Aquac,dmral Engineering 5 ( 1986 ) 325-332

Applied Research in Aquaculture -An lndust " Pespective

E d w a r d S. M c S w e e n y 59-220 Alapio Road, Halei~ a. Hawaii 96712. USA

ABSTRACT Technological systems advances have shifted emphasis in aquaculture research to intensive culture, while biological understanding of pond ecosystems has not advanced commensttrately. World aquaculture production wUl be dominated by earthen pond systems ]'or some )'ears" to come, suggesting increased emphasis in this area. Transfer of research findings into commercial operations is" hampered by differences in goals" attd priorities" between the research attd industrial sectors, attd improved communications cart help focus research on critical areas attd intprove the transfer of research results to operations. Neglected areas inviting fitrther research inchMe biological and chentical processes in the pond ecosystem, innovative han'esting techniques ]or earthen ponds, evahtation of new species ]'or culture, utilization of processing wastes, atzd new nutrient input strategies to utilize local feedstuffs or cheaper nutrient sources.

INTRODUCTION There are in the c o m m o n usage two forms of aquaculture, referred to as "extensive" and 'intensive'. T h e former refers to earthen p o n d aquaculture, usually low density farming with minimal h u m a n inputs in the form of energy and nutrients. T h e term "intensive aquaculture' is applied to situations where aquatic organisms are grown at high density, usually with environmental parameters highly controlled, and often with the environment enclosed in a non-earthen container. T h e distinction between these two forms of culture has become quite vague 325 Aquac,dtural Engineering 0144-8609/86/S03.50-- Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. England. 1986. Printed in Great Britain

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in recent years, as more and more sophisticated techniques are applied to earthen ponds. Intensive culture can achieve very high levels of unit production, but entry is limited by the large investment and sophisticated technology required. Total world production by intensive techniques is relatively small, and generally restricted to high value products. The bulk of world aquaculture production is obtained under conditions conforming to the original concept of extensive culture. Because here sophisticated and expensive inputs are not required, small farmers can gain entry, and farms can be built and operated in under-developed areas. Consequently, there are large areas of aquaculture production in southeast Asia and South America, low in unit production, but significant in terms of total world production. This is the form of production we can expect to provide protein at reasonable cost in third world countries, as well as providing high-value products for export. And, because of its huge potential for world-wide production, this is the form of aquaculture which will most benefit from improved understanding of the biological and chemical processes which control pond ecosystems. Advances in intensive culture, in contrast, tend to result from systems engineering and nutritional improvements. Most of the participants in this workshop are involved in an intermediate form of aquaculture in which techniques have become relatively sophisticated, although earthen ponds still predominate, even in advanced systems. There have been definite trends developing in the advancement of intermediate aquaculture systems, including mechanization, automation, use of electronics, and a higher degree of control over the environment. It is fairly obvious that systems development has outstripped biological advances, as opportunities arise to apply the technological breakthroughs in electronics and other fields. This is a turnaround from the situation decribed several years ago by Huguenin and Webber (1980). It is not difficult to envisage a similar spurt in biological applications in the near future, given the remarkable advances in such fields as genetic engineering. At present, however, although there has been a large amount of biological research applied to this level of the industry in recent years, only moderate advances in technology have resulted over what has developed spontaneously in South America and southeast Asia. Correcting this situation, and finding a reliable means to translate research into operating results, are two of the major tasks facing the world aquaculture community.

