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Combustion Science and Technology
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A Method for Particle and Gas Temperature
Measurement in Laboratory-Scale, Pulverized-Coal
Flames
D. W. MACKOWSKI
a
, R. A. ALTENKIRCH
a
, R. E. PECK
a
& T. W. TONG
a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40506
Published online: 29 Mar 2007.
To cite this article: D. W. MACKOWSKI , R. A. ALTENKIRCH , R. E. PECK & T. W. TONG (1983): A Method for Particle and Gas
Temperature Measurement in Laboratory-Scale, Pulverized-Coal Flames, Combustion Science and Technology, 31:3-4, 139-153
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Combustion Science and Technology, 1983. Vol. 31, pp. 139-153
0010-2202/83/3104-0139518.30/0
1983 Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. Inc.
Printed in Great Britain
A Method for Particle and Gas Temperature Measurement
in Laboratory-Scale, Pulverized-Coal Flames
D. W. MACKOWSKI. R. A. ALTENKIRCH. R. E. PECK and T. W. TONG
Department of Mechanical Engineering. University of Kentucky. Lexington.
Kentucky 40506
(Received August 5, 1982; in final form October 5, 1982)
Abstract-A multiple-wavelength, infrared pyrometer suitable for making line-of-sight particle
and gas temperature measurements in pulverized-coal flames is 'described. The pyrometer uses
lead selenide detebors covered with narrow-band filters to measure emitted and transmitted
radiation. Scattering effects may be and are here incorporated into data reduction schemes for
calculating temperatures. Measurements were made on one-dimensional, coal-dustjoxygen{argon
flames stabilized on a flat-flame burner. Profiles of particle and gas temperatures and optical
depths as a function of distance from the burner are presented. In general, particle and gas
temperatures do not differ much close to the burner, but farther downstream the gas temperature
exceeds the particle temperature.
INTRODUCTION
Accurate measurement of temperatures in pulverized-coal flames is necessary if the
kinetics of the processes occurring in these flames is to be quantified. In general,
particle and gas temperatures differ (Cashdollar and Hertzberg, 1982; Smoot et al.,
1978), and because it is the particle temperature that determines the devolatilization
rate and the gas temperature that determines the rate of pyrolysis and oxidation of
gas-phase it is important to be able to distinguish between these two tempera-
tures.
Experimental investigations of laminar, premixed, pulverized-coal flames in which
flame temperatures were measured by thermocouples have been reported (Smoot
et al., 1978; Altenkirch et al., 1979; Milne and Beachey, 1977). Such measurements
are not accurate because deposition of solids upon the thermocouple bead augments
the bead's radiative heat loss, resulting in temperatures generally lower than expected
(Smoot et al., Also, thermocouples are obviously incapable of differentiating
between particleI and gas temperatures.
Multiple-wavelength pyrometry, which is inexpensive and relatively easy to apply,
has been used before for temperature measurement in two-phase flames. Cashdollar
and Hertzberg (11982) developed an infrared pyrometer that measures radiant intensity
at four wavelengths where only the particles radiate and two wavelengths that are
within C02 absorption bands. Particle and gas temperatures were calculated by
"fitting" the measured intensities to Planck's law assuming particle and gas emittances
independent of wavelength. Adams (1972) describes a spectroscopic technique for
temperature measurement in two-phase flames in which a monochromator is used to
measure condensed-phase and gas-wavelength emission. Additional light scattering
and extinction measurements are used to determine the radiative properties of the
flame.
In this paper we describe a four-wavelength pyrometer that we used to measure
particle and gas temperatures in pulverized-coal/oxidizer flames stabilized on a
139
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140 D. W. MACKOWSKI et al.
specially designed, flat-flame burner (Altenkirch et al., 1979). The instrument is
similar in design to the one described by Cashdollar and Hertzberg (1982) with
modifications made to accommodate continuous operation and a smaller radiation
collection angle. Both emission and transmission measurements arc made, and the
effects of scattering on the data reduction are investigated.
