SustainableFutureEnergy2012 Proceeding

SUSTAI NABLE FUTURE ENERGY 2012 and 10
th
SEE FORUM
I nnovations for Sustainable and Secure Energy
21-23 November 2012, Brunei Darussalam

1
Preface

ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Tan Kha Sheng (UBD, Brunei Darussalam), Chairman
Peter Hing (UBD, Brunei Darussalam), Co-Chairman
Chong Kim Onn (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Liyanage Chandratilak De Silva (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Voo Nyuk Yoong (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Pg Mohammad Iskandar bin Pg Hj Petra (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Piyasiri Ekanayake (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Sathyajith Mathew (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Martin Blundell (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Ayodele Oladimeji Olofinjana (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Saiful Azmi bin Hj Husain (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Trung Dung Ngo (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Nuki Agya Utama (Kyoto University, Japan)
Ryan Lim Sei Heng (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)
Lim Chee Ming (UBD, Brunei Darussalam)

About the Conference
The shift towards a global sustainable future energy system is now clear. Although fossil fuel
will remain dominant in the next few decades, there are signs that the era of cheap oil is over
as production costs and demand increases. There is also an increasing urgency to limit CO
2

emission to the 450 ppm level. Judicious use of available conventional energy along with the
utilization of new and renewable energy resources are viable ways towards a sustainable and
secure energy future. An International Energy Conference is being organized in Brunei
Darussalam with the purpose of bringing the energy research community to a common
platform to share recent advances in various areas of energy research and to deliberate on the
possible pathways for clean energy solutions.

About SEE Forum
In conjunction with the conference, the 10
th
SEE Forum, an academic network in the Asia
Pacific region on sustainable energy and environment, will also be held concurrently with the
conference. Please see http://www.seeforum.net/ for more information.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The papers in this proceeding are lightly edited. The content of the papers in this
proceeding is the sole responsibilities of the respective authors.

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First Published 2012 by
Universiti Brunei Darussalam
Jalan Tungku Link
Bandar Seri Begawan BE1410
Brunei Darussalam

2012 Universiti Brunei Darussalam

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, from
the publisher.

_________________________________________________________________
Cataloguing in Publication
_________________________________________________________________

International Energy Conference, Brunei Darussalam & 10
th
Sustainable Energy and
Environment (SEE) Forum Proceeding.
Sustainable future energy 2012 / editors, Dr Tan Kha Sheng and Dr Peter Hing

538 p. : col. ill.

Includes bibliographical references

ISBN: 978-99917-1-255-0

1. Renewable energy sources--Congresses. 2. Solar energy--Economic aspects--
Congresses. 3. Sustainable development--Congresses. 4. Energy consumption--
Congresses. 5. Power resources--Congresses. I. Tan, Kha Sheng. II. Hing, Peter.
III. Title

TJ807.2 S87 2012

Printed in Brunei Darussalam by
Educational Technology Centre,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam
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Table of content

Preface 1
Table of content 3
Keynote 1 New Materials Frontier for Energy Applications
Professor Nai-Chang Yeh ......................................................................................................................... 10
Keynote 2 A New Energy Architecture of Brunei: Opportunity in timely manner
Dr. Weerawat Chantanakome, BNERI CEO .............................................................................................. 10
Keynote 3 Will Fuel Cells Play an Important Role in our Energy Future?
Professor Ludwig J. Gauckler ................................................................................................................... 11
Keynote 4 Energy and Environment Strategy of Japan after Fukushima
Professor Yoshikazu Nishikawa ............................................................................................................... 11
Keynote 5 Energy Road Towards 2050?
Professor Seeram Ramakrishna ............................................................................................................... 12
Keynote 6 Smarter Energy: Challenges and Opportunities in Realizing the Potential of Cyber-
Physical Systems
Professor Shivkumar Kalyanaraman ........................................................................................................ 13
Keynote 7 Nano CaO-based CO
2
Adsorbent and ReSER Process for Hydrogen Production
Professor Sufang Wu ............................................................................................................................... 13
Invited 1 Advances in LEDs for Solid-state Lighting
Professor Chua Soo Jin ............................................................................................................................ 14
Invited 2 Highly Ordered Metal Oxide Nanotubes for Solar Energy Conversion and Electrochemical
Energy Storage
Dr Huang Haitao ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Invited 3 Multi-dimensional Optimization of Small and Large Wind Turbine Blades
Professor David Wood ............................................................................................................................. 15
Invited 4 A binder-free process for making all plastic substrate flexible dye-sensitized solar cells
having gel electrolyte
Jyh-Ming Ting ........................................................................................................................................... 15
SEE FORUM Cambodia country report
Prof. Dr. Sok Kunthy ................................................................................................................................ 16
SEE FORUM Indonesia country report
Hadiyanto
1,*
, Sudharto P Hadi
2
, N. Agya Utama
3
..................................................................................... 23
SEE FORUM India country report
Virendra Kumar Vijay
1*
, Meena Krishania
2
, Amita Gill
3
........................................................................... 31
SEE FORUM Lao PDR country report
Kinnaleth VONGCHANH ........................................................................................................................... 39
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SEE FORUM Malaysia country report
Nasrudin Abd Rahim
*
, Md. Hasanuzzaman ............................................................................................. 45
SEE FORUM Philippines country report
Miguel T. Escoto, Jr.
1
................................................................................................................................ 53
SEE FORUM Singapore country report
Seeram Ramakrishna, FREng, FNAE, FIES ................................................................................................ 60
SEE FORUM- Thailand country report
Bundit Fungtammasan ............................................................................................................................ 64
SEE FORUM Viet Nam country report
Luu Duc Hai
1
*, Nguyen Thi Hoang Lien
2
.................................................................................................. 71
Evaluation of Viability of Sites for Wind Energy Harnessing A Fuzzy Logic Rule based Multi
Criteria Evaluation Technique
Srinivas Morapakala1*, MD Belal Ahmed2, Teja Dasari3 ........................................................................ 79
An Overview of the Design, Processing and Properties of Solar Controlling Thin Solid Films
N. U.S. Yapa,
*,#
P.Ekanayake
*
and A. O. Olofinjana
*
............................................................................... 88
Biofuel: Potential Energy Source in Road Transportation Sector in Malaysia
M. Shahabuddin*, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, M.A. Hazrat, M. Mofijur, Vizy Nazira, M. Varman, A.M.
Liaquat ..................................................................................................................................................... 98
Harmonics Measurement Analysis for a Stand Alone Photovoltaic System with Linear and Non-linear
Loads
Hamisu Usman
1
*, Hashim Hizam
1
, Mohd Amran Mohd Radzi
1
.......................................................... 110
Potential Applying Waste-to-Energy Concept at University Campus
Kian-Ghee Tiew
1*
, Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri
1
.......................................................................................... 118
The Electricity Load Profile for Supply and Demand: Towards the Feasibility of Solar Energy in
Malaysian Rural Housing
Nur Azfahani Ahmad
1,2*
, Hugh Byrd
2
, .................................................................................................... 125
Performance and economic feasibility studies of a flat panel grid-tied PV pilot plant with cognizance
to Malaysia Feed-in-Tariff mechanism
M. Effendy Yaacob
1,4,*
, Hashim Hizam
1,2
, M. Amran M. Radzi
1,2
, Mudathir F. Akorede
3
, M. Fuad
Mahmood
4
............................................................................................................................................. 135
Exploration Potential Jatropha Curcas (Jatropa curcas L.) Germplasm for Sustainable Energy in
Gorontalo Province Indonesia
Muhamad Rusliyadi
*
.............................................................................................................................. 143
A Novel Method for Measuring the Photovoltaic Array Characteristics
Ahmad Rivai*, Nasrudin Abd. Rahim, Krismadinata Chaniago, and Syarkawi Syamsuddin .................. 157
Biogas Purification by Automated Water Scrubbing System
Meena Krishania
*
, Amit Aggarwal and Virendra Kumar Vijay ............................................................... 163
Solar PV/T Air System: An Indoor Experimental Validation
N. A. Rahim
1
, N. A. A. Rahim
1*
, V. V. Tyagi
1
, J. Selvaraj
1
........................................................................ 173
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Influence of Residence Time on Biochar Yield and Characteristics from Slow Pyrolysis of Oil Palm
Empty Fruit Bunches
Adilah Shariff
1*
, Nur Syairah Mohamad
2
, Nurhayati Abdullah
3
............................................................. 181
Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System
Lee Jhee Fhong, Nasrudin Abd Rahim ................................................................................................... 189
P&O Fuzzy Logic Control Approach for Standalone Photovoltaic System
Ahmad H. El Khateb*, Nasrudin Abd Rahim, and Jeyraj Selvaraj .......................................................... 198
Potential use of Peat in Brunei Darussalam for Fuel Purpose: An Alternative, Sustainable and Eco-
friendly Energy Source and as Low Cost Biosorbent for Disposal of Toxic Waste
Tasneem Zehra
1
, Cheing Hei Ing
1,
Linda B. Lim
1
, DTB Tennakoon
1
, Namal Priyantha
2
.......................... 199
Impact of Heating Rate on Biochar Yield and Characteristics via Slow Pyrolysis of Tapioca Stem
Adilah Shariff
*
, Nurhidayah Mohamed Noor and Nurhayati Abdullah .................................................. 199
Image Analysis of Nile Red Fluorescence of Neutral Lipid in Micro Algae as a Rapid Screening
Technique for Biodeisel Production Potential
Tarip Noelda Iryani
1
, Bandara JMRS
1
, Silva, LCD
2
and Ekanayaka,P
2
. ................................................... 207
The influence of Particle Size on the Overall Mass Balance of Torrefaction of Biomass
Raimie H. H. Ibrahim*, Zhiwen Tao, Leilani I. Darvell, Jenny M. Jones, Alan Williams, ......................... 208
Investigating the Power Losses of Various Transformerless Inverter Topologies
Maaspaliza Azri
1*
, Nasrudin Abd. Rahim
2
.............................................................................................. 217
Energy Evaluation on Hydrogen Fermentation Potential of Escherichia Coli XL1 blue
Gopalakrishnan kumar
1
, Chiu-Yue Lin
1, 2*
.............................................................................................. 228
Catalytic Pyrolysis of Rice Husk, Jatropha and Parinari Polyandra with ZSM-5
Muhammad Saifullah Abu Bakar*
1
, James O. Titiloye
1
, Temitope E. Odetoye
2
.................................... 234
Sustainable Hydrogen and Fertiliser from Industrial Wastewater using Microbial Fuel Cells
Laura Porcu
1*
, John M. Andresen
1
....................................................................................................... 242
Performance of 2MW Commercial Wind Turbines in Bruneis Wind Regime
Hamed Namoora
*1
, Haseeb Shah
1
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
, Chee Ming Lim
1
............................................ 242
Low Reynolds Number Airfoil for Small Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Blades
Haseeb Shah
1*
, Nikesh Bhattarai
2
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
, Chee Ming Lim
1
............................................. 243
Effects of Oxygen on Biochar Yield from Pyrolysis of Mangrove Wood
Ramlan Zailani
1,
Halim Ghafar
1*
,Mohamad Sufian Soaib
2
..................................................................... 250
Understanding the Magnetotelluric Method in Geothermal Exploration
Rivan Tri Yuono
1
* .................................................................................................................................. 257
A New Low Cost and Effective Passive Method for Islanding Detection of Single Phase Grid
Connected Inverter
Ku Nurul Edhura Ku Ahmad
*
, Jeyraj Selvaraj and Nasrudin Abd. Rahim ............................................... 262
Performance Evaluation of bioethanol Production Through Continuous Fermentation with a Settling
Unit
Norhayati Hamzah
1*
, Mark Nelson
2
....................................................................................................... 271
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Assessment of Wind Energy Potential for City of Zahedan, Iran
Ali Mostafaeipour
1*
, Mohsen Jadidi
2
..................................................................................................... 271
Study of Wind Power Potential in Zarrineh, Iran
Ali Mostafaeipour
1*
, Kasra Mohammadi
2
.............................................................................................. 278
Simple Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics Made From Polyethylene, Polypropylene and Polystyrene to
Produce Liquid Fuel
Harwin Saptoadi
1*
, Nosal Nugroho Pratama
1
, Mochamad Syamsiro
2
, Kunio Yoshikawa
2
..................... 286
Energy Analysis of an Anergy Bus System Hydraulic Network to Couple Decentralised Chillers with
Central Cooling Tower(s)
Marcel Bruelisauer
1*
, Raphael Engler
2
, Forrest Meggers
1
, Hansjrg Leibundgut
2
................................ 295
Localization and Savings in Utilization of External Melt Thermal Storage System for Air-conditioning
Application in the Philippines: A Proof of Concept
Ruben Agbayani Bongat
1, 2
, Menandro Serrano Berana
2*
..................................................................... 296
Synthesis of NiO Powders by Electro Chemical Process
A Jung and P Hing* ................................................................................................................................ 306
Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) Clays as Electrolytes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Nurulhayah Haji Hamdan
1
, Voo Nyuk Yoong
2
, Piyasari Ekanayake
2*
.................................................... 306
The Thermal Expansion of Cu cermets for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
Khan Muhammad Naeem, L.C. Ming and Peter Hing ............................................................................ 319
Approach to the Development of Organic Secondary Batteries with High Performance
Toyonari Sugimoto ................................................................................................................................ 319
High Strength, High Conductivity in Sn- rich Lead Free Solders
A. O. Olofinjana, K. S. Tan and M. Matahir, .......................................................................................... 320
Novel Family of Ceramics for Interconnect and Seals for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
P Hing*, Zatie Mei Gui, M Sukleung, A Jung, Tan Kha Sheng and CM Lim............................................. 321
Enhancement of Conversion Efficiency of Natural Dye Sensitized DSSCs by Layered Co-sensitization
Louis Liew Yu Chiang, N.T.R.N. Kumara, Andery Lim, Mohammad Iskandar, Lim Chee Ming, Piyasiri
Ekanayake* ............................................................................................................................................ 333
Constituents of Canarium odontophyllum Extract as Potential Sensitizers in Dye Sensitized Solar
Cells
Andery Lim
1
, Piyasiri Ekanayake
1*
, N T R N Kumara
1
, Ai Ling Tan
2
, Aminul Huq Mirza
2
, Mohammad
Iskandar
1
,

Lim Chee Ming
1
and Susumu Yoshikawa
3
............................................................................. 343
An Overview of DFT and TD-DFT Studies for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
May Win Han*, Piyasiri Ekanayake and N.Y.Voo* ................................................................................. 352
Understanding the Polymer Structure/Device Function Relationship for Organic Solar Cells
Ying Woan Soon
*
, James R Durrant ....................................................................................................... 359
Relaxation Rietveld Analysis of LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
for Secondary Lithium Ion Battery
Im Sul Seo
1
, Seungwon Park
1
and Takeshi Yao
1,
* .................................................................................. 359
Relaxation Crystal Phase Analysis of Olivine-Type LiFePO
4
Cathode for Li-ion Secondary Battery
Seungwon Park
1
, Kyohei Kameyama
1
, Takeshi Yao
1*
............................................................................ 360
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Click Chemistry Immobilization of Phthalocyanine Dyes on TiO
2
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Yee Jan Chin, Chuan Ching Foo, Norzianah Binti Hj Shamsudin, Ai Ling Tan, Franz L. Wimmer, Aminul
Huq Mirza, David J. Young* ................................................................................................................... 361
New Luminescent Materials for Energy-Efficient Lighting
Ai Ling Tan,

Muhd. Hidayat bin Najib, David J. Young*.......................................................................... 362
Effects of Pressure on the Performance of CNTs-supported Nanocatalyst in a Fischer-Tropsch
Reaction
Noor Asmawati Mohd Zabidi
1*
, Sardar Ali
2
,

Duvvuri Subbarao
2
............................................................ 363
Iron supported C@Fe
3
O
4
Nanotube Array: A New Type of 3D Anode with Low-Cost for High
Performance Lithium-ion Batteries
Keyu Xie,
1
Zhouguang Lu,
2
Haitao Huang,
1*
Wei Lu,
1
Yanqing Lai,
3
Jie Li,
3
Limin Zhou,
2
and Yexiang Liu
3
............................................................................................................................................................... 363
Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling of Bubble Behavior with Different Particle Diameter in
Fluidization Systems
Samrand Saeidi
1*
, Nor Aishah saidina Amin
2
,Mohammad Reza Farahmand
,3
...................................... 364
Self-detached TiO
2
Nanotube Array Membranes for Application in Dye-sensitized Solar Cells
Jia Lin
1,2*
, Xianfeng Chen
1
and Haitao Huang
2
....................................................................................... 371
Spectroscopic and Electrochemical properties of polyaniline films prepared by electro-deposition
method
N. U.S. Yapa
1,2
,P.Ekanayake
1,*
1
............................................................................. 372
Novel blended PVdF-PEO nanocomposite polymer electrolyte with mixed cations and its application
in dye sensitized solar cells.
Rohan Senadeera
1,2,*
, Shasheeka Jayarathne
1
, Samodha Gunathilake
1
, Chathuranga Thotawatthage
1
,
Piyasiri Ekanayake
3
and Lakshman Dissanayake
1
................................................................................. 380
Modeling of AC Impedance Behavior of Cathode/Electrolyte in SOFC
M. Suklueng
*
, N. Y. Voo, P. Hing ............................................................................................................ 388
Load Forecasting of DEI 33KV Substation Using Artificial Neural Network Approach
Vikas Pratap Singh
1*
, Prof.D.K.Chaturvedi
2
, D.K. Chaturvedi
3
............................................................... 396
Study of Non-Fourier Effects in Non-Homogeneous Materials
M. Hanief
1*
, G.A. Harmain
1
.................................................................................................................... 404
Impedance Modeling Behaviours with Different Parameters and Its Validation for SOFC
M. Suklueng
*
, Dinah Diyanah Abd.Lamit, K.M.Naeem, Andrew Jung, N. Y. Voo, P. Hing ...................... 410
Optimisation of Low Exergy Architectural Design in the Tropics
Chen Kian Wee
1*
, Patrick Janssen
2
, Arno Schlueter
3
............................................................................. 410
Eco-driving model for Reducing the Energy Consumption Intensity in the Urban Driving Cycle
Hooman Farzaneh
1,2*
, Saber Miri
2
, Mehrnoosh Dashti
3
........................................................................ 419
Modeling the performance of Solar Photovoltaic Systems Under Tropical Environment
Hamidah Ismail, Sathyajith Mathew*, SaifulA Husain, LalitDagar ......................................................... 428
Feasibility analysis of renewable energy supply option for a stand-alone hybrid-photovoltaic-hydro-
battery-diesel power system
1,2
Wong Tech Sion,
1,2
Liyanage C De Silva,
1,2
Iskandar Petra ................................................................. 434
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Energy Modelling of Residential Buildings: The Development of Benchmark Models for Brunei
Veronika Shabunko
*1
, Chee M. Lim
1
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
................................................................... 434
Modelling and Simulation of Power Flow and Loss Minimization in Power Systems
1,2
Mohamad Fauzi Bin Zaini,
1,2
2,3
Jagabondu Hazra ............................................ 435
Energy Access of the Urban Poor, Bangkok, Thailand
S. Kumar
*
, Pujan Shrestha

and Abdul Salam .......................................................................................... 435
Urban Heat-balling: A Review of Measures on Reducing Heat in Tropical and Subtropical Cities
Matthias Berger
1
.................................................................................................................................... 445
Feed-in Tariff in Malaysia: Six Months After
Firdaus Muhammad-Sukki
1,2,*
, Abu Bakar Munir
3
, Siti Hajar Mohd Yasin
4
, Roberto Ramirez-Iniguez
1
, Siti
Hawa Abu-Bakar
1,5
, Scott G McMeekin
1
, Brian G Stewart
1
, .................................................................. 452
Energy Use and Intensity in a Cross-section of Countries: The Role of Energy Subsidy
Gairuzazmi Mat Ghani ........................................................................................................................... 458
Promoting Efficient Use of Energy by Procurement of Green ICT Devices: Malaysian Government
Approaches
Khairul Naim Adham
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1
.............................................................................................. 467
Micro-Generation Renewable Energy Program for Developing Countries
Dr. M. Asif, ............................................................................................................................................. 467
The Northeast Arctic Passage: The worlds Future Oil Transportation Route
Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli (Ph. D), Muhamad Azim bin Mazlan........................................................ 471
The Pattern of Electrical Energy in Electric Car Indonesia Management for Vehicle Fuel Using the
Concept of POET (Population, Organization, Environment, Technology) to Support the Sustainability
of Energy
Hermin Rahayu Pertiwi
1*
, Meziriati Hendri
2
, Widhoratna Jiwa Adlia
3
................................................... 484
Policy Study on the Use of Government Procurement as a Tool in Achieving Sustainable Energy in
Malaysia
Khairul Naim Adham
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1
and Md.Anowar Hossain Bhuiyan ........................................ 489
Algae Biofuel/Wastewater Projects in Asia: Challenges in Empirical Implementation
William I.Y. Byun .................................................................................................................................... 490
Decentralized Power Factor Correction
J. Hazra, Balakrishnan Narayanaswamy, Kaushik Das, Ashok Pon Kumar, Deva P Seetharam, De Silva
Liyanage and Sathyajith Mathew .......................................................................................................... 497
Environmental Impact Analysis - Options for Bio Energy and Sustainable Development: Issue and
Intricacies
Dr.Alluri V.N.Varma
1
* Dr.J.Chandra Prasad
2
...................................................................................... 498
Environmental Performance of Energy Production from Waste Biomass
Vladimr Ko
1*
, Tatiana Treckov
2
....................................................................................................... 499
Supercritical CO
2
-corrosion in Heat Treated Pipe Steels During Carbon Capture and Storage CCS
Anja Pfennig
1*
, Phillip Zastrow, Axel Kranzmann
2
................................................................................. 506
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Evaluation of Olivine Mineral on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage by pH Swing Mineral
Carbonation
Aimaro Sanna
1*
, Marco Dri
1
, Mercedes Maroto-Valer
1,2
....................................................................... 517
Reducing Carbon Emissions in the Tourism Sector: An Early Indicator in Sekayu Recreational Forest,
Malaysia
Md. Anowar Hossain Bhuiyan
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1
, Shaharuddin Mohamad Ismail
1
and Khairul Naim
Adham
1
.................................................................................................................................................. 522
Design of Converging-Diverging Nozzle of an Ejector for Powerplant Application using Natural
Working Fluids
Edward Talagtag Bermido
1*
2
..................................................................... 527

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Keynote 1 New Materials Frontier for Energy Applications

Professor Nai-Chang Yeh
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA 91125
Tel: (626) 395-4313
Email: ncyeh@caltech.ed

In this talk Ill describe recent developments in novel materials for energy applications at
Caltech, including nano-fabricated meta-materials for more efficient photovoltaic cells,
metallic nano-particle assisted thermo-chemical cycling for solar fuels, and room-temperature
ultralow-dissipative electrical conduction in the surface state of topological insulators. A new
breakthrough in room-temperature growth of large-area high-quality graphene (a monolayer of
carbon atoms with the honeycomb lattice structure) will also be discussed. This major advance
is in stark contrast to the high growth temperature (~ 1000 C) typically employed by others
for large-area graphene fabrication that generally results in much compromised physical
properties relative to those of small pristine graphene flakes mechanically exfoliated from
graphite. We consider potential impact of this new development on a range of energy
applications, including solar panels and light emitting diodes with possibly unprecedented
efficiency and relatively low costs, and a variety of low-loss nano-photonic and nano-
electronic devices.
*In collaboration with Dr. David A. Boyd, Dr. Marcus L. Teague, Prof. Mark Davis and Prof.
Axel Scherer at Caltech, Professor Kang L. Wang at UCLA, and Prof. Chih-I Wu at the
National Taiwan University.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Keynote 2 A New Energy Architecture of Brunei: Opportunity in timely
manner

Dr. Weerawat Chantanakome, BNERI CEO
Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Brunei National Energy research
Institute (BNERI)

- Commitment toward more secure, sustainable and competitive energy future of Brunei
Darussalam under Bruneis ENERGY White Paper.
- Bruneis New energy architecture towards ASEAN Economic Community 2015 and a task
to generate economic growth and development in an environmentally sustainable way,
while provide energy access and security for all Bruneians.
- The key to achieve these multiple tasks involves the concerted effort from all stakeholders.
As fossil fuels will still retain the major share of energy supply in the region, Brunei is
faced with the challenges of preventing environmental degradation as a result of the
hydrocarbon combustion and long-term challenges of energy availability and
sustainability due to various uncertainties in the globe e.g. possible global economic
crisis, political uncertainties, dispute settlements as well as more frequent natural disasters.
- How well Bruneis current energy architecture is performing to underpin the countrys
economic growth, energy security and access, and sustainability needs.
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- How Bruneis energy plans and priorities are driving changes, and what are the options
and priority actions to drive Bruneis economy into an Energy Resources Utilization
Independence through Technology-based Policy
- BNERIs role to reflect the aspirations of the Ministry of Energy towards Brunei
Darussalams Wawasan 2035 (Vision 2035) and Bruneis Energy White Paper 2035.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Keynote 3 Will Fuel Cells Play an Important Role in our Energy Future?

Professor Ludwig J. Gauckler
Nonmetallic, Inorganic Materials, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
ETH Zurich HCI G 535 Wolfgang-Pauli-Str. 10 8093 Zurich
Phone: +41 44 632 56 46, Fax: +41 44 632 11 32
ludwig.gauckler@mat.ethz.ch

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that allow the extraction of electricity while fuel is
oxidized. They may operate at different temperatures ranging from 80C to 1000C depending
on the choice of the electrolyte. Their efficiency is not limited by the second law of
thermodynamics and they do not produce carbon dioxide. Therefore fuel cells seem to be the
ideal candidates for the power systems of the future. However, even though their principle is
as old as 1839, when it was discovered by Sir William Grove, and despite they promise to be
more efficient in converting chemical energy into electricity than internal combustion engines
or even turbines, many technical problems have
prevented them from being widely used. Most
of these problems are borne in the materials
used for their components. These components
are not very robust and often too expensive.
New materials and combinations therefrom
offer new perspectives and will be outlined in
this lecture, especially for miniaturized fuel
cells, potentially replacing batteries. Figure:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Keynote 4 Energy and Environment Strategy of Japan after Fukushima

Professor Yoshikazu Nishikawa
Honorary Board, IJNS
President, Research Institute for Applied Sciences (RIAS)
Professor Emeritus, Kyoto University and Osaka Inst. of Technology

After the severe accident of Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station (NPS) due to the Great
East Japan Earthquake and subsequent Tsunami on March 11th, 2011, the Japanese
government was forced to review and modify its basic strategy and plan of energy and
environment. Before Fukushima, Japan was planning to increase the nuclear power reactors to
68 at 2030 from 54 at 2010, and consequently increase the share of nuclear power supply to
Pt electrodes for a Micro-SOFC.
Thomas Ryll et al; Adv. Funct. Mater. 2010,
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201001729
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45% at 2030 from 26% at 2010. After Fukushima, the government decided to modify the
basic strategy and plan stressing the reduction on nuclear power dependence and the enlarged
use of various sorts of renewable energy. First, the speech outlines process and result of the
review presented recently by the government. The three options of scenarios, i.e., 0%, 15%
and 20 25% scenarios which aim to reduce the share of nuclear power to 0%, 15% and 20
25%, respectively, in the 2030s, have been prepared for public hearing. Considering quite
mighty public opinion supporting the 0% scenario, the government has presented Innovative
Energy and Environment Strategy based upon the idea of reducing nuclear power as soon as
possible and reaching zero nuclear power in the 2030s at latest, and accelerating green energy
and much more saving energy innovations. However, due to several intensive oppositions
from various domestic groups and also from some foreign countries claiming impracticality
and inconvenience of the zero nuclear power policy, the government gave up its endorsement
as the official cabinet decision.
Next, reform of the governmental regulatory organizations for nuclear safety is introduced.
Also, the comprehensive strategy for rebirth of Japan is summarized in connection with the
energy and environment strategy.
This talk will conclude with several discussions and closing remarks.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Keynote 5 Energy Road Towards 2050?

