbothcases,theweldbeadwillbecomeflatterandwettingwillimprove.

Figure3ExamplesofUndercutting However, as the arc voltage is raised to excessive levels, undercutting may again appear. This is particularly true in spray arc welding. When the arc becomes very long, it also becomes too wide. This

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results in an increased amount of base material being melted. However, the heat transfer of a long arc is relatively poor, so actually the arc is supplying no more total heat to the weld zone. The outermost areas are very quickly cooled and again proper wetting is prevented. The arc length should be kept short, not only to avoid undercutting but to increase penetration and weld soundness. Excessive welding currents can also cause undercutting. The arc force, arc heat and penetration are so great that the base plate under the arc is actuallyblown away. Again, the outermost areas of the base material are melted but solidify quickly. Puddle turbulence and surface tension prevent the puddle from wetting properly. It is alwaysadvisabletoremainwithinthecurrentrangesspecifiedforeachwiresize.

Porosity
Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified weld bead. As seen in Figure 4, these pores may vary in size andaregenerallydistributedinarandommanner.However,itispossiblethatporositycanonlybefound at the weld center. Pores can occur either under or on the weld surface. The most common causes of porosityareatmospherecontamination,excessivelyoxidizedworkpiecesurfaces,inadequatedeoxidizing alloys in the wire and the presence of foreign matter. Atmospheric contamination can be caused by: 1)Inadequateshieldinggasflow.2)Excessiveshieldinggasflow.Thiscancauseaspirationofairintothe gas stream. 3)Severely clogged gas nozzle or damaged gas supply system (leaking hoses, fittings, etc.) 4)anexcessivewindintheweldingarea.Thiscanblowawaythegasshield.

Figure4ExamplesofPorosity The atmospheric gases that are primarily responsible for porosity in steel are nitrogen and excessive oxygen. However, considerable oxygen can be tolerated without porosity in the absence of nitrogen. Oxygen in the atmosphere can cause severe problems with aluminum because of its rapid oxide formation. The gas supply should be inspected at regular intervals to insure freedom from leakage. In addition, excessive moisture in the atmosphere can cause porosity in steel and particularly aluminum. Care should be exercised in humid climates. For example, a continuous coolant flow in water cooled torches can cause condensation during periods of high humidity and consequent contamination of the shielding gas. Excessive oxidation of the work pieces is an obvious source of oxygen as well as entrapped moisture. Again, this is particularly true for aluminum where a hydrated oxide may exist. Anodized coatings on aluminum must be removed prior to welding because they contain water as well as being an insulator. Porosity can be caused by inadequate wire deoxidation when welding semikilled or rimmed IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage4

steels. The oxygen in the steel can cause CO porosity if the proper deoxidizing elements are not present. Foreign matter can be a source of porosity. An example is excessive lubricant on the welding wire. These hydrocarbons are sources of hydrogen, which is particularly harmful for aluminum. Other causes of porositymaybeextremelyfastweldsolidificationratesanderraticarccharacteristics.Whensolidification rates are extremely rapid, any gas that would normally escape is trapped. Extremely high travel speeds and low welding current levels should be avoided. Erratic arc can be caused by poor welding conditions (voltage too low or high, poor metal transfer) and fluctuation in the wire feed speed. All these occurrences cause severe weld puddle turbulence. This turbulence will tend to breakup the shieldinggas envelopeandcausethemoltenweldmetaltobecontaminatedbytheatmosphere.

Longitudinalcracking
Longitudinal or centerline cracking, of the weld bead is not often encountered in MIG welding. However, thatwhichdoesoccurcanbeoneoftwotypes:hotcracksandcoldcracks.Typicalhotcracksareshownin Figure 5. Hot cracks are those that occur while the weld bead is between the Liquidus (melting) and Solidus (solidifying) temperatures. In this temperature range the weld bead ismushy. Hot cracks usually resultfromtheuseofanincorrectwireelectrode(particularlyinaluminumandstainlesssteelalloys).The chemistry of the base plate can also promote this defect (an example would be any high carbon stainless steelcasting).Anycombinationofthejointdesign,weldingconditionsandweldingtechniquesthatresults in a weld bead with an excessively concave surface can promote cracking. One form of this defect, which may oftenbe encountered,particularly with any 5000 series aluminum, is called a crater crack. These are small cracks, which appear, at the end of the weld where the arc has been broken. Although small, these cracks are troublesome since they can propagate into the weld bead. A crater crack is shown in Figure 6. The major reason for this defect is the incorrect technique for ending the weld. To properly end a weld, the crater should be filled. This is done by reversing the arc travel direction before breaking the arc. This technique is depicted in Figure 7. In addition, if the welding control is designed to supply gas for a short timeafterthearcisbroken,thecratershouldbeshieldeduntilitiscompletelysolidified.

