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Effects of Oil Palm Bunch Ash and Poultry Manure Independently On The Growth and Yield of French Beans PDF
Effects of Oil Palm Bunch Ash and Poultry Manure Independently On The Growth and Yield of French Beans PDF
EFFECTS OF OIL PALM BUNCH ASH AND POULTRY MANURE INDEPENDENTLY ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF FRENCH BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
A DISERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN AGRICULTURE
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis submitted by me for BSc. degree in Agriculture at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, is my own independent work. References to other peoples work have been duly acknowledged and the work has not been presented elsewhere for any degree.
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DEDICATION
This thesis is lovingly dedicated to: The glory of my Lord Jesus Christ who has blessed me beyond anything I could ever have imagined and who has loved me beyond my comprehension. My parents: Mr Bright Mensah and Mrs Mary Mensah. Their effort throughout my life has been out of this world.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to my supervisor and Senior Lecturer Dr Ben K. Banful, for his supervision during my research. I express my sincere gratitude to Mr Shalom Ado-Danso of Forest Research Institute in Kumasi for his numerous assistance and help in solving the problems of literature concerning the treatments used for the research. I also wish thank the entire staff of the Department of Horticulture for their motivation and support. I am grateful to my family and friends for their continuous prayers and encouragement during my studies. Finally, many thanks to all those who assisted me during the entire process: from the research to thesis development.
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ABSTRACT
A field experiment entitled Effects of oil palm bunch ash and poultry manure independently on the growth and yield of French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was carried out during December, 2012 to February, 2013, on the Research fields at the Department of Horticulture of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi. The soil texture of the experimental site was clay and was low in available nitrogen (kg ha-1) and phosphorus (kg ha-1) and high in available potassium (kg ha-1). There were three treatments; oil palm bunch ash, poultry manure and an inorganic fertiliser as control (NPK 15:15:15). The experiment was laid out in a RCBD with three replications. Results of the study showed that the application of Palm bunch ash significantly (P< 0.05) increased soil pH and exchangeable cations but not significant with Poultry manure application. Growth of French beans, except days to 50% anthesis which was significantly(P< 0.05) lower (28 and 29 DAS) with Palm bunch ash impose, did not vary significantly (P>0.05) among treatments. No significant difference was recorded on yield of French beans with respect to treatments imposed and recorded 597.32 kg ha-1with poultry manure, palm bunch ash, 681.62 kg ha-1 and NPK, 477.82 kg ha-1 per treatment. Total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium uptake increased with the crops growth. The study therefore recommends that French beans production as well as other crops can be cultivated using these organic wastes as fertiliser substitutes and soil amendments.
Table of Content
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER TWO .....................................................................................................................................................3 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................................3 2.1 EFFECTS OF FERTILISERS ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF FRENCH BEANS..............................3 2.1.1 Effects of NPK on growth parameters ........................................................................................................3 2.1.3 Effects of oil palm bunch ash on growth and yield parameters ..................................................................6 2.1.4 Effects of poultry manure on growth and yield parameters........................................................................7 CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................................................8 MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................................................8 3.1 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL SITE ..........................................................................8 3.2 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ..........................................................................................................................8 3.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS .......................................................................................................................9 3.4.1 Experimental design, treatments and analysis of treatments ......................................................................9 3.5 CULTURAL PRACTICES ...........................................................................................................................9 3.5.1 Land preparation .........................................................................................................................................9 3.5.2 Seeds and seed sowing ...............................................................................................................................9 3.5.3 Fertiliser application .................................................................................................................................10 3.5.4 Crop management .....................................................................................................................................10 3.6 COLLECTION OF DATA ..........................................................................................................................10 3.6.1 Growth parameters ...................................................................................................................................10 3.6.1.1 Plant height ............................................................................................................................................10 3.6.1.2 Number of branches per plant ...............................................................................................................11 3.6.1.3 Days to fifty percent flowering ..............................................................................................................11 3.6.2 Yield components .....................................................................................................................................11 3.6.2.1 Number of pods per plant ......................................................................................................................11 3.6.2.2 Pod weight .............................................................................................................................................11 3.6.2.3 Yield per sample area ............................................................................................................................11 3.6.2.4 Total yield per hectare ...........................................................................................................................11 3.