Professor Seeram Ramakrishna
Director, Center for Nanofibers & Nanotechnology
National University of Singapore
Email: seeram@nus.edu.sg

Global deliberations since the adoption of Kyoto Protocol in mid 1990s to stabilize the
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations have yielded less than desired optimal changes in
the energy policies of nations. In the years ahead, the economic growth in emerging nations,
rapid urbanization, changing life styles, population growth, demands for quality built
environment, cost effective energy options, and bilateral arrangements are more likely to
influence the energy policies and trends.
Energy efficiency and energy conservation drives produced needed short term results in
certain sectors. In the near future, both the businesses and governments are likely to further
pursue this path of embracing energy efficient technologies and solutions. Post-Fukushima
deliberations in the media have dampened the civilian nuclear energy pursuits of many nations
except for China. Discovery of new natural gas sites and fracking of shale gas are expanding
the global supply of natural gas which is considered cleaner than coal. These developments
will consolidate the position of natural gas in the global energy mix in the medium term.
Recent push for increasing the proportion of renewable, clean energy sources in the overall
energy mix has made progress but weighed down by the economic and policy changes and
shortcomings of exiting technologies. Scientific innovations are likely to be catalyzed by the
growing demand for mobile and ubiquitous electronics and portable energy. Scientific
breakthroughs will strengthen the position of clean, renewable energies in the longer term.
Sharing electricity beyond borders via interconnected grids is another feasible solution on the
horizon for effective utilization of energy when and where it is needed. This lecture will also
cover the efforts of Singapore in addition to the global trends.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Keynote 6 Smarter Energy: Challenges and Opportunities in Realizing the
Potential of Cyber-Physical Systems

Professor Shivkumar Kalyanaraman
STSM, Senior Manager, Next Generation Systems & Smarter Planet
Solutions,
IBM Research, Manyata Tech Park, Bangalore, India, 560045.
Email: shivkumar-k@in.ibm.com,
Ph: +91 80 43036684, Cell: +91 99726 55770;

This talk will overview various options for sustainable energy and their relative contributions.
We discuss smarter energy, and how sensing, networking, real-time analytics, actuation and
control come together in a "cyber-physical" system. The talk will then discuss experiences
from several IBM Research initiatives worldwide -- ranging from developing micro-grids in
Brunei, smart grid tomography, power loss & theft detection in distribution grids, transformer
condition-based analytics, integration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and
decentralized micro-demand/response techniques (nplugs). The talk will attempt to draw some
themes from these diverse experiences for discussion, and point to the huge unrealized
potential within our grasp in this area.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Keynote 7 Nano CaO-based CO
2
Adsorbent and ReSER Process for
Hydrogen Production

Professor Sufang Wu
Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
Zhejiang University, Yuquan Campus
38 Zheda Road, Hangzhou, China 310027
Phone: +86 571 8795 3138, Fax: +86 571 8795 3735
Email: wsf@zju.edu.cn

Reactive sorption enhanced reforming (ReSER) is a modified hydrogen production method of
methane steam reforming by using CaO-based CO
2
adsorbent for CO
2
capture. The remove of
CO
2
,

which produced in the steam methane reforming process for producing hydrogen caused
the breakthrough of the chemical reaction equilibrium of steam methane reforming and drive
the reaction to the direction of producing hydrogen by Le Chateliers principle. The decrease
of reaction temperature and short diagram for energy saving and CO
2
capture have been
reached in ReSER process. The principle features of ReSER process with using nano CaO-
based CO
2
adsorbent, sorption complex catalyst and the fluidized bed reactor system has been
detailed studied. The adsorbent from nano CaCO
3
precursor showed a fast reaction of nano
CaO with CO
2
, and thus for the possibility used in a circular fluidized bed reactor for ReSER
process evaluation. An over 95% v/v dry base hydrogen was obtained both in fixed bed and
fluidized bed reactors. The ReSER has the advantages of high methane conversion, high purity
of the hydrogen, lower energy consumption, and CO
2
emission control in hydrogen production
has potential uses in petrochemical industry and future hydrogen energy area.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Invited 1 Advances in LEDs for Solid-state Lighting

Professor Chua Soo Jin
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
National University of Singapore (NUS).
Singapore 117567
Email : elecsj@nus.edu.sg
Phone : 6516 4784

Solid-state lighting (SSL) which features the use of LEDs has made steady progress in terms
of efficiency, one of the hall marks of this new form of lighting. Luminous efficacy has
increased from about 80 lumens/Watt, now widely available in commercial LED lamps, to
twice this value for new prototypes in the laboratories. In addition, the color quality is
emerging as another attribute to push SSL to the next level of performance. Besides using SSL
for illumination, it is also making inroads into horticulture applications where the spectrum
can be tailored for the absorption by the plants chlorophyll. In the longer term, application in
white light communication which demands the device to respond at high modulation speed has
seen research moving into direct generation of white light without the use of phosphors for
color conversion but through the use of nanotechnology such as quantum dots and nanorods.
The talk will provide a summary of the progress and the new directions that SSL made in
recent years.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Invited 2 Highly Ordered Metal Oxide Nanotubes for Solar Energy
Conversion and Electrochemical Energy Storage

Dr Huang Haitao
Department of Applied Physics, Hong Kong Polytechnic
University
Tel.: (852) 2766 5694, Fax.: (852) 2333 7629
Email: Haitao.Huang@polyu.edu.hk

As a facile and easy to control method, electrochemical anodization is now widely used for the
synthesis of 1-D nanotubes on metal substrates. Our results have shown that by carefully
tuning the anodization parameters, a highly ordered tubular nanostructure with either the in-
plane ordering or the out-of-plane ordering can be achieved. The anodized transition metal
oxide nanotubes have been explored in our group for applications in solar energy conversion
and electrochemical energy storage. In this talk, I will present our recent results on (1) dye-
sensitized solar cells based on TiO
2
nanotubes which are coupled with TiO
2
nanotubular
photonic crystal, (2) supercapacitors based on -Co(OH)
2
/TiO
2
, polyaniline nanowire/TiO
2
,
and -Ni(OH)
2
, and (3) 3-D lithium-ion batteries based on C@Fe
3
O
4
nanotubes.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Invited 3 Multi-dimensional Optimization of Small and Large Wind Turbine
Blades

Professor David Wood
Enmax/Schulich Professor of Renewable Energy
University of Calgary Canada
Telephone: (403)220-3637
Fax: (403) 282-8406
Email:dhwood@ucalgary.ca

Wind turbine blades must perform multiple functions: small, fixed-pitch blades must start
quickly, and large blades must have minimum mass to minimize production costs. Blades of
all sizes must produce the maximum output power and minimal noise. The talk will describe
the development of evolutionary optimization methods to solve these multi-dimensional
problems and give example designs of small and large blades. All these designs involve trade-
offs whereby a small reduction in, say, power extraction efficiency can lead to a much greater
improvement in starting time. Future trends in blade designs and materials will be reviewed
briefly.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Invited 4 A binder-free process for making all plastic substrate flexible dye-
sensitized solar cells having gel electrolyte

Jyh-Ming Ting
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
Email: jting@mail.ncku.edu.tw

Binder-free electrophoretic deposition (EPD) and mechanical compression were employed to
fabricate TiO
2
photoanodes for use in all plastic substrate flexible dye-sensitized solar cells
having a gel electrolyte. The photoanodes were composed of commercial 20-nm TiO
2

powders with and without the addition of 160-nm TiO
2
powders. The EPD was performed
under different DC powers and deposition times to obtained photoanodes having different
thicknesses. Depending on the thickness, various electron diffusion times, ranging from 8.08
to 12.40 ms, and electron lifetimes, ranging from 16.79 to 32.05 ms, were obtained for the
photoanodes consisting of only commercial 20-nm TiO
2
. The electron diffusion time was
reduced and the electron lifetime remained the same as a result of the addition of another
commercial 160-nm TiO
2
powders. The added 160-nm TiO
2
powders enhanced the light
absorptance by serving as light scattering centers. All plastic flexible dye-sensitized solar
cells were made and evaluated. Compared to the 20-nm TiO
2
only cells, the cells containing
mixed powders exhibit enhanced efficiencies and the enhancement can be as much as 22%.

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SEE FORUM Cambodia country report

Status of Sustainable Energy related Technology and Policy in Cambodia

Prof. Dr. Sok Kunthy
Royal University of Agriculture (RUA)
Chamcar Daung, Dangkor, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Tel/Fax: (855-12) 831 243, E-mail: s_kunthy2005@yahoo.com

Abstract
Climate change has been taking place throughout the history of the earth. It is only recently
that mankind has begun to exert its own influence. It is thought that the man-made emissions
of greenhouse gases from the increased use of fossil fuels are responsible for some of the
warming of the global climate during the 20th century. Cambodias energy sector has a crucial
role to play in the countrys continued development. However the current situation in
Cambodia with respect to energy costs, service provision, sustainability and security may
prove to be a barrier to development. Cambodia has no proven fossil fuel reserves, and is
almost completely dependent on fully-imported diesel fuel for electricity production and other
power applications. The impacts of this are widespread and appear to hinder development in
terms of economic growth and poverty reduction. Renewable energy is an energy created by
sources that are not used up or depleted. Using more renewable energy sources would reduce
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and minimize global warming. Sources of renewable energy
include hydroelectric power, wind power, biomass, biogas, geothermal energy; and solar
power. Since about 80-85% of the total population lives in the rural areas, the government of
Cambodia is placing great emphasis on the development of local energy resources to raise the
living standard of the rural population.

Keywords: Renewable Energy, Sustainability and Security, Economic Growth and Poverty
Reduction, Living Standard, Emissions and Climate Change.

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK
Climate change has been taking place throughout the history of the earth. It is only recently
that mankind has begun to exert its own influence. As we mention on global climate change
are global warming and greenhouse gases. Since the industrial revolution 200 years ago, the
amount of greenhouse gases in the air has been increasing. It is thought that the man-made
emissions of greenhouse gases from the increased use of fossil fuels are responsible for some
of the warming of the global climate during the 20th century [1].
Renewable energy is an energy created by sources that are not used up or depleted. Most
forms of renewable energy do not produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and other harmful gases.
Using more renewable energy sources would reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and
minimize global warming. One way to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases is to become
more energy efficient, so that less energy needs to be produced. An increase in the use of
renewable energy supplies, instead of fossil fuels, will also reduce greenhouse emissions.
Sources of renewable energy include hydroelectric power, wind power, biomass, biogas,
geothermal energy; and solar power [1-3].
Cambodias energy sector has a crucial role to play in the countrys continued development.
However the current situation in Cambodia with respect to energy costs, service provision,
sustainability and security may prove to be a barrier to development. Cambodia has no proven
fossil fuel reserves, and is almost completely dependent on fully-imported diesel fuel for
electricity production and other power applications. The demand for fossil fuel imports in
Cambodia grew by an average 33% per year from 1997 to 2000 and there is no sign of the
trend slowing [7]. Meanwhile the international price of oil has risen to record levels over $55
per barrel which is a 57% rise for the year to March 2005. This situation has serious
implications for a country like Cambodia with limited reserves of foreign currencies and no
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reserve stocks of fossil fuels to insulate domestic consumers from price shocks. Consequently
Cambodians face some of the highest energy prices in the world, and an insecure supply. The
impacts of this are widespread and appear to hinder development in terms of economic growth
and poverty reduction [6].
Cambodia has few conventional energy sources available within the country, and even fewer
currently exploitable. Wood accounts for more than 80% of total national energy consumption
[7]. Fuel wood is by far the main source of energy available to the general population, but
plays an even greater role for the poor and rural people. Yet, the main source of fuel wood in
Cambodia, that is, natural forests, have been severely degraded due to widespread logging and
forest land conversion for various purposes over the past twenty years [4].

2. COUNTRY ENERGY AND BEYOND
Since about 80-85% of the total population lives in the rural areas, the government of
Cambodia is placing great emphasis on the development of local energy resources to raise the
living standard of the rural population. Renewable energy sources, especially solar energy,
have been identified as important sources of local energy, not only to raise the living
conditions of rural villages, but also to develop local industries to stimulate economic growth.
Today Cambodia has the lowest per capita consumption of electricity in Asia and this is about
50 kWh per person per year. Due to a lack of adequate infrastructure and regulation, rural
people have to pay very high prices for electricity that is supplied by private diesel set
operators. For many households, energy is only accessed by owning batteries which are
recharged at privately owned battery charging stations. At present, the electricity supply in
Cambodia is fragmented into 24 isolated power systems which are centered in provincial
towns and cities. All are fully reliant on diesel power plants. There is virtually no transmission
link between load centers. Peak demand in 2003 was 120 MW in Phnom Penh and 40 MW for
all other provincial centers [5].
Accurate industry data is not available, but it is estimated that the countrys public and private
grid systems have a total installed generating capacity of around 200 MW, of which about
65% is in Phnom Penh. However, this figure does not include the large number of stand-by
generators installed by most medium to large businesses. Nor does it count the hundreds of
small diesel generators operated by private battery charging services in mainly rural areas. The
total installed power capacity may therefore be closer to 300 MW, which is still very small
compared to other countries in the region [5].

Table.1 Breakdown of generation by ownership type
Generator Generating Capacity (MW)
EdC 87
Private Rural
Enterprises
60
Self-Generators 166
Hydro 13
PV 0.2
Power Imports 2

This is shown that the energy in Cambodia nowadays is still poor because a part of energy
import from neighboring countries; moreover, using renewable energy is not enough,
especially solar power. In Cambodia, installing solar energy has been done throughout the
country, but mostly in Battambang Province. Actually using solar energy has been promoted
and accessed by the Government of Cambodia join hand together with International
Cooperation to Renewable [7].
The installed solar electric power capacity in Cambodia is currently between 200 and 250
kilowatt peak (kWp). The estimated installed capacity provided by Ministry of Industry,
Mines and Energy (MIME) is set out in the table below. Telephone repeater stations represent
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the bulk of the installed capacity, followed by non-governmental training centers and the
government-sponsored solar electrification of new bridge [5].

Table.2 Breakdown of Generation by Solar Electrification Type
Use Capacity
(Wp)
Share of
Total (%)
Mobitel Telecoms Company 127,000 61.94
Samart Telecoms Company 38,000 18.53
Battery Charge Stations 2,196 1.07
Training Centers 19,691 9.6
Bridges 7,280 3.55
Non-government
Organizations
3,825 1.86
Schools 3,729 1.82
Households and Pagodas 1,720 0.83
Health Centers 1,595 0.8
TOTAL 205,036 100

The PV industry is still in the early stages of its development in Cambodia; however, many
barriers are slowly being overcome. The MIME has trained 50 people in PV operation and
troubleshooting with a view to ensuring an internal operation and maintenance capability [5].
The program resulted in the development of a type of charge controller, 40 of which have been
installed in street lights on a rural bridge as part of a demonstration project funded by the
Government [2].

3. CURRENT STATUS ON RESEARCH and DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Current Research for Sustainable Energy Development and Promotion
The effectiveness of small scale biogas has been demonstrated in Cambodia by a number of
different projects. The use of animal wastes to generate high quality gas for cooking has
significant economic, health, social and environmental benefits for poor rural households.
Biogas-digester technology had been taken in Cambodia in 1989 by CWS and AFC
organization. Bio digesters type DIMBANDONG was installed in cow farm at Tamov and
pigs farm. In 1990, LWS organization projects were installed in some provinces but it did not
cussed in farmer communities by [10]:

- High cost (500$),
- Need to have many cattle and pigs to provide manure for produce gas,
- Farmers lack of possibility to install and maintenance and,
- Produced gas need to have using group on its potential.

LWS organization had installed bio digesters in Baty district Takeo province follow by
Philippines pattern in 1991. This bio digester has issues such as waste manure inlet and waste
outlet. In 992, FAO had taken bio digester with plastic in Cambodia. In period of only one
year this Biogas-digesters type were installed more than 500 in some provinces of Cambodia
[10].
Some organizations, such as LWS, CWS, PADEK, had joined to propagate this digestion.
After that has only LWS organization continue to propagate in Takeo. In 1997 UTA
organization located in RUA and its developing researching and propagating on biogas were
reinforcement by integrated with special program for food of FAO Cambodia and SCAL
Cambodia. Now farmer live in region where lag of fire wood for cooking for example in
Tnoutae Samrong district Takao province were very interested to accept this technology. This
biogas-digester type Balloon plant is easy for the farmers and low price, i.e., not exceed
50$ [10].
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3.2 Current Policy for Sustainable Energy Development and Promotion
Cambodian biomass consumption has been the lowest one of bordered countries. Therefore,
the Current Policy for New Energy Development and Promotion are going to be established in
the future. However, the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has considered on the
implementation of the National Rural and Renewable Electricity Policy including six points
[8]:

- To endeavor to provide access to reliable, safe and environmentally clean electricity
services to rural areas, at an affordable cost to the national community;
- To act as a market enabler and encourage private sector participation in providing
rural renewable electricity services;
- To provide effective legal and regulatory framework for enabling access to reliable,
safe and clean electricity services to rural areas, at an affordable cost to the national
community;
- To develop encourage the most efficient systems for production generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity from clean and renewable energy sources,
and to enable which permit the development of a sustainable rational electricity tariff
policies through promotion of allowing differentiated tariffs bases on cost recovery
principles;
- To promote renewable electricity systems for rural applications, as part of least cost to
the national community of a national portfolio of grid and off-grid technologies,
provided they are the least-cost option for the national communities; and including
renewable electricity systems for rural applications; and
- To ensure adequate resources and appropriate institutional mechanisms to empower
the poor, particularly those in rural areas.

Relatively high investment capital and maintenance cost is a major impediment to the adoption
both of plastic and brick and cement firm biogas in the rural areas for poor farmers.
Considering the long term benefit of plastic film bio digester technology both economically
and environmentally, it may be necessary to introduce some financial incentives to promote its
penetration and diffusion into rural areas. The government agencies such as Department of
Environment, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Agriculture Extension
Center, and even private institutions could play a leading role by the issue of loans and
subsidies. This could be implemented under government regulations and policies.
Research, development and demonstration are essential activities to overcome the technical
obstacles and be well abreast of development in biogas technology. Government support will
also be needed. Major research areas will include:
- Development and use of local materials for the construction of biogas plant;
- Improved fermentation process to obtain high biogas generation;
- Design specification for different plant sizes (plant construction techniques, effluent
distribution, operation problems, gas appliances);
- Development of effective and cheap appliances;
- Socio-cultural factors that affect the adoption of biogas technology;
- Evaluation of the technology;
- Intensification of networking activities in rural areas for poor farmers to understand
how to protect the environment for development of suitable agriculture.

The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) in its pursuit to reduce poverty, improve the
standard of living and foster economic development of its population, particularly in the rural
areas, takes cognizance of need to meet the basic needs of its marginalized rural people.
Creating access to electricity infrastructure and services in rural areas is an integral part of this
endeavor. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) recognizes that the Rural and
Renewable Energy Policy is not an end itself, but is an instrument that is in consonance with
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an overall integrated rural development framework. Furthermore, the Rural Renewable
Electricity Policy is an integral part of the Governments overall agenda for the Energy Sector
including Rural Electrification and the Governments rural development plan. The Rural
Renewable Electricity Policy lays down the policy intentions for developing the requisite
infrastructure for providing renewable electricity services in rural areas. Moreover, eighty five
percent of the population of Cambodia is living in rural areas and mostly do not have access to
electricity. The provision of rural energy is a key factor in the rehabilitation agricultural and
small scale industrial development in rural areas. The Governments power sector objectives
are consistent with its overall policy for rural electrification which includes the following [8]:

- Endeavor to provide access to reliable, safe and environmentally clean electricity
services to rural areas at an affordable cost to the national community.
- Act as a market enabler and encourage private sector participation in providing rural
renewable electricity services.
- Provide effective legal and regulatory framework for enabling access to reliable, safe
and clean electricity services to rural areas, at an affordable cost to the national
community.
- Encourage the most efficient systems for generation, transmission and distribution of
electricity from clean and renewable energy sources, to enable a rational electricity
tariff policy through promotion of differentiated tariffs based on cost recovery
principle.
- Promote renewable electricity systems for rural applications, as part of a national
portfolio of off-grid technologies, provided they are the least-cost option for the
national communities.
- Ensure adequate resources and appropriate institutional mechanisms to empower the
poor, particularly those in rural areas.
- Describes the current state of understanding of the climate system and provide
estimates of its projected future evolution and their uncertainties.
- An increasing body of observations gives collective picture of a warming world and
other changes in the climate system by improved analysis of data set, more rigorous
evaluation of their quality, and comparisons any data from different sources.

The Royal Government of Cambodia formulated an energy sector development policy[9]:

- Provide an adequate supply of energy throughout Cambodia at reasonable and
affordable price.
- Ensure a reliable, secure electricity supply at prices, which facilitate investment in
Cambodia and development of the national economy.
- Encourage exploration and environmentally and socially acceptable development of
energy resources needed for supply to all sectors of the Cambodian economy.

Eighty five percent of the population of Cambodia is lived in rural areas and mostly do not
have access to electricity. The provision of rural energy is a key factor in the rehabilitation and
development of Cambodia, especially for the improvement of living standards, and for
agricultural and small scale industrial development in rural areas. The Government's power
sector objectives are consistent with its overall policy for RE which includes the following [9]:

- RE forms an integral part of Government's wider rural development and poverty
alleviation agenda.
- RE contributes to rural development through supporting livelihoods, income-
generating opportunities and improvement of social welfare, education and health.
- RE is to reduce regional inequalities in access to electricity supply.
- RE should provide all communities with the basic electricity service needed to satisfy
the demand for lighting and productive applications.
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- Within the electrified area, RE should aim to connect as many households as possible
to the extent of affordability.

4. Conclusion

4.1 Future Strategy for Future Sustainable Energy Development and Promotion
In order to meet an expected growth electricity demand in Cambodia, the process of revising
and establishing future Strategy for New Energy Development and Promotion which needs to
provide the solid basis of country for further development. According to the previously
research of biomass energy of Cambodian as well as the worlds biomass energy, the
development of a long-term power sector strategy for Cambodia to meet the growing demand
for electric power could be established included :

- Encouraging both private and public generator to provide an adequate energy supply
throughout Cambodia at reasonable and affordable price,
- Establishing the regulatory framework of the power sector
- Encouraging the investment in the power sector providing efficient use of energy and
to minimize detrimental environmental effects resulting from energy supply and
consumption,
- Ensuring a reliable, secure electricity supply at prices, which facilitate investment in
Cambodia
- Encouraging exploration and environmentally and socially acceptable development of
energy resources needed for supply to all sectors of the Cambodian economy,
- Encouraging the participatory private sector generators,

Eighty five percent of the Cambodian population still lives in the rural areas, and less than
10% of the rural households have access to electrical grid-quality. Creating access to reliable
electricity services in rural areas, at an affordable cost to the national communities, is thus an
integral part of the governmental agenda of economic development and social uplift.
Electricity is very important for the improvement of living standards, for agricultural and
small scale industrial development in rural areas. As a reflection of this commitment, the RGC
has set the goal of raising the access rate to the reliable, grid quality and affordable prices
electricity services to 70% of the rural households by the year 2030. Rural Electrification
comprises the provision of electricity services needed in rural areas for the basic household
demand (lighting, television and fan) and the basic village demand (public lighting and
electricity supply to community centers, health clinics, schools) and local businesses; its main
objectives being the provision of electricity to a certain proportion of villages for more
balanced development in each province by the techniques with the highest cost/benefit ratio. It
is acknowledged that the long-term goal may be exceeded the possibility of electricity supply
over the next 30 years. In the medium term, there is a need to develop a target for a 10-year
target (2010) of 25% of households connected. The following criteria are proposed for the
composition of the program, [9]:

- The composition should provide the least-cost, economically viable form of RE.
- The composition should be matched to the most appropriate technology.
- Areas with the best potential for economic development and higher levels of income
are likely to be the most attractive. However, the Government should extend the
electrification to as many villages as possible in order to achieve its broader
development objectives.
- The composition should not be constrained by institutional structures.
- The program must be flexible to take account of changing technology and
circumstances.

Moreover, the strategy and ten year program for rural electrification will incorporate:
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- Grid extension from the existing,
- Cross-border power supplies from neighboring countries,
- Rehabilitation of existing isolated grid systems in provincial towns
- Creation of new isolated grid systems
- Renewable energy such: solar, hydro (mini, micro), wind, biomass, biogas etc.
- Provision of batteries-based and stand-alone systems for dispersed remote customers.

The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has established a goal of increasing access to the
grid for the rural population to 70% by 2030, assisted by the World Banks Rural
Electrification and Transmission (RET) project. An important component is the promotion of
technologies to those rural areas which are not likely to be covered by grid extension in the
near future. The following subsections provide extracts and descriptions of the project. The
primary objective is to initiate a process to maximize the use of local natural resources to
provide least-cost options in the power sector, and thus create equitable access to electricity
services and associated opportunities for increased social welfare, education, health and
economic uplift through income-generating activities. This would be achieved by the
following [2]:

- Expanding electricity access to the rural population through development of
appropriate program and action plans to promote renewable energy.
- Promoting the participation of private entrepreneurs so as to provide efficient and
cost-effective services.
- Facilitating systematic market and institutional development in the renewable energy
sector by creating a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework.
- Developing appropriate tariff policies and institute a rational tariff regime.
- Promoting rural electrification (RE) technologies on-grid mode.
- Building the capacity of the rural poor by creating economic opportunities, increasing
standards of living and involving them in planning, operation, maintenance and
management of programs providing those services.

Furthermore, to achieve the policy the strategy:

- Shall be designed within framework of overall electricity policy of the Royal
Government of Cambodia (RGC), this is, renewable energy shall form part of the
overall energy mix in such a way that it complements the other fuel resources.
- A set of comprehensive studies shall be conducted to identify policy and institutional
barriers that are likely to restrict the private sector participation in providing
renewable electricity services.
- An effective legal and regulatory systemwithin the framework of Cambodias
national power policy and regulatory authorityshall be put in place to ensure proper
management of the rural electrification program.
- It shall be ensured that scientific methods are used in arriving at differentiated tariffs,
and all components are considered (Operation & market costs, depreciation of assets,
taxes, return on capital, transaction costs)
- Potential for different renewable energy sources such as small hydro and solar in
different parts of the country shall be mapped through extensive assessment and
feasibility studies.

5. REFERENCES
[1] Joe Buchdahl, Rebecca Twigg & Laura Cresswell (2002) Global Warming, Fact Sheet
Series for Key Stages 2 & 3, http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/.
[2] Ronald Steenblik, R., et al., (2005) OECD Trade Directorate, Liberalization of Trade in
Renewable-Energy Products and Associated Goods: Charcoal, Solar Photovoltaic Systems,
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and Wind Pumps and Turbines, OECD Trade and Environment Working Paper No. 2005-07,
http://www.oecd.orgdataoecd03935842415.
[3] Anthony Derrick, Catherine Francis and Varis Bokalders (1991) Solar Photovoltaic
Products, A Guide for development workers, Intermediate Technology Publications in
association with the Swedish Missionary Council and the Stockholm Environment Institute.
[4] ADB (2000a), Cambodia Forest Concession Review, ADB, Manila.
[5] The Cambodia Report (2005) An overview of the energy systems, renewable energy
options, initiatives, actors and opportunities in Cambodia, August
2005,http://www.bcse.org.audocsInternationalBCSE%20Cambodia%20Final%20V2.
[6] The Economist (2005a) Stirrings in the Corn Field, May 14th 2005, p.59-61.
[7] Sat Samy (2004) Renewable Energy Promotion and Development in Cambodia, Country
Report, April 2004, Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy Phnom Penh, Cambodia,
http://www.recambodia.com.
[8] National Policy (2003) on Renewable Energy-Based Rural Electrification, Ministry of
Industry, Mines and Energy, Phnom Penh, 22 May 2003, Chapter I,
http://www.recambodia.com
[9] Cambodia Energy Sector Strategy, http://www.recambodia.com
[10] TOCH Sovanna and Ches Sophy (2006). Biogas and Bio-Digester Technology, Survey
Report.

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SEE FORUM Indonesia country report

Research and Development on Energy and Environment in Indonesia

Hadiyanto
1,*
, Sudharto P Hadi
2
, N. Agya Utama
3

1
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering Diponegoro University, INDONESIA
2
Postgraduate Program on Environmental Studies, Diponegoro University, INDONESIA
3
Graduate School Energy Science, Kyoto University, JAPAN
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+62) 247460058, Fax: (+62) 2476480675, E-mail:
h.hadiyanto@undip.ac.id

Abstract
Indonesia is an archipelagic countries which currently being a net importer of oil to
supply national energy demands. The consumption of energy is already over the energy
reserves and therefore searching of renewable energy potential is an obligation. Through
its vision of 25/25, the government actively encourages the use of renewable energy
resources, and expected to cover 25% of energy demand in 2025. This paper describes
briefly energy outlook in Indonesia, from reserved energy and its consumption, and
government policy to support this energy crisis.