EXPERIMENTAL
Temperature measurements were made as part of our investigation into the trans-
formation of fuel nitrogen and sulfur in pulverized-coal flames. The investigation
utilizes the flat-flame burner developed in our previous work (Altenkirch et al., 1979).
The 40 ern- Meker-type burner produces a laminar, free-burning, coal-dust flame of
approximately 6 em diameter at the base. A set of water-cooled, stainless-steel
screens serves to anchor the flame to the burner. The burner is contained within a
15.24 em diameter, 38 em tall aluminum chimney, and the flame is viewed through
open slits cut in the side of the chimney. Gas and solid sampling and optical measure-
ments were performed at various heights within the flame by adjusting the elevation
of the burner with respect to the instrumentation. The fuel used in this study was
Eastern Kentucky bituminous coal pulverized to a volume-surface mean diameter
(Dobbins and Jizmagian, 1966) of 16[Lm, which gives a mass mean diameter of
26 [Lm. The size distribution and composition of the coal is given in Table 1.
Flame particle and gas temperatures were measured using a four-wavelength,
infrared pyrometer that we developed in our laboratory and is described in detail by
TABLE I
Coal analysis and size distribution
Proximate analysis Weight Ultimate analysis Weight
(as received) percent (dry) percent
Moisture 1.6 C 68.58
Volatile matter 31.6 H 4.61
Fixed carbon 47.7 S 1.53
Ash 19.1 N 1.63
0 4.24
Ash 19.41
Total 100.0 Total 100.00
Heating value 26,540 kJ/kg
Size distribution by sieving
Range Weight percent Number percent
40-74 I'm
30-40 I'm
20-30 I'm
10-20 I'm
0-10 I'm
16.9
13.5
19.8
38.1
11.7
0.1
0.3
1.2
10.6
87.8
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PULVERIZED-coAL FLAMES 141
Mackowski (1982). The pyrometer uses four lead selenide detectors, each covered
with one narrow-band optical filter, to measure the radiative emission and transmission
of the flame ati the four wavelengths. Band centers of the filters are located at 1.6,
2.3, 3.8 and 4.4 I'm, and the bandwidth of each filter is approximately 2.5 percent of
the band center The first three wavelengths mentioned above are free of gas absorp-
tion bands and can be used to determine the temperature and extinction coefficient
of the particle cloud. The 4.4 I'm wavelength is within the fundamental C02 vibration
band, and the detector sensitive to this wavelength is used to measure the combined
gas-particle c16ud emission and transmission. Knowledge of the particle-cloud
properties from: the particle-wavelength measurements allows us to calculate the gas
temperature from a measurement at 4.4 I'm.
The pyrometer was initially designed following the six-wavelength pyrometer
developed at Bureau of Mines (BOM) that was used to measure particle and gas
temperatures in! coal-dust explosions (Cashdollar and Hertzberg, 1982). Although
conceptually suited for our needs, the electronic design of the BOM pyrometer
required extensive modification in order to make its application to "steady-state",
burner-stabilized, pulverized-coal flames feasible.
5.1 k
v
10 k
5.6 k
FIGURE 1 Detector circuit diagram.
TI.
r,cord.r
A schematic diagram of the circuit for a single detector is shown in Figure I.
Because performance is sensitive to ambient temperature. the detectors are
biased in the constant current mode to stabilize their temperature and prevent thermal
runaway. In addition, a temperature control circuit was added to maintain the
detectors at a liked temperature of 35C. Detector signals are AC coupled to an
amplifier through a high-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 1000 Hz. The high level
of filtering, in conjunction with a chopping frequency of 960 Hz, is necessary to sep-
arate the chopped signals from AC signals due to natural fluctuations within the flame.