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RESEARCH AND INDUSTRY Changes and improvements in aquaculture systems and techniques come about from two sources, within the industry in the course of commercial operations, or from industrial or academic research. T h e r e is an inherent difference in the approach of researchers and commercial aquaculturists, in that researchers tend to attack an isolated problem or related group of problems, while commercial operators usually deal with the integrated system, often in a shotgun' fashion. There is a more basic difference between these groups in the way that problems are perceived and priorities set. The most interesting or elegant research problem may not yield the most useful information, and urgency often dictates an intermediate solution. T h e principal concern of most commercial aquaculture ventures, particularly at the present stage of the industry, is to achieve economic viability. This is often pursued at the expense of optimization of particular systems or techiques. Such situations may be perceived as a breakdown in communication between the research and industrial sectors, when in fact they result from a difference in perspective. Even when the goals of researchers and growers are identical, the priorities in attaining those goals may be quite different. I would like to discuss, from a grower's viewpoint, some of the factors which influence setting of priorities, and then c o m m e n t on some areas which would benefit from further applied research. T h e first consideration is that once a project has left R&D status and become a commercial venture for profit, the rules of good business practice become dominant in the decision-making process. In aquaculture, as with any industrial venture, there are several factors to be considered when a new machine, technique, or routine is brought into a structured operation. These include the following: Cost -- Capital Operating Time -- To install -- To perform operation -- Constraints imposed on remainder of system Technical Skills -- Operate Maintain Reliability -- Impact of faihire on other aspects of operation Upkeep -- Direct and indirect costs
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A manager must evaluate every new process or piece of equipment in the light of these factors to determine whether it will be a net benefit to the operation. This evaluation is typically made on an economic basis, i.e. "bottom line'. In some cases, other factors influence this decision. For example, mechanization of a particularly distasteful job may incur greater cost, but promote labor harmony. This type of evaluation is relatively easy when installing new or experimental hardware. It can be more difficult when the decision involves a new process which may have been previously tried only on an experimental scale. The ultimate test comes when a new management strategy is to be implemented, since this may involve changes in nearly every sector of the operation. In aquaculture, most transfers of technology from the research level to the operating environment involve relatively straightforward considerations. An improved feed, for example, will have been tested under controlled conditions and probably in a field trial. The decision to use the feed is then a simple comparison of cost versus incremental value realized from the increased yield. Similarly, a new aerator need only be compared directly with alternative devices. The next level of complexity is illustrated by a choice between direct stocking and utilization of a nursery phase in growout situations. Considerations involve the cost of the n u r s e ~ area or volume, additional handling requirements, special equipment needed to handle juveniles, perhaps a higher quality feed, relative survival, and impact on residence time in the total system. Polyculture and multiple phase growout strategies (Malecha et al., 1981) represent the type of management implementations which require the most careful analysis to determine potential net benefit to an operation. Because of the number of variables involved, there is a reasonably high probability that projections will not be met and this risk must be factored into the decision. l have used these examples to attempt to show that successful conclusion of applied research does not guarantee that the findings will be incorporated into operations, and that failure to incorporate them does not necessarily imply lack of understanding or interest on the part of the grower. The transfer rate for improved technology can be enhanced by a few simple considerations. The first, which appears self-evident, is to select problems which are restricting the potential of the industry. Researchers in applied areas typically work on problems

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which are widely recognized, but the definition process should go beyond this level. Widely recognized "problems" may. on examination, prove to be only a manifestation of another condition, and not subject to direct resolution. After definition of the problem, it is necessary to insure that research is directed to the level at which it will be applied. Development of a high quality feed may have little application in an extensive culture situation, while formulation of an effective combination of locally available ingredients may make the difference between success and failure of the local industry. Finally, in addition to an awareness of the operating characteristics of the industry itself, knowledge of the markets served help the researcher make useful contributions. Development of a harvesting system can be influenced by the processing to follow, while alteration of the diet or a change in the product form might prolong shelf life. In the preproposal stage, researchers should consult with industry, to precisely define a problem, determine to what extent management practices or physical systems may contribute to the problem, and the extent to which anticipated solutions can be incorporated into current management practices. This type of approach may help research programs gain maximum impact on the industry.

NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRY I would now like to touch on some of the present needs of the aquaculture industry. These are not the well-recognized areas which already draw heavy research emphasis, but rather what I consider to be somewhat neglected areas. The first of these is the need for a basic understanding of the culture systems in which we work. This is a badly neglected topic, undoubtedly influenced by the difficulty of conducting research in a pond environment. However, I believe a lack of knowledge of the biological and chemical processes occurring in earthen ponds has materially hindered aquaculture. Since we can expect earthen ponds to produce the bulk of cultured organisms in the near future, it behoves us to develop this understanding. There is a great need for development of innovative harvesting techniques in earthen ponds. Ideally, such techiques should be nonintrusive, since entry into a pond can degrade the environment and

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impact survival, and because physical e n t ~ may affect drainage or actually damage the pond structure. Even when the entire biomass is harvested, problems can be substantial. It is not always possible or desirable to drain ponds for harvest, and removal of organisms by pumping or other means is often complicated by behavioral idiosyncrasies of the organism. The problem is further complicated when selective harvesting must be accomplished, as with freshwater prawns. So far, harvesting research has concentrated on improving the efficiency of traditional methods, but with the large areas of earthen ponds in production, a search for better methods is warranted. Another area for research effort is a continuing review of new species for culture. Cultured species have generally been selected from among the high-value organisms in the market place. The selection process then has focused on those species for which reproduction and culture were relatively straightforward. Only in cases of exceptional ease of culture have non-commercial species been developed to any degree. I cite here the case of Tilapia. Knowledge of culture and reproduction techniques have now progressed to the point where noncommercial species can be examined, both for their potential as a high-value product, and for bulk production of protein. Innovative polyculture concepts, as in the use of shellfish to 'scrub' effluents, may provide additional opportunities for the use of little-known species. An area which has received little attention in the past has been the development of uses for waste products. Food technologists have not played a very active role in aquaculture, except for participation in diet preparation, but there would appear to be an excellent opportunity here. Aquaculture, when processing is involved, can generate large amounts of waste, as processing the wild catch does now. The difference is that this waste represents a significant investment in nutrients to the culturists, providing an incentive for recovery. An additional source of byproduct is the wild fish which find access to ponds and are captured in harvest. Tilapia is a world-wide example in tropical fresh water ponds. In marine culture ponds, many species occur. Those of high value are generally separated and sold, but many are discarded. The catfish industry has recognized the waste problem and has an active research program aimed at developing useful products. It has even spun oft" a fledgling waste-processing industry producing fish meal. This will probably become an economic necessity for other

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industries with high processing volume. The obvious course is to turn the waste material back into a feed product such as meal or silage and incorporate it in the diet, as is now done in the salmonid and catfish industries. There is also potential for recovery of edible portions for human consumption, and specific byproducts (chitin, hormonal extracts) of higher value. The last research area I will mention is in developing culture diets from locally available products in areas where commodity feedstuffs are not available. In a pond environment, there is seldom a need for a complete diet. On the other hand, even with the efficient conversions achieved in aquatic culture systems, there is a substantial requirement for nutrient input. In much of the world, importation of feedstuffs for aquaculture is limited by cost of transportation or by government regulation. Locally produced crops are typically used for human and terrestrial animal consumption, so the available nutrient source is in the form of byproducts and underutilized crops. These can often be combined into a useful diet, but research is needed to define processing requirements, treatment to remove toxic properties, and augmentation to provide better balance.

CONCLUSION The potential for applied research in aquaculture is very great at this time, probably comparable to that of terrestrial agriculture many years ago. Certainly people in the industry are impatient for the changes we know will come. The aquaculture industry is highly dependent on the research expertise resident worldwide in universities and other institutions, both public and private, but progress can be accelerated by a commitment to close cooperation at all stages between reseachers and commercial growers. I believe I can speak for the industry generally when I say that we are ready to make that commitment.

REFERENCES Huguenin, J. E. Webber, H. H. (1980). The transition and scale-up of research results to commercial marine aquaculture systems. Proc. Bio-

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Engineering Symposium for Fish Culture, Traverse City, Michigan, October 15-18, 1979. Malecha, S. R., Polovina, J. & Moav, R. ( 1981 ). Multistage rotational stocking and harvesting system for year-round culture of the freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Sea Grant Technical Report b~c7HI-SEA GRANT-TR-81-OI, University of Hawaii, 33 pp.