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What Is Phytoremediation
What Is Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the use of living green plants for in situ risk reduction and/or removal of contaminants from contaminated soil, water, sediments, and air. Specially selected or engineered plants are used in the process. Risk reduction can be through a process of removal, degradation of, or containment of a contaminant or a combination of any of these factors. Phytoremediation is an energy efficient, aesthically pleasing method of remediating sites with low to moderate levels of contamination and it can be used in conjuction with other more traditional remedial methods as a finishing step to the remedial process. One of the main advantages of phytoremediation is that of its relatively low cost compared to other remedial methods such as excavation. The cost of phytoremediation has been estimated as $25 $100 per ton of soil, and $0.60 - $6.00 per 1000 gallons of polluted water with remediation of organics being cheaoer than remediation of metals. In many cases phytoremediation has been found to be less than half the price of alternative methods. Phytoremediation also offers a permanent in situ remediation rather than simply translocating the problem. However phytoremediation is not without its faults, it is a process which is dependent on the depth of the roots and the tolerance of the plant to the contaminant. Exposure of animals to plants which act as hyperaccumulators can also be a concern to environmentalists as herbivorous animals may accumulate contaminate particles in their tissues which could in turn affect a whole food web.
Phytoremediation is actually a genneric term for several ways in which plants can be used to clean up contaminated soils and water. Plants may break down or degrade organic pollutants, or remove and stabilize metal contaminants. This may be done through one of or a combination of the methods described in the next chapter. The methods used to phytoremediate metal contaminants are slightly different to those used to remediate sites polluted with organic contaminants.
Methods of Phytoremediation
Metal Phytoextraction Rhizofiltration Organic Phytodegradation Rhizodegradation
Phytostabilisation Phytovolatilisation
Rhizofiltration Rhizofiltration is similar in concept to Phytoextraction but is concerned with the remediation of contaminated groundwater rather than the remediation of polluted soils. The contaminants are either adsorbed onto the root surface or are absorbed by the plant roots. Plants used for rhizoliltration are not planted directly in situ but are acclimated to the pollutant first. Plants are hydroponically grown in clean water rather than soil, until a large root system has developed. Once a large root system is in place the water supply is substituted for a polluted water supply to acclimatise the plant. Afer the plants become acclimatised they are planted in the polluted area where the roots uptake the polluted water and the contaminants along with it. As the roots become saturated they are harvested and disposed of safely. Repeated treatments of the site can reduce pollution to suitable levels as was exemplified in Chernobyl where sunflowers were grown in radioactively contaminated pools.
Phytostabilisation Phytostabilisation is the use of certain plants to immobilise soil and water contaminants. Contaminant are absorbed and accumulated by roots, adsorbed onto the roots, or precipitated in the rhizosphere. This reduces or even prevents the mobility of the contaminants preventing migration into the groundwater or air, and also reduces the bioavailibility of the contaminant thus preventing spread through the food chain. This technique can alos be used to re-establish a plant community on sites that have been denuded due to the high levels of metal contamination. Once a community of tolerant species has been established the potential for wind erosion (and thus spread of the pollutant) is reduced and leaching of the soil contaminants is also reduced.
Riparian corridors
Riparian corridors and buffer strips are the applications of many aspects of phytoremediation along the banks of a river or the edges of groundwater plumes. Pytodegradation, phytovolatilization, and rhizodegradation are used to control the spread of contaminants and to remediate polluted sites. Riparian strips refer to these uses along the banks of rivers and streams, whereas buffer strips are the use of such applications along the perimeter of landfills.