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................12 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................................13 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ..........................................................................................................................13 4.1 GROWTH PARAMETERS ........................................................................................................................23 vi
4.1.1 Plant height and number of branches .......................................................................................................13 4.1.2 Days to 50% flowering .............................................................................................................................13 4.2 YIELD COMPONENTS AND YIELD ......................................................................................................14 4.2.1 Number of pods per plant .........................................................................................................................14 4.2.2 Pod weight ................................................................................................................................................14 4.2.3 Total yield per hectare ..............................................................................................................................14 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................................15 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................................15 5.1 WEATHER CONDITIONS AND CROP PERFORMANCE .....................................................................15 5.2 DISEASES AND PESTS ............................................................................................................................16 5.3 EFFECT OF PALM BUNCH ASH (PBA) .................................................................................................16 5.4 EFFECT OF POULTRY MANURE (PM) .................................................................................................17 CHAPTER SIX .....................................................................................................................................................18 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................18 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................................19 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................20 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................................26
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Effects of treatment on days to 50 % flowering in French beans14
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I: Soil samples analysed from the experimental site before the experiment.26 Appendix II: Treatment samples analysed.26 Appendix III: Soil samples analysed from the experimental site treatment-wise after harvest.27 Appendix IV: Monthly meteorological data for the experimental period (December, 2012 to February, 2013)..................27 Appendix V: ANOVA tables....27
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a short duration nontraditional grain legume gaining utilisation in many homes in Ghana. French beans are known by various names viz., haricot bean, field bean, kidney bean, snap bean, pole bean etc. It is an important vegetable grown both for tender pods which has a rich source of crude protein (21.25%), fat (1.7%) and carbohydrates (70%). Besides, it contains 0.16 mg iron, 1.76 mg calcium and 3.43 mg zinc per 100 g of edible part (Jasvinder Kaur and Mehta, 1994). French beans being native to South and Central America probably Mexico, is being widely cultivated in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions. Its cultivation in Ghana, however, is scattered across the regions.It is a major export vegetable crop in Kenya and a potential income earner to small scale farmers (out growers). Unlike other pulses, French beans is inefficient in symbiotic nitrogen fixation (Ali and Lal, 1992) as it lacks nodulation due to the absence of NOD gene regulator (Kushwaha, 1994) even with native Rhizobia and commercially produced cultures. Hence, the nitrogen requirement of the crop must be met through the application of nitrogen fertilisers if its yield potential has to be exploited. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one of the major waste products generated from processing fresh fruit bunch (FFB) in palm fruit processing mills. About 22% of FFB processed into oil end up as EFB (Lim and Zaharah, 2000). Currently, Ghana produces about 120,000 metric tons of FFB annually (FAO, 2011) which, when processed into oil, generate a good amount of EFB annually. In the large industrial estates, EFB is incinerated in the mills as a means of providing energy for the boilers in FFB sterilization. However, the small-scale mills which process about 60% of the total FFB produced in the country (Opoku and Asante, 2008) burn the EFB as a means of disposing of them, resulting in heaps of ash dotted around small-scale mills in the major oil palm producing areas in
Ghana. There is currently no large-scale use for palm bunch ash in Ghana, although it could be used for the manufacture of local soap due to its high potassium content. The palm bunch ash (PBA) produced by burning EFB, which constitutes about 6.5% by weight of the EFB, contains 30 40% K2O (Lim and Zaharah, 2000) and could thus be used as source of potassium fertilizer. Moreover, the rising cost of inorganic fertilizers coupled with their inability to condition the soil has directed attention to organic manures in recent times. Poultry manure, an organic manure, abounds in major areas in Ghana. The disposal of the manure has become a big problem. However, some farmers are aware of the beneficial effects of poultry manure and its release of nutrients for a good response in plant growth. This notwithstanding, there seems to be little use of poultry manure nationwide, due mainly to the little knowledge available on the effects of the manure on crops.