Keywords: Indonesia energy outlook, vision 25/25, renewable energy

1. COUNTRY ENERGY OUTLOOK

Indonesia is an archipelagic country in the world which covers 1,906,240 km
2
area and
consists of 17,506 islands. Indonesia has a thriving economy at the intersection of the Pacific
and Indian oceans, between Asia and Australia and it is located at 95
o
to 141
o
eastern
longitude, and latitude between 6
o
North and 11
o
8 South 30 [1]. In addition, Indonesia shares
land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries
include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Current population of Indonesia is approximately 241 million people which make Indonesia as
the worlds fourth-largest country in terms of population with estimation GDP per capita USD
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3,550 while the economy growth of 6% in 2011[2][3]. Due to its many islands, Indonesia is
facing problem of equitable development especially concerning energy supply to its society.
Some of Indonesian societies in many rural areas still do not have access to electricity and the
rest of it does not have any guarantee on the sustainability of energy supply. It is shown by
current national electricity ratio of 75% which is mostly dominated by Java and Bali islands
(>90%). Respecting to energy consumption to stimulate economic growth (elasticity index),
Indonesia has higher elasticity index (1.6) as compared to Thailand and Singapore with 1.4
and 1.1, respectively. In other parameter such as the energy intensity which showing tonne oil
equivalent of energy needed to obtain Gross Domestic Revenue of US 1 million dollar,
Indonesia has 565 TOE. This energy intensity is higher than Malaysia and average of OECD
countries value of 439 TOE and 139 TOE, respectively.
The energy demand in Indonesia is mainly supplied by oil reserves and coal which currently
cover 43% and 34.5% of national energy demands. Energy consumption in Indonesia has
grown rapidly (annually 7%) as indicated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Energy reserves and consumption by sector in Indonesia

Available oil resource in Indonesia is 1,132.96 MTOE and it spreads all over region of
Indonesia. The biggest oil reserve is in Sumatera Island (Central Sumatera) with almost
49.4%, followed by East Java with 13.2%, South Sumatera 11.2% and Kalimantan island 8.6%
from total available oil resource [5]. Natural gas resource in Indonesia is also abundant, with
total reserve about 157.14 TSCF. The biggest natural gas reserve placed in Natuna Island with
32.7%, followed by Sumatera Island 21.3% and Papua with 9.68%. The rest of natural gas
reserves were consists in Kalimantan, Java, Maluku and Sulawesi Island [6]. Beside oil and
natural gas, Indonesia also has coal as fossil energy resource. Total coal resource based on
latest status (December 2010) were 104,943.59 million tonnes, which is equivalent with
73,145.68 MTOE. Almost all Indonesia coal resource was residing in Sumatera and
Kalimantan Island (49% each). The rest of coal resources were consists in Sulawesi, Papua
and Java Island [7].
Along with fossil energy resources, Indonesia was blessed with a large amount of renewable
resources such as hydropower, geothermal, biomass, wind, and solar. Indonesia has almost
150 active volcanoes, since it is located in the ring of fire volcano belt and estimated to hold
approximately 40% of the worlds geothermal reserves, equivalent to some 27 GW of power
spread out in 276 locations throughout Indonesia. Most geothermal potential can be found on
Sumatra (51%), Java and Bali (34.26%) and Sulawesi (7.4%) [8]. Hydropower has the highest
potential energy resources among the other renewable resources, but it has not been effectively
utilized. Hydropower potential of Indonesia is estimated at 75.00 GW, but total installed
hydropower capacity is only 4.2 GW. The hydropower potential can be found in several
islands of Indonesia such as Papua (29.8%), Kalimantan (28.8%), Sumatera (20.8%) and the
rest were found in Sulawesi, Java, Bali and Maluku [8].
There are several types of biomass in Indonesia which can be converted into energy; first
generation such as starchy and sugary biomass and second generation such as lignocelluloses
biomass. In 2011, Indonesia has 423,000 hectare of sugar cane plantation which can produce
5,000 L/hectare/year; 1.5 million hectare of cassava plantation which can produce 4,500
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L/hectare/year; 26 million tonnes of crude palm oil (all quantities are exported) and 800,000-
900,000 tonnes/year of coconut oil which both of it can be converted into biodiesel. While
second generation biomass is also abundant, 147 million tonnes of biomass is produced every
year in Indonesia such as in Sumatera, Kalimantan, Java and Sulawesi islands. The biomass
comes mainly from rice residues (65.6 million tonnes), sugar residues (23.6 million tonnes),
rubber wood (41 million tonnes), and palm-oil residues (8.2 million tonnes). Smaller quantities
are available from other agricultural waste such as logging residues, sawn-timber residues,
coconut residues and other agricultural waste. Market potential for generating electricity and
heat from biomass residues is estimated at some 1,160 MW for the whole of Indonesia
(Sumatera 50.8%, Kalimantan 19.8%, Java 24.1% and Sulawesi 5.2%) [10][11].
As Indonesia lying at the equator, the potency of solar energy and wind power is also
abundant. Solar power potential is ranging from 3.5-4.8 KWh/m
2
/day in all locations of
Indonesia. Meanwhile, wind energy potential is mainly in the center and east region of
Indonesia [12].


Energy planning studies conducted in the year 2003/2004 consists of four stages of the
calculation is to develop a realistic scenario, the projections need (demand), power generation
development plan, making the energy supply and demand balances based on the principle of
market equilibrium . This study uses several assumptions such as GDP growth until 2025 is
6.51% (Table )[4].

Table 1 Assumption used in calculating the projection of energy demand and supply
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
GDP Growth (%) 4.92 5.13 5.13 6.51 6.51
Energy elasticity (without
conservation)
1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48
Energy elasticity (RIKEN
scenario)
1.09 1.8 1.38 1.13 0.94

In this study, economic growth is assumed around 6% per year in average. Oil prices assumed
to be 25 U.S. $ / barrel at the beginning of the study and increased to $ 28 / barrel, the price of
coal 24 U.S. $ / ton and increased to 27 U.S. $ / ton, the price of gas is 2.2 U.S. $ / MMBTU
(FOB) with a corresponding increase oil prices and a discount rate of 10%. During its
development, in 2005 the assumptions used in this study have undergone many changes,
especially the assumptions about energy prices. In 2005, world oil prices by an average of 53
U.S. $ / barrel, fossil energy prices usually adjust the price of petroleum [4][9][12].
Projection of primary energy production and consumption against the projection on various
the fossil fuel reserves can be seen in from Figure 2. The consumption projection growth
based on the RIKEN scenario where in 2020 the oil consumption reach more than 6 million
barrels and 6.16 million in 2025, where the reserve information was gathered from ministerial
of energy and mineral [6]. The production of oil was assumed to be 10% decrease from 2015
onward. The gap between consumption and production at later years is assumed to be filled by
importing oil from Middle East.

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Figure 2 Primary energy supply projection by type without conservation scenario(a) and
prediction of national oil production, consumption and reserve (b)

As seen in Figure 3, the current and prediction of natural gas production against its proven
reserved. The production is assumed to increase exponentially between 2010 up to 2030 in line
with the government plan on RIKEN scenario, which increase up to 146 BCM in 2025. The
reserve of natural gas accounted of 2550 TCM in 1999 and of 3180 TCM in 2008 the proven
reserve assumed to be unchanged through out the year. The prediction shows a shortage of
supply on 2020 onward, without new reserve found the country will become net gas importer.
The assumption on predicting the coal consumption as seen in Figure based on the
government plan to increase its coal based power plant in the next decades. The increases
assumed to be exponentially growth from 40 MTOE in 2011 up to 250 MTOE in 2030. The
assumption is also considering the use in industrial sectors such as steel and cement industry
which assuming also has significant growth in the next two decades. The production however
will follow the trend of its reserves (5500 MTOE in 2008). The production is predicted to
reached its peak in 2018 with production around 292 MTOE and steadily decrease afterwards.
Figure shows the predicted primary energy consumption in MTOE by sector as developed by
GOI, this information were taken into account as assumption on the prediction of production
against proven reserved.

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Figure 3 Prediction of national natural gas production, consumption and reserve

Figure 4 Prediction of national coal production, consumption and reserve

Figure 5 Projection of total energy demand by source until 2030

National Energy Policy
Among of ASEAN countries, Indonesia has the lowest commercial energy consumption (<4
BOE/capita in 2010). The energy system has a high dependency on oil and the alternative
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energy has not been developed, in spite of having huge amount of alternative energy
resources. The price of energy from renewable energy is still higher than fossil fuels. The use
of energy in many sectors such as household, industry, and transportation is inefficient.
Through new vision 25/25, Indonesia is expecting to increase the use of renewable energy up
to 25% at 2025, which 5 times higher than current utilization (5%).

Figure 6 Projection of energy supply 2025 (Presidential Decree 5/2006)

Blue-print of the National Energy Management made at the beginning of 2005 had always to
be revised to accommodate changes in conditions of crude oil prices that ultimately affect the
price of other fossil fuels. In early 2006, the National Energy Policy set forth in Presidential
Regulation No. 5 of 2006 (Figure ), which in principle it emphasizes: (i) optimizing the use of
energy mix (diversification); (ii) improve energy efficiency (conservation); (iii) use of new
and renewable energy sources that are technically ready as well as economical and
environmentally friendly, such as biofuels (biodiesel, bio-ethanol/gasohol, bio-oil and pure
plant oil), synthetic fuels (liquid coal), geothermal, mini and micro hydro, nuclear, solar, wind
/ wind, hydrogen (fuel cell), energy from sea current and sea waves; (iv) increasing the fossil
energy resource exploration (intensification); (v) promote the development and construction of
energy infrastructure, both on upstream and downstream side; (vi ) paying attention to
environmental problems, especially in Java, which has a population of about 945 people/km
2
;
(vii) conduct researches development and application of science and technology in the sectors
mentioned above, as well as involve the national industry in order to increase national capacity
[4][9].

3. CURRENT STATUS ON R&D ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT AT
DIPONEGORO UNIVERSITY

To be an excellent research university, Diponegoro University always supports research and
developments throughout its faculties. Research on energy and environment are considered as
one of the leading focuses in Diponegoro University as stated in research roadmap. The
support is provided through competitive research grant by University to stimulate staffs and
researchers in improving quality of their research. Other supports are provided by Indonesia
governments through competitive research grants offered by Directorate General Higher
Education, Ministry of National and Cultural, Ministry of Research and Technology, Ministry
of Agriculture, as well as research collaboration with international institutes.
Some research on energy and environment at Diponegoro University can be described as
follows :
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Energy from Biomass
Research on biomass has been conducted by gasification and cracking processes. Another
research is focusing on extracting biomass from microalgae, which can be used for feed and
biodiesel.
Biodiesel and bioethanol have been intensively studied in Center of Biomass and Renewable
Energy (C-BIORE) Diponegoro University, especially on the use of local source of vegetable
oil (jatropha, nyamplung, cooking oil) and sugar cane.
Figure 7. Biogas and microalgae photobioreactor at Diponegoro University

Biogas
Research on biogas is mainly focused on the use of cow manure and waste with high COD
(palm oil waste, tofue, pharmaceutical) for biogas production. The current research at
Department of Chemical Engineering is active in accelerating biogas production by using
rumen.

Energy Conversion and Efficiency
This research is mainly done by Mechanical Engineering Department with activity of energy
audit, efficient use of fuel and smart driving system.

Figure 8. Simulation of smart driving system

Solar panel for convenience sitting ground
The electrical engineering department through research grant from Netherlands Government
developed a sitting ground by using solar panel. This solar panel has capacity of 1000 W and
utilize for ir conditioner and lightning.

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Figure 9. Sitting ground at Diponegoro University

Geothermal studies
The study of geothermal is mainly conducted by Physic Department and currently is supported
by PERTAMINA to develop a Research group on Geothermal Studies.

Microhydro
Together with local government, Diponegoro University installed a microhydro for rural area
at Central Java.

4. Conclusion; the potential contribution of the research to the country FUTURE energy
demand and/OR supply

The research and development on renewable energy in Indonesia must be strengthened in
order to achieve national energy policy of vision 25/25. This can be done through research
partnership among Indonesian research institutes, governments and stake holders as well as
international counter-partners. There are a lot of challenges in the area of energy efficiency,
energy planning and energy economics which is not deeply studied in our institutes.
Currently, there is no direct implementation of research output to the country future energy
demand, since the research is mainly focused on the technological side. However, Dipongeoro
University researchers are actively invited by local government to give support and
consultation on local energy planning by ministry of energy and mineral resources, as well as
planning on reduction of green house gases.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia, 2011, Statistical Yearbook of Indoensia 2011, Jakarta.
[2] http://indonesiacompanynews.wordpress.com/2011/08/06/akhir-2011-pendapatan-per-
kapita-us-3-600/ search on: January 2nd 2012 at 10:00 am.
[3] Direktorat Diseminasi Statistik, BPS, 2011, Data Strategis BPS, CV. Nasional Indah:
Jakarta, Indonesia.
[4] Menteri Sumber Daya Energi dan Mineral, 2006, National Energy Management 2006-
2025., Jakarta.
[5] ESDM, 2010, Statistik Minyak Bumi, www.esdm.go.id, search on January 2
nd
2012 at
10:00 am.
[6] ESDM, 2010, Statistik Batubara, www.esdm.go.id search on January 2
nd
2012 at 10:00
am.
[7] ESDM, 2010, Gas Bumi, www.esdm.go.id, search on January 2
nd
2012 at 10:00 am.
[8] ESDM, 2010, Statistik Energi Terbarukan, www.esdm.go.id, search on January 2
nd
2012
at 10:00 am.
[9] Kementerian Negara Riset dan Teknologi RI., 2006, Indonesia 2005-2025 Buku Putih:
Penelitian, Pengembangan dan Penerapan Ilmu Pengetahuan & Teknologi Bidang Sumber
Energi Baru dan Terbarukan untuk Mendukung Keamanan Ketersediaan Energi tahun
2025. Jakarta.
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[10] Soerawidjaja, T.H., 2011, Peluang, Potensi dan Rintangan Pengembangan Industri Bahan
Bakar di Indonesia. Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Nasional, Jakarta.
[11] International Energy Agency, 2008, Energy policy review of Indonesia., France.
[12] Kusdiana, D., 2008, Kondisi Riil Kebutuhan Energi di Indonesia & Sumber-sumber
Energi Alternatif Terbarukan., Bogor.
[13] ESDM, 2010, Handbook of Energy & Economics Statistics of Indonesia., Center for Data
& Information on Energy & Mineral Resources, Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources.
[14] Historical data, BP energy Outlook, 2011, http://www.bp.com/statisticalreview, search on
7 January 2012
[15] Hartoyo, B., 2007, Domestic Coal Supply and Demand in Indonesia towards 2025.,
APEC Clean Fossil Energy Technical & Policy Seminar, Vietnam.
[16] ESDM, 2010, Statistik Listrik, www.esdm.go.id, search on January 2
nd
2012 at 10:00 am.
[17] The World Bank, 2005, Electricity for all: options for increasing access in Indonesia.
[18] Haeni, J.H., Green, C., Setianto, E., 2008, Indonesia Energy Assessment., USAID.
[19] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, 2007, Project Document: Energy and
Environmental Partnership Program with Indonesia (EEP Indonesia).
[20] IEA Statistics, 2011, CO
2
Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights., International
Energy Agency, France.
[21] USAID, 2007, FROM IDEAS TO ACTION: Clean Energy Solutions for Asia to Address
Climate Change.
[22] Habibie, I.A., 2011, Prospective business cooperation in Indonesias renewable
resources., Workshop Remarkable Indonesia ASPAC Forum Bavaria, Germany.
[23] Adi, A.C., 2007, Indonesia Petroleum Situation (National Oil Supply Policy)., IEA-
MoEM Joint Workshop: ASEAN Oil Security Emergency Preparedness, Bangkok.
[24] Katopo, G., 2009, Renewable energy potentials and the role of government in Indonesia
International Rendev Conference on Dhaka, Bangladesh.
[25] Panaka, P., 2010, The Role of Biomass for The Energy Sustainable Development in
Indonesia., Energy Technology Center (BBTE)Agency for the Assessment and
Application of Technology (BPPT) Jakarta, Indonesia.
[26] Simamora, A.M., Hendrana, S., 2009, Indonesia Renewable Energy Report., Asian and
Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology Of the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).
[27] Ibrahim, H.D., Thaib, N.M., Wahid, L.M.A., 2010, Indonesian Energy Scenario to 2050:
Projection of Consumption, Supply Options and Primary Energy Mix Scenarios.
[28] Legowo, E.H., 2007, Development of Alternative Energy in Indonesia., 5
th
Asian
Petroleum Technology Symposium.
[29] Dewi, R.G., 2010, Indonesian Position on Bioenergy & Bio-renewable., The Global
Sustainability Bioenergy Convention for The Asia-Oceania Region.
[30] Legowo, E.H., 2005, Present Status of Biomass Development in Indonesia., Research and
Development Center of Oil and Gas Technology.

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SEE FORUM India country report

Potential of Renewable Energy Technologies and their Future Demand/Supply in India

Virendra Kumar Vijay
1*
, Meena Krishania
2
, Amita Gill
3
1
Faculty, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, India
2
Research Scholar, Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
India
3
Director,

Dept of Science and Technology, Jaipur,Govt of Rajasthan, India
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*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (011) 26596351, Fax: (011) 26591121, E-
mail:vkvijay@rdat.iitd.ac.in

Abstract
India has great potential to accelerate the use of its endowed renewable resources to power its
growing economy with a secure and affordable energy supply. The Government of India
recognizes that development of local, renewable resources is critical to ensure that it is able to
meet both its economic and environmental objectives, and it has promoted this development
through policy action. This poses a formidable challenge but is perceived to be a great
opportunity for the country to increase the share of renewable in the overall energy mix.
India's approach to the global problem is to meet its energy needs in a responsible, sustainable
and eco-friendly manner. A brief outline of government policies and issues related to
renewable energy financing, large scale dissemination, research and development are focused,
along with the role of renewable energy in contributing to national energy security and
mitigating climate change.

Keywords: Renewable Resources, Energy, Policy, Environment.

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK

Oil demand in India is set to grow in the next five years and beyond, driven by demand for its
exports and a fast growing domestic market. India is endowed with the worlds fifth-largest
coal reserves, which, together with gas and combustible renewable fuels (mainly wood used in
the residential sector) cover about 70% of its total energy requirements. Economy and replace
traditional fuels, primarily wood, in the residential sector. But Indias biggest success is
expected to come from renewable, where solar and wind power predominates. The share of
these two renewable energy systems is expected to register a fivefold increase by 2016.
Nuclear energy will be more intensely used since six new nuclear power plants are already on-
stream.
As in Chinas case however, coal remains the most easily accessible source of energy and that
is why India is already the worlds third-largest producer (after China and the US). India is
expected to remain a highly coal-dependent economy for decades to come as coal-demand
projections are driven by an ever increasing need for electrification in large parts of the
country. Indias significant indigenous oil supplies have been declining for the last 15 years.
An apparent slight increase in oil production in the last two years indicates that about 26% of
total domestic oil requirements can be satisfied by domestic sources.
However, Indias incremental oil demand in the coming years is expected to outpace domestic
production so that by 2016 the share covered by indigenous sources is projected to drop to
22% [1].
Indias per capita energy use in the year 2008 was 0.54 tons of oil equivalents (toe) which was
far below that of industrialized countries. In 2008-2009 fossil fuels (coal, gas & diesel)
provided around 80% of Indias electricity. In India, electricity generation alone contributed to
42% of the carbon emissions. As per the Ministry of petroleum & natural gas, Government of
India, ,India has 125 Million metric tonne of proven oil reserves and about 1,437 billion cubic
metres (50.710
12
cu ft) of confirmed natural gas reserves as April 2010. Fig. 1-4 was showing
the previous years energy status by indicating the electricity, natural gas, oil and coal
production and consumption scenario in India. During the year 2010-11, the energy
requirement registered a growth of 3.7% during the year against the projected growth of 5.6%
and Peak demand registered a growth of 2.6% against the projected growth of 6.5%., though
the total ex-bus energy availability increased by 5.6% over the previous year and the peak met
increased by 6.0%, the shortage conditions prevailed in the Country both in terms of energy
and peaking availability. Rapid economic growth has created a growing need for dependable
and reliable supplies of electricity, gas and petroleum products. Due to the fast-paced growth
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of India's economy, the country's energy demand has grown an average of 3.6% per annum
over the past 30 years.

Fig.1. Electricity production and consumption in India up to year 2011(CIA World Factbook,
2011)
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Fig.2. Natural gas production and consumption in India up to year 2009(CIA World Factbook,
2011)

Fig.3. Oil production and consumption in India up to year 2009(CIA World Factbook, 2011)

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Fig.4. Coal production and consumption in India up to year 2009 (ICL, 2011)

The current focus in the renewable energy sector is to reduce the costs and to accelerate
commercialization of various technologies. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE) initiated this shift in 1992, when it announced a new strategy and action plan to
replace subsidy-driven programmes with commercialization. Financial incentives were
trimmed and fiscal incentives, such as concessional tax and duties, along with soft loans, were
introduced to encourage enterprises. Several renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as
wind, solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, and small hydro are now promoted on a commercial
scale. Today, India has the largest decentralized solar energy programme, the second largest
biogas and improved cook stove programme, and the fifth largest wind power programme in
the world. A substantial manufacturing base has been created in a variety of RETs, placing
India in a position not only to export technologies but also offer technical expertise to other
countries. The Prime Minister of India has announced a goal of 10% share for RE or 10,000
MW in the power generation capacity to be added during the period up to 2012. As of June
2010, India was one of the world leaders in installed renewable energy capacity, with a total
capacity of 17,594 MW (utility and non-utility), which represents approximately 10% of
Indias total installed electric generating capacity. Of that total, 17,174 MW were grid-
connected projects, and the remaining 2.4% of installed renewable capacity consisted of off-
grid systems the wind industry has achieved the greatest success in India with an installed
capacity of 12,009 MW at the end of June 2010. India has also installed 2,767 MW of small
hydro plants (with sizes of less than 25 MW each), 1,412 MW of grid-connected cogeneration
from bagasse, and 901 MW of biomass-based power from agro residues. Waste-to-energy
projects have an installed capacity of 72 MW. India has off-grid renewable power capacities of
238 MW from biomass cogeneration, 125 MW from biogas, 53 MW from waste-to-energy, 3
MW from solar PV plants, and 1 MW from hybrid systems [2].


There is abundant solar radiation in India, with insolation levels of about 2,000 kilowatt-hours
per square metre per year, which is among the highest in the world. The estimated potential is
more than 50,000 megawatts of solar power. The resource potential for wind power is 45,000
megawatts. An estimated 420 million tons of biomass is produced every year, but most of it is
1945 1972 1979 1992 2001 2011
years 30 72 89 200 345 526
M
t

Total Coal Production (Mt)
1970 1980 1990 2000 2008 2009
Mtoe 37.6 56.7 95.5 144.2 230.9 245.8
M
t
o
e

Total Coal Consumption (Mtoe)
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36
being used inefficiently. The power generation potential from biomass is estimated to be
61,000 megawatts. Along with others such as small hydro and waste-to-energy, the gross
potential for power generation from renewables is 183,000 megawatts [3].

2.1. Wind Energy
The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has progressed steadily in
the last few years. The short gestation periods for installing wind turbines, and the increasing
reliability and performance of wind energy machines have made wind power a favoured
choice for capacity addition in India. The countrys total wind energy potential has been
estimated at 45,000 MW. The wind energy sector has seen significant investments spurred by
the development potential, availability of wind farm equipment at competitive prices, and
conducive government policies. Currently, wind power accounts for around 70 percent of the
installed generation capacity from renewable sources. Presently, India (15,700 MW) is in fifth
position, following China (44,733 MW), the US (40,180 MW), Germany (27,215 MW) and
Spain (20,676 MW). Wind power accounts for nearly 8 percent of Indias total installed power
capacity [4].

2.2. Small-Hydro Energy
In India, hydro power projects with station capacity of up to 25 MW fall under the category of
small hydro power (SHP). The total installed capacity of small hydro power projects as on
March 31, 2012, was 3200 MW. However, the estimated potential for power generation from
such plants is over 15,000 MW [3]. Most of the latent potential is in the Himalayan states - as
river-based projects - and in the other states as irrigation canal-based projects. The SHP
programme is largely private investment driven. Since the projects are economically viable,
the private sector is keen on investing in SHP projects. The viability of these projects
improves with increase in the project capacity.

2.3. Biomass & Waste Energy
Indias climatic conditions offer an ideal environment for biomass production. Biomass
gasification is emerging as a method of power production that holds significant social and
business benefits. In fact, bio-energy has remained critical to Indias energy mix, with a total
installed capacity of 3000 MW. The total biomass & waste energy potential in India has been
estimated at over 30,000 MW [2].
Biomass gasification based power production is able to generate power on small scales and
offers a solution for producing off-grid green power Owing to its virtues, biomass gasification
in India could play a key role in the electrification of rural and remote communities Indian
industries could start using biomass gasification for power generation, replacing more costly
heating options such as furnace oil
India has an estimated potential of over 30,000 MW of power from biomass, but around 3000
MW has been exploited. Thus, over 90 percent of potential capacity lies untapped

2.4. Solar Energy
Solar power has so far played an almost non-existent role in the Indian energy mix. The grid-
connected capacity in the country now stands at 481.48 MW, while the total solar energy
potential has been estimated at 50,000 MW. On the upside, the market is set to grow
significantly in the next ten years, driven mainly by rising power demand, escalating fossil
fuel prices, the ambitious National Solar Mission (NSM), various state level initiatives,
renewable energy quotas (including solar energy quotas for utilities), as well as by falling
international technology costs. India has great potential to generate electricity from solar
energy and is on course to emerge as a solar energy hub. The techno-commercial potential of
photovoltaics (PV) in India is enormous. With GDP growing in excess of 8 percent, the energy
gap between supply and demand will only widen. Solar PV is a renewable energy resource
capable of bridging this gap.
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Most parts of India have 300 330 sunny days in a year, which is equivalent to over 5000
trillion kWh per year. This is more than Indias total energy consumption per year Average
solar incidence stands at a robust 4 7 kWh/sq mtr/day [5].
About 66 MW of aggregate capacity is installed for various applications comprising one
million industrial PV systems 80 percent of which is solar lanterns, home/street lighting
systems and solar water pumps, among others
The estimated potential envisaged by the ministry for the solar PV programme, i.e. solar
street/home lighting systems, solar lanterns is 20 MW/sq km
The potential of the solar thermal sector in India also remains untapped. The ministry has
proposed an additional 500 MW during the Phase-I of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM)
Establishing manufacturing units at Export Oriented Units, SEZs or under the SIPS
programme presents a good opportunity for firms. These can leverage Indias cost advantage
to export solar modules at competitive prices to markets in Europe and the United States

2.5. Government Incentives
In the early 1980s, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) was established to
encourage diversification of the countrys energy supply and to satisfy the increasing energy
demand of a rapidly growing economy. The MNRE issued guidelines to all state governments
to create an attractive environment for the export, purchase, wheeling and banking of
electricity, generated by renewable power projects. Some of the other key incentives provided
by the Government of India for the renewable energy industry are: Feed-in-tariffs for both
wind and solar energy [6, 7]
Up to 80 percent accelerated depreciation for renewable energy investments
Preferential tax rate of 15 percent, instead of the standard 30 percent
Exemption from Central Sales Tax and customs duty concessions on soft loans for the import
of material, components, and equipment used in renewable energy projects.
Establishment of the National Solar Mission (NSM), which aims to deploy 20 GW of solar
energy by 2020
Soft loans for setting up renewable energy enterprises
Tax holiday for 10 years for Biomass power projects

3. CURRENT STATUS ON RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

R&D Work related to bioenergy in our lab is highlighted here. Biogas is a product of
anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste products is a cheap way of getting energy and at
the same time handling disposal of waste products hence helping in building a sustainable
environment. Animal wastes, agricultural residues, algae, de oiled jatropha and pongamia
cakes or other organic maters can also generate biogas easily. India is an agricultural country,
so large quantities of agricultural residues are there, biogas lab of Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi) has identified that after alkali pre treatment of agricultural
residue can generate high quality as well as quantity of biogas. Biogas, can be used for heat,
power, and after upgradation for vehicular applications. Hence raw biogas can upgraded to
natural gas quality by various methods like water scrubbing, pressure swing absorption,
chemical scrubbing etc. An upgrading and bottling system which is economically feasible for
low cost and small scale applications has been developed at IIT Delhi. Biogas denotes a
gaseous fuel consisting of > 90% methane is of biological origin that is fully compatible with
existing compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicle system and also fulfils the quality demands for
injection into the natural gas grid. Together upgraded biogas and natural gas are alternatives to
petrol and diesel which may help us achieve a transport sector with cleaner and even
renewable energy. These opportunities include injecting upgraded biogas into the natural gas
grid, use of biogas as a vehicle fuel, A third opportunity for biogas or upgraded biogas is to
compress the gas and transport in pressurized containers to be used on site or at remote
locations.
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Fig. 5. Biogas enrichment and bottling system with biogas vehicle at IIT Delhi, India

5. CONCLUSION

Developing renewable energy can help India increase its energy security, reduce adverse
impacts on the local environment, lower its carbon intensity, contribute to a more balanced
regional development, and realize its aspirations for leadership in high-technology industries.
According to a KPMG report 2011 India is the third most favoured destination globally, for
investments in the renewable energy sector. The report also says that the country will be a
major source of new entrants into the sector, after the US and China. The Indian renewable
energy market has become increasingly dynamic in recent years as a result of strong natural
resources, greater accommodation to international investments and a variety of government
incentives. Biogas technology will be the major areas to witness overseas investments in the
near future. With all the attractive characteristics and potential stated above, India presents a
significant market opportunity for renewable energy firms worldwide. However, these firms
will need external guidance and assistance on several strategic and operational aspects before
they are in a position to effectively tap into this opportunity.