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142 D. W. MACKOWSKI ef al,
In this way, only signals that are chopped are passed to the amplifier. Full-wave
rectification provides a DC voltage output that maintains output linearity with
incident intensity. The output is filtered through a 0.1 Hz, low-pass filter to reduce
output noise to an acceptable level.
A source of infrared radiation for flame transmittance measurements was usually
provided by a carbon-rod, black-body furnace. The carbon-rod-type source has been
used before in similar applications because it is effective in providing a high-tempera-
ture, near black-body source of radiation (Smith and Fridovich, 1978). The source
filament is a spectroscopically pure carbon rod, 17.8em long, with a 0.76 em diameter.
The rod was drilled through to an inner diameter of 0.50 em, and a 7.6 by 0.30 em
slit was centered along its length to create a black-body cavity and aperture. The rod
is mounted between two 2.54 em diameter copper electrodes and heated electrically
to a temperature, which is monitored continuously with a thermocouple, of approxi-
mately 1500 K. The entire assembly is contained within a water-cooled, argon-filled,
stainless-steel, cylindrical chamber. The rod is viewed through a 2.54 em diameter,
3 mm thick sapphire window, which has a 0.92 transmittance in the infrared wave-
lengths of interest.
Difficulties were encountered in maintaining the carbon rod at a constant tempera-
ture throughout the course of an experiment. Because of this, we used a commercially
available, black-body reference source (freon Model Be15) on several occasions.
Its peak temperature of 1100 K was just sufficient to allow accurate transmittance
measurements to be made.
source len 1
shutter
n
lens burner
lens stop
lenl
chopper
detectors
FIGURE 2 Optical setup.
The optical system, which is shown in Figure 2, consists of three, 5.08 em diameter,
calcium fluoride lenses. This lens material was chosen because it has a transmittance
above 0.9 from the visible to mid-infrared wavelengths, thus enabling visual align-
ment. A pair of fll lenses projects the image of the source to the chopper and then
from the .chopper to the burner centerline. A single 1/3 lens projects the source and
flame images upon the detectors. The lens stop serves to limit the detectors' collection
angle to approximately 0.022 rad vertically and 0.219 rad horizontally, centered
about the burner axis.
The lenses are arranged so that the image of the source upon the burner centerline
has unity magnification, and the source and flame images upon the detectors are
magnified by two. A detector's active area is 2 mrn-, so each detector can at best
resolve a I mm
2
area at the point at which it is focused. Because of the physical
distance between the detectors in their mounts and chromatic aberration of the
lenses, the points at which the detectors are focused are dispersed over an area
1.5 em parallel and 2 em normal to the line of sight. Thus, each detector does not
intercept exactly the same solid angle.
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PULVERIZED-COAL FLAMES 143
The //3 lens and the detectors are mounted on opposite ends of a 50.8 em long by
15.24 em diameter aluminum cylinder, which is mounted on a heavy-duty tripod.
The chopper, ,hich is located near the detectors, is attached so that it can be readily
removed, during flame transmission measurements, from the detectors' line of sight.
The two 111 lenses, source and source chopper are positioned on a modified optical
rail assembly. I
Alignment of the pyrometer is accomplished by removing the' back plate of the
aluminum tube containing the detectors and chopper and replacing it with an
alignment aperture, The pyrometer is sighted through the aperture and aligned with
a cross-hair target placed above the burner centerline. At the same time, the pyro-
meter is leveledin the directions parallel and normal to the line of sight. The source
is aligned by superimposing the image of the source, as seen through the alignment
aperture, on the cross-hair target.
Prior to making measurements, the pyrometer was calibrated with the standard
black-body reference source placed above the burner centerline. With this completed,
I
the black-body Ireference was removed, and the carbon-rod source was heated to a
constant temperature. The detector chopper was removed, and the source intensity
at the burner cehterline was measured. This determined the incident source intensity
H
A
FIGURE 3 Cylindrical flame model.