Figure5LongitudinalCracking Figure6ExampleofCraterCracking

Thosecracksthatoccuraftertheweldbeadhascompletelysolidifiedarecalledcoldcracks.Thesedefects occuronlywhentheweldistoosmalltowithstandtheservicestressesinvolved.

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 Figure7CraterFillingTechnique

Slaginclusions
These can occur when several runs are made along a V groove when joining thick plates using flux cored orfluxcoatedrodsandtheslagcoveringarunisnottotallyremovedaftereveryrunbeforethefollowing run.These are formed due to entrapment of oxides and nonmetallic solid material in the weld deposit or between the weld metal and base metal. Slag inclusions as shown in figure 8 usually appear as a linear continuousorinterruptedband . Proper preparation of the groove before depositing further layers, preheating the base metal to have control on the rate of solidification and hence release of slag from molten metal, avoiding larger size electrodes for root pass welding, thus preventing the slag flowing down into the root opening, are some ofthewaysofpreventingslaginclusion. Figure8Radiographofabuttweldshowingtwoslaglinesin theweldroot

Tungsteninclusions
These are particles deposited in the weld metal from a tungsten electrode in TIG process, by the occasional touching of the electrode to the job of molten metal. All tungsten inclusions are not generally considered harmful unless their size and number becomes excessive. Replacement of electrodes at the correcttimewillensuretheremovalofthisdefect.InRadiographytheyarerevealedaswhitespotsdueto higher density of tungsten compared to the weld metal. To avoid this defect thoriated or zirconiated tungstenelectrodesareusedinplaceofpuretungstenelectrodes.

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Figure9:TungstenInclusions

Burnthrough
It is the icicles or graphs found at the root of the weld. Sometimes it creates an opening at the root. This occursbecauseoftheusageofveryhighcurrentandlowtravelspeed.Useofconsumableinsertsrestricts burnthrough.

Figure10Burnthrough

ARCSTRIKES
Arc strikes result when the arc is initiated on the base metal surface away from the weld joint either intentionally or accidentally. They represent any localized HAZ caused by an arc. By giving proper instructionstothewelderandbygoodhousekeepingthisdefectcanbeavoided.Bydressingupthearea, theilleffectsareremoved.

SPATTER
Spattersaremetalparticlesexpelledduringfusionweldingthatdonotformapartoftheweld.Theseare mostly attached to the base metal adjacent to the weld. Spatters may mask the defects and are to be removed by grinding or chipping. Spatters occur due to high welding currents which can cause excessive IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage7

turbulenceintheweldzone.Theuseofargonmixtureswillreducetheamountofspattercomparedtothe amountproducedwhenstraightCO2shieldinggasisused.

Figure11Spatter

Mismatch
Mismatchisatermassociatedwithaconditionwheretwopiecesbeingweldedtogetherarenotproperly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by thefailureoftheweldmetaltofusewiththelandarea.