6. REFERENCES

[1] CGES Analysts, (2012), India's to 2016,
http://www.cges.co.uk/resources/articles/2012/05/17/india-s-energy-outlook-to-
2016.
[2] MNRE, (2011), Strategic plan for new and renewable energy sector for the period
2011-17, http://mnre.gov.in/file-
manager/UserFiles/strategic_plan_mnre_2011_17.pdf
[3] MNRE, (2012), Annual Report 2011-2012, http://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/annual-
report/2011-2012/EN/index.htm
[4] Indian Wind Power Association, (2012), http://www.windpowerindia.com.
[5] MNRE, (2012), Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission: Towards Building SOLAR
INDIA. http://mnre.gov.in/pdf/mission-document-JNNSM.pdf.
[6] Government of India Planning Commission, (2012), Integrated Energy Policy
Report of the Expert Committee 2006. August 2006; pp. 18-19.
http://planningcommission.nic.in/
[7] Power and Energy, (2012),
http://planningcommission.nic.in/sectors/index.php?sectors=energy.

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SEE FORUM Lao PDR country report

The Need for Sustainable Renewable Energy in Lao PDR

Kinnaleth VONGCHANH
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Laos,
Lao PDR
Corresponding Author, Tel: (856-21) 78483983, E-mail: kinnalethv@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract
This paper describes the trends and the need of renewable energy in Lao PDR in order to
sustain the energy in the country to curb the rise of energy requirement and price all around
the world. Lao PDR has high potential in producing hydro-electricity. The Lao government
aims to increase the share of renewable energies to 30% of the total energy consumption in
2025. Hydropower is the most important energy resources in Lao PDR, which technical
potential was estimated around 26,000 MW. In the Lao PDR hydro power projects with
capacity bellow 15 MW are classified as small-scaled hydropower. Only 10% of produced
electricity is used domestically. The government energy strategy is focusing on the renewable
energy resources development for following: biofuel, small-scale hydro power plant, solar,
biomass, biogas and wind, and other alternative fuels for transportation.

Keywords: Renewable energy, energy consumption, energy potential in Laos

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK

1.1 Country energy outlook
Energy is one very important for modern human life and for economic development because it
has been deeply integrated into daily life activities of humankind. Worldwide population
growth has caused the rise in energy consumption and requirement, while conventional energy
resources, especially natural fossil fuel deposit, are depleting which, to some extent, is
responsible for the increase in energy cost. Summarized in Table 1 the statistical data from
year 2006 to 2010 shows a growing population year by year and the relevant rise in fuel
consumption in Laos PDR. In year 2006, there were 5.7 million people with GDP of 8.6% and
fuel consumption was 450 million liters but in year 2010, there were 6.2 million people with
GDP of 8.5% and there were over 700 million liters of consumed fuel. It is clear that the rising
of population and a growing of the economic in the country, Lao PDR, are the root cause of
higher fuel consumption or the energy requirement.

Table 1 Some statistical data of Lao PDR from year 2006 to 2010.

In present days, Lao PDR and many countries in the world are facing very high fossil derived
fuels prices. As the country is not petroleum and LPG producing country; Lao PDR has
strongly relied on imported fuels, so the country would be very prone to high energy price and
supply shortage related crisis. Effective energy strategy must be in place in order to make the
country the energy self-sufficient and to secure in energy supply. The first step is to promote
more energy saving and then turn to the development and utilization of inexhaustible and
environmental friendly renewable energy resources. With the above consideration, strategy on
Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Population
(1)
5,745,666
5,872,07
0
6,001,25
6
6,133,28
3
6,255,94
9
GDP
(2)
8.6 7.6 7.8 7.5 8.5
Fuel consumption (Million
liters) 450
(3)
485
(4)
558
(3)
640
(5)
>700
(5)

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the energy of Lao Government is to develop and to sustain renewable energy sources such as
hydropower, biomass, bio-fuel, biogas, solar, wind, etc.
Lao population is around 6.7 million averages per capita GDP is 960 USD/year. The average
domestic GDP growth rate is about 7.8% for 2006-2010. During the same duration, 2006-
2010, growth rate of industrial sector reached 13-14% and the economic growth rate is
between 7.5-8%. Recently, although economic growth has slowed down due to international
financial crisis, energy demand of the country continues to rise. On the consumer side, the
demand of energy for transportation is high due to rapid increase of personal vehicle
ownership.
Lao PRD lacks of conventional energy resources (e.g., oil or Natural gas) but has some reserve
of coal, which, in case used, creates harmful effect to the environment, particularly greenhouse
gas emission being responsible for global climate changes. Anyway, the country has abundant
renewable energy resources such as biomass, hydropower and solar energy. In some part of
the country, there are some potential of wind and geothermal energy.

1.2 Vision and mission on renewable energy in Lao PDR
The government of Lao PDR promotes the development of renewable energies as an important
component of the national economic development to ensure energy security, sustain socio-
economic development, and enhance environmental and social sustainability. Policies on the
promotion and development of renewable energies in Lao PDR focus on small power
development for self-sufficiency and grid connection. The main objectives of this strategy are
the following:
- To ensure adequate of energy, energy efficiency and conservation throughout the
country and promote cultivation of fuel crops for the production of bio-fuels to replace
imported fossil fuel
- To bring socio-economic benefits, including; development of RE industry,
contribution to national economic growth
- To ensure environmentally and socially sustainable development through enforcement
of adequate safeguards.


Lao PDR is agriculture-based country. It has abundant natural resources such as river,
mountain, forest, etc., which can be turned into sources of energy generating production.
Renewable energy development is an important component of the national economic
development to ensure energy security, sustain socio-economic development, and enhance
environmental and social sustainability. The development policies on the promotion and
development of renewable energies in Laos focusing on small power development for self-
sufficiency and grid connection, biofuels production and marketing, and the development of
other clean energies
(6)
. The government aims to increase the share of renewable energies to
30% of the total energy consumption in 2025. Moreover, to reduce the importation of fossil
fuels, the tentative vision is to source 10% of the total transport energy consumption from
biofuels.

2.1 Previous and Future Energy Consumption
The locally made energy sources of Lao PDR are mainly traditional fuels (biomass such as
wood and charcoal). In 2009, wood and charcoal were accounted for 69% of the total energy
consumption. Fossil fuel use was only 17% which is equivalent to 0.9% tons of TOE. The fuel
consumption in Laos is still very low compared with that of other developing countries. Major
energy consumers are residential, accounting for 51%, and transport accounting for 21%. The
demand for energy by the transport sector has increased due to rapid increased in private
vehicle ownership, as shown in Fig. 1
(6)
.

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Figure 1 Energy sources and consumption by sectors
(6)

As shown in Fig. 2, the total primary energy supply (TPES) of Laos would increase from 120
PJ in 2000 to 747 PJ by 2035. The energy system of the country is expected to rely on
hydroelectricity. Biomass such as woods and agricultural waste that is currently the major
energy sources is expected to have the least share (20%) of the TPES by 2035. On the
contrary, the share of hydropower in the TPES would be the largest (50% of the TPES),
followed by lignite (32%), oil (21%), and biomass (17%). It should be noted that the export of
power to neighboring countries is expected to increase at an annual average growth rate
(AAGR) of 9% during 20002035
(7)
.

Figure 2 Primary energy supplies in Lao PDR
(7)

Figure 3(a) shows the total final energy consumption (TFC) of Laos would grow at AAGR of
4% during the planning horizon. The rapid growth of service-based economy effectively
induces the energy consumption in the country. The residential sector that currently consumes
most of the energy would be overtaken by the service sector. By 2035, the service sector
would have the largest share of about 32% of the TFC, followed by the industrial (29%),
residential (23%), and transportation (16%) sectors, respectively. During 20002035, it is
remarked that the industrial sector would grow the highest rate at an AAGR of 8% due to rapid
industrial development in the country. Within the planning horizon, the energy source for Laos
is found to rely more on imported petroleum products (e.g. LPG, gasoline, and diesel). Oil
consumption is expected to increase as well as the growing service-based economy in the
country. Resulting from model simulation, oil would have the largest share (59%) of TFC by
2035, followed by biomass, coal, and electricity (shown in Fig. 3b). Based on the assumption
of increased hydropower development, the electricity consumption would grow at an AAGR
of 6% during 20002035. Laos, which is currently a biomass-intensive-consuming country,
would become an oil-intensive economy after 2025.

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(a)

(b)
Figure 3 (a) Final energy consumption by sectors in Laos (b) final energy consumption by fuel
type in Laos
(7)

3. Potential of renewable energy in Lao PDR

3.1 Renewable energy development in Lao PDR
Potential of biomass in Laos PDR includes energy crops and organic wastes. Energy crops
comprise oily crop (palm, jatropha, veronica Montana, sunflower, beans, coconut, etc.),
sugarcane, cassava, corn, and quick-growing tree and aquatic cultures. Organic waste includes
residues of agriculture-forestry production, by products of agro-forestry industry sawdust,
wood chips, rice husk, corncobs, livestock, and manures) and municipal wastes (households
wastes, communal wastes, food-processing wastes). It was estimated that utilization of
livestock wastes for biogas production could generate around 2.810
8
m
3
of biogas per year or
equivalent to 510
8
kWh electricity (about 216 MTOE).
Hydropower is the most important energy resources in Lao PDR, which technical potential
was estimated around 26,000 MW, excluding small scale hydropower sites (below 15 MW)
with estimated potential around 2000 MW. In the Lao PDR, hydropower projects with
capacity below 15 MW are classified as small-scaled hydropower.

3.2 Future trend of renewable energy in Lao PDR
Electricity generation is predicted to increase at 11% percent annually for the 2005 to 2025
period. Most of produced electricity is for exporting to neighboring countries and only 10% is
used domestically. The domestic demand for electricity will increase from 425 MW in 2006 to
2,863 MW in 2025. This increase will be covered mainly by development of hydropower and
coal-fired power plants.
The demand for fuel transportation is predicted to increase by 5% per year by 2025, the total
demand for refined petroleum products will reach 1,174 million liters of which 45% is for
gasoline (528 million liters) and 55% is for diesel (645 million liters).
The available renewable energy resources in the country can meet some domestic demand.
Table 2 illustrates the potential of renewable energy resources of Laos, which may help
achieving target of the government for the share of renewable energy up to 30% of energy
consumption by year 2025.

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Table 2 Potential and capacity to meet 30% target of renewable energy development until
2025
Items

Renewable
energy type
Potential Existing 2015 2020 2025
MW MW MW ktoe MW ktoe MW ktoe
A Electricity 140 243 728 416
1
Small
hydropower 2000 12 80 51 134 85 400 256
2 solar 511 1 22 14 36 23 33 21
3 wind >40 6 4 12 8 73 47
4 biomass 938 13 8 24 16 58 37
5 biogas 313 10 6 19 12 51 33
6 solid waste 216 9 6 17 11 36 23
7 Geothermal 59
B Bio-fuel ML ML ML ML ML

3.3 Promotion and development of bio-fuels
The country imported over 700 million liters of fossil fuels in 2010, a significant increase of
about 5% per year. To reduce the importation of fossil fuels and optimize the use of marginal
land, the government will encourage and actively promote the development of fuel crops in the
country with a preference for smallholder production under maintained community land
ownership and control.
- Substitute 10% of the transportation fuel demand by 2025
- Increase deployment of biofuel technologies in rural areas
- Formulate a biofuels action plan (biodiesel and bio ethanol) as blueprint for
development.

3.4 Promotion and development of small hydropower
Hydropower resource is the most abundant energy resource in Lao PDR. The development of
small hydropower (capacity up to 15 MW) could play an important role in meeting the
countrys objectives of increasing rural electrification coverage from the current level of 70%
to 90% in 2010. Small hydropower provider least cost power supply to remote area, which
currently reply on imported electricity. Lao PDR has substantial potential for small
hydropower development, which is estimated to be around 2000 MW. In the past, small
hydropower development were not sustainable due to natural disaster, lack of management,
lack of technical and budget for maintenance. To promote the development of small
hydropower resources, the government will implement measures to address the existing
technical, financial, procedural and institutional barriers for small hydropower development in
the country.
Pico hydropower technologies are relatively popular in remote villages in Lao PDR as source
of power generation. Presently, around 60,000 units are installed all over the country
supplying electricity to about 90,000 households.

3.5 Promotion and development of solar energy
Solar energy is one of the abundant energy resources in Lao PDR. The country receives and
average solar irradiation between 3.5 to 5 kWh/m
2
/day. Solar energies can play an important
role in achieving government objectives to provide energy services to off-grid and remote
areas. To encourage the use of solar energy in order to reduce consumption of other type of
commercial energies and reduce environmental impacts, the government promotes the
development of solar energies in the following services areas.
Mostly, solar energy in water and space heating for households and commercial installation
are promoted.
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For the period 2010-2020, the government under the rural electrification master plan (REMP)
aims to upscale the program covering additional 19,000 households within 331 villages in 11
provinces.
In addition, the government also encourages the development off-grid connected solar PV
systems and solar PV hybrid system, such as the integration with small hydropower and wind
power, to sustain supply of electricity during the dry season. In addition to power generation,
the government also promotes the use of solar energy for thermal application for individual
households, commercial buildings and industrial.

3.6 Promotion and development of biogas
Lao PDR imports liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for domestic and industrial utilization. LPG
imports are relatively high measuring to 871,800 kg in 2006. Significant potential exist in Lao
PDR for biogas production from animal and livestock wastes, agro-industrial wastes,
municipal solid wastes and wastewater treatment plants.
The government aims to sustain these initiatives by up scaling and increasing the number of
households using biogas to 50,000 in 2025 to reduce the importation of LPG.

3.7 Promotion and deployment of other biomass energies
Being a predominantly agriculture base economy, Lao PDR generates substantial amount of
wastes from agriculture and forest production and processing such as sugarcane bagasse, rice
husks, corn cobs, wood wastes, etc. In addition, with growing urbanization, main cities are
also generating significant amount of solid wastes. At present time, there is no large-scale
exploitation of these resources for energy generation.

3.8 Promotion and development of wind energy
Based on the existing data, wind energy can be potentially developed for large-scale grid
connected power generation and hybrid system providing energy services to rural and remote
villages. The government aims to develop around 50 MW of wind power by 2025.
With this prospect, the government will expand the current wind measurement campaign,
identify potential site for grid-connected and off-grid hybrid system, and in partnership with
international financial and donor organization, prepare wind concession framework and
electricity market assess framework.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Lao governments target for 2025 is to focusing on the development and harnessing of
renewable energy resources including: biofuels, small-scale power plant, solar, biomass,
biogas, wind, and other alternative fuels for transportation. The government aims to increase
the share of renewable energies up to 30% of the total energy consumption in 2025. The
objectives of Lao government are following;
- To reduce the importation of fossil fuels, to reach 10% of the total transport energy
consumption from biofuels
- To promote investment in energy production from public and private sectors and from
local and foreign investor
- To develop wind power of about50 MW
- To increase number of households using solar energy in 331 villages within 11
provinces in year 2010 to 2020.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Department of Statistics (2011), MPI, Lao PDR
http://www.nsc.gov.la/index2.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=37&Itemid
=38.
[2] GDP growth (2012), The World Bank Group
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http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries/LA-
4E?display=graph.
[3] Bio-fuel Development in the Lao PDR: Baseline Assessment and Policy
Evaluation. s.l. : LIRE, 2010.
[4] Survey on Fossil Fuel Consumption for Energy Efficiency Conservation to
Promote the New Technology of Biofuel in Lao PDR. s.l. : LIRE, 2010. pp6.
[5] Fuel prices pursue upward trend (2011), http://www.laopdr.gov.la.
HYPERLINK
"http://www.laopdr.gov.la/ePortal/news/detail.action;jsessionid=yyy2TJpCvQ6J7gv00
f2syplyJ2vgyCHnKvp2jp7ldrmJr0vn9KF0!260949307?id=27108&from=ePortal_New
sDetail_FromHome"
http://www.laopdr.gov.la/ePortal/news/detail.action;jsessionid=yyy2TJpCvQ6J7gv00f
2syplyJ2vgyCHnKvp2jp7ldrmJr0vn9KF0!260949307?id=27108&from=ePortal_News
Detail_FromHome
[6] Lao Government, Renewable Energy Development Strategy, Vientiane :
Goverment, 2011.
[7] Watcharejyothin M., Ram M. Ram, (2009), Effects ofcross-
borderpowertradebetweenLaosandThailand:Energy
securityandenvironmentalimplications. Jourmal of Energy Policy, Elsevier , Vol. 37.
pp1782-1792

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SEE FORUM Malaysia country report

Energy Situation in Malaysia: Present and Its Future

Nasrudin Abd Rahim
*
, Md. Hasanuzzaman
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC)
Level 4, Wisma R&D, University of Malaya, Jalan Pantai Baharu, 59990 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603)22463246, Fax: (603) 22463257, E-mail:
nasrudin@um.edu.my

Abstract
Energy is one of the most important driving forces for a nation to develop. Alternative energy
sources and efficiency improvements become essential for energy planning, resource
optimization and environmental protection. This paper focuses on the energy resources, power
generation, energy consumption as well as alternative energy sources in Malaysia. Malaysian
power generation fully depends on fossil fuels that produces huge amount of emission. Solar
energy has a good potentially in Malaysia. However, Malaysia has given emphasis on
renewable energy and the renewable energy target is 5.5% of Malaysias total electricity
generation mix by 2015.

Keywords: Energy, Power generation, Emission, Photovoltaic.

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years the scientific and public awareness on environmental and energy issues has
brought in major interests to the research of advanced technologies particularly in highly
efficient technology [1]. Energy is an indispensable factor for the social and economic
development of the societies. The usage level of energy is an indication of the economic
prosperity of a nation. In Malaysia, the growing industrialization and increasing standard of
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living has considerably increased the usage of energy. Malaysian energy consumption has
risen dramatically over the past 20 years due to the combined demands of industrialization and
urbanization [2]. Due to increasing the energy consumption, there has been a growing concern
about energy consumption and its adverse impact on the environment. Rational and efficient
utilization of energy resources bears special importance as well. The aim of the research is to
investigate the energy demand, supply, consumption, environmental impact as well as review
the future energy resources.

2. ENERGY SITUATION IN THE WORLD

Energy is the key input and basic need for the development, economic growth, automation and
modernization [3]. As a result, global energy demands are increased rapidly and this concern
is addressed internationally to fulfill the demand of energy for the future world. Figure 1
shows the world marketed power demand. World power demand rises from 145 billion MW in
2007 to 218 billion MW in 2035 (i.e. increases by 49 %).

Figure 1 World marketed power demand [4]

Industrial sector consumes more than one third of total world energy consumption. It is also
predicted that the share of energy consumption in this sector will be increased in future.
Energy demand is increased due to the increasing the economic activities and automation in
the industrial sector. So, it is an important task to analyze and predict energy uses in the
industrial sector for the future [5, 6]. Energy used in the industrial sector is more compared to
any other sector of the worlds total energy used. The demand of energy in the industrial sector
depends on the region, country, level of economic activities, industrial product, production
process, technological development etc. Figure 2 shows the world power demand in industrial
sector. Energy consumption in the industrial sector increases rapidly in the non-OECD
countries due to quick growth of their economy and predicted that the annual average rate will
be 1.8 % from 2007 to 2035. Table 1 shows the statistic of energy use of industrial sector of
different countries in the world.

0
50
100
150
200
250
2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
m
a
n
d

(
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

M
W
)

Non-
OECD
Year
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Figure 2 World power demands in the industrial sector [4]

Table 1 Statistics of energy used in industrial sector for some selected countries [3]

Country Energy use (%)
Bangladesh 46
Brazil 41
China 70
Colombia 34
Germany 28
India 45
Jordan 31
Malaysia 35
Norway 40
Slovenia 52
South Africa 44
Sweden 38
Taiwan 51
Thailand 36
Turkey 35
US 33
World 35

3. ENERGY SITUATION IN MALAYSIA

Malaysian is one of the fast economic growing as well as industrial countries. Figure 3 shows
the overall power demand in Malaysia. Due to fast industrialization, the overall power
0
20
40
60
80
100
2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
P
o
w
e
r

d
e
m
a
n
d

(
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

M
W
)
Non-OECD
OECD
Year
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demands from 1990 to 2009 in Malaysia is increased about 3 times from 1990 to 2009. As a
result, the power plant installation also increases. The power plant capacity is increased from
14,291 MW to 24,377 MW between 2000 to 2009 [2].

Figure 3 Overall power demand in Malaysia [2]

The industrial sector also one of the major energy users in Malaysia. The industrial power
demands from 1990 to 2009 in Malaysia are shown in Figure 4. The power demand increasing
rate of industrial sector was higher compared to whole Malaysian demand increasing rate
between 1990 and 2009 [2].

Figure 4 Power demand in industrial sector in Malaysia [2]

Due to the economic crisis, the energy consumption in the industrial section has been
decreased in 2009 compared to 2008. As industrial sector is one of the major energy
consumers, this economic crisis affect the overall energy consumption in Malaysia. The
overall energy consumption is less in 2009 compared to the year of 2008.

4. ENERGY AND EMISSIONS

Figures 5 and 6 show Malaysian power generation capacity. From these Figures, it is found
that power generation is mainly depemnds on the fossiel fuel that produces huge amount of
emissions and changes the climate. Climate change is an important environmental problem
which potentially leads to rises in sea levels, loss of coastal land, and ecological shifts. A
major cause of climate change is emissions of greenhouse gases [7]. However, to fulfill the
energy demand, energy generation sector contribute to the environmental degradation (i.e.
0
10
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40
50
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Year
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emission, air pollution, acid rain, climate change etc.) [8]. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [9] reported that the great and serious problem for the environment of its
global warming. To save the earth by curbing global warming has become a common mission
of all humanity [10]. In order to the response this challenge, eco-efficiency approach is
inducted to restrain an emission [11]. Figure 7 shows the electricity consumption by sector.
From this Figure it is found that about 45% of electricity is consumed by industrial sector. So,
about 45% of emission for power generation are responsible the industrial sector. In Brazil
about 81% of CO
2
emissions by the countrys industrial sector come from energy use [12].
Emissions release by the burning of fossil fuels have a serious greenhouse effect (i.e. acid rain,
ice melting, temperature rises) on mankind [13]. More the energy used, more the CO
2

emission [14]. Since the emissions is directly depends on the usage of fossil fuels, so reduction
of energy consumption is the direct way of control emission's problem [15].

Figure 5 Malaysia installed capacity as of 31
st
December 2009 [2]

Figure 6 Energy input in power station [2]

31.4%
1.8%
8.6%
40.5%
3.7%
0.2%
0.1%
13.8%
Conventional
thermal (coal)
Diesel
Hydro
Combined cycle
Conventional
thermal (Oil/Gas)
Biomass
37%
7%
54%
2%
1%
Coal
Hydropower
Natural gas
Diesel oil
Fuel oil
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Figure 7 Electricity consumption by sector [2]

5. RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIALITY IN MALAYSIA

Known energy sources are exhausted rapidly due to increasing the energy consumption. So,
alternative energy sources are very much important for the future energy demand. In the recent
years, renewable energy is very popular in many countries. Among the renewable energy
sources, solar energy is the most potential energy sources in Malaysia. The earth receives
about 1000 pW of energy from the sun every year. This amount is enough to cover the Earths
energy demand for over 1000 times. Capturing sunlight and turning them into electricity for
daily usage is a very good idea and the photovoltaic system has been applied in Malaysia in
early 1980s [16]. Nowadays, photovoltaic technology grows rapidly in worldwide. Developed
countries (i.e. America, Europe, Australia, China, Japan) have been applied the photovoltaic
technology for development of the countries. The developing countries (i.e. Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam) are starting the use of the PV technology. Photovoltaic technology is
growing fast due to the awareness of climate change, thinner ozone layer and carbon emission.
The avarage of solar radiation is 400 to 600 Mj/m
2
in Malaysia [17]. It has a promising
potential to establish large scale solar power installations. The Malaysian government is keen
to develop solar energy as one of the significant sources of energy in the country. However,
despite rigorous initiatives, the renewable target set out under the Ninth Plan period was not
achieved. Under the Tenth Plan (20112015), several new initiatives anchored upon the
Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan will be undertaken to achieve a renewable energy
target of 985 MW by 2015, contributing 5.5% to Malaysias total electricity generation mix
[18]. Major usage of solar field is known as the photovoltaiec device. The main aim was
incourage of consumers to use of solar energy. The first project was started about residential
sector for directing of awareness about how to use of solar energy in demostic area [19]. Solar
irradiation is so large in this area. According to report of government in Malaysia, there will
be around 50% to 80% will be generated by solar PV [20]. Figure 8 shows annual average
solar radiation in Malaysia.

0.3%
33.1%
21.6%
0.2%
44.9%
Agriculture
Commercial
Residential
Transport
Industrial
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Figure 8 Annual average solar radiation in Malaysia [21]

It can be said that in the north and north east part of malaysia the value of solar radiation is
highest. Table 2 states the solar annual radiation in the different area in Malaysia [17].

Table 2 Annual solar radiations in different cities in Malaysia
Region Annual average value (kWh/m
2
)
Kuchung 1470
Bangi 1487
Kuala Lumpur 1571
Petaling Jaya 1571
Seremban 1572
Kuantan 1601
Johor Bahru 1625
Senai 1629
Kota Baru 1705
Ipoh 1739
Taiping 1768
George Town 1785
Bayan Lepas 1809
Kota Kitabalu 1900

6. CONCLUSION

It is found that energy consumption increasing rapidly all over the world as well as in
Malaysia. Malaysia power generation sector is mostly based on fossil fuels. Industrial sector
one of the major energy consumers where the energy consumption increasing rate is very high
compared others sectors. Malaysia has good renewable energy resources that can be used for
power generation. Solar energy is one of the most potential renewable energy sources.

7. REFERENCES

[1]. Jia, S., Peng, H., Liu, S., & Zhang, X. (2009) Review of Transportation and Energy
Consumption Related Research. Journal of Transportation Systems Engineering and
Information Technology, 9(3), pp. 6-16.
[2]. NEBM, National Energy Balance Malaysia 2009, Malaysian Green Technology
Corporation, pp. 1-54.
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[3]. Hasanuzzaman, M., Rahim, N. A., Hosenuzzaman, M., Saidur, R., Mahbubul, I. M., &
Rashid, M. M. (2012) Energy savings in the combustion based process heating in
industrial sector. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), pp. 4527-4536.
[4]. EIA, International Energy Outlook 2010, U.S Energy Information Administration.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/highlights.html. 2010.
[5]. Greening, L.A., G. Boyd, and J.M. Roop (2007) Modeling of industrial energy
consumption: An introduction and context. Energy Economics, 29(4), pp. 599-608.
[6]. Hashim, S.M. (2010) A Malaysian National Prerogative: Engaging West Asia for Long-
Term Energy Deals and Co-operation. International Journal of West Asian Studies,
2(1), pp. 19-35.
[7]. Yang, L.I.S. (1997) Small and medium scale industrial boilers in China: factor
contributing to efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions and strategies to combat global
warming, Thesis, Master of Science in Technology and policy, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.
[8]. Rahman, M.A. and Lee, K.T. (2006) Energy for sustainable development in Malaysia:
Energy policy and alternative energy. Energy Policy, 34(15), pp. 2388-2397.
[9]. IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate change 2007: mitigation.
Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
[10]. Ekholm, T., Soimakallio, S., Moltmann, S., Hhne, N., Syri, S., & Savolainen, I. (2010)
Effort sharing in ambitious, global climate change mitigation scenarios. Energy Policy,
38(4), pp. 1797-1810.
[11]. Mao, J., Du, Y., Cai, H., & Jiang, P. (2010) Energy Efficiencies of Industrial Sectors for
China's Major Cities. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2, pp. 781-791.
[12]. Henriques, J.M.F., Dantas, F. and Schaeffer, R.(2010) Potential for reduction of CO2
emissions and a low-carbon scenario for the Brazilian industrial sector. Energy Policy,
38(4), pp. 1946-1961.
[13]. Mahlia, T.M.I. (2002) Emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia. Renewable
Energy, 27(2), pp. 293-300.
[14]. Ang, J.B. (2007) CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and output in France. Energy
Policy, 35(10), pp. 4772-4778.
[15]. Soytas, U. and Sari, R. (2009) Energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon
emissions: Challenges faced by an EU candidate member. Ecological Economics, 68(6),
p p. 1667-1675.
[16]. Amin, N., Lung, C.W. and Sopian, K. (2009) A practical field study of various solar
cells on their performance in Malaysia. Renewable Energy, 34(8), pp. 1939-1946.
[17]. Mekhilef, S., Safari, A., Mustaffa, W. E. S., Saidur, R., Omar, R., & Younis, M. A. A.
(2012) Solar energy in Malaysia: Current state and prospects. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), pp. 386-396.
[18]. MP, 10 th Malaysia Plan, Chapter 6: Building an Environment that Enhances Quality of
Life, pp. 245-311.
[19]. Chua, S.C. and Oh, T.H. (2012) Solar energy outlook in Malaysia. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), p p. 564-574.
[20]. Ab Kadir, M.Z.A., Rafeeu, Y. and Adam, N.M. (2010) Prospective scenarios for the full
solar energy development in Malaysia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
14(9), pp. 3023-3031.
[21]. OKsolar (2011) World Zones for Daily Radiation.