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144 D. W. MACKOWSKI et al.
for subsequent transmittance measurements. An initial burner position was estab-
lished by raising the burner to where it just began to cut off the source beam as seen
by the detectors.
With the flame lit and adjusted to the desired conditions, a measurement of the
transmitted source intensity was made, with the detector chopper removed. Because
the emitted flame radiation is not detected, the transmittance of the flame at a par-
ticular wavelength is the ratio of the source intensity with the flame present to the
incident source intensity. The intensity of the emitted flame radiation was measured
by closing the shutter in front of the III lens and replacing the detector chopper.
Once a transmittance and emission measurement were made, (he burner was lowered
(0 a new position, and the measurement sequence was repeated. Gas and particle
temperatures ean be calculated using the optieal measurements outlined above along
with solutions to the radiative transfer equation. The following section gives two
approximate solutions that we used to calculate temperatures.
DATA REDUCTION
Anisotropic Model
With the flame modeled as a cylinder (see Figure 3) of height H and diameter t, the
intensity distribution for the particles, 11', as a function of location, s, along the line
of sight at arbitrary distance A above the burner is governed by
(I)
where source radiation is' incident on the flame at s=O, and the pyrometer collects
radiation emerging at s=t. In Eq. (1), fJ is the extinction coefficient, i.e. {3=K+a
where K is the absorption coefficient and a is the scattering coefficient, subscript ,\
implies a particular wavelength, subscript b implies black-body, superscript p implies
particles and F is the phase function. Realize that [1'"b is fixed along the isothermal
line of sight. For arbitrary position s, as shown in Figure 3, (47T)-1(4>, 8) dQ is the
probability that radiation incident from the P direction within solid angle dQ is
scattered into the s direction. Because in what follows the intensity of this radiation
depends on 8 and 4>, the result is labeled anisotropic.
To get an expression for JP.(4). 8, s) in the phase-function integral term in Eq. (I),
we neglect scattering into the P direction so that from the radiative transfer equation
for [P" as a function of P we get for JP,(4), 8, s) at point s along the line of sight
I
[P
A
(4), 8,s) = exp(-{3p.,/) J(l-wp),)fJ
P),ex
P({3p),P)[P),b(P)dP
(2)
o
where the path along the P direction is I long, and fJ
P
" is taken to be constant along
that path, as is KP". In Eq. (2), w is the albedo, the ratio of the scattering to the
extinction coefficient.
Using Eq. (2) in Eq. (I) and solving the resulting differential equation subject to
["v=O at s=O, which corresponds to the emission measurement, we get for the
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PULVERIZIi:D-COAL FLAMES
measured, emitted intensity of the particles at a height A in the flame
t
x (I - w
P
A
) exp( -f3P
A
I ) fexp(f3
P
As)
f F(q" 8) exp( -f3P
A
/ )
o 12.,.411
I
X fexp(f3P
A
P) [1'AD (1') dPdfJds
o
145
(3)
where KP
A
and aPA are constant along the line of sight. Equation (3) can be used to
get the particle temperature distribution as a function of height in the flame by
applying it at bach height and solving for 11>Ab, but the process is an iterative one
because IP
AD
~ ) depends on the temperature distribution.
We fit the emission data in a least-square-error sense, using the measured, wave-
length-dependent transmittances, and hence extinction coefficients, to Eq. (3) to
calculate the particle temperature and wavelength-independent albedo, w
p
Com-
putations that we have carried out, and those of Viskanta et al. (I 981), indicate that
the single-scatter albedo for coals for the range of the size parameter 7Td p/;" of interest
here, from over: 5 to over 12 based on the mean particle size, dfl' of 16 (Lm, ought to be
independent of I;., and equal about 13 to 31.