Figure12Mismatch Forquickreference,Table1listsallpossibleweldingdefects,theircausesandcorrectiveaction

FAULTORDEFECT
1)POROSITY

CAUSEAND/ORCORRECTIVEACTION
A. Oil,heavyrust,scale,etc.onplate B. WiremayneedhigherinMn&Si C. Shieldingproblem;wind,cloggedorsmallnozzle,damaged IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage8

LACKOFPENETRATION

LACKOFFUSION

UNDERCUTTING

CRACKING

UNSTABLEARC POOR WELD STARTS OR WIRE STUBBING

D. A. B. C. A. B. C. D. E. F. A. B. C. D. A. B. C. A. B. A. B. C. D. A. B. C. A. B. C. D. A. B. C. D. E.

gashose,excessivegasflow,etc. Weldingoverslagfromcoveredelectrode Weldjointtoonarrow Weldingcurrenttoolow Electrodestickoutweldpuddlerollinginfrontofthearc Weldingvoltageand/orcurrenttoolow Wrongpolarity,shouldbeDCRP Travelspeedtoolow Weldingoverconvexbead Torchoscillationtoowideortoonarrow Excessiveoxideonplate Travelspeedtoohigh Weldingvoltagetoohigh Excessiveweldingcurrents Insufficientdwellatedgeofweldbead Incorrectwirechemistry Weldbeadtoosmall Poorqualityofmaterialbeingwelded Checkgasshielding. Checkwirefeedsystem Weldingvoltagetoolow Inductanceorslopetoohigh Wireextensiontoolong Cleanglassoroxidefromplate UseArCO2 orArO2 insteadofCO2 Arcvoltagetoolow Raiseinductanceand/orslope Weldingcurrenttoohigh Travelspeedtoolow Decreasewidthofrootopening UseArCO2orArO2insteadofCO2 Weldingvoltageand/orcurrenttoolow Excessiveelectrodeextension Increaseinductance Wrongpolarity,shouldbeDCRP Weldjointtoonarrow

EXCESSIVESPATTER

BURNTHROUGH

CONVEXBEAD

Weldingdistortion Welding distortion or deformation or warping of weldment during welding is a natural outcome of intrinsic nonuniform heating and cooling of the joint. Distortion is the result of the action of internal stresses, which are produced while welding, and remain in the part after heating is removed. It is thus undesirablechangeinoriginalshapeduetohighheatinputandmechanicalforces. Distortionifnotcontrolledwithinthepermissiblespecifiedalimitbecomesageometricdefect.

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Stresses are due to volume changes with heating and to decreasing yield strength at elevated temperature. Metal subject to thermal expansion while heating tends to be compressed by the surrounding cool structure. The heated volume has now lower yield strength at high temperature, and then it is easily upset to shorter dimensions. Upon cooling the same material tends to contract in all directions and is now stressed in tension by the attached cool structure, which did not move appreciably intheprocess.Bynowtheyieldstrengthisagainhigher,atlowertemperature;sothattheupsetmaterial cannot regain its original dimensions.The result is the development of internal tension stresses in the weld.Theseresidualstressesarethecauseofdeformation. Distortion of Arcwelded components is generally caused by two factors: shrinkage of the cooling weld metal and local expansion and contraction of the plate. Longitudinal shrinkage shortens the weld, transverseshrinkagedecreasesthewidth,andangulardistortioncausesrotationoftheplates.Apartfrom these simple effects of shrinkage, longitudinal contraction of a weld may cause components to bow in a direction depending on the location of the weld in relation to the neutral axis of the component. The middleofalengthofweldwillbowtowardstheneutralaxis. Some values for shrinkage quoted in TWI's booklet CONTROL OF DISTORTION IN WELDED FABRICATIONS (availablefromWoodheadPublishing)areasfollows: Transverse shrinkage Filletwelds:0.8mmperweldwheretheleglengthofthewelddoesnotexceed0.75xtheplatethickness. Buttwelds:1.53mmperweldfor60Vjoints,dependingonthenumberofrunsperweld. Longitudinalshrinkage FilletWelds:0.8mm/3mofweld ButtWelds:3mm/3mofweld.

Theaboveallowancesfordistortionapplytoweldedjointsthatarefreetomove;inpractice,therestraint builtupduringthefabricationwilldeterminethedistortion. HowtodecreaseDistortion? Sometimes to decrease the amount of deformation it is sufficient to place the elements at an angle before welding in order to counter the movement by a certain opposite displacement to be introduced before welding Or (for butt welds) to weld a short length at one end and then start again from the other end, while the first end is already rigidly welded. Otherwise one can distribute short stretches of welding atdistantplaces,byintroducingsequencesaimedatavoidinglocalconcentrationofheatinput. One can provide very rigid fixturing that will not allow any movement while welding is performed. Movementcanbeprevented:residualstressescannot.Onecaneasilyprovethatthepartisnowhighly stressed(presentingahighlevelofresidualstresses). After taking the part out from the fixture if one removes some of the weld by partial asymmetric cutting orgrinding,theremainingportionwilldeformconsiderablytorearrangetheremaininginternalstresses.