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SEE FORUM Philippines country report

Power Situation and Current Status on R&D

Miguel T. Escoto, Jr.
1

1
Program Coordinator, Energy Engineering Graduate Program
Professor of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute, University of the Philippines
E-mail: miguel.escoto@coe.upd.edu.ph, miguel.escoto@gmail.com

Abstract
The Philippines energy power situation is presented briefly for the three major islands of
Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. An energy summit on power was recently held in Mindanao. A
few highlights are presented in this paper.
Coherent Research and Development (R&D) programs for renewable energy (RE) are crucial
for the rapid development of new technologies as well as designing policy strategies,
especially for energy security and climate change.

Keywords: Base load, peak, energy audit, agt, r&d research areas,


Introduction
Brief; country current energy outlook on energy production, consumption and reserves, which
includes updated renewable and alternative energy potential.
As the country faces the realities of growing energy demand, tight energy supply, limited
foreign investments and critical power development issues, the Department of Energy released
the Philippine Energy Plan highlighting the plans and programs of the energy sector to fuel
support for the economic growth of the country for the period 2009-2030. Specifically, the
Plan will deal with the future of energy development which is very vital to the countrys
prosperity.

Figure 1: Capacities Mix of the Three Major Philippine Regions
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Energy Production
The three major islands capacity mix is shown in Fig 1. The base load power plants are
predominantly geothermal, natural gas, and coal in Luzon. For the Visayas region, base load
plants are coal and geothermal. For the Mindanao region, base load plants comprise hydro,
solar, coal and geothermal. Base load power plants are the facilities used to meet some or all
of a given continuous energy demand and produce energy at a constant rate, usually at a lower
cost relative to other facilities.

The total generation is about 67,743 Gigawatt- hours. About 26.3% was contributed by
renewable energy, as shown in Fig 2. Shown also is a comparison with some Asean countries
and the European Union. It is noted that more advanced countries have a larger dependency on
non- renewable energy.

Luzon Grid
With the scheduled retirement of the 650- MW Malaya Oil Thermal plant, dependable
capacity of existing power plants in the Luzon grid will decrease to 9.380 MW in 2011 from
the 10,030 MW in 2009.
However, with the completion of Bacman Plant Unit I-2 and Unit II rehabilitation in 2011 and
2013, an additional 74.3 MW will be added in the system.
With the projected 4.5 percent annual average growth rate on the peak demand, the critical
period in Luzon grid, (where the capacity will not be able to meet the demand and the reserve
margin requirement) is projected in 2011. On the same year the system needs an additional
peaking capacity of 300 MW (Figure 3). Within the next 20 years, Luzon grid will require an
additional capacity of 12,500 MW, 600 MW of which are already committed leaving the
balance of 11,900 MW to be filled-in from the list of indicative power projects. Based on these
capacity requirements, Luzon grid will require the following generic capacities: (i) 5,000 MW
base-load plant; (ii) 3,900 MW mid-range plant; and (iii) 3,000 MW peaking plant.

Figure 2: Total Generation of about 67.743 Terawatt-hours
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Figure 3: Luzon Supply and Demand Outlook

Visayas Grid
The supply of power in the Visayas grid remains tight between 2010-2011. With the coming-
in of the following committed capacities, supply situation in the Visayas is expected to
normalize within the short-term: (i) 3 x 80 MW coal-fired plant from Cebu Energy
Development Corporation in March 2010 for Unit I, June 2010 for Unit II and January 2011
for Unit III; (ii) 200 MW Cebu coal-fired plant from Kepco; (iii) 160 MW Panay coal-fired
plant from Global Green Power; (iii) 20 MW geothermal plant from Energy Development
Corporation; and (iv) 17.5 MW biomass-fed plant from Global Green Power. See Figure 4.
However, based on the results of 2009-2030 demand forecast exercises, Visayas grid is
projected to increase its annual electricity requirement by 4.6 percent until 2030. With this
projection, the system needs a total of 2,150 MW additional capacities on top of the committed
power projects thereby assuming 2018 as the grids new critical period.

Figure 4: Visayas Supply and Demand Outlook

Mindanao Grid
Mindanao grid is heavily dependent on hydroelectric power plant. In fact, 53.0 percent of the
1,682 MW total dependable capacities in 2009 is from hydro. With the coming in of the
existing committed capacities and with the assumption that hydro facilities in the grid will run
on its normal condition, supply requirement in Mindanao will satisfy the projected annual
increase of 4.6 percent in peak demand. However, to prevent the recurrence of another round
of supply deficit in Mindanao, the grid will need an additional capacity of 2,500 MW starting
in 2010. This is on top of the following 100 MW committed capacities: (i) 42 MW Sibulan
Hydro by mid 2010; (ii) 8 MW Cabulig hydro in 2011; and (iii) 50 MW Mt. Apo III
geothermal plant in 2014. The additional supply requirement can be broken down into the
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following generic capacities: 2,000 MW for base-load plant and 500 MW for peaking plant. A
50 MW in 2010 and another 50 MW in 2011, both peaking power plants, are needed to
augment the supply of capacity in the system. See Figure 5.

Figure 5: Mindanao Supply and Demand Outlook


Renewable Energy
The Philippines roughly has an alternate energy supply source based on hydro power,
geothermal power and a few wind solar installations. Figure 6 shows the Renewable Energy
Sector accounts for 38.9% (near 40%) of the primary energy mix. Figures 7 and 8 compares
the Philippine renewable energy mix relative to its Asean and European neighbors,
individually and in aggregate respectively. Table 2 shows the renewable energy targets,
approximately doubled by the year 2030.

Figure 6: Diversified Energy Mix
Source: DOE
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Figure 7: Comparison of Shares among neighbor
nations
Figure 8: Aggregate Comparison on Shares
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Table 1 Power generation mixture current and future plan

Committed Power Projects
Private sector initiated committed power projects totaled 1,338 MW. In Luzon, the 600 MW
coal- fired plant from GN Power will come on-stream before the end of 2012. In Visayas, of
the 638 MW total committed power projects, 600 MW will come from coal-fired power plant
and the remaining 38 MW is from renewable energy. In Mindanao, the 100.5 MW total
committed projects are all renewables. The first Unit of 42.5 MW Sibulan hydro went online
at 16.5 MW on April 2010, the operation of this power plant was delayed compared to its
original target date of February 2010. The 50 MW Mindanao III geothermal plant was moved
to 2014 from its original target of 2010.
Additional capacities are needed on top of the committed capacities to meet the increasing
electricity requirement of the country broken down into the following grid requirements: (i)
72.0 percent or 11,900 MW for the Luzon grid; (ii) 13.0 percent or 2,150 MW for the Visayas
grid; and (iii) 15.0 percent or 2,500 MW for the Mindanao grid as shown in Table 1.

Table 3: List of Committed Projects from the Department of Energy, Philippines


Energy Engineering Graduate Program at the University of the Philippines
The academic program embarks on the following areas for research.
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1. Solar PV
Emerson Network Power On-grid Tied 4.8Kwp Solar PV System
Solar Lighting project of the UP Amphitheater with PNOC Renewables
Proposal for PV test facility
Dyes for sensitized solar cells

2. Ocean Renewable Energy
Nanyang Technical University for wind and Marine energy research.
Studies are being made on wave energy, tidal current, and in stream current.

3. Bioethanol/ Bio Fuels
Sweet sorghum
Algae culture for nutraceuticals and energy

4. Biomass/ Biogas
Biogas from swine manure thesis
Active Carbon Pellets

5. Energy Audit Projects
Energy Audit Study of the academic and office buildings
Energy Audit Program for Quezon Hall

6. Waste to Energy biogas from metropolitan waste with an anaerobic digester,
methane gas

7. Wind power
DOST Research Project: ERDT: Wind Power Generator System (2KW)
Balik Scientist Program: on wind power systems development
Proposal for Wind station measurement system

8. Transport Studies
Comparison runs between Auto-LPG, Diesel and Electric Vehicle (Lead Acid Battery)
are currently being studied under fixed route , various drive cycle conditions. The 22
km route involves regular passenger usage by commuters.

9. Automated Guided Transport System, AGT, is also being tested. Figures 9 and
10 show the test track. It is about 1km long. It is an elevated T section with
a central channel that guides the front wheels for cruising and turning. The test
AGT vehicle is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 9: Model Car Concept Figure 10: 1km AGT Test Track
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Figure 11: Electric Proto-type AGT Test Vehicle

4. CONCLUSION

It is hoped that the current research efforts in ocean energy research may displace 20% to 30%
of the current diesel generation of electric power for our islands, of about 100MW diesel
power barges. Tidal power current is currently being measured and yield potential is being
established. As small 10KW tidal stream proto-type is on test by BRM Power systems.
Wind projects too, 16MW Horizontal Wind Turbine systems are intended to displace diesel
power generation. Small power wind system deployment (500W- 2KW) too for the local
organic, off grid for electricity is a target for rural farming communities.
The electric audit too in the university allowed for about 0.5M PHP savings a month, among
the 20 academic and office buildings of the University of the Philippines, Diliman, served by
the Manila Electric Company, the electric power distribution utility.
The AGT should be able to serve the 8,000 commuters of the University of the Philippines,
which spreads over approximately, 200 hectares of land area.

5. REFERENCES

( Department of Energy, Philippines website material as of August, 2012)
http://www.doe.gov.ph/ : 2010 Power Situationer
http://www.doe.gov.ph/era.htm: 2012 MEDP: Medium Energy Development Plan
http://www.doe.gov.ph/PEP/default.htm : Philippine Energy Plan
http://upd.edu.ph/~updinfo/sept12/index9.htm :(OVCRD grant results in savings for UPD, as
of Oct. 2012)
http://www.map.upd.edu.ph/updmap/index.phtml :(estimated from map layout, as of Oct.
2012)

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SEE FORUM Singapore country report

Singapore: Energy, Environment & Future Cities

Seeram Ramakrishna, FREng, FNAE, FIES
Professor and Director, Center for Nanofibers & Nanotechnology
Seeram@nus.edu.sg

Abstract
Singapore is a highly developed country of five million people living in a cosmopolitan city
setting with per capita energy consumption levels comparable to those of the other high
income nations. Singapore relies completely on imported energy sources as it has no natural
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energy resources of its own. Singapore aspires to build a distinctive global city which is
livable and lively into the future. To realize this vision over the years Singapore has switched
from oil to natural gas to generate needed electricity and to lower carbon emissions, and
pursuing energy efficiency across all sectors of economy and society. Singapores long term
energy security options include a) enhancing energy efficiencies in all sectors of electricity
generation, industries, transportation and housing, b) derive 10-20% of energy needs from
harvesting solar energy using best available technologies, c) recover energy from waste, and d)
import electricity via ASEAN power grid. These options are enabled by advancements in
energy efficiency technologies, large scale energy storage technologies and smart grids. Such
measures are also necessary to improve the urban living environment for future generations.
Nearly 60% of worlds population is living in urban areas. Most megacities are in emerging
countries, which are also faced with growing population, industrialization, congestion and
environmental pollution. Many cities of the future are likely to have constraints similar to
Singapore. Hence the urban energy security strategies and environmental solutions of
Singapore are relevant to the future cities in ASEAN and rest of the world.

Keywords: clean energy, environment, emissions, Singapore, future cities.

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK

Singapore is a high-income, city state of five million people living in an island of ~ 710km
2

with no rural or agricultural hinterland. Singapores annual power consumption is ~ 42 TWh.
Singapores access to alternative energy sources is limited.
Hydroelectric power
Hydroelectricity harnesses the energy of flowing water for the generation of electricity. Much
of Singapore is generally flat and less than 15m above sea level.
Marine renewable energy (tidal and wave power)
The tidal range (difference between high and low tide) is about 1.7m, well below the 4m tidal
range that is typically required for commercial tidal power generation. The availability of
wave power is determined by height and frequency of the waves, but the waters around
Singapore are relatively calm as we are sheltered by land masses.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is not commercially viable in Singapore given the lack of conventional
geothermal resources and our small land area.
Wind
Harnessing wind energy is also not viable, given our low average wind speeds of about 2m/s
to 3m/s and lack of land for large-scale application of wind turbines. Most commercial wind
farms leverage average wind speeds of at least 6m/s, while prime wind sites require annual
average wind speeds in excess of 7.5m/s. In addition, there are challenges to harnessing
offshore winds due to busy maritime traffic in our waters.
Biomass
Biomass, which is used by many countries with available land mass as a fossil fuel alternative,
is not viable as a significant energy resource. Singapore already converts much of its waste to
energy, providing about 2% of electricity needs.
Nuclear
While nuclear energy is a source of low-carbon electricity, there are considerable challenges
given Singapores small land area and high urban density.
Solar
Although Singapore is located in the tropics, there are challenges to harnessing solar energy
given Singapores small size and dense urban landscape. The cloudy, tropical climate and
scarce and costly land only gives limited opportunity for Singapore to tap solar energy.
Singapore has attracted Norways Renewable Energy Corporation (REC) to build a $ 6.3
billion solar module manufacturing plant. The total installed solar photovoltaic capacity in
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Singaopre is about 3.5 MWp and expected to reach 10MWp. Biodiesel industries have
committed to produce 3 million tonnes by 2015.


Recognising that climate change affects the work and responsibilities of many Ministries and
government agencies, the Government of Singapore formed the National Climate Change
Secretariat (NCCS) as a dedicated unit in July 2010 under the Prime Ministers Office to
provide coordination at the highest level for Singapores domestic and international policies,
plans and actions on climate change. The NCCS also supports the work of the Inter-Ministerial
Committee on Climate Change, IMCCC. The 2012 IMCCC report succinctly captures the
environment and energy situation of Singapore. For accuracy, key aspects are reproduced in
this manuscript.
Singapore has always placed a high priority on environmental issues as part of its aim to create
a clean and green garden city for its people. Since independence in 1965, long before climate
change became a global issue, Singapore has pursued concurrent goals of growing the
economy and protecting the environment. In 1970, the Anti-Pollution Unit was established
under the Prime Ministers Office to tackle air pollution. As early as 1972, following the UN
Conference on the Human environment in Stockholm, Singapore set up a dedicated Ministry
of the Environment. Singapore also participated actively in the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED4) (commonly known as the Rio or
Earth Summit) which adopted the UNFCCC. The first Singapore Green Plan was issued
thereafter, highlighting Singapores commitment to ensure our environmental sustainability. In
2009, the Sustainable Singapore Blueprint which outlined our sustainable development targets
till 2030 was published.
Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore Teo Chee Hean, who chairs the Inter-Ministerial
Committee on Climate Change said To minimise the impact from climate change, efforts
from both developed and developing countries are underway to reduce emissions. At the
United Nations Climate Change Conference in Durban in 2011, all countries agreed to start
negotiations on a new climate change framework beyond 2020. As a responsible global
citizen, Singapore will do our part to reduce emissions, while ensuring that we continue to
grow and prosper.
Over the years Singapore replaced energy source fuel oil with natural gasthe cleanest form
of fossil fuelas the primary fuel for electricity generation. About 80% of Singapores
electricity is now generated by natural gas. By increasing the share of natural gas used in
electricity generation, from only 19% in 2000 to about 80% today, Singapore substantially
reduced emissions growth. Singapore generates relatively low levels of CO
2
emissions per
GDP dollar in the world. This places Singapore as a country at 123rd out of 137 countries in
terms of CO2 emissions. In terms of emissions per capita Singapore ranks 27th out of 137
countries. There is no international consensus on which indicators best reflect the respective
responsibilities of countries in the global effort to reduce carbon emissions. Nonetheless, given
the magnitude of the challenge, all countries, developed or developing, should contribute to
global action to address climate change in accordance with their national circumstances.
In line with its vision to be a liveable city, Singapore is committed to reduce emissions growth
further. Plans to improve energy efficiency in all sectors of the economy were included in its
2009 Sustainable Singapore Blueprint. Prior to the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change
Conference, Singapore pledged to reduce our emissions by 16% from the 2020 business-as-
usual (BAU) level, contingent on a legally binding global agreement in which all countries
implement their commitments in good faith. Although a legally binding agreement has yet to
be reached, Singapore has nonetheless started to implement mitigation and energy efficiency
measures which should reduce our emissions by 7% to 11% from the 2020 BAU level. This
pledge is not contingent on international financing and Singapore will utilise our domestic
resources. The first phase of measures to encourage even greater public transport usage and
improve energy efficiency in industry, buildings and households is being rolled out.
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To achieve more emissions reductions over time will require deeper behavioural adjustments
and changes in business processes. There is a need to consider more stringent energy
efficiency standards and legislation, more innovative energy efficiency financing schemes and
capability development initiatives. Market forces will also have an important role to play to
ensure that people and businesses get the right carbon price signal and have the right
incentives to reduce carbon emissions. Despite its best efforts to reduce emissions, Singapore
is constrained as a small and highly urbanised city-state, with more than 5 million people
occupying a land area of about 710km
2
. There is no rural hinterland and limited access to
alternative, low-emission energy sources such as wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal or nuclear
power. Deployment of solar power is limited by Singapores small land area even though the
solar generated electricity in Singapore has reached the grid parity without subsidies (Figure
1). Singapore, as an alternative-energy disadvantaged city-state, relies on imported fuels to
power our daily activities, and there are no viable technology alternatives that can replace its
reliance on fossil fuels in the foreseeable future.
Increasing electrification of urban mobility and increasing connectivity in various
transportation modes such as walking, cycling, cars, buses and trains are pursued to make the
city travel more energy efficient. For the built environment, zero-energy building and green
building certification are introduced to encourage the use of more climate-neutral energy
sources.

Figure1 Solar panels on a public housing block at Jurong East Street 24


Singapore government provides strong support for research, development and test bedding in
clean energy, water treatment, energy efficient manufacturing, and green buildings sectors
with a total funding of S$700 million
2
.
With concerted research and development efforts over time, emerging technologies could
gradually enhance its ability to reduce emissions. Singapore can share this knowhow with
other countries which have greater potential for deployment. As a small city-state with
significant expertise in sustainable urban solutions, Singapore is doing our utmost to raise
energy efficiency levels, support companies and businesses to test new technologies, business
models and solutions, so that climate-friendly goods and services can be developed, improved,
and eventually exported.
Singapore also shares expertise in climate change and environment management with other
countries, through training courses on a wide range of topics including sustainable urban
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development, water management and energy efficiency. Singapore is also a partner in a
number of key bilateral initiatives such as our collaboration with China in the Sino-Singapore
Tianjin Eco-city project, envisioned as a replicable, practical and scalable model for
sustainable development for other cities in China and other parts of the world.
Recognizing the importance of public engagement and participation, outreach programmes
such as the 10% Energy Challenge and the Presidents Award for the Environment have been
launched to raise awareness and encourage behavioural change.

4. Conclusion

Singapore is constrained as a small and highly urbanised city-state, with more than 5 million
people occupying a land area of about 710km
2
. There is no rural hinterland and limited access
to alternative, low-emission energy sources such as wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal or
nuclear power. Deployment of solar power is limited by Singapores small land area.
Singapore, as an alternative-energy disadvantaged city-state, relies on imported fuels to power
our daily activities, and there are no viable technology alternatives that can replace its reliance
on fossil fuels in the foreseeable future. Despite these constraints, Singapores reputation as a
clean and green garden city is an outcome of decades of sustained effort and conscious
decisions. Singapore has been paying closer attention to the environment and energy nexus
since its inception.
Singapores long term energy security options include
a) enhancing energy efficiencies in all sectors of electricity generation, industries,
transportation and housing,
b) derive 10-20% of energy needs from harvesting solar energy using best available
technologies,
c) recover energy from waste, and
d) import electricity via ASEAN power grid.

5. REFERENCES

[1] S. Ramakrishna, Asia energy mixes from socio-economic and environmental perspectives,
Energy Policy (2009).
[2] http://siew.sg/energy-perspectives/energy-singapore/singapores-prospects-regional-carbon-
hub
[3] National Climate Change Strategy 2012

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SEE FORUM- Thailand country report

Thailand: Energy Outlook and the Contribution of JGSEE

Bundit Fungtammasan
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE) and Center for Energy Technology and
Environment (CEE), King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand
Corresponding Author. Tel: (662) 470 8004, Fax: (662) 872 9087, E-mail: bundit.@jgsee.kmutt.ac.th

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the current status of energy supply and
consumption situation in Thailand and its future energy outlook, based on the major energy
plans: the 10-year Alternative Energy Development Plan, the 20-year Energy Efficiency
Development Plan, and the 20-year Power Development Plan. The outlook for renewable
energy deployment is promising, as the government has set a target to dramatically the share
of renewable energy to 25% of total energy consumption by 2021. Renewable energy is also
expected to contribute up to 10% of electricity generation by 2030. Energy efficiency
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improvements in the industrial, residential and commercial, and transport sectors are to reduce
Thailands energy intensity by 25% by 2030, with 2010 as the base year. JGSEEs research in
the areas of bioenergy and biofuels, building energy, and energy and environmental policy has
had and will continue to have significant impact to Thailands sustainable energy development
policies and plans.

Keywords: Not more than five keywords separated by commas.

1. CURRENT STATUS

1.1 Primary Energy Supply
In 2011 Thailands total primary energy supply (TPES) amounted to about 128 Mtoe (million
tons of oil equivalent), or 3.0% higher than previous year. The increase is moderate in
comparison to the annual average growth of 4.4% over the period 2006-2010, due to serious
flooding which affected energy consumption in both households and industry. Up to 43% of
the TPES in 2011 was imported. As shown in Table 1, fossil fuels dominate the share of TPES
at about 80.9 %, comprising oil, natural gas and coal at 36.5%, 32.6%, and 11.8%
respectively. The share of low carbon energy consists of 2% hydro, 16.2% renewables (for
heat and power), and 0.7% biofuels [1].

Table 1 Fuel mix in total primary energy supply in 2011
Energy
Type
ktoe % Share
Oil 46,695 36.5
Natural gas 41,821 32.6
Coal 15,166 11.8
Hydro 2,586 2.0
Renewables 20,734 16.2
Biofuels 878 0.7
Other 212 0.2
Total 128,092 100.0
Source: DEDE Thailand Energy Situation 2011

Table 2 shows the type and share of renewable energy supply. 68% of the total renewable
energy supply (or 11% of TPES) is traditional renewables in rural households and cottage
industry sector, the balance (5.2% of TPES) being new renewables for the commercial
production of heat and power. Traditional renewables consist primarily of fuel wood, or 83%
of total; while new renewables are dominated by bagasse (66.6%) followed by agricultural
wastes (17%) [1]. It should be noted that the contribution of solar and wind energy to TPES,
though increasing at a rapid pace, is not yet significant. The supply of biofuels, which grew
by 3.6 fold over the past five years, is composed of 62% biodiesel and 38% ethanol in 2011. It
represents 3.4% of fuel consumption in the transport sector.

Table 2 Types and share of renewable energy supply in 2011
Energy Type Traditional Renewables New Renewables
ktoe % Share ktoe % Share
Fuel wood 11,716 83.0 140 2.1
Charcoal 66 0.5 - -
Rice husk 1,250 8.9 359 5.4
Bagasse - - 4,413 66.6
Agricultural
wastes
1,079 7.6 1,124 17.0
Biogas - - 580 8.8
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Municipal solid
waste
- - 5 0.1
Solar - - 2 0.0
Total 14,111 100 6,623 100.0

1.2 Energy Consumption Pattern
Total final energy consumption (TFEC) in Thailand amounted to 70 Mtoe in 2011. The share
of the transport sector is the highest at 36.1% due to heavy dependence on road transport (79%
of total), followed by the manufacturing sector at 35.2%. Final energy consumption in the
residential and commercial sectors combined accounts for 23% of total. However in terms of
primary energy consumption, the share of these two sectors due to their high percentage of
electricity consumption - would be comparable to the transport and manufacturing sectors.

Table 3 Share of final energy consumption by sector in 2011
Sector ktoe % Share
Agriculture 3,686 5.2
Mining 121 0.2
Manufacturing 24,854 35.2
Construction 112 0.2
Residential 10,967 15.5
Commercial 3,356 7.6
Transport 25,466 36.1
Total 70,562 100.0

1.3 Electricity Supply and Consumption
In 2011 the national grid installed capacity was 31.8 GW, generating a total of 151.5 TWh of
electricity. With an import of 10.8 TWh, the grid electricity supply totaled 162.3 TWh. The
energy source mix for electricity generation is dominated by natural gas (71.5% of total), with
coal accounting for 20.9%, fuel oil and diesel 0.9%, and hydro 5.2%. Renewable energy
contributed less than 1.5% of total generation [2]. Electricity consumption totaled 148.6 TWh.
The largest consumer is the industrial sector (42.7%), followed by the commercial sector
(34.3%) and residential sector (22.1%) [1].

1.4 Energy Reserves
Thailands indigenous oil reserve is quite small. As of December 2011, the total crude oil
reserve was 801 million barrels (mbl) (214 proven, 383 probable, and 210 possible), and the
condensate reserve 671 mbl (239 proven, 306 probable, and 126 possible). The production in
2011 was 51 mbl crude oil and 31 mbl condensate. The natural gas reserve was 27,424 billion
cubic feet (bcf), comprising 10,061 bcf proven, 10,793 probable, and 6,570 possible [1]. The
production in 2011 stood at 1,307 bcf. The (proved) reserves-to-production ratio (R/P) is only
7.7 years. However, if the probable reserve is also included, the ratio becomes 16 years. The
total import of natural gas was 334 bcf, or 20% of total. In 2011 Thailand began to import
LNG, amounting to 35.8 bcf. The coal reserves consist primarily of low quality lignite, with a
total reserve of 2,075 million tons. The production in 2011 was 21.3 million tons. The
measured geological potential of oil shale is estimated at 1,050 tons. The estimated potential
of hydropower is 26,440 MW, 15,110 MW of which being indigenous, with the balance in
international waters, particularly the Mekong River.
Several attempts have been made in recent years to assess the resource potential of renewable
energy in Thailand by different investigators using varied definitions and methodologies. The
result is a set of rather inconsistent potential estimates for different type of renewable energy.
An example is reported by the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Energy
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Efficiency (DEDE) [3], which shows very large potential for solar energy and solid biomass.
Further refinement is called for, particularly biofuels and wind energy.

2. FUTURE OUTLOOK

From 2010 to 2030, in tandem with economic growth, Thailands final energy demand is
projected to grow by 4.2% annually, from 72 to 163 Mtoe, or about 2.3 times in a business-as-
usual scenario. The demand for electricity is projected to grow at 3.8% per annum from 164
TWh to 347 TWh, or just about double. To meet the rising energy and electricity demand and
to address the CO
2
mitigation issue, the Thai government introduced three major energy plans
for the next 10-20 years. The essence of these plans is summarized below.

2.1 Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP)
Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) was first introduces in 2008 as a 15-year plan
setting out targets for the development and deployment of different types of renewable energy.
In 2012, this plan was revised as a 10-year plan for 2012-2021. The AEDP targets to
dramatically increase the share of renewable energy consumption to 25% of projected final
energy consumption in 2021, or 25 Mtoe, up from 12% by 2022 in the superseded 15-year
plan [4]. The targets for electricity, heat and biofuels for different types of renewable energy
are shown in Table 4. More than half of the renewable electricity, which is targeted to
contribute about 3,353 ktoe or 10% of total electricity consumption, is expected to be
generated from biomass. In terms of installed capacity, the targeted contribution of each type
of renewable energy is shown in table 5 against current deployment. While the total capacity
is set to increase by more than four fold from about 2,100 MW to 9,200 MW, installations of
solar and wind are expected to jump several fold from less than 100 MW to 2,000 and 1,200
MW respectively. The most ambitious target is biofuels, which is expected to contribute up to
40% of transport fuel consumption, or 12,312 ktoe. It should also be noted that more than
60% of the biofuels is to be supplied by advanced biofuels, such as biomass-to-liquid and
cellulosic ethanol, for which the commercialization of pertinent technologies needs to
hastened in the coming years.