To carry out the iterative process, an initial guess for IPAD (1') was established
using the temperature distribution determined from the gray-isotropic model dis-
cussed below. Expressions for I, /P
AD
(1'), fJ and the extinction coefficient along the
p direction, f 3 P ~ (1'), as functions of s, A. 8 and q, were derived so that the integrals in
Eq. (3) could be performed. Recall that in obtaining Eq. (2), f3P
A
was taken to be
constant along the P direction. Tn applying Eq. (3) though we allowed f3P
A
to depend
on its P location. The inconsistency is unimportant because, as we will see later, f31>
does not vary much with distance from the burner. For the phase function we chose
the expression of Tong and Tien (1980), i.e., F=I-a cos 8', with a= 1.0 to imply
predominantly ,forward scattering.
The integrals in Eq. (3) were computed numerically. Values of the extinction
coefficient and temperature at P locations corresponding to heights at which measure-
ments were not' made were obtained from linear interpolation between existing data
points. The guessed temperature profile and measured values of f3P
A
and IP
A
(I) were
then used in Eq. (3) to calculate a distribution of IPAD with height and hence a new
temperature distribution. This new temperature distribution was used as a guess, and
the process repeated until the new and guessed profiles were within I K of each other
at each measurement height.
Measurements were only made up to a height of 6.35 cm above the burner. The
height of the model, H, was chosen to be 12 cm because at this height the temperature
was estimated to be nearly the ambient value. To specify temperatures for heights
between 6.35 and 12 cm, we used the three or four data points obtained at the highest
locations in the flame to establish a linearly decreasing temperature with height. The
extinction coefficient in this region was taken to be independent of height and set
equal to values ;"easured farthest from the burner.
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146 D. W. MACKOWSKI e al.
Employing the same assumptions as those used to get Eqs. (2) and (3), the measured,
emitted intensity at 4.4 fLm is
(3P
s
.
s
w
P
+ - e- Pt
471
t
JePs JF(,p, 0)
o U=41T
I
X e-
P1
re
PP
[Kg Igb(P) + KPIPb(P)]dPdfJds
0"
(4)
where superscript g implies gas. In Eq. (4), which is solved for /g4.4b to get the gas
temperature, the right-hand side is to be evaluated at 4.4 fLm, except as noted, and the
integrals were computed using the same procedures that were applied to Eq. (3). The
quantities KP
4.4,
set equal to KPS.S, and IP
4.4b
are known from measurements at the other
2500
2000
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PULVERIZED-COAL FLAMES 147
three wavelengths, and KU
44
was calculated from the difference in the measured
extinction coefficients at 4.4 and 3.8 lim. The albedo used in Eq. (4) is the one deter-
mined from the anisotropic particle computations.
Isotropic Model
The problem may be simplified somewhat by taking IP;, (,p, e, s) to be IP;, (s) at the
s location of interest, which is equivalent to assuming that the particle radiation is
isotropic about any point along the line of sight. With this assumption, Eq. (3)
becomes
(5)
Physically, Eq. (5) implies that radiation scattered into the line of sight is balanced by
the out-scattering. Because the exact manner in which scattering is treated becomes
less important ~ s the optical depth becomes small (Ozisik, 1973), Eq. (5) is likely to be
applicable as long as the optical depth is not large, which, as we shall see later, is the
case here.
We applied Eq. (5) to the data in two ways. In the first, which we call the gray-
isotropic model, KP;, was taken to be independent of '\, and the emission data at the
three particle wavelengths were fit, in a least-square-error sense, to Eq. (5) to get the
2500
+ +
+
+
2000
+
+

00
+
'"
+
c
0
0
+
+
1500
0
<II
~
0
0 :J
0
0
0 0 0 <II
0
C>
E
1000 Q>
I-
285 mgll
+ T
9
23% 2-77% Ar
o T
p
500
14 ern Is
o r c
o
0.0 10 20 30 4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance from screen in em
FIG URE 5 Pyrometer- and thermocouple-measured temperature distributions in a 285 rng/I
coal-dust flame u ~ i n g the gray-isotropic model.
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148 D. W. MACKOWSKI et al.