The present study was therefore undertaken to determine the independent effects of poultry manure and oil palm bunch ash on growth and yield of French beans.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 EFFECTS OF FERTILISERS ON THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF FRENCH BEANS
The average yield potential of French bean under both rain-fed and irrigated condition is high. One of the agronomic approaches is the efficient use of fertilizer, particularly N, P and K, which plays an important role in enhancing the production and productivity of the crop by increasing cell division and multiplication. Nitrogen nutrition is also required for improvement of growth parameters through efficient metabolic activity and increased rate of photosynthesis. Phosphorus is a constituent of nucleoprotein and it helps for increased cell division and expansion of cells resulting into higher dry matter accumulation in reproductive parts. It also stimulates early root growth and development, encourages fruiting, seed setting and hastens maturity of plants. Potassium plays a significant role in increasing the crop yield and extra balancing effect on both nitrogen and phosphorus. It is essential for cell organization and structure of cell walls. It enhances plants ability to resist diseases, cold and other adverse conditions.
Kumar et al. (2004) noticed significant increase in plant height (21.68 cm) with fertilizer level of 120:60:45 kg NPK per hectare which was followed by 80:40:30 kg NPK per hectare and it was significantly less (17.00 cm and 5.9, respectively) in control (no fertilizer) in the French bean crop. A field investigation conducted by Rana et al. (2003) revealed that application of K2O up to 30 kg ha1
significantly increased plant height of French bean. Veeresh (2003) also reported significant increase
in plant height (37.77 cm) and number of branches of French bean during up to 75 kg P2O5ha-1 application. Delayed flowering in French beans (flowering after 29, 32 and 33 days, respectively) was observed due to increased N application (40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1) (Veeresh, 2003). Phosphorus supplement to crop at 0, 20, 40 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 recorded 71.0, 70.66, 70.44 and 70.18 days, respectively to first flowering (Tewari and Singh, 2000) whilst increased P fertilization (25, 50 and 75 kg ha-1) significantly reduced number of days to 50 per cent flowering (34, 31 and 29 days, respectively) of French bean (Veeresh, 2003).
Higher number of pods per plant was recorded in the treatment receiving 120 kg N ha-1(Prajapatiet al. (2003). Similar results were obtained by Veeresh (2003) and Behura et al. (2006) while pod number
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per plant in French bean increased significantly up to the highest level of nitrogen ( thus 180 kg ha-1) (Rajesh Singh et al., 2006). Rana et al. (2003) also stated that the number of fruits per plant increased significantly up to 30 kg K2Oha-1 application. Number of seeds per pod increased significantly up to 120 kg N ha-1(Dhanjal et al., 2001). Similar results were obtained by Prajapati et al. (2003), Veeresh (2003) and Behura et al. (2006) while Rajesh Singh et al. (2006) reported that application of 180 kg N ha-1resulted in higher number of seeds per pod which significantly increased the pod length. According to Veeresh (2003), higher number of grains per pod (5.12) of French bean was observed due to increased rate of P application up to 75 kg P2O5ha-1thereby increasing the length of the bean pod. Considering pod weight, linear increase in grain weight per plant from 11.2 to 19.2g (during 19911992) and 12.1 to 20.0g (during 1992-93) was observed from zero to 120 kg N ha-1(Rana and Singh, 1998 and Tewari and Singh, 2000). For total yield per hectare, Nitrogen application increased the grain yield of French bean. Grain yield was increased due to increasing levels of N up to 100 kg ha-1. According to Rana and Singh (1998) mean increases in seed yield with 120 kg N ha-1over zero to 40 and 80 kg N ha-1which was 66.6, 21.7 and 7.0 per cent, respectively. An observation by Singh and Singh (2000) observed improvement in yield and yield components with increasing Nitrogen rate from zero to 120 kg ha-1.Dhanjalet al. (2001) also reported improvement in grain yield with increasing N rate; the yields with zero, 60 and 120 kg ha-1 were 6.52, 8.30 and 9.49 q ha-1, respectively. Veeresh (2003) recorded significantly higher grain yield (1917 kg ha-1) of French bean with 80 kg N application.