Table 4 Renewable energy targets in 2021 in the AEDP
Resource Target in 2021
Electricity (ktoe) Thermal (ktoe)
Biomass (solid) 1,896 8,200
Biogas 270 1,000
Municipal solid waste 72 35
Solar 224 100
Wind 134 -
Small hydro (<12 MW) and
pumped storage hydro
756 -
Other (e.g geothermal & marine
power)
1 -
Subtotal 3,353 9,335
Biofuels (ktoe)
Ethanol 2,750
Biodiesel 1,850
Advanced biofuels 7,712
Subtotal 12,312
Grand total 25,000
Source: DEDE, Alternative Energy Development Plan (2012-2021) [3]

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Table 5 Installed capacity targets for different renewable energy types in 2021 as compared to
existing installation.
Resource Deployment in
2011
1
(MW installed)
Target deployment in
2021
2
(MW installed)
Biomass (solid) 1,790 3,630
Biogas 160 600
Municipal solid waste 25 160
Small hydro (<12 MW) and
pumped storage hydro
85 1,608
Solar 79 2,000
Wind 7 1,200
Other (e.g geothermal & marine
power)
- 3
Total 2,156 9,201
Source: 1. DEDE, Alternative Energy Situation, 2012 [3]
2. DEDE, Alternative Energy Development Plan (2012-2021) [4]

2.2 Energy Efficiency Development Plan (EEDP)
Introduced in 2011, the 20-year Energy Efficiency Development Plan (EEDP) aims to reduce
Thailands energy intensity (energy consumption per GDP) by 25% by 2030, with 2010 as the
base year. This would amount to a reduction in energy demand of about 38 Mtoe, or 23% of
the projected total final energy demand in 2030 in the business-as-usual scenario. Much of the
targeted energy saving will be in the industry and transport sector, i.e. 42% and 40% of the
total expected reduction in final energy demand respectively [5]. However in terms of primary
energy consumption, the savings required in the commercial and residential sectors could be
more than 30%, as these two sectors consume more than half of the countrys electricity.

2.3 Power Development Plan (PDP)
The Power Development Plan (PDP) sets the target for electricity generation up to 2030 and
the required types and timing of power plant installations. The most recent PDP, introduced in
2010 and revised in 2012 following the Fukushima incident, aims to add 55 GW of new
generating capacities to the national grid by 2030, so that the total installed capacity would
amount to about 71 GW. The expected fuel mix for electricity generation in 2030 is shown in
Table 6. About half of the total expected electricity demand of 347 TWh will be generated by
natural gas, while nuclear power is expected to contribute 5% with 2 plants at 1,000 MW each.
Renewable energy is to contribute 10% of total generation [6].

Table 6 Targeted fuel mix for power generation in 2030
Energy type % Share
Natural gas 54
Coal 15
Nuclear 5
Hydro 1
Renewable 10
Import 15
Total 100
Source: EPPO, Thailand Power Development Plan (2012-2030)

3. ENERGY R&D AT JGSEE

The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE) is a Center of Excellence in
Energy Technology and Environment (CEE) supported by the Office of Higher Education
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Commission, Ministry of Education, with complementary support by the Ministry of Energy
through the Energy Conservation Promotion Fund. It operates as a consortium of graduate
education and research involving five universities, led by King Mongkuts University of
Technology Thonburi. The consortium partners include: King Mongkuts University of
Technology North Bangkok. Chaing Mai University, Prince of Songkla University, and
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology. The school offers international master and
doctorate programs and conduct research into three main areas: energy technology,
environmental and climate science, and energy and environmental policy. The purpose is to
addresses Thailands sustainable energy development and deployment issues, including
environmental protection and climate change mitigation. The research focus in shown each
area is shown in Table 8 and a brief description of current research activities related to energy
technology and policy is given in the following sections.

Table 8 JGSEEs research focus
Area Focus
Energy Technology Bioenergy and Biofuels
Building Energy Science and Technology
Industrial Energy Efficiency
Other Low Carbon Energy Technology
Environmental and Climate Science Energy-related Pollution Prevention and Control
Technologies
Carbon Cycle and Climate Sciences
Energy and Environmental Policy Energy and Climate Policy

3.1 Bioenergy and Biofuels
Driven by JGSEEs Advanced Fuel Processing Laboratory and NSTDA-JGSEE Biorefinery
Lab, as well as other related laboratories within the JGSEE Consortium, this research focus
aims to address issues related to the economical and sustainable utilization of biomass, waste
and biogas, particularly as heat and power, and transport fuels.
The scope of this research focus thus covers the following:

Fuel characterization, pretreatment and processing.
Efficient and clean conversion of biomass to heat and power through combustion, pyrolysis
and gasification.
Wasteto-energy via thermo-chemical and biological processes.
Biogas production and utilization from wastewater, and cellulosic materials.
Biofuel conversion from food and non-food feedstock, and biofuel utilization.

Examples of current research topics include:

Biomass upgrading, such as torrefaction, and production of high grade carbonaceous
materials/fuels from lignite and biomass by degradative solvent extraction.
Fluidized bed gasification of biomass, co-gasification of biomass-biomass and biomass-waste,
and tar removal.
Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) co-firing of coal and biomass.
Fouling and its prevention in biomass combustion.
Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for ethanol production using hot-compressed water,
and other treatments, as well as fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass.
Alternative approach for the production of furans and acids from lignocellulosic biomass.
Characterization of biodiesel and blended fuel sprays.

3.2 Building Energy Science and Technology
This research focus is contributed primarily by JGSEEs Building Energy Science and
Technology Laboratory, which conducts research on low energy buildings that will support
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implementation of energy conservation programs for buildings in Thailand and countries in
the regional with similar climatic conditions. The research scope include:
Air conditioning systems
Comparative performance and cost effectiveness of external shading, shading between
two glass panes, and internal shading of solar radiation and daylighting through building
facades
Daylighting through various light pipe configurations; daylighting and electric lighting
and overall lighting quality of a space, including intensity distribution of luminaires
comprising LEDs and other devices
Research to spport development and upgrading of building energy labeling program
that incorporates ements higher than the code requirements and that utilizes results from the
two themes above
Application of radiant cooling in residential and commercial buildings
Application of solar cooling and solar dehumidification

3.3 Energy and Environmental Policy
This research focus is contributed mainly by JGSEEs Energy and Environmental Policy
Laboratory and the Life Cycle and Sustainability Assessment Laboratory. The objective is to
conduct policy relevant studies and develop tools to support public agencies and corporations
in decision-making and formulating strategies and plans, for the development and deployment
of energy and environmental technology options and measures, which would lead to
sustainable economic growth and development. The research scope include:

Technology assessment and policy analysis and design for effective development and
deployment of energy efficiency technologies and measures, renewable energy and
other low carbon technologies (e.g. carbon capture and sequestration)
Scenarios for future energy supply and demand, and pathways towards a secure and
low-carbon energy system, as well as a low-carbon society
Energy-security related issues, energy pricing, cost of low carbon energy and GHG-
mitigation options and measures, as well as their implications on the low carbon
economy
Studies relevant to the formulation of policy and strategies for national and regional
cooperation in energy, environment and climate change issues
Life cycle and sustainability assessment of different energy systems and biofuels,
including the food and biofuel nexus

Examples of current research topics:

Development of Thailands R&D roadmap for energy efficiency and renewable
energy
Assessment of potential for the application of carbon capture and storage (CCS)
technology in Thailand
Scenario study of GHG emissions and mitigation by using macro-economic tools
Analysis of Thailands electric power supply security under present energy options
and future alternative options
Feasibility study of using the idle-stop devices for urban transport
Studies to promote energy efficiency cooperation in the ASEAN Economic
Community
Life cycle and sustainability assessment of different energy systems and biofuels,
including carbon foot printing and energy-water nexus

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4. POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE RESEARCH

Research completed or being conducted at JGSEE has been able support Thailands policy-
making and planning in a number of areas. Of particular significance are the following:

The setting of Thailands long-term (20-year) energy efficiency target and plan which has
been endorsed by the Thai Government
Authoring Thailands greenhouse gas inventory report, which serves as a basis for
Thailands national communication to the UNFCCC
Preliminary assessments on the potential for application of carbon capture and storage
technology in Thailand
Development of research and development master plans for renewable energy and energy
efficiency
Development of building energy code
A knowledge base in life cycle greenhouse gas and energy balance of major biofuels and
bioenergy systems
Scaling up of biomass gasification plants for thermal application in collaboration with a
major industry partner

5. REFERENCES

[1] Department of Alternative Energy Development and Energy Efficiency (DEDE) (2012)
Thailand Energy Situation 2011, Annual Report, Bangkok, Thailand.
[2] Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) (2012) Thailand Energy Statistics,
(http://www.eppo.go.th/info/5electricity_stat.htm)
Thailand Alternative Energy Situation 2011, Bangkok, Thailand
Alternative Energy Development Plan (2012-2021), Bangkok, Thailand
[5] Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) (2012) Energy Efficiency Development Plan
(2011-2030), Bangkok, Thailand
[6] Energy Policy and Planning Office (EPPO) (2012) Power Development Plan 2010,
Revision 3, Bangkok, Thailand

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SEE FORUM Viet Nam country report

Renewable energy development in Viet Nam

Luu Duc Hai
1
*, Nguyen Thi Hoang Lien
2

Faculty of Environmental Sciences, VNU-University of Science, Vietnam
1
Prof. Dr., Dean, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Coordinator of Vietnam SEE Forum
2
Dr., Vice Dean, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Secretary of Vietnam SEE Forum
*Corresponding Author. Tel: (84-4) 38584995, Fax: (84-4) 35582872, E-mail: luuduchai@hus.edu.vn

Abstract
Viet Nam is rich in energy potential including fossil fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas,
hydropower, nuclear fuel as well as renewable energy such as wind, solar, bio- and marine
energy. With the average economic growth rate from 6-7% over years, energys needs of Viet
Nam has speedily increased. However, due to many reasons, the energy development in Viet
Nam, especially renewable energy, has faced various difficulties, even barriers. Vietnamese
government is focusing on resources development and policy regulation towards sustainable
energy development, including development of renewable energy projects.

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Keywords: energy potential, renewable energy, barrier, energy policy, sustainable energy

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK

1. GENERAL OUTLOOK OF ENERGY POTENTIAL OF VIET NAM

Viet Nam is rich in energy potential including fossil energy and renewable energy sources.
Viet Nam has big reserves of fossil energy with 10 billion tons of anthracite coal, more than
200 billion tons of brown coal in the northern delta area. Oil and natural gas reserves in Viet
Nam are considered as billion tons and thousand billion m3 [1]. With 9 river systems of more
than 10.000 km2 basin areas, hydropower energy of Viet Nam would reach 300 GWh of total
theoretical capacity and 80-84 GWh of technical capacity. Theoretical installed capacity is
expected to reach 34.5 GW and technical installed capacity is expected to reach 19-21 GW.
Potential of renewable energy of Viet Nam is abundant and includes many types:

Potential of solar energy
Viet Nam has abundant solar energy source with the average 2000-2500 hours of sunshine
yearly (Table 1). Accordingly, solar energy can provide 3 to 4.5 kWh/m2/day in winter and
4.5 to 6.5 kWh/m2/day in summer.

Table 2. Distribution of sunshines hours in the period 2009-2010 [2]
No. Area
Sunshines hour/Year
2009 2010 Average
1 Northwest 1903.9 1833.2 1868.6
2 Northeast 1580.5 1368.0 1474.3
3 Viet Bac 1496.9 1430.6 1463.8
4 Northern plain 1490.9 1328.4 1409.7
5 North Central 1571.3 1488.5 1529.9
6 Mid-Central 1879.9 1934.6 1907.3
7 South Central 2488.3 2598.8 2543.6
8 South 2398.5 2504.6 2451.6
9 Central Highlands 2282.4 2371.1 2326.8

Potential of wind energy
According to the program of Energy evaluation in Asia of World Bank, Vietnam has great
potential of wind energy with the total potential reach 513.360 MW; in which South Central,
Mekong Delta, Central Highlands and islands regions are the areas of greatest potential. There
are 48 wind power projects have being considered to invest, over 20 wind power projects are
under deploying with a projected capacity of 20,000 MW [3]. However, it requires more
baseline data on the technical potential of wind energy at altitudes up to 60 m for effective
deployment of wind energy projects.

Potential of bio-energy
As a tropical country, Vietnam has great potential for bioenergy (biogas, biomass, vegetable
oil, etc.). There are tens of thousands of biogas systems have been implemented in most
provinces using animal waste for providing gas and electric lighting for rural areas. Biomass in
the form of agricultural by-products have not been used can be estimated about tens of
millions of tons per year. Thanks to the tropical climate and large area of surface water and
uncultivated land in the country, crops such as Jatropha or algae can be grown at large scale.
Vietnam also has the great potential for biofuels production from cassava.

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Potential of small-hydro
Vietnam has great potential of hydropower but negligible potential of small hydropower with
the capacity of less than 30 MW. About 120,000 small hydropower stations have been
installed with a total capacity estimated at 300 MW [3].

Potential of ocean energy (wave, tidal, temperature difference of sea water blocks, etc.)
Potential energy of wave, tidal and temperature difference of sea water blocks of nearly 1
million km
2
sea of Vietnam, especially for off-shore islands, is estimated to be very large [2].
However, there are no detailed assessment report and practical deployment plan has been
carried out.

Potential of geothermal
Geothermal potential of the country is not large. Only four hot water sites with the temperature
>100
o
C have been discovered in the whole country with approximately of 200 MW capacity.
However, due to the extreme weather change between seasons, especially in the North has a
wide range from +5
o
C in winter to +40
o
C in summer, there is a possibility to use temperature
stability of the shallow layers to regulate air temperature in high buildings.

2. COUNTRY ENERGY DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND CURRENT SITUATION

In order to meet the needs of socio-economic development with the 7-8% average GDP
growth rate in 2011-2020 period and USD3.000-3.200 GDP per capita by 2020, demand of
primary energy consumption in Viet Nam is presented in Table 2.

Table 3. Projected primary energy consumption in Viet Nam [1]
Parameter Year
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Total consumption of primary
energy (Mtoe)
52.16 72.77 100.86 129.09 169.82
Primary energy for electricity
generation (Mtoe)
19.83 30.84 46.98 64.64 92.71
Exploitation of fossil fuels (Mtoe) 51.45 69.44 86.53 115.67 132.28
Coal (Mtoe) 24.75 33 41.25 57.75 68.75
Crude oil (Mtoe) 19.79 24.58 28.87 33.53 33.53
Natural gas (Mtoe) 6.89 11.86 16.41 24.39 30
Import-export of primary energy
(Mtoe)
11.61 6.29 - 4.34 - 12.91 - 32.41

In recent years, Vietnamese government has issued many laws, regulations, policies and
development planning on the country's energy sector such as: Law on Energy Saving and
Efficiency 2010, Electricity Planning VII, Decision 37/2011/QD-TTg - dated 29 June 2011 on
mechanisms to support wind power development in Vietnam, etc.

Planning for development of coal industry in Viet Nam
Development planning for coal industry until 2020 has been issued by Decision 60/Q TTg
of Prime Minister on 9 January 2012. Accordingly, yearly exploitation of coal is expected to
reach 45-47 million tons (2012), 55-57 million tons (2015), 60-65 million tons (2020), 65-70
million tons (2025) and over 75 million tons (2030). Coal is mainly exploited from anthracite
reserve in Quang Ninh. Brown coal in the Red River Delta region is expected to be exploited
by 2015 with the capacity of 1 million tons in 2020, 2 million tons in 2025 and 10 million tons
in 2030.

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Planning for development of gas industry in Viet Nam
Development planning for gas industry until 2015 and vision to 2025 has been approved by
the Prime Minister of Vietnam in Decision 495/Q-TTg dated 30 March 2011. Accordingly,
the exploitation of natural gas in the country would reach 14 billion m3 per year by 2015 and
15-19 billion m3 per year for the years 2016-2025.

Planning for exploitation of oil
Period 2011-2015: 18-19 million tons/year, excludes oil exploited outside the territory of Viet
Nam.
Period 2016-2025: 21-30 million tons/year, includes 7-14 million tons/year within the territory
of Viet Nam.

Planning for development of power sector
National electricity development plan for the period 2011-2020, with a vision to 2030
(Electricity Plan VII) has been approved by the Vietnamese Government in Decision
1208/Q-TTg dated 21 July 2011. Accordingly, targets of electricity and electricity generated
from renewable energy sources are demonstrated in Table 3.

Table 4. Electricity Plan VII
Planning criteria 2010 2020 2030
Total power capacity per
year (billion kWh)
100.017 330-362 695-834
Proportion of electricity
generated from renewable
energy (%)
3.5 4.5 6.0
Hydro power 27.5 19.6 9.3
Thermal power (run by coal) 17.5 46.8 56.4
Thermal power (run by gas) 44.7 24 14.4
Renewable energy 3.5 4.5 6.0
Nuclear power - 2.1 10.1
Electricity import 4.0 3.0 3.8
Others 4.6 2.4 3.9
Coals consumption 118 171

Energy consumption in Viet Nam
There has been no official information about the structure of energy use in Vietnam in general
and electricity use in particular. Based on the statistics and data of EVN (Viet Nam
Electricity), electricity use in Vietnam from the year 1990 to 2010 can be calculated as shown
in Table 4.

Table 5. Electricity use in Viet Nam in the period 1990-2010
Electricity use (%) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Agriculture 9.5 5.6 2.0 1.5 1.0
Industry 45.0 41.3 40.6 45.4 50.2
Domestic 32.9 44.1 49.0 47.1 45.2
Others 12.6 9.0 8.4 6.0 3.6

According to EVN, by early of the year 2012, 100% of districts, 98.8% of communes and
97.38% of households in Viet Nam have been electrified, among them 96.43% are rural
households. According to Electricity Plan VII, 100% of communes and 98.6% of rural
households will be electrified by the year 2015 and 100% of rural households will be
electrified by 2020.
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According to official data of EVN, the average electricity price in the period 2002-2012 will
increase by 38%, from USD4.7 cents/1 KWh in 2002 to USD6.5 cents/1 KWh in 2012.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN VIETNAM AND BARRIES

1. The exploitation and use of renewable energy in Viet Nam
Exploitation of renewable energy
Although potential of renewable energy of the country is quite large as mentioned above, but
the exploitation and use of renewable energy in the national economy and people's activities
are very limited. Besides a number of wind power projects, ethanol production, solar water
heating, Viet Nam has not formed an economic sector to develop renewable energy. Current
biogas projects focus only on a single goal of providing fuels for rural areas. Solar equipments
for water heating has not been interested by community and investors. Training on renewable
energy in universities and colleges are spontaneous and Viet Nam still lacks technological and
technical infrastructure for the development of renewable energy. Only some kinds of
renewable energy projects are developed in Viet Nam such as biogas, solar water boiling,
wind power electricity plant and ethanol production plant. Indeed, the cost of those energy
types can not compete with other traditional commercial energy types. However, after the
decision to support 1 UScent/1 kWh of wind power [4], the development of wind power
projects in Viet Nam are turning to a new stage.

Power generation from renewable energy sources
Electricity production is a type of important commercial energy and considered as an
important measure for evaluating the exploitation and use of renewable energy. According to
the official data reported by the Ministry of Industry and Trade in March 2012, capacity of
small hydropower is 800 MW, of biogass electricity is 1.5 MW, of solar power is 1.5 MW,
and of wind power is 47.5 MW. It shows that despite a great potential of energy sources,
electricity generation in Viet Nam is still very slow compared to other countries in the region-
wide and worldwide.

2. BARRIERS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN VIET NAM AND
SOLUTIONS

Targets and a number of solutions for developing renewable energy have been mentioned in
the national energy development strategy, electricity plans VI and VII, as well as several
decisions of the Government and ministries. However, there are various reasons for the under-
development of renewable energy in Viet Nam. The next section analyzes those barriers and
proposes solutions for development of renewable energy in Viet Nam.

Institutional and policy barriers
Lack of a national strategy for renewable energy development is the first barrier. Therefore,
we do not have the ability to gather inside and outside resources. Hence, developing a national
strategy on renewable energy should be paid more concerned.
To mobilize domestic and foreign resources, we need to develop an open market, ensuring fair
competition among economic sectors. In fact, decisions on the energy market in Viet Nam still
concentratedly made by monopoly agencies. As evidence, EVN holds about 50% of electricity
capacity and entire power purchase; competition between EVN with TKV (Viet Nam National
Coal-Mineral Industries Holding Corporation Limited) and PVN (Petro Viet Nam) in power
purchasing over time revealed weaknesses in the transparency of the market and the monopoly
of EVN. Therefore, along with the establishment of the Department of Energy under the
Ministry of Industry and Trade and the formation of the competitive electricity market since
1st July 2012, it is needed to separate production from trading of electricity. It is suggested to
convert EVN into an individual public enterprise responsible for power trading, and current
power plants of EVN should be converted into independent businesses participate in
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competitive electricity markets. Similarly, in order to develop renewable energy it is needed to
avoid the formation of monopoly economic units in the fields of production, circulation and
distribution.
Laws, strategies and plans on energy sector of Vietnam have set targets for renewable energy
(such as National Energy Development Strategy until 2020, with a vision to 2050 dated 27
December 2007 or Power Planning VII dated 21 July 2011) but have not determined
responsibilities of each sector and locals including EVN and solutions for achieving defined
objectives. This is completely different from developed countries such as Japan, Germany, etc.
As a result, most of the strategic goals and plans are hardly achieved.

Barriers of technological infrastructures
Requirements for technical infrastructure for renewable energy development are as below:
testing, evaluation and standards of equipments; methods and techniques to connect renewable
energy related products to the current energy market such as voltage, power, DC voltage of
solar electrical equipments or wind power; damage of equipments due to production fault or
natural disasters, decline of output of the device over time of use; less stability of the
renewable energy supply system in the day time and at night, due to climate change which
requires adjustment of sub-load and energy storage devices, etc.
Technical infrastructure of renewable energy is made up of three main elements: production-
equipment manufacturers, equipment installation and maintenance, and operation of energy
production in close relationships with capital (Figure 1).

Figure 12. Technical infrastructure for renewable energy development

According to Figure 1, Viet Nam has not got any centers for installation and maintenance of
renewable energy equipments (which is currently undertaken by the manufacturers), or
environmental and technical standards for renewable energy devices. In other words, we are
lacking of technical infrastructure for renewable energy development. Therefore, it is required
to develop institutional system and technical infrastructure, especially centers for technical
inspection, equipment installation and maintenance, and financial system. Viet Nam also
needs to establish manufacturing industries and connecting new energy to current commercial
energy system.

Energy
equipment
manufacture
r
Centers for
equipment
installation
and
maintenance
Energy
producer and
equipment
operator
Banking
and finance
system for
capital
supply
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Economic barriers
The biggest barrier to the development of renewable energy in the world is mainly related to
high cost and price per unit of energy compared to traditional energy [1, 2, 3]. The cost of
electricity generated from renewable energy sources in developed countries is generally much
higher than the cost of electricity generated from traditional energy sources. For example, the
case of wind power in Vietnam shows that [3]: the cost of the cheapest renewable energy
production in the country is inland wind power is 2.5 times higher than hydro power and 1.5
times higher than thermal power (run by coal). That is because we have not taken into account
the risks of climate incidents of solar and wind energy projects; or the rapid decline in power
generation capacity of the device over time. Renewable energy projects often require higher
costs (geothermal, solar power, tidal power, wave power, etc.); especially projects in the
islands and coastal areas if they are not supported by the government. Reasons for the low
production costs of hydro and thermal power in Vietnam currently is the "subsidy" where the
cost of environmental losses (land loss for hydropower plant reservoirs, changing of rivers
environmental conditions and ecology, subsidy for coal price selling for thermal power, low
coal and environmental taxes, not improper environmental costs, etc.). Therefore, it is crucial
to remove price subsidies, properly and sufficiently charge environmental costs for
hydropower and (coal running) thermal power projects in order to develop a fair market for
renewable energy development.

Table 6. Efficiency of investment on electricity generation in Vietnam in U.S. cents/1 KWh
[1,3]
No Technology Fixed cost Cost of
fuels
Cost of
operation
management
Total
cost
1 Inland wind power with European
equipment
(Tuy Phong)
2,250
USD/KWh
- 10.68
2 Inland wind power with Chinese
equipment
1,700
USD/KWh
- 8.6
3 Hydro power 3.5 - 0.2 3.7
4 Thermal power (runned by coal) 2.0 4.2 0.2 6.4
5 Thermal power (runned by gas) 1.2 6.7 0.12 8.02
6 Thermal power (runned by oil) 1.6 30 0.16 31.76

Low electricity price is another economic barrier to projects of electricity development in
general and electricity generated from renewable energy sources in particular. This has not
encouraged the investment in electricity generation from abundant potential renewable energy
sources of Vietnam. It leads to insufficient supply of electricity or limited replacement of
renewable energy equipments and energy saving. In deed, many small-scale electricity
producers in Vietnam (small and medium-sized hydropower plants, Tuy Phong wind power
plant) could not sign the contract for selling or have to sell electricity at lower price to EVN,
whilst we have to buy electricity from China for the shortage amount. However, the increase
in electricity price needs to follow the route based on the total cost and socio-economic
conditions of the country.

Barriers of information and awareness
Articles and TV news on renewable energy appear more often on today mass media. However,
specific information related to the mining equipments and use of renewable energy is only
provided in the conferences/workshops or exhibitions held in big cities, where conditions of
renewable energy applications are often limited. On the other hand, benefits of the exploitation
and use of renewable energy (economic, environmental, social justice and cultural life) have
not been adequately addressed in those articles and information. Therefore, awareness of
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Vietnamese people on the significance, benefits and the ability of exploitation and uses of
renewable energy is limited.
Thus, the lack of information and awareness is a barrier to exploitation of great potential
renewable energy for sustainable development in the country.

3. ACTIVITIES OF HUS - VNU ON RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

On behalf of HUS VNU, Faculty of Environmental Sciences has tried to expand research
and education on Energy and Environmental activities: to setup energy education for climate
change mitigation, new researching program on renewable energy, to organize workshop and
conference on energy and environment, etc.
As a coordinator of Vietnam SEE Forum Network, In 2011, Faculty of Environmental
Sciences, HUS have actively contacted with scientists from HUST, University of Technology
HCM City, Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment and others
institutions to successful completed UNESCO ODA Project on energy science education in
Vietnam. Powerpoint lectures of this project at that time are using as teaching material in more
than ten Universities in Vietnam and transfering to Project Promotion of Energy Science
Education for Sustainable development in Laos.
As members of VNU, Vietnam SEE Forum members of FES have actively contributed in the
establishment of new center for energy reseach in VNU Center of Nano Technology and
Energy, set up new research program Energy program in period 2012-2017. Many subjects
of energy policy and renewable energy development have been entered into postegraduated
core education program such as: Program on Climate Change, Sustainability Science,
Natural Resources and Environmental Management and etc.
In Master Program Energy and Environment, FES has trained 11 MSc, five of them are
teachers in universities in Vietnam now, two of them work in Insitute of Energy and four
others work as management members in government offices.
SEE Forum members of FES have four reports in national workshops and conferences for
renewable energy development in Vietnam and national energy development plans, such as:
Planning for development of coal industry in Vietnam, Planning for development of power
sector, etc.
Activites of FES SEE-Forum members have positively impacted to renewable energy
development in Vietnam in general and in VNU in particular.

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the above analysis, following conclusions and recommendations have emerged:
Vietnam is a country with great potential for renewable energy: solar energy, wind energy,
small hydro power, bio-energy, ocean energy. However, due to some difficulties and barriers,
the exploitation and use of renewable energy in Vietnam are still at small scale and slow. It is
required to overcome those shortcomings.
The barriers include: lack of institutional and strategic national renewable energy
development, poor technical infrastructure, and some other economic barriers such as
improper calculation of environmental costs which leads to unfair competition between
renewable energy and existing traditional energy, low electricity price, insufficient
information and information exchange for better understanding and investment on renewable
energy.
Government should develop a national strategy on renewable energy, and policies and
mechanisms to ensure fairness for all economic sectors in investment on renewable energy
production, as well as providing favorable conditions for technical infrastructure for renewable
energy development.
FES SEE-Forum members have positive activities for renewable energy development and
sustainable development in Vietnam.