+ T QI
0 Tp I
6-
TQz
X Tp2
4.0 5.0 60 30 20 10
470 mg/ 1
23% Oz-77%Ar
14 cm/s
OL------'-------'- .l...-__--'-__---'__----l
0.0
2000
t.
+
~
+ + +
1500
00 t
+
OQ
t
t
0 6-
6-
Q
Iil
X
X
500
2500
..
"
o
:;;
~ 1000
..
I-
Distance from screen in cm
FIGURE 6 Pyrometer- and thermocouple-measured temperature distributions in a 470 mgjl
coal-dust flame using the gray-isotropic model.
particle temperature T n- and KP. Transmission data are not needed in this treatment.
In the second, which we call the nongray-isotropic model, we used the measured
transmittances at the three particle wavelengths, which are equal to
exp[-KPAI/(I-w
P
A)],
along with Eq. (5) to fit the emission data to calculate the
particle temperature and a wavelength-independent albedo.
The measured intensity at 4.4 I,m, with the same assumptions that are contained
in Eq. (5), is given by
(6)
Kg /gb + KP /1'/,
/4.4(/) = {I - exp[ - (KP + Kg)l])
(Kg + KP)
where the right-hand side is to be evaluated at 4.4 pm. Again, in Eq. (6), we set
K
P,1.4
equal to KP
a.s
and Kg4.4 equal to the measured value of ({J4.4-fhs).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As a test of our optical techniques, we made emission and transmission measurements,
at 4.4 I,m, on a CH4-02-Ar flame, stabilized on our coal-dust burner, at an equivalence
ratio, ,p, of 0.4 and a cold-gas speed through the burner of 1I ctn]. The black-body
intensity at 4.4 pm is, in this case, the measured intensity divided by one minus the
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PULVERIZED-COAL FLAMES 149
2000
'"
~ to +
c: e + +
1500
00 +a
~
OQ
+
is. ::>
0 t
0
~
t:>.
t:>.
0000
fill
Q>
DO
X
C-
O 0
X
E 0
0
Q>
1000
f- 0
470 mg / I + T gl
23%Oz-77%Ar
0 T pi
500
14 cm/s t:>.
T gz
X T pz
oL
0 TC
I
0.0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60
Distance from screen In em
FIGURE 7 Pyrometer-measured temperature distributions from the anisotropic model in a
470 mg/I coal-dust flame.
transmittance. Jn Figure 4 we present the pyrometer-measured temperature, Tg ,
as a function of distance from the burner along with uncorrected thermocouple-
I
measured temperatures, TC. The thermocouples used were PtjPt-lO% Rh made from
0.127 mm diameter wire, butt welded, stretched diametrically across the burner and
coated to prevent catalysis (Kent, J970).
We estimate that the adiabatic flame temperature for the conditions of Figure 4
is about 1700 K for complete combustion. The pyrometer-measured temperatures
are somewhat lower than this due to heat loss to the burner. Thermocouple-measured
temperatures are lower again due to radiative heat loss from the bead. Correction
for radiative heat loss would, for our conditions, increase the thermocouple-measured
temperatures abolit 100to 300 K, depending on the values taken for the emittance and
diameter of thd bead, which would bring them in line with the pyrometer results.
Pyrometer Jnd thermocouple data for two different coal-dustjoxygenjargon
flames are presented in Figures 5 and 6 in which the pyrometer-measured temperatures
were calculated from the gray-isotropic model. The coal-dust concentration, the
volume percent oxygen in the oxidizer and the cold-gas speed of the oxidizer through
the burner are given on the figures. In Figure 5, pyrometer data between I and 2 em
from the screen, i.e., particle temperatures indicated by filled hexagons and the
corresponding ;gas temperatures directly above them, were obtained in a separate
experiment. Data were gathered between I and 2 em when the data associated with
the open hexagons were taken, but a malfunction of the coal-feed system caused the
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150 n:W.'MACKOWSKI et al.