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This deformation is an indirect proof of the high level of stresses which were present in the as welded part. Material removal is at the base of certain methods of residual stresses measurement. Occasionally when the residual stresses exceed material strength, cracks may appear in the weld at high temperature orwhilecoolingnearroomtemperature. It is good practice to relieve the residual stresses of a constrained welded assembly. The reason is that these stresses can sum up with external stresses in service and exceed the material strength, producing failure,orfurtherdeformations. The most common method of stress relieving is performed by heating the welded assembly in a suitable furnace. By heating the welded structure uniformly in a furnace at elevated temperature, the remaining maximum stress will be reduced to the lower yield strength value which the material exhibits at that temperature. Another method uses mechanical peening of the weld either by hammering or by shot peening equipment which is done sometimes on tool steels immediately after shielded metal arc welding and beforecooldown The general approach would be to reduce the causes of Weldingdistortion by providing suitable pre heating,ifpossible,sothattherewillbelessexpansiondifference,betweenmaterialatweldtemperature andsurroundingstructure. Rectificationofdistortionispossiblebytheuseofmechanicalforceorjudiciouslyappliedheating,butthe cost of correction is generally at least ten times that of making the job to the required dimensional tolerancesinthefirstplace.

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SUMMARY
Imperfectionsmayexistintheweldand/orbasemetal;theyaregenerallydescribedasdiscontinuities.If a certain discontinuity is of sufficient size, it may render a structure unfit for its intended service. Codes dictate the permissible limits for discontinuities. Those with values greater than these limits are termed defects. Defects are discontinuities, which require some corrective action. Judgment of defects should be done by properly trained, experienced welding inspectors. By knowing how these defects can form, the weldinginspectormaybesuccessfulatspottingthecausesandpreventthemfromoccurring. Rulesforminimizing distortionduringwelding 1.Designfabricationssothatweldsare balancedoneachsideoftheneutral axis. 2.Donotoverspecifyfilletweldsizes. 3.Usedoublesidedweldsratherthan singlesidedandminimumbevelangles, toreducetheamountofweldmetal. 4.Useminimumgapsizes. 11.Usehighspeedweldingprocesseswherepossible,e.g.iron powderMMAelectrodes,MIGweldingorMechanisedwelding. 12.Usefrequenttacking. 13.Balanceweldingoneachsideoftheneutralaxis,i.e.donot weldallonesidebeforestartingtheother. 14.Weldfabricationsclampedbacktobackandpresetif possible;alternativelystressrelievebeforereleasingfromthe clamps.

5.Innonfatiguesensitiveareasuse 15.Useblockweldingtopreventmovement. intermittentfilletweldswherepossible. 6.Usedoublefilletweldswhere possible,ratherthanfullpenetrationT buttwelds. 7.Useclampsstrongbacks,jigsor fixtures. 8.Useweldingpetitionerssothat weldingcanbecarriedoutintheflator horizontalverticalpositionswithhigh depositionrates. 9.Depositafewweldrunsalternately oneachsideofthejointindoubleV buttwelds. 10.Weldalargeconstructionfromthe centeroutwards. IV.Weldingdefects&RemediesPage12 16.Whenblockweldingthickplate,butterthesidesofthe preparationandbuildupthebutteringprogressivelytowards thecentreofthejoint,sothatmostofthejointcancontract transverselybeforethejointisbridged. 17.Weldfirstthejointsthatcausethemostcontraction. 18.Makeuseofsubassemblies.

19.Makefrequentdimensionalchecksduringwelding,andif distortionisevidentchangetheweldingsequenceorthe clampingarrangementsaccordingly. 20.UseproperweldingsequencewithappropriateInterpass temperature.