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5. REFERENCES

[1] Tran Viet Ngai (Chief Editor), (2012), Energy Book of Viet Nam. Labor Publisher, Hanoi,
Viet Nam.
[2] Nguyen Xuan Cu, Luu Duc Hai, Tran Thanh Lam, Tran Van Quy, (2009), Potential and
orientation for exploitation of renewable energy in Vietnam. Labor Publisher, Hanoi, Vietnam.
[3] Nguyen Chan Giac (2012) What are the barriers to the development of renewable energy
in Vietnam, Journal of Scientific Activities, Vol. 5 (636), 2012, p.16-18.
[4] Luu Duc Hai, Nguyen Thi Hoang Lien (2012), The barriers for development of renewable
energy in Viet Nam and its solutions. International Symposium on Green Technology and
Sustainable Development, Hochiminh City 29-30 September, 2012.
[5] Decision No. 37/2011/Q TTg issued by Prime Minister on 29 June 2011 on support
mechanism for wind power development in Vietnam.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Evaluation of Viability of Sites for Wind Energy Harnessing A Fuzzy Logic
Rule based Multi Criteria Evaluation Technique

Srinivas Morapakala1*, MD Belal Ahmed2, Teja Dasari3
1*
Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, BITS, Pilani- Hyderabad, A.P., India
(O) +91- 040-66303511, (M) +91 9010202827, morasrini@bits-hydereabd.ac.in, morasrini@gmail.com
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, BITS, Pilani- Hyderabad, belalahmed2801@gmail.com
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, BITS, Pilani- Hyderabad, teja1687@gmail.com

Abstract
In the back drop of fast depleting fossil fuels, it is the need of the hour to look for alternative
sources of energy that are both sustainable and economical. Though there are many feasible
options available, wind energy has its own niche as a clean and energy intensive option.
Setting up a wind farm involves considering a number of criteria thus rendering it a multi
criteria evaluation problem. The current study is concerned with developing a software tool
that aids in evaluating viability of a wind energy harnessing site and help decision makers
make a judicious decision as such ventures involve colossal amounts of investments. The
paper explains the viability evaluation problem formulation, the fuzzy logic rule based
methodology and development of a MATLAB based software tool to solve such a viability
evaluation problem. A case study of evaluation of four Indian wind energy harnessing sites
using the developed methodology and software tool is also presented. It has been observed that
the viability indices of these four sites are 3.57, 3.61, 3.84, 3.27, while the ideal viability index
of any wind harnessing site is 5.

Keywords: Viability, wind energy sites, multi criteria evaluation, fuzzy logic

1. INTRODUCTION

Wind Energy, a renewable source of energy, is an indirect form of solar energy. About 2% of
the solar energy incident on Earth gets converted to wind energy. This Energy conversion rate
is more than one hundred times greater than the total worldwide power consumption. Sites for
wind energy harnessing involve colossal amount of investment in the form of money,
manpower and time. In order to ensure the investments made, reap desired benefits, an
exhaustive analysis of all factors that affect the selection of the site for wind energy is to be
performed. These factors evolve from a host of several scientific, engineering, cultural,
environmental and many more other considerations which may be specifically related to site,
economic and social issues. Hence the evaluation of a wind energy site to determine its
viability can be viewed as a multi criteria evaluation (MCE) problem. This paper aims at (a)
formulating the wind energy site selection problem in MCE environment and (b) development
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of a fuzzy logic rule based MCE methodology and MATLAB based software tool to solve
such a viability evaluation problem that facilitates the evaluation of viability of a site for wind
energy harnessing.

2. FORMULATION OF VIABILITY OF SITES FOR WIND ENERGY
HARNESSING PROBLEM IN MCE ENVIRONMENT

As demonstrated by classical theories of MCE techniques [1-7] the problem formulation
involves different phases viz. identification and definition of criteria, arranging the criteria to
obtain a hierarchy of criteria, selection of appropriate MCE technique.

2.1 Definition of Criteria and Viability of wind energy site
Any characteristic related to the site that directly/ indirectly affects the functionality of the site
to serve its intended purpose can be viewed as the criteria. Mathematically, if v1, v2, v3.... are
various criteria that affect the viability of the site, then the viability, V of the site is defined
as

Viability, ( )
1 2 3
, , ..
n
V f v v v v = . (1)

Where n is the number of criteria to be taken into account. A site is said to be having an
optimum viability, if all the criteria for the site under question are simultaneously optimized.

2.2 Identification, definition and hierarchical representation of criteria
As stated earlier, all the criteria that affect the viability of any wind energy site evolve from
a host of several scientific, engineering, cultural, environmental and many more other
considerations which may be specifically related to technical, economic and social issues.
Fig.1. depicts the inter relationship among all these.

Fig. 1 Inter-relationship among various dimensions of viability

With the inputs from various literature resources [3-7], initially an exhaustive list of 56 criteria
has been prepared. Some of these are wind speeds, availability of land, proximity to grid,
accessibility of site, wind power density, site environment issues like corrosion, humidity, an
array of economic criteria, proximity to noise-sensitive dwellings,
aviation/telecommunications conflicts etc. As per the classical MCE theories, it must be
ensured that the criteria should be complete, operational, non-redundant, and minimum in
number [1]. Accordingly, some of the criteria are clubbed together; some of the criteria are
divided into more number of criteria, so as to arrive at a consolidate list of 20 criteria. For
instance, land cost, transportation cost and material cost are combined to yield a single factor
viz. infrastructure cost. The criteria and their definitions are as given in Fig. 2.

A hierarchy of criteria is a systematic representation of all the criteria which facilitates an
easier way to handle a MCE problem [1]. Having identified and defined various criteria, the
criteria are divided broadly into three dimensions of viability viz. economic dimension (A
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category), site-technical dimension (B category) and social dimension (C category).
Definitions of these dimensions are as given in Fig. 2. Under each of these dimensions, two
sub-categories, favorable and another unfavorable are created and criteria are grouped
accordingly. Definitions of these sub categories are as given in Fig. 2. Systematic arrangement
of all the criteria, sub-categories, dimensions lead to the formation of a decision hierarchy as
shown in Fig. 2. The hierarchy consists of 4 levels. The top most level is the overall viability
of the site. On the next level are the dimensions that affect the viability. The next level consists
of the sub-categories of the dimensions and the fourth level consists of the identified exclusive
criteria.

2.3 Selection of MCE technique
Since the viability of a site is a function of several criteria, the mathematical treatment of all
the criteria to arrive at the viability of the site requires MCE techniques. MAUT, MAVT,
AHP, PROMETHEE, different versions of ELECTRE, TOPSIS etc are some of the different
MCE techniques being used in renewable energy planning applications [3-7]. While all these
methods have a strong scientific and mathematical base, they require rigorous mathematical
and computational treatment to arrive at the suitability of a site for wind energy harnessing,
there by necessitating the need for a simple MCE technique that can readily be used. The
established method for obtaining the performance of a site w.r.t such criteria is to obtain the
same through opinions of the stakeholders, which are obviously subjective in nature. Given
that the fuzziness implies not sharply focused, clearly reasoned or expressed; lacking of
clarity; blurred [8], the performance of a particular site w.r.t criteria such as, for example,
Aesthetics, would be fuzzy in nature. The chosen MCE technique should be able to handle all
these ambiguities. With its ability to address the above issues, fuzzy rule based MCE
technique would be advantageous to arrive at the viability of the wind energy sites.
Additionally, this fuzzy rule based techniques is easily implementable using the more generic
software tools, such as fuzzy logic tool box of MATLAB.

Fig. 2 Hierarchy of criteria for the viability of sites used for wind energy harnessing

A: Economic dimension (The dimension of viability that influences the viability of the site
from economic costs & benefits); A1: Economic Costs (Expenditures that may be incurred to
consider the site for wind energy harnessing ); A2: Economic Benefits(Economic benefits that
may be gained by going for the site for wind energy harnessing); A11: Land cost (Expenditure
involved buy/lease land for setup); A12: Infrastructural cost(Expenditure incurred to cover
material costs, turbine costs and transmission costs); A13: Interest Rates on Loans (Interest
rate provided on money borrowed for setup); A14: Labor and Expertise cost (Expenditure
incurred to recruit technical experts and labor); A21: Revenue from electricity sale (The
amount that may be earned on sale of electricity generated); A22: Subsidies & incentives for
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competing options (Extent of effectiveness of governments economic policies in support of
competing options)

B: Site-technical dimension (The dimension of viability that influences the viability of the site
from technical issues related to site); B1: Sites Technical favorability (Extent of technical
favorability of the site for wind harnessing); B2: Sites technical restriction (Extent of
technical restrictions of the site for wind energy harnessing); B11: Wind speed (The mean
wind speed at 10 meter height above ground level); B12: Wind density (The availability of
required wind densities to generate wind energy continuously); B13: Technical expertise
availability (The extent of availability of labor and technical assistance, in the immediate
vicinity of the site, to set up and maintain wind energy systems.); B14: Ease of transmission
(The extent of availability of preexisting electrical transmission network, hardware &
facilities such as poles, wirings, sub-station etc., in the immediate vicinity of the site); B15:
Site accessibility (The ease with which the site can be accessed for installation and
maintenance); B16: Soil quality (Favorability of the soil at the site to withstand construction
and infrastructural loads); B21: Gusts (The extent of variation in wind speeds over a period of
time); B22: Terrain (The extent of undulations in the surface due to natural and artificial
structures)); B23: Forest ecosystem damage (The forest cover affected by the setup,
considered to be directly proportionate to the forest density at the desired location); B24:
Evacuation (Population density as a measure of physical disturbance caused to human
habitation due to setup);

C: Social dimension (The dimension of viability that influences the viability of the site from
social & behavioral issues); C1: Social favorability (Extent of influence of social & behavioral
issues that favor the site for wind energy harnessing); C2: Social restrictions (Extent of
influence of social & behavioral issues that do not favor the choosing of site for wind energy
harnessing); C11: Risk Factor (Risk taking ability of the individual/organization setting up the
wind energy system); C12: Exclusivity of energy (Belief that wind energy is the only
renewable energy option in the area under consideration); C21: Noise (The irritation caused to
residents in the vicinity, due to noise of setup); C22: Aesthetics (The extent to which setup is
perceived to be aesthetically pleasing)

3. DEVELOPMENT OF FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM FOR VIABILITY
EVALUATION

The fuzzy membership functions and fuzzy rules together form the knowledge base of any
fuzzy rule based reasoning system. The three components of a fuzzy logic based reasoning
process are fuzzification, inferencing and defuzzification. In the fuzzification process, non
fuzzy inputs are fuzzified by applying membership functions in each fuzzy set in the rule input
space. In the inferencing phase, the fuzzified inputs are mapped to the rule base to produce
fuzzified output for each rule. Defuzzification process converts the fuzzy outputs to a scalar
value. For the present evaluation problem, the important steps followed in developing a FIS
are (A) Fuzzy representation of input values by defining and applying membership functions,
(B) Rule base design, (C) Defining the basic attributes of the FIS

3.1 Definition of membership functions
A membership function (MF) is a curve that defines how each point in the input space is
mapped to a membership value in a fuzzy set between 0 and 1. If X is the universe of
discourse and its elements are denoted by x, then a fuzzy set A in X is defined as a set of
ordered pairs.

A = {x x) | x (2)

x) is called the membership function of x in A.
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In the present viability evaluation technique, a particular variable could be considered as a
member of one or more of 5 sets viz., Very low, Low, Medium, High, Very high. The
sets represent the extent of favorability of the particular variable to the site. The normalized
inputs of all criteria are defined on a scale of favorability ranging from 1 to 5 with 1 being
least favorable and 5 being most favorable to the site. In the absence of authenticate previous
information on the techniques to define membership functions for the present kind of problem,
triangular membership functions are used to define all sets as precise shapes of membership
curves are not of importance in their utility [9]. Table 1 presents the typical ranges of values
that have been considered to define the MF for the criteria at the bottom most level of the
hierarchy. The ranges of all the membership functions of the criteria in the higher levels have
been normalized to be of the same value as ranges of membership functions in the lower
levels. Therefore, the output will be defined over a range of 1 to 5 with 1 being least favorable
site and 5 being most favorable site.

Table 1 Ranges of membership functions for all fuzzy sets

Set Very
low
Set Low Set
Medium
Set High Set Very
High
Type and
range of
membership
function

Triangular

[0 1 2]
Triangular

[1 2 3]
Triangular

[2 3 4]
Triangular

[3 4 5]
Triangular

[4 5 6]

3.2 Design of rule base
Fuzzy inference systems use the human knowledge on the problem in IF-THEN form. A
typical rule is of the form IF x1 is A1 and x2 is A2 and x3 is A3 or x4 is A4 THEN y is B
where x1 to x4 are inputs with A1 to A4 as their corresponding fuzzy sets, and/or are
connectors used to define the rule and y is the output with B as its fuzzy set. Using this basic
logic for rulebase, membership functions and rulebase for all the output variables are designed,
by systematically taking several possible combinations of input variables, for each of input-
output variables set. Based on the inputs in the form of opinions of experts and researchers in
the field, researchers intuition, sum of the numerical values applicable for a particular
combination of input variables, the necessary rulebase covering all the output variables at
different levels is generated. A combination of purely or rules and purely and rules that are
suitable weighted are used to define the rulebase. The need for the combination of rules and its
functioning are explained below.

It was noticed that when purely or rules defined the rule base, the sensitivity of the output
was zero for certain changes in a single input as shown in Fig. 3. As it can be seen from the
Fig 3, the viability index remained same when the input value of input1 was changed from 2 to
5. This was in clear conflict with human intuition.

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Fig. 3 Rule viewer of exclusive or operator rules

When purely and rules defined the rulebase, there existed an ambiguity in the selection of the
output membership function. For example, in the rule of a two input FIS, If CA1 is high and
CA2 is medium then T1 is high, the output MF can be either high or low. This can be
avoided by using two rules, one having output MF high and another low, but the job becomes
very tedious for larger number of inputs. For 4 inputs itself 1250 rules are required. This
problem was tackled by taking into consideration common areas between the outputs of each
rule while evaluating viability. The areas obtained after aggregation are divided into
overlapping and non overlapping. The overlapping area is the common area between output of
each rule. The remaining area is the non overlapping area. The purely or rules take into
consideration the contribution of non overlapping areas in giving the output. As the
overlapping of area contributes to the weights assigned to each rule, these rules have the least
weightage. A purely or rule is defined as, If CA1 is high or CA2 is high or CA3 is high
or CA4 is high then T1 is high. A combination of such rules for all five sets Very low,
Low, Medium, High, Very high together will cover all possible combinations of the
inputs lying in any set. The purely and rules consider the overlapping of areas. The
overlapped area of the membership functions may be considered to have double or triple
weightage as the non-overlapping areas depending upon number of overlapping criteria. All
possible combinations of overlapping criteria may be taken into account. For a four input
system, the overlapping will be between either two criteria, three criteria or all four criteria.
Every possible combination of overlap has a weighted rule assign to it. A rule may be written
for each case as shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Rules and weights for a four input FIS

Overlap
type
Rule Weight
No overlap If CA1 is high or CA2 is high or CA3 is high or CA4 is
high then T1 is high
0.133
Two criteria If CA1 is high and CA2 is high T1 is high 0.292
Three
criteria
If CA1 is high and CA2 is high and CA3 is high T1 is
high
0.5
Four criteria If CA1 is high and CA2 is high and CA3 is high and
CA4 is high then T1 is high
1

The weights are computed by considering the shape of the membership functions. In the case
of four inputs, the maximum overlap case i.e. overlap of four criteria is given highest
weightage 1 (total area), overlap of four criteria is given weightage 0.5 so that the area
enclosed by it is 3/4
th
of the total area and so on. Explanation of arriving at the values of
weights is shown in detail in Fig. 4. This same concept was extended to design the rule base of
other FISs with different number of inputs. This same concept was extended to design the rule
base of other FISs with different number of inputs.

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3.3 Definition of basic attributes of the Fuzzy inference system (FIS)
Primary building up of fuzzy inference system involves appropriate selection of fuzzy logic
operators; implication methods; aggregation methods; defuzzification methods etc. The two
most commonly used fuzzy inference methods are Mamdani systems and Sugeno models. The
first method, which handles the rules of the form IF x1 is A1 and x2 is A2 and x3 is A3 and
x4 is A4 THEN y is B is the most common in practice and literature. The second inference
method handles the rules in the form IF x is A and y is B THEN z = f (x, y) where z = f (x,
y) is a crisp function. Depending on the nature of input output data and the rules, any one of
these inference methods may be selected. As suggested by the nature of the rules governing
the present viability evaluation problem and as described in the manual of fuzzy logic tool box
of MATLAB, operator Min for the implication process and Max for aggregation process
are selected in order to make the FIS to handle multiple IF-THEN rules so as to get a fuzzified
output of a particular input output combination. A crisp value of the aggregated output is
obtained by applying any one of the several defuzzification techniques such as max
membership principle; centroid method; weighted average method; mean max membership
method; centre of Sums method; center of largest area; first or last of maxima methods etc.
However, centroid method is selected as the defuzzification method for the present problem as
all defuzzification methods produce little difference in practice [10] and centroid method is the
most prevalent and physically appealing of all the defuzzification methods [11].

INPUT OUTPUT WEIGHT ASSINGED TO RULE

Case: when weight is 1 (Maximum i.e. four
input overlap)
The total area of the triangle is enclosed.
Case: when weight is 0.5 (three input
overlap)
The height of the enclosed area is 0.5 units
and thus the area enclosed by the trapezium
is 3/4
th
of the area enclosed by the case when
all four inputs are overlapping.
Case: when weight is 0.292 (two input
overlap)
The height of the enclosed area is 0.292
units and thus the area enclosed by the
trapezium is 1/2 of the area of the triangle.

Case: when weight is 0.133 (no overlap)
The height of the enclosed area is 0.133
units and thus the area enclosed by the
trapezium is 1/4th of the area of the triangle.

Fig. 4 Assigning weights to different rules

3.4 Development of MATLAB based software interface
As a software support is required to read the input values, evaluate the viability and present the
output to the user, a software interface is developed using fuzzy logic tool box of MATLAB
7.10.0, the block diagram of which is shown in Fig.5. All basic attributes are set using the FIS
editor, the rule base is formulated using the rule editor and the membership functions are
designed using the Membership function editor.
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Fig. 5 Block diagram for fuzzy inference system

The software interface developed is a generic one in which the viability of any system can be
evaluated if the hierarchical model of the criteria and input criterion values are known.
Evaluating viability using the software interface consists of the two steps viz. (a) Creating the
hierarchical model by specifying number of dimensions, criteria and sub-criteria associated
with the site (b) Initializing the values to the respective criteria at the lowermost level to obtain
final viability. Having developed a software tool to evaluate viability, a case study of wind
farms in different regions of India was taken up to validate the model.

4. CASE STUDY OF WIND ENERGY SITE SELECTION

Four sites located at different parts of India are selected to evaluate their respective viabilities
to set up a wind energy project. Some of these sites have experienced noticeable growth in
wind energy utilization whereas others present a strong case for consideration because of the
prevailing wind conditions and support by the government and private players. Each site
provides a diverse geographical background and hence will also help in understanding the
relative viability from the general geographic viewpoint. The details of the selected sites are
(a) Satara, Maharashtra,: Latitude: 174129 N. Longitude: 740003 E, this site is located in
the Western Ghats and is visited by winds from the Mediterranean, located over 2320 ft over
sea level; (b) Kayathar, Tamil Nadu: Latitude 858'13" N. Longitude 7748'56" E, This site is
located in the southern Tamil Nadu which is one of southern most regions of India, this region
is frequently visited by winds from the Mediterranean which form a bottleneck over this
region and Kanyakumari; (c) Lamba, Gujrat, Latitude 2152'51" N Longitude: 6918'25" E,
this site is located on the western shore of India in the state of Gujrat, thesite has winds which
originate from Central Asia and flow around the Himalayas; (d) Dewas, Madhya Pradesh
Latitude 22 35' N. Longitude: 76 04' E, site is located in the geographic centre of India, has
an elevation of 1755 ft above sea level.
The viability has been evaluated after collecting input data through a brainstorming session
held at the International conference and expo on renewable energy RENERGY 2012 held on
march 12-13 also attended by experts from C-WET (Centre for Wind Energy Technology) and
MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy). Table 3 shows the input value for each
criterion as given by the experts. The viability indices for the chosen sites, as evaluated using
the technique presented, are presented in Table 4, which are in congruence with the general
notion of the experts.

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Table 3 Input values to the FIS
Places

Criteria
Satara,
Maharashtra
Kayathar,
Tamil Nadu
Lamba,
Gujrat
Dewas,
Madhya
Pradesh

Economic

Land Cost 5 3 4 2
Infrastructural
cost
4 3 4 2
Interest rate
on loans
4 4 4 4
Labour and
expertise cost
2 4 4 2
Revenue from
incentives
4 3 4 4
Subsidies and
Incentives
4 2 4 4

Technical
Wind speed

4 3 3 3
Wind density

4 3 3 3
Expertise
availability
2 4 4 3
Ease of
transmission
3 4 4 3
Site
accessibility
4 4 4 3
Soil quality

4 4 3 4
Gusts

4 3 3 3
Terrain

3 4 3 3
Ecosystem
damage
2 4 4 4
Evacuation

4 4 4 4

Social
Risk Factor

3 4 4 3
Exclusivity of
energy
4 4 4 3
Noise

4 4 4 4
Aesthetics

4 4 4 4

Table 4 Final viability index of chosen sites
Place Viability
Satara, Maharashtra 3.57
Kayathar, TamilNadu 3.61
Lamba, Gujrat 3.84
Dewas, Madhya Pradesh 3.27

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5. CONCLUSION

The viability of a wind farm is formulated as a MCE problem and a fuzzy logic rule based
methodology and software interface is developed to evaluate it. The model is validated using
the data collected from the experts regarding certain sites in India and the results obtained are
congruent with their opinions. The model is made generic so that it can be used for evaluating
a performance index in a MCE environment and would serve as a deterministic decision
making tool.

6. REFRENCES

[1] Raju, K.S. and Kumar, D.N. (2010) Multicriteria criterion Analysis In Engineering And
Management, New Delhi-PHI learning private limited.
[2] Munda G. (1995) Multi criteria evaluation in a fuzzy environment, Heidelberg-Physica
Verlag.
[3] Lee,A.H.I. Chen, H.H. and Kang, H.Y. (2009) Multi-criteria decision making on
strategic selection of wind farms, Renewable Energy, 34, pp.120-126.
[4] Kaya, T and Kahraman, C. (2010) Multicriteria renewable energy planning using an
integrated fuzzy VIKOR & AHP methodology: The case of Istanbul. Energy, 35, pp.
2517-2527.
[5] Leda-Ioanna, T. Heracles, P. and Dias, A. (2010) Environmental management
framework for wind farm siting: methodology and case study, Jl. of Environmental
Management, 91(11), pp. 2134-2147.
[6] Lozano-Minguez, E. Kolios, A.J. and Brennan, F.P. (2011) Multi-criteria assessment of
offshore wind turbine support structures, Renewable Energy, 36 (11), pp. 2831-2837.
[7] Rob, V.H and Vasilis, F. (2011) GIS-based wind farm site selection using spatial multi-
criteria analysis (SMCA): Evaluating the case of New York State, Renewable and
[8] Bozadziev, G. and Bozadziev, M. (2007) Fuzzy logic for business, finance, and
Management, Singapore-World scientific publishing Co. Pte Ltd.
[9] Timothy, J.R. (2004) Fuzzy logic with engineering applications, London-John Wiley &
Sons.
[10] Tanaka, K. (1997) An Introduction to fuzzy logic for practical applications, New York-
Springer.
[11] Sugeno, M. (1985) An introductory survey of fuzzy control, Information Sciences, 36,
pp. 59 -83.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

An Overview of the Design, Processing and Properties of Solar Controlling Thin
Solid Films

N. U.S. Yapa,
*,#
P.Ekanayake
*
*

*
Energy Research group, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tunku Link, Brunei
Darussalam, BE1410
#
Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda,
Sri Lanka.
#
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 8912890, E-mail: nayomi.uthpala@gmail.com

Abstract
Solar radiation is a demonstrated freely available good source of energy and most architectural
designs are optimized to minimize energy consumption from lighting. Additionally, photo-
voltaic devices rely on photon absorption by low energy band to convert energy directly from
sunlight. In both of these applications, the visible spectrums of the solar radiation are most
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useful. Evidence abound that the spectral tail ends corresponding to UV and NIR and IR of the
solar spectrum are rather counterproductive in energy terms. The aim of solar controlling thin
film is to be able to manage solar transmission to selectively transmit more of the technically
useful visible radiation. Many attempts have being made at achieving solar control for this
purpose and no doubt the use of thin solid films are largely being considered. These designs
take advantage engineered surfaces that have different values of transmittance, absorbance,
reflectance and emittance at different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum of solar radiation.
Optimized solar control properties are proposed for solar energy applications such as
absorbers, heat mirrors, reflective materials, anti-reflective materials, cold mirrors, optical
switching films and photovoltaic films.
This review considers the numerous designs, approach, processing and properties of
combinations of thin films proposed for solar controlling. We concentrate in particular on
films which are deposited by chemical and physical methods. Also, we discuss the potentials
of some newer systems with possible solar controlling properties.

1. INTRODUCTION

For nearly three decades, thin film coating for the control of solar radiations have become
commercially available in architectural glass. Such control include shading, thermochromic
and electrochromic properties.[10-13,22,23]. More recent applications are being targeted at
energy efficient reasons. for these cases, spectral selectively is required to sieve out both UV
and longer IR radiation. Though a number of products are now available to achieve these solar
control, too many of these are not well documented and the mechanism of solar control are not
well spelt out. Different methods also have been used to deposit the many systems available
proposed here will discuss the mechanisms of solar control, the system of thin films and
methods for deposition. Additionally the techniques for characterizing the films, for suitability
are explored.

1.1 Conceptual mechanisms for solar control
In most surface of the coating glasses are solar selective. It means they have different values of
transmittance, absorbance, reflectance and emittance at different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum of solar radiation. These properties achieve many important solar energy
applications. Solar collector is a device that absorbs falling solar radiation on it and converts it
in to the thermal energy. They show low reflectance and high absorbance in short wave length
(20 300nm) and low absorbance and high reflectance at > 300nm in the solar spectrum.
Lead sulfide is a common example for this purpose in literature. Another solar energy
application is heat mirrors which can be used to reduce the temperature in buildings. A heat
mirror transmits UV-VIS region but it has a high reflectance in the IR region. Some highly
doped semiconductors such as InO
2
, SnO
2
are examples for this purpose. And silicon on silver
coating is an example for Dark mirrors .They absorb in the solar energy < 300nm and
transmit in the thermal infrared < 300nm.Cold mirror films have low transmittance in the
visible region, but low reflectance in the IR region. It has opposite spectral properties of Dark
mirrors. ZnS/MgF
2
and TiO
2
/SiO
2
multilayer systems have been showed these cold mirror
properties in literature. Solar control thin film is the production of thin films which can be
used as window glazing coatings. Many scientists all over the world are doing researches to
improve the performance of solar energy devices to provide comfort in buildings and
automobiles. And also to enhance passenger comfort and improve interior climate control in
vehicles.
Solar control coatings are expected to play the role of a conventional air conditioner, it can be
coated with spectrally selective coatings which transmit almost all visible radiation and reflect
all infrared radiation (heat) from inside of buildings in warm climate. For solar control
coatings, there must be controlled optical transmittance which ranges between 10-50% and
low reflectance which is less than 10% in the visible region (400nm 700nm) and high
reflectance in the infrared region ( > 700nm). Hence, an ideal energy-efficient window in a
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warm climate should have T = 1 and R = 0 for the visible region (i.e. 400 < < 700 nm) and T
= 0 and R = 1 for the infrared region (700 nm < ) .
This theory was proposed by Nair et al [6] and he also proposed a figure for ideal solar
controllers as shown in figure 1.

Fig.1 Optical transmittance (T %) and reflectance(R %) of ideal solar control coating. [6]

With this, there is the cooling of the inside of buildings as the infrared portion is screened off
and there is also adequate illumination of the inside of the same buildings. In all these
applications of thin films, the visible spectrums of the solar radiation are most useful. Daylight
is from solar radiation that consists of a range of wavelengths from 300nm 1200nm. [1-6]

2. SYSTEM OF FILMS AND SOLAR CONTROLING PROERTIES

The coating thin films can be categorized as the applications of solar cells, anti-reflecting
coatings, electronics, solar controlling, optoelectronic and other applications according to their
optical and solid state properties. These can be illustrated concerning single layer and
multilayer films under the various deposition methods based on past experimental evidences.
[1-20]

2.1 Single layer films
Single layer films can be categorized as the metal films, metal sulfide films, metal oxide films,
metal nitride films.