Rajesh Singh et al. (2001) recorded linear significant increase in grain yield up to 240 kg N ha-1(2091 kg ha-1) over 80 and 160 kg ha-1while Rajesh Singh et al. (2006) reported that nitrogen application increased grain yield (2651 kg ha-1) up to 180 kg N ha-1. Tewari and Singh (2000) reported significant increase in grain weight per plant with 60 kg P2O5ha-1. Veeresh (2003) observed significant increase in grain weight per plant (8.65 g) due to increased P application up to 75 kg ha-1. Dwivedi et al. (2002), in their fertilizer application found that increased level of nutrition 40:60:40 kg NPK per ha significantly increased the yield parameters like pod weight per plant, number of pods per plant and seed yield per ha as against control (0 kg NPK). Singh and Singh (2000) and Tewari and Singh (2000) also revealed significantly increased seed yield due to incremental P application from75 to 100 kg P2O5ha-1. Tomar (2001) recorded that application of phosphorus influenced the seed yield significantly up to 60 kg P2O5ha-1. Also, higher grain yield (2006 kg ha-1) of French bean was observed due to increased rate of P application up to 75 kg P2O5ha-1 (Veeresh, 2003).
2.1.3 Effects of oil palm bunch ash on growth and yield parameters
Though the utilization of oil palm bunch ash in crop production has little exploitation, few experiments have been performed using it as a soil amendment material or applying it alongside inorganic fertiliser. The highest increase in maize grain yield in both seasons was obtained at the application rate of 2 tons ha1 PBA. This increase in maize grain yield as well as root yield of cassava has been reported by several workers (Mbahet al, 2010; Awodunet al, 2007; Adekayode and Olojugba, 2010; Ojeniyi et al, 2010; Offor et al ,2010; Ezekiel et al ,2009).
It was also found to increase nutrient supply to cassava and its yield significantly (Ezekiel et al, 2009a, 2009b,). Ojeniyi et al (2006) also found that oil palm bunch ash supplied organic matter, N, P, Ca and Mg to soil which caused an increased maize yield by 26% at an application rate of 4 t/ha.
CHAPTER THREE
3.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 3.4.1 Experimental design, treatments and analysis of treatments
The experiment comprised of three treatments namely poultry manure, palm bunch ash and NPK (15:15:15) as a control replicated three times. The treatment details were: Treatment 1: Poultry manure at 9kg/plot Treatment 2: Palm bunch ash at 2kg/plot Treatment 3 (Absolute control): NPK (15:15:15) at 0.5kg/plot The treatment samples wereanalysed for the chemical characteristics of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and soil pH and are presented in Appendix II. The treatment analysis was carried out at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST).
3.5.4Crop management
Hoe weeding at fortnight intervals after sowing was done in order to keep the weeds under check. To control the damage of piercing and sucking pests and as well as all insects a spray of Aceta Star 45 EC was taken up at the rate of 2 ml per liter of water from 30 DAS and fortnightly. Shavit F71.5WP, a broad spectrum fungicide, was also sprayed at 45 DAS to prevent fungal diseases. The crop was harvested from 21st January to 5th February, 2013 thus from 45 days after sowing to 60 days after sowing. Six plants from each plot area were harvested as sample plants.
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CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The field experiment was conducted to know the effects of oil palm bunch ash and poultry manure independently on the growth and yield of French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Cv. Contender. The results obtained from the above experiment are presented in this chapter.
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4.2 YIELD COMPONENTS AND YIELD 4.2.1 Number of pods per plant
Palm Bunch Ash and Poultry Manure did not significantly influence the number of pods per plant.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
The results obtained from the investigations on the Effects of oil palm bunch ash and poultry manure independently on the growth and yield of French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)are discussed in this chapter under the following headings: 5.1 Weather conditions and crop performance 5.2Diseases and pests 5.3 Effect of Palm Bunch Ash (PBA) 5.4 Effect of Poultry Manure (PM)
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Days to 50% flowering was significantly affected by the application of PBA in that earlier flowering was recorded. Potassium plays a major role in protein synthesis, improves water regime and increases tolerance to drought. Phosphorus, which was of a good amount in PBA, affected the number of days to flowering confirming the findings of Veeresh in 2003. No significant differences were recorded with respect to yield parameters though PBA contained a good amount of N, P, K, Mg and Ca as observed by Mbah et al, 2010; Awodun et al, 2007; Adekayode and Olojugba, 2010; Ojeniyi et al, 2010; Offor et al ,2010; Ezekiel et al ,2009;Ojeniyiet al, 2006. This may be due to moisture stress, environmental factors such as high temperatures and the pest and viral diseases which affected the crop from 30 DAS. The viral disease affected the leaves of the crop hindering photosynthesis.