Vegetative cover
Vegetative cover is the name given to the use of plants as a cover or cap growing over landfill sites. The standard caps for such sites are usually plastic or clay. Plants used in this manner are not only more aesthically pleasing they may also help to control erosion, leaching of contaminants, and may also help to degrade the underlying landfill. Where has Phytoremediation Been Used? As it is a relatively new technology phytoremediation is still mostly in it's testing stages and as such has not been used in many places as a full scale application. However it has bee tested successfully in many places around the world for many different contaminants. This table shows the extent of testing across some sites in the USA
Location Ogden, UT Anderson, ST Ashtabula, OH Upton, NY Milan, TN Amana, IA Application Phytoextraction & Rhizodegradation Phytostabilisation Rhizofiltration Phytoextraction Phytodegradation Riparian corridor, phytodegradation Pollutant Petroleum & Hydrocarbons Heavy Metals Radionuclides Radionuclides Expolsives waste Nitrates Medium Soil & Groundwater Soil Groundwater Soil Groundwater Groundwater plant(s) Alfalfa, poplar, juniper, fescue Hybrid poplar, grasses Sunflowers Indian mustard, cabbage Duckweed, parrotfeather Hybrid poplar
Disadvantages of phytoremediation compared to classical remediation It is dependant on the growing conditions required by the plant (ie climate, geology, altitude, temperature) Large scale operations require access to agricultural equpment and knowledge Success is dependant on the tolerance of the plant to the pollutant Contaminants collected in senescing tissues may be released back into the environment in autumn Contaminants may be collected in woody tissues used as fuel Time taken to remediate sites far exceeds that of other technologies Contaminant solubility may be increased leading to greater environmental damage and the possibility of leaching
The low cost of phytoremediation (up to 1000 times cheaper than excavation and reburial) is the main advantage of phytoremediation, however many of the pro's and cons of phytoremediation applications depend greatly on the location of the polluted site, the contaminants in question, and the application of phytoremediation. Phytoremediation & Biotechnology The first goal in phytoremediation is to find a plant species which is resistant to or tolerates a particular contaminant with a view to maximising it's potential for phytoremediation. Resistant plants are usually located growing on soils with underlying metal ores or on the boundary of polluted sites. Once a tolerant plant species has been selected traditional breeding methods are used to optimize the tolerance of a species to a particular contaminant. Agricultural methods such as the application of fertilisers, chelators, and pH adjusters can be utilised to further improve the potential for phytoremediation. Genetic modification offers a new hope for phytoremediation as GM approaches can be used to overexpress the enzymes involved in the existing plant metabolic pathways or to introduce new pathways into plants. Richard Meagher and colleagues introduced a new pathway into Arabidopsis to detoxify methylmercury, a common form of environmental pollutant to elemental mercury which can be volatilised by the plant.
The genes originated in gram-negative bacteria MerB encodes a protein organomercurial lyase converts methylmercury to ionic mercury MerA encodes mercuric reductase, which reduces ionic mercury to the elemental form Arabidopsis plants were transformed with either MerA or MerB coupled with a consitutive 35S promoter The MerA plants were more tolerant to ionic mercury, volatilised elemental mercury, and were unaffected in their tolerance of methylmercury The MerB Plants were significantly more tolerant to methylmercury and other organomercurials and could also convert mthylmercury to ionic mercury which is approximately 100 times less toxic to plants MerA MerB double transgenics were produced in an F2 generation. These plants not only showed a greater resistance to organic mercury when compared to the MerA, MerB, and wildtype plants but also capable of volatilising mercury when supplied with methylmercury. The same MerA/MerB inserts have been used in other plant species including tobacco(Nicotiana tabacum), yellow poplar(Liriodendron tulipifera). Wetland species (bulrush and cat-tail) and water tolerant trees (willow and poplar) have also been targetted for transformation.
Risk Assessment
The use of phytoremediation in the field is subject to many environmental concerns, especially in the light of the recent pulic hysteria about the release of GM crops into the environment. Even if non GM strains of plants are used there are still many concerns:
It is unknown what ecological effects hyperaccumulator plants may have if ingested by animals Fallout from senescing tissues in autumn may also re-enter the food chain Do volatilized contaminants remain at 'safe' levels in the atmosphere Exposure of the ecosystem to contaminants is prolonged as phytoremediation is a relatively slow process
However there are other issues that affect the risk assesment for the use of transgenic organisms as phytoremediators. Not only do such organisms have the same risks as witld type remediators but they also have the same risks as releasing any GM organism into the field have:
The potential genetic pollution of native species Potential for the gene to recombine with other genes possibly leading to the hyperaccumulation of non-contaminant compounds Reporter/marker genes may also escape into the environment The GM plants may revert to a wild type genotype
Glossary
This section is intended as a basic glossary for some of the more technical terms used in these pages. For a more comprehensive glossary check out the links section ADAPTATION: Changes in an organism or population through which they become more suited for living in the current environment BIOACCUMULATION: The intracellular accumulation of environmental pollutants by a living oragnism BIOAVAILABILITY: The availability of chemicals to degradative microorganisms BIODEGRADATION: The breakdown of organic substances by microorganisms BIOREMEDIATION: The process whereby living organisms degrade or convert organic contaminants BIOTRANSFORMATION: The metabolic alteration to the chemical structure of a compound by a living organism or enzyme ORGANIC PUMP: The uptake of vast quantities of water by plant roots whereby the water is transpired by the plant into the atmosphere. PHYTODEGRADATION: The process where plants are able to metabolically degrade organic pollutants PHYTOEXTRACTION: The use of plants to extract contaminants from the environment PHYTOMINING: Use of plants to extract metal compounds of high economic value PHYTOREMEDIATION: Use of plants to remediate polluted soil and/or groundwater PHYTOSTABILISATION: Use of plants to reduce bioavailability and migration of contaminants PHYOTVOLATILISATION: The use of plants to volatilise pollutants from polluted soils and water RHIZOFILTRATION: The uptake of contaminants by the roots of plants which are immersed in water RHIZOSPHERE: The soil area immediatley surrounding the plant root surface. Typically up to a few millimetres from the root surface