1.2
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
++
+
1.0
++
+
s:
0.8 +
a.
'"
"tJ
+
0
o
Ci
06
0
0
0.4
0
0
00 0 0
0
0 0
0
00
0
00 0
0.2
285 mgl 1 +
Kg,
23% Oz-77%Ar
0
f3 P ,
14 cmls
0.0
00 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance from screen in em
FIGURE 8 Optical depth distribution in a 285 mgjl coal-dust flame.
actual experimental settings during the time period in which the data between 1 and
2 em were taken to be different than what is given in the figure, and so they were
discarded. Two sets of data are shown for the 470 mg(l flame to indicate the degree
of accuracy to which the data can be reproduced.
We calculated temperatures using the nongray-isotropic model too but did not find
substantial differences between the gray and nongray treatment due to the fact that
the measured extinction coefficients at the three particle wavelengths are usually all
within ten percent of one another, although at times two may differ by as much as
30 percent. The normalized rms error in fitting the data to the gray-isotropic model
is typically less than 2 percent.
The particle temperature peaks ahead of the gas temperature, and the peak tem-
peratures are higher and later for the leaner stoichiometry. Early in the flame the
particle and gas jemperatures do not differ appreciably, but after 2 em or so the gas
may be a few hundred K hotter than the particles. The initial heating rate is about
IOLlOo K(s.'
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PULVERIZED-COAL FLAMES
1.2
10

+ + +
+
++ +
+
D. +
+ t>
0.8
s:
C.
X X X
Q>
X
0
0
X
"0
0
00000 0
"
06
o

c. X 09JXX
0

0.4
+
K
9
1 I
470 mg/I
0 {3 PI I
23% O
2-77
% Ar
t> K 91 2
O'l
14 cm/s
X {3P 1 2
I
1
0.0
00 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance from screen in cm
FIGURE 9 Optical depth distribution in a 470 mgJI coal-dust flame.
151
Thermocouple-measured temperatures, as seen in Figures 5 and 6, are substantially
lower than the pyrometer-measured temperatures with the difference in the two
techniques being much greater than was the case for the methane flame. As mentioned
before, this behavior is to be expected because of the buildup of solid material on the
thermocouple bead. In addition, the thermocouple results reveal less structure to the
flame than apparently exists.
Figure 7 shows gas and particle temperatures, for the 470 rng/l flame, calculated
using the anisotropic model with the iteration scheme outlined above. Convergence
was obtained irt 3 iterations for the particle temperature and 4 for the gas temperature.
As can be seenlfrom comparing Figures 6 and 7, the anisotropic model and the gray-
isotropic model do not give temperatures that differ much. Similar results were
obtained for leaner concentration (Mackowski, 1982).
Particle and gas optical depths are shown in Figures 8 and 9 where {3P/ is an average
of the measured values at the three particle wavelengths, and Kg/ is the difference
between the measured optical depth at 4.4 I"m and the average {3P/. Apart from the
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152 D. W. MACKOWSKI et af.
10
08 +
+
cP-6 + +
+
06
0&+
+
0
D D ~ ffi
6
A
+
'0
666
6
+
+
QI
+
0
~
D
c:r +
0
0
0.4 +
+ 285
285- 470 mg/I
0 470 I
0.2
23% Oz-77%At
6 4702
14 cm/s
50 4.0 30 2.0 1.0
0.0 '--__-L-__----' ...l-__---'- .J.-__--J
0.0 6.0
Distance from screen
FIGURE 10 Albedo distribution from the nongray-isotropic model for two coal-dust flames.
initial few millimeters of the flame, the optical depths remain fairly constant through-
out the flame.
Albedos for the two coal-dust flames are shown in Figure 10. These were calculated
by fitting the data to the nongray-isotropic model. Both concentrations show a
similar trend of the albedo peaking at about 0.9 near the bottom of flame and then
falling to about 0.5. The value of 0.9 is unreasonably high, but, as of yet, we have no
explanation as to why it occurs. Albedos of 0.5 agree with those calculated by
Viskanta et al. (1981).