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CHAPTER SIX
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RECOMMENDATIONS
There is scope for study the effects of the combination of Palm bunch ash and Poultry manure on the growth and yield of French beans. Any study or work conducted on French beans should tackle insect control from early crop stages and irrigation should be a very important practise especially if during the dry periods of the year. There is scope for studies on French beans with different organic wastes such as cattle dung manure.
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APPENDICES
Appendix I: Soil samples analysed from the experimental site before the experiment
PARAMETER
pH (1:2.5 Soil: Water suspension) Total N (%) Available P (mg/kg) Exchangeable cat ion (cmol/kg) Ca Mg K
SAMPLE 1
5.53 0.12 212.28
SAMPLE 2
5.39 0.14 273.92
Appendix II: Treatment samples analysed PARAMETER pH (1:2.5 Soil: Water suspension) Total N (%) Available P (%) Exchangeable cat ion (cmol/kg) Ca Mg K PALM BUNCH ASH 7.90 0.43 0.70 POULTRY MANURE 6.02 1.89 1.09
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Appendix III: Soil samples analysed from the experimental site treatment-wise after harvest
PARAMETER pH (1:2.5 Soil: Water suspension) Total N (%) Available P (mg/kg) Exchangeable cat ion (cmol/kg) Ca Mg K
Appendix IV: Monthly meteorological data for the experimental period (December, 2012 to February, 2013) MONTHS RAINFALL NUMBER OF (mm) RAINY DAYS ------TEMPERATURE (C)
Max. 33 36 36 Min. 21 22 24
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total 8 9.960
d.f. 2
s.s. 4.365
m.s. 2.183
v.r. 1.60
F pr.
2 4
0.130 5.465
0.065 1.366
0.05
0.954
CV: 6.5
27
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 30.0
d.f. 2
s.s. 60.99
m.s. 30.50
v.r. 2.05
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 12.8
14.51 14.85
0.98
0.451
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 37.6
d.f. 2
s.s. 40.651
m.s. 20.326
v.r. 2.06
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 8.4
4.048 9.852
0.41
0.688
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean 38.0
d.f. 2
s.s. 52.334
m.s. 26.167
v.r. 2.74
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 8.1
8.521 9.549
0.89
0.478
28
2 4 8 CV: 9.9
23.50 13.80
1.70
0.292
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 0.73
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.013924
m.s. 0.006962
v.r. 2.75
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 6.8
0.000513 0.002534
0.20
0.825
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 1.05
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.011151
m.s. 0.005576
v.r. 1.08
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 6.8
0.001650 0.005148
0.32
0.743
29
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.002284
m.s. 0.001142
v.r. 0.98
F pr.
2 4 8
0.000060 0.001167
0.05
0.951
CV: 2.9
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 1.17
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.004403
m.s. 0.002202
v.r. 2.04
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 2.8
0.000320 0.001078
0.30
0.758
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 1.17
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.004403
m.s. 0.002202
v.r. 2.04
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 2.8
0.000320 0.001078
0.30
0.758
30
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 1.47
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.0001496
m.s. 0.0000748
v.r. 0.53
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 0.8
0.0005016 0.0001424
3.52
0.131
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 1.48
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.7864
m.s. 0.3932
v.r. 1.73
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 32.2
1.0127 0.2268
4.46
0.096
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 4.17
d.f. 2
s.s. 1.3778
m.s. 0.6889
v.r. 0.74
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 23.1
0.9513 0.9283
1.02
0.437
31
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 2.61
d.f. 2
s.s. 0.459
m.s. 0.230
v.r. 0.17
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 21.2
0.333 1.347
0.25
0.792
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 7.0
d.f. 2
s.s. 17.07
m.s. 8.54
v.r. 0.56
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 24.30
12.50 15.37
0.81
0.505
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 20.9
d.f. 2
s.s. 35.55
m.s. 17.78
v.r. 1.01
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 11.70
67.48 17.63
3.83
0.118
32
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 14.3
d.f. 2
s.s. 34.06
m.s. 17.03
v.r. 0.43
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 16.60
8.40 39.57
0.21
0.817
Source of variation REP stratum REP.*Units* stratum TREATMENT Residual Total Grand mean: 195.0
d.f. 2
s.s. 3338.
m.s. 1669.
v.r. 0.56
F pr.
2 4 8 CV: 28.0
3496. 2979.
1.17
0.397
33