To be sure, some caution must be exercised in the interpretation of temperature
data such 'as those we presented here. For example, the meaning of the particle
temperature is not completely clear. All particles may not be at the same temperature,
and soot particles formed during devolatilization (Seeker et al., 1981), whose con-
centration and optical properties are unknown, may contribute to the collected
radiation. Nonetheless, temperatures measured optically provide more information
than conventionally measured thermocouple temperatures.
CONCLUSIONS
The infrared pyrometer described here is an inexpensive and simple diagnostic tool
for measuring particle and gas temperatures in pulverized-coal flames. Results
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PULVERIZED-COAL FLAMES 153
indicate that it is capable of providing detailed flame structure information. Soph-
isticated radiation modeling is not needed for the optical depth range I) that is
likely to be found in laboratory-scale, pulverized-coal flames because scattering is
unimportant. Data presented for one-dimensional, coal-dust flames show that the
gas temperature is substantially higher than the particle temperature beyond the
initial stages br the flame. Thermocouple-measured temperatures in coal-dust flames
are not indidtive of either the gas or particle temperatures and are well below both.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
. ,
I
Support for this work from the National Science Foundation under Grant CPE-7926312 is
gratefully acknt/wledged. We thank RAC Mining Corporation for providing the coal. We also
thank K. L. Cashdollar of the Bureau of Mines for his willingness to share with us his experiences
in making optical measurements in coal flames,
REFERENCES
Adams, J. M. The spectral comparison method for temperature measurement in two-phase
flames. Temperature, Its Measurement in Science and Industry 4, 627.
Altenkirch, R. A., Peck, R. E., and Chen, S. L. (1979). The appearance of nitric oxide and cyanide
in one-dimensional coal-dust/oxidizer flames. Combustion Science and Technology 20, 49.
Cashdollar, K. L., and Hertzberg, M. (1982). Infrared pyrometers for measuring dust explosion
temperatures. Optical Engineering 21, 82.
Dobbins, R. A.,Iand Jizmagian, G. S. (1966). Optical scattering cross sections for polydispersions
of dielectric spheres. Journal of the Optical Society of America 56, 1345.
Kent, J. H. (1970). A noncatalytic coating for platinum-rhodium thermocouples. Combustion
ond Flame 14, 279.
Mackowski, D.W. (1982). Infrared pyrometer measurement of particle and gas temperatures in
pulverized-coal flames. MSME thesis in preparation, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky. I
Milne, T. A., and Beachey, J. E. (1977). The microstructure of pulverized coal-air flames. II.
Gaseous species, particulate and temperature profiles. Combustion Science and Technology
16, 139.
Ozisik, M. N. (197J). Radiative Transfer. John Wiley, New York.
Seeker, W. R., Samuelsen, G. S., Heap, M. P., and Trolinger, J. D. (1981). The thermal decompo-
sition of pulverized coal particles. Eighteenth Symposium (International) on Combustion,
The Combustion 1nsitute, Pittsburgh, pp. 1213-1226.
Smith, G. R., and Fridovich, B. (1978). Carbon furnace infrared source-some practical con-
Review of Scientific Instruments 49, 1223.
Smoot, L. D., Horton, M. D., Nielsen, S. M., and Luke, D. E. (1978). The structure of laminar
pulverized toal dust flames. Presented at the Seventeenth Symposium (International) on
Combustion, Leeds, England, 1978.
Tong, T. W., and Tien, C. L. (1980). Resistance-network representation of radiative heat transfer
with particulate scattering. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer
24,491.
Viskanta, R., Ungan, A., and Menguc, M. P. (1981). Predictions of radiative properties of
pulverized coal and fly-ash polydispersions. ASME Paper 8l-HT-24.
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