2.1.1 Metal Oxide Thin Films
Titanium dioxide (TiO
2
) is one of the earliest discovered important inorganic functional
materials with good physical properties. TiO
2
is non-toxicity and good stability in various
environments. TiO
2
has high band gap that is transparent to visible light and has excellent
optical transmittance. And also TiO
2
has high refractive index and good insulating properties.
So it is widely used as protective layer for very large scale integrated circuits and for
manufacture of optical elements. Such as dye-sensitized photovoltaic cell.TiO
2
crystallizes in
three polymorphs, anatase (tetragonal), rutile (tetragonal) and brookite (orthogonal).
Preparation of TiO
2
with chemical doping can also cause structure and morphology changes, it
means it can change the anatase structure to rutile.The porous structure is very important for
the photo catalytic activity of TiO
2
films due to its enhanced surface area. According to the
earlier studies, C-doped TiO
2
films were shown porous structure. The following SEM picture
(fig.2) shows sol-gel C- doped TiO
2
structure.
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Fig. 2 SEM image of carbon Doped TiO
2
Film [9]

And also doped TiO
2
with Fe, Nb and Ta are good experimental results for photo catalyst.
They showed higher activity than the normal TiO
2
under natural solar light. When Nb/TiO
2
is
compared with normal TiO
2
, the solar decolonization and mineralization rates improved by
140% and 237% and band gap reduced to 2.8ev.5% ZrO
2
doped sol gel prepared TiO
2
thin
films illustrated near solar control characters. It means films are transparent in the visible
range and opaque in the UV region. And also their grain sizes are ranging from 8.58 to
20.56nm. By varying the doping ratio and coating layers can arranged this films as opaque to
IR region. It will be a great purpose for the solar controlling windows.
In the literature have been reported Tin Oxide thin films applications such aspotential
applications in dye-based solar cells, semiconducting and photo conducting devices, and gas
sensors. And also ZnO semiconducting material and doped ZnO have been used as solar
control applications. Among those doping,Sn doping ZnO had higher transparency. It is about
(7590%) within the visible wavelength region. V0
2
is the most promising thermochromic
material among the other elements in thermo chromic smart windows applications. The visible
transmittance properties are dependent on the film thickness. But these films are shown
excellent transmittance properties. The visible transmittances of these films were 54% and the
near infrared switching efficiencies were as high as 50% at 200nm. Although some past
researches have reported the single layer VO
2
films with a 77% visible transmittance. We can
conclude that, this is an important step of energy saving smart windows development. And
also MoO
3
and vanadium doped MoO
3
thin films are the examples for the best smart windows
applications. [7, 8, 10-12]

2.1.2 Metal Nitride Thin Films
The cathodic arc deposited TiN thin films are warranted to explore the range of visible and
solar transmittance combinations. In this experiment, various TiN thin films have been
deposited by varying N
2
ratio. According to the transmission spectra in Fig.3, Tmax shifted
when ratio of N/Ti increased. Solar absorbance in films didnt change with N/Ti ratio. It was
around 25-35%.

Fig.3 Spectral transmittance properties of TiN films with different N ratio [13]

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2.1.3 Metal sulfide thin films
The solar control applications of Cu
x
S films and PbS films have reported in a series of past
research articles. PbS coatings are most popular in infrared detectors. And PbS films have
been used in solar energy field as the photo thermal conversion applications. Currently, Cu
x
S
thin films are usually found in the literature related to the solar energy field. A CdS-CuS
structure was based on large scale production of thin film solar cells in the early 1980. In the
literature, a CuIS
2
absorber layer was an interesting result in photovoltaic technology.
Nowadays Cu
x
S thin film is most remarkable as solar control coatings in warm climate. Cu
x
S
semiconductor can vary its electrical and optical properties as a function of the composition.
Nair et al [6] has been done series of researches regarding with Cu
x
S, SnS, PbS etc. He
investigated Cu
x
S thin films for solar control applications deposited on to glass substrates
using chemical bath deposition. By considering all the optical results of deposited films, films
with 145nm thickness show the optical properties very close to the solar control glazing. It
means these films have high transmittance (>35%) and low reflectance (<15%) in visible
region. And also they have low transmittance (<10%) and high reflectance (Rmax=45) in the
NIR region. [14] It can be cleared by examine the following values of both transmittance and
Reflectance through the film surface (denoted by fs) measured in the visible (VIS) and near-
infrared (NIR) regions are mentioned in the following table. (Table 1).

Table 1 Summary of the optical transmittance and reflectance spectra through the film
surface. [14]
Film
Thickness/nm
T
fs
PEAK
(
%)
T
VIS
fs

(%)
R
fs
VIS

(%)
T
fs
NIR

(%)
R
fs
NIR
(%)
90 50 48 20 37-11 19-60
145 40 36 8 33-8 14-61
190 32 24 8 27-5 9-63
255 23 17 7 18-1 6-65
300 19 11 10 15-1 7-60

SnS and InS thin films also can use for the photovoltaic applications. Previous results of solar
control laminated glass using ZnS and CuS interest toward developing architectural glazing
for tropical hot climates. The optical transmittance of the laminated glass with ZnS (4080
nm) thin film in the visible region is about 80%.But the optical transmittance of the CuS thin
film of 100150 nm in thickness over the ZnS coating showed the visible transmittance of
22% to 40% and it was about 10% in the near infrared region. It is clear that, these types of
films are high visible transmittance and low infra-red transmittance. [15]

2.1.4 Metal oxy-nitride thin films
Physical vapor deposition method is a convenient method for preparing metal oxy-nitride thin
films. Titanium oxide and titanium nitride thin films were remarkable thin films in modern
thin film technology over past few years. As we mentioned in above parts titanium oxide and
nitride thin films have excellent electrical, optical, mechanical properties and chemical
stability. So scientists are already paying attention on the titanium oxy nitride films for solar
collectors. And also researches have been investigated AlN
x
O
y
material as a very strength and
hard material. It is four times harder than SiO
2
glass and also transparent from UV to NIR
wavelengths. Further AlNxOy has higher energy density and wide temperature properties. So
AlNxOy can be used as protective coatings and dielectric in multilayer capacitors.
Transition metal oxy-nitrides (TM-O-N) have been considered as multifunctional materials.
These are used for variety of the potential applications such as biocompatible coatings, Nano
crystalline solar cells, selective solar absorbers and catalysts. Nowadays transition metal oxy
nitrides are playing role in material science. We have considerable number of past research
results related with TM-O-N (TM= Ti, Zr,Hf,Ta). They have been deposited by magnetron
sputtering method. TM-O-N has been exhibited improved optical properties than the pure
oxides. Tantalum is the one of common transition metal.[16]
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2.2 Multilayer thin films
Recently, Multilayer thin films are using for the solar control applications. Their qualities are
higher than the compare with single layer thin films. Much experimental evidence can find in
previous articles with different kind of multilayer. Some interesting results are discussing in
this part.Nair et al and research group have been reported PbS ,CuS solar control thin films.
And they have been done experiments about Cu
x
S and PbS combination by chemical bath
deposition. These films have been exhibited near ideal solar control characteristics.There are
many patents regarding with solar control multilayer can be seen in material science field. U.S.
pat No.4, 861 559 to Frank H.Gillery et al [17] discloses a novel and superior dielectric film.
He invented a sputtered titanium oxy nitride thin film which can be used in architectural
coatings on glass.
Deposited titanium oxy-nitride glass showed a luminous transmittance of 75.7%. Then this
layer has been coated with a uniform silver layer by sputtering and very thin titanium layer
coated again. Finally luminous transmittance was 67.5%. Further second titanium oxy nitride
layer was deposited on the film mentioned in above so luminous transmittance value was
82.1%.
Silicon nitride is very transparent in the UV through the near IR spectrum. On the other hand
Zirconium nitride has good optical reflectance in the infrared region. But zirconium nitride
cannot use on high transparent devices because zirconium nitride has high absorbance in the
visible region. In past research was discovered that combination of silicon nitride and
zirconium nitride thin film has been showed high reflection index (>2.10) with good chemical
and mechanical durability. And also this combination showed a high visible transmittance.
So U.S.patent No.5377045 to wolf et al [18] has been discovered a multilayer thin film with
silicon, zirconium nitride dielectric layer. Refractive index of this layer can be changed with
nitrogen composition. This thin films interference filter consists with a first transparent
substrate, metal pre coat layer, partially reflective metal layer and also second metal pre coat
layer, substantially transparent silicon nitride dielectric layer. This invention can be used as a
durable interference filter and it can be modified with full range of optical and electrical
properties.
Multilayer heat reflecting glass plates with sufficient high solar reflectance and visible
transmittance have been discussed by U.S. patent 5085926, Yasunobu Iida et al [19]. It can be
produced easily without problem. And also used in weather resistance, wear resistance. It
consists of six layers coating on one side of a transparent glass plate. First layer is an oxide of
a metal which can be selected from Ti, Zr, Ta, Sn and Cr.Second layer is a nitride or oxy
nitride of Ti, Zr, Ta, Cr, or Ni-Cr alloy. Third layer is a metal from metal list mentioned in
above.
Again forth layer is same as the second one. And also fifth layer is same as the first layer.
Sixth one is an oxide or oxy nitride of an alloy selected from Si-Al alloy, Si-Ti alloy or SI-Ni
alloy. All these metal, metal oxide and metal nitride or metal oxy nitride layers are showed
very excellent properties of adhesion to the glass surface and as same as of each layer.
Furthermore the multilayer coating shows 30% of minimum visible transmittance, maximum
solar radiation transmittance is60% and 20% of maximum visible reflectance.
As discussed in above chapter we know that titanium nitride thin film shows attractive solar
control properties. U.S. patent no.6188512 to Woodard et al [20] has investigated titanium
nitride dual layers thin film. According to the results of this investigation, the single sputtered
films showed low transmission. But the dual titanium nitride layers provided a visible
transmission range of 33% to 54%. [17-20].

2.3 Polymer films
Polyaniline, polypyrrole and polythiophene are common conducting polymers. They are
increasing replacing natural and inorganic materials applications, because of their excellent
mechanical properties such as conductivity and electrochromic properties. Polymers are
deposited on conductive glass substrates as the thin films.
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Polyaniline thin films can be prepared by electrodeposition method. It is an important
conductive polymer. It has different oxidation states with different colors. So this
electrochromic property is very important to the smart windows applications. Polypyrrole also
shows high conductivity and electrochromic properties. Both polymers are widely used in dye
sensitized solar cell applications. These are used as the counter electrode of solar cell. The
efficiency of DSSC with electrodeposited polyaniline counter electrode is 5.68% which is
higher than the Pt electrode and for the polypyrrole it is 4.72%. Properties of both films can be
change with doped acid or deposition parameters.So for DSSC can be prepared high efficiency
and low cost counter electrode with excellent catalytic properties by simple preparation
procedure.[22,23]

3. METHODS FOR DEPOSITION

Thin film deposition is an act, applying a thin film to the surface. There exists a huge variety
of deposition techniques. It can be categorized into chemical and physical deposition.

3.1 Physical deposition techniques
Physical deposition uses mechanical, electromechanical means to produce a thin solid film.
This techniques include the broad categories of physical vapour deposition (PVD), sputtering
techniques, plasma techniques etc .Physical vapor deposition method usually involves the
presence of plasma created in a reduced pressure atmosphere of either inert or reactive gases
or a mixture of the two.

3.1.1 Sputtering
The sputtering process is very often compared to the break in a game of atomic billiards.
Sputtering is the ejection of atoms from the surface of a material by means of the
bombardment of surface with energetic particles. This process is complicated but more
flexible. In DC sputtering, the material we wish to sputter is made in to a sputtering target,
which becomes the cathode of an electrical circuit, and has a high negative voltage V (dc)
applied to it.
The target is nearly solid, although powders and even liquids are sometimes used. The
substrate, which we wish to coat, is placed on an electrically grounded anode a few inches
away. These electrodes are housed in chamber, which is evacuated. Argon gas is introduced in
to the chamber to some specified pressure. The action of the electric field is to accelerate
electrons, which in turn collide with Argon atoms, breaking some of them up in to Argon ions
and more electrons to produce the glow discharge. The charged particles thus produced are
accelerated by the field, the electrons tending towards the anode. When ions strike the cathode,
they may sputter some of the target atoms off. They may also liberate secondary electrons
from the target and it is these secondary electrons, which are responsible for maintaining the
electron supply and sustaining the glow discharge.
In case of rf sputtering process, rf field (at typically13 MHz) apply to the target. Both metallic
and insulating material may be used as the target. In here deposited material can form as
amorphous film, because of the low atomic mobility.
The factors which cause variation in the productions by vacuum evaporation are also
significant in the sputtering such as magnetron sputtering, ion beam sputtering and discharge
sputtering. [15-21]
The sputtered atoms from the target fly off in random directions, and some of them land on the
substrate (on the anode), condense there, and form a thin film. It shows in following fig. (4)

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Target (Cathode with high potential)

Substrate

Ar target

Ar pump

Fig.4 DC sputtering system

3.2 Chemical deposition techniques
Chemical vapor deposition is complicated process than physical vapor deposition. It is the
creation of solid materials directly from chemical reactions in gas and/or liquid compositions
or with the substrate material. It is a large area, uniform coatings for the metals,
semiconductors ,inorganic and organic compounds.CSD is a relatively inexpensive and simple
thin film process. Also many types of CVD processing have been researched, including
atmospheric pressure, low-pressure, plasma -enhanced and laser-enhanced. This technique
include the spray pyrolysis, electrochemical deposition (ECD), anodization, sol gel spin
coating and dip coating, solution growth technique (SGT) etc. Today, thin films and coatings
are producing with high temperature CVD process have found in applications such as the
solid-state electronic devices fabrications , ball bearing manufacturing , rocket engine
productions and specially ,in silicon and compound semi conductor technology for single
crystal films. [2-5, 7,21]

3.2.1 Sol gel formation
The sol-gel process is a wet-chemical, oldest technique in the field of materials science. First
sol gel architectural thin films have been coated in year of1969. This technique has been used
for making optical coatings for more than 50 years but has attracted more attention in the last
decade because of the new needs for applications in new technologies especially in electronics
and solar energy devices. The sol-gel process is a low cost method to deposit large area glass
substrates. This method presents advantages over other techniques such as inexpensive,
temperature of heat treatment, high evenness of the films and wide possibility to vary film
properties by changing the composition of the solution. Sol gel dip coating and spin coating
are available in this method.
Sol-gel dip coating method is a less expensive and it requires less equipment. In here a
substrate withdrawals in to the fluid sol with controlled speed in the vertical direction. There is
a gravitational draining and evaporation for the solid film preparation. Spin coating is quite
different with dip coating method, becausefilms are deposited by centrifugal draining and
evaporation.
It consist four steps which are deposition, spin up, spin off and evaporation. During the
deposition the two main forces, the centrifugal force, which drives flow radially outward and
viscous force which acts radially inward are balanced each other.[3,7]

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3.2.2 Spray
In this process a thermally activated reaction is happened between clusters of liquid atoms of
different chemical species. During this process the reagents are dissolved in the liquid and it is
sprayed on to a heated or unheated substrate. Substrate must maintained at high temperature of
about 400
0
C.

3.3 Electrodeposition
Electrochemical liquid phase thin film preparation method can be introduced as the
electrodeposition method. In this method reduction and oxidation reactions are accomplished
by using an external current source in an electrochemical cell consisting two or three
electrodes in room temperature. Polymer thin films can be deposited by electrodeposition
method. It is a low cost process, none vacuum method and can change film thickness by
controlling composition of electrolyte solution or changing voltage or current. [22,23]

4. METHODS FOR CHARCTERIZATION

Characterizations of films are very important step, because it gives useful parameters in
determining the properties of deposited films. Thin films can be characterized according to
thickness, structure, solid-state, optical characterization and composition by a variety of
methods. For their optostructural, morphological and compositional analysis can be used UV
Vis-NIR spectroscopy, XRD, SEM, AFM, and EDS techniques.
Many film properties which include thickness, film composition, and nature of film,
crystallographic orientations, lattice parameters, crystallite size and preferred orientations can
be studied by spectroscopic method.
Cyclic Voltammogramms (CV) can be used to analysis electrochemical performance.
Ultravioletvisible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy
in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region.
X-ray diffraction is a common technique used to characterize the crystalline states, chemical
composition, crystallographic orientations and lattice parameters of materials. And also can
take information about qualitative and quantitative evaluation of solid solution, crystal size
and preferred orientation of the films.
The information about the sample's surface topography, composition, and other properties
such as electrical conductivity can be investigated by the scanning electron microscope
(SEM).
EDS is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of
a thin film. Cyclic voltammetry is generally used to study the electrochemical properties. For
the polymer films FT-IR spectra uses to identify chemical structure. [1-23]

5. CONCLUSION AND PROPOSED METHODS FOR DEVELOPMENT

This review has briefly discussed the various types of solar control applications of thin films
under the topics of their deposition methods, background theory and also illustrated important
past research results. Currently, thin films have been used in many applications especially in
solar control applications with so many benefits.
Thin film photovoltaic modulus provides significant quantities in the photovoltaic market than
the normal silicon wafer cells over recent years. Energy conversion efficiency of thin film is
nominal ratings ranges from about 4% to above 10%.Several distinct thin films are available in
photovoltaic field based on silicon in amorphous and polycrystalline. Group six elements
specifically S, Se and Te are using for this purpose. Photovoltaic field will soon have a more
experience base with thin films in the near future. Windows glass coatings also improve with
thin film technology.
We have discussed metal oxide, metal nitride, metal sulfide, metal oxy nitride and also
multilayer thin films deposited with various deposition methods and their important factors.
Not only windows glass coating, we have explained various types of solar control coatings like
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heat mirrors, thermal controllers etc. further we discussed about conducting polymer thin films
which can be used as the counter electrode of DSSC.
Different types of films can be applied to windows such as home, buildings and vehicles to
reduce the glare. Traditionally, grey metals such as stainless steel, nickel and chrome have
been used as the best glare reducers. But now thin film technology play main role in this field.
We can clearly understand multilayer thin films show higher qualities among the other single
layer coatings, depend on experimental evidence as mentioned in above. And also using the
thin films can save energy as well as can avoid environment pollutions. Further the current
energy situation and the environment should be protecting for our future generation.
The study and development of thin films and their applications for solar control in windows
and solar cells are in progress. Aim of this study based on deposition and characterization of
solar control thin films. For this purpose we will deposition inorganic thin films and also
organic thin films. Organic thin films are preparing by electrodeposition method. Conducting
polymer thin films such as polyaniline, poly( 2,5 dimethylaniline) and polypyrrole will be
electrodeposited with various doped acid and various deposition conditions such as voltage ,
current. time etc. Inorganic films ,multilayer and single layers will be synthesized by physical
and chemical deposition methods, basically Sputtering and sol-gel preparation. Finally all the
films will be characterized to solar control properties. Further the investigating best solar
control properties in windows glass coatings and solar cells is the main future target.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge the University Research fund. And I sincerely thank my
supervisors for advice and assistance.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Bode,D.E. (1996)Versatile solar control characteristics of chemically deposited PbS-CuxS
thin film combinations, Physics of thin film vol. 3, 275.
[2] Reddy, G. B., Pandya D. K, and Chopra K. I. (1987) chemically deposited PbS anti-
reflection layer selective absorbers, Sol. Ener. Mater. 15, 153.
[3] Seraphin, B.O. and Meinel A.B. (1976)Optical properties of solids, North-Holland Pub.
Amsterdan, 927.
[4] Granqvist, C. G. and Eriksson, T.S. (1991) materials for radiative cooling to low
temperature material science for solar energy conversion systems, Pergamon Oxford, pp97-
114.
[5] Lampert, C. M. (1985) workshop on non-conventional energy sources and material Science
for energy, I.C.T.P Trieste. 2- 20th September, 143.
[6] Nair, P.K., Garcia, V.M., Fernandez , A.M., Ruiz, H.S. and Nair , M.T.S. (1991)
Optimization of chemically deposited CuxS solar control coatings , J.phys. D: Appl.
Phys.24,pp 441-449.

[7] Josef Matousek ,LillianaRodriguePaez , ( 2004) Properties of sol gel TiO2 layers on
glass substrate, ceramics-silikay 48 (2) 66-71.
[8] Tianfa wen, Jianpinggao, JuyunShen, zhongshezhou (2001) Preparation and
characterization of TiO2 thin films by the sol-gel process, Journal of material science 36,pp
5923 5926.
[9] Gaur, A.M.(2011) Deposition of Doped TiO2 Thin Film by Sol Gel Technique and its
Characterization: A Review, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering Vol II WCE
2011, July 6 - 8, 2011, London, U.K.
[10] Chien-YieTsay , Hua-Chi Cheng , Yen-Ting Tung , Wei-Hsing Tuan , Chung-Kwei
Lin(2008) Effect of Sn-doped on microstructural and optical properties of ZnO thin films
deposited by solgel method, Thin Solid Films 517 pp 10321036.
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[11] YanfengGaoa, HongjieLuo, ZongtaoZhanga, LitaoKanga, Zhang Chena,JingDua,
MinoruKanehiraa, ChuanxiangCao(2012) NanoceramicVO2 thermochromic smart glass:A
review on progress in solution processing, Nano Energy1, pp221246.
[12] Carlos Batista, Ricardo M Ribeiro and Vasco Teixeira(2011) Synthesis and
characterization of VO2-based thermochromic thin films for energy-efficient windows, Batista
et al. Nanoscale Research Letters , 6:301.
[13] Smitha G.B., Ben-David, A. and Swift, P.D.(2001) A new type of TiN coating
combining broad band visible transparency and solar control, Renewable Energy ,22 ,pp 79-
84.
[14] Bollero, A., Grossberg, M., Asenjo,B. and Gutirrez, M.T. (2009) CuS-based thin films
for architectural glazing applications produced by co-evaporation: Morphology, optical and
electrical properties, Surface & Coatings Technology 204,pp 593600.
[15] Aguilar, J.O., Gomez-Daza, O., Brito, L., Nair, M.T.S. and Nair, P.K. (2005) Optical and
mechanical characteristics of clear and solar control laminated glass using zinc sulphide and
copper sulphide thin films ,Surface & Coatings Technology 200,pp 2557 2565.
[16] Le Dro ,H., Banakh,O., Keppner, H., Steinmann,P.A, Briand ,D. and de Rooij,N.F.
(2006) Optical, electrical and mechanical properties of the tantalum oxynitride thin films
deposited by pulsing reactive gas sputtering, Thin Solid Films 515,pp952956.
[17] U.S. patent No.4861569, Frank H.Gillery , Allison Park , Sputtered titanium oxynitride
films, dated Aug.29th.1989.
[18] U.S. Patent No.5377045, Jesse D.Wolfe, Durable low-emissivity solar control thin film
coating, dated 27th April.1994.
[19] U.S.patent no.5085926, Yaunobu Iida, Neat reflecting glass with multilayer coating,
dated 04th Feb.1992.
[20] U.S. Patent no. 6188512, Woodared et al, Dual titanium nitride layers for solar control,
dated 13th Feb.2001.
[21] Milton Ohrius, Materials science of thin films deposition and structure ,(2002),2nd
Edition, Academic press.
[22] Khamsone Keothongkham, Samuk Pimanpang, WasanMaiaugree,Saman Saekow, Wirat
Jarernboon, and Vittaya Amornkitbamrung,(2011), Electrochemically Deposited Polypyrrole
for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Counter Electrodes, International Journal of Photoenergy ,
2012, Article ID 671326, 7 pages.
[23] Qi Qin and Yunxia Guo,(2011), Preparation and Characterization of Nano-Polyaniline
Film on ITO Conductive Glass by Electrochemical Polymerization, International Journal of
Photoenergy , 2012, Article ID 519674,6 pages.

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Biofuel: Potential Energy Source in Road Transportation Sector in Malaysia

M. Shahabuddin*, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam, M.A. Hazrat, M. Mofijur, Vizy Nazira, M.
Varman, A.M. Liaquat
Centre for Energy Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
*Corresponding author Tel.: +60162418438; Fax: +603 79675317, E-mail:
shahabuddin.suzan@yahoo.com

Abstract
In this present era transportation sector is consuming vast amount of energy which is mostly
met by petroleum fuel and some part by biofuel. Global energy depletion and concern about
increasing future energy demand forced researchers to find some renewable and sustainable
alternatives. Since environment has been polluted at an alarming rate by gasoline and diesel
fuelling thus the use of biofuel has crucial importance as it has no such problem. In this
investigation we sought to extend our observation on present local energy scenario in
transportation sector and prediction of future energy demand based on continuous trend.
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Possible ways to meet the energy challenges especially in transportation sector has been
focused locally. From the investigation, it is found that apart from petroleum fuel, natural gas
and other sources, biofuel can be the key player to meet the increasing energy demand. As
compared to petroleum and other fuel biofuel is the promising alternative which possesses
many advantages such as renewability, environmentally friendly, higher lubricity, safer
handling and so on. However, it should be noted that some application problems of biofuel
are still exist which need to be resolved for its widespread applicability.

Keywords: Renewable energy, Biofuel, Road transportation, Emission, Energy demand

1. INTRODUCTION

Transportation system plays the crucial importance for the socio-economic development of a
country. The predominant issue for this sector is the energy which is usually met by fossil fuel
like diesel and gasoline. Because of rapid fossil fuel depletion, unknown petroleum reserve,
increasing future energy demand the global warming and climate change due to the exhaust
emission of the fossil fuel have been put forward to search the alternative solution regarding
the energy. Even though various sources of alternative energy have been discovered, biofuel
remain one of the most potential alternatives to cut down the dependency on fossil fuel by
replacing it fully or partially. Transportation sector has dominated huge energy consumption
and global warming as well. The consumption in transportation sector accounting for 40% of
total energy regarded as a second largest consumption after the industrial sector in Malaysia.
Presently, petroleum is met around 98% of the entire demand in transportation sector which is
accountable for the harmful CO
2
, NOx, HC and particular matters thus resulting the global
warming at an alarming rate. Study report shows that the transportation sector is the
responsible for the global warming of about 13.5% [1]. Global CO
2
emissions increased from
21 billion tons in 1990 to 29.4 billion tons of CO
2
in 2008. Within the total world emissions,
41% was originated from China and the United States, as these two countries alone produced
12.1 billion tons of CO
2
in 2008. On top of that, transportation sector contributed 6.6 billion
tons of CO
2
which is 22.5% of total CO
2
emissions in 2008 [2]. Transportation sector emitted
1081 Mtoe (23.1%) in 1973 and climbed significantly to 2300 Mtoe which is 27.3% of the
total global energy consumption in 2008. The main reason for the increase in transport sector
is the continuing growth in household incomes and number of vehicles [3]. The share of road
transport in the total energy consumption of the transport sector in 2008 was the highest at
80%, followed by air transport (11%), maritime transport (7%) and railways (3%) [4]. Global
demand for transport appears unlikely to decrease in the foreseeable future as the World
Energy Outlook projects that it will grow 45% by 2030 [5]. A recent study regarding the
influence of anthropogenic activities towards climate change had also proven that
transportation sector would be the highest potential contributor to atmospheric warming in the
near decades [6]. Transportation sector is one of the major components of globalization and
makes a vital contribution to the economy. Besides, it plays a curial role in daily activities
around the world. Unfortunately, this activity is major energy consumption and use most of
the limited non-renewable energy that creates a negative impact to living environment [7].
Over the years, several meeting and conference on global warming and climate changes have
been conducted which have organized by the various organizations including United Nation
and over 200 countries have participated around the world [8]. Nevertheless, the use of fossil
fuel in transportation sector is growing faster and the trend appeared to be moving upward
dramatically. Thereby, the development and implementation of sustainable energy in this
sector have been given a priority in many countries including Malaysia [9]. Malaysia with a
huge supply of palm oil for biofuels production is intended to implement mandatory biodiesel
blends in its transportation sector in 2011 in order to achieve its carbon reduction commitment
towards a more sustainable development [10].Malaysia has the leading position in terms of the
production and export. It has become one of the most crucial foreign exchange earners of this
country. Rapidly increasing economic activities and rising incomes have led to an exponential
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increase in the demand for both freight and passenger transport services in the country,
especially in the rapidly growing urban areas. Malaysia has experienced high levels of
motorization over the past two decades to meet the growing transportation demand. Road
transport is the main energy consumption within the transportation sector The Malaysian
government has set on a strategy to utilize non-petroleum, domestic energy resources to
increase self-reliance in energy. In order to meet the future energy demand especially in
transportation sector, this the high time to make a constructive energy policy and emission
standard. Policy makers should realize the future crisis and are required to make a long short,
medium and long terms policy considering all the view, aspects and alternatives. This paper
presents the biofuel scenario in Malaysia, energy consumption in transportation sector,
emission rate, and a trend of energy and emission pattern for transportation sector in Malaysia.
In addition to that a projection up to 2035 and 2050 for several parameters has been
accumulated from the several studies. Apart from that, substantiality of biofuel in
transportation sector as and some challenges are discussed in this study which may help the
policy makers to step forward.

2. BIOFUEL

Biofuel is the environment friendly and renewable source of alternative fuel which is mainly
produced from animal fats (tallow, lard, white or yellow grease, poultry fats, or fish oils);
recycled greases (used cooking and frying oils); and most commonly, plant oils (from
soybeans, corn, rapeseed, sunflowers, and cottonseeds, etc.). To use this biofuel in diesel
engine its require no engine modification as well [11]. In general, the term biofuel is used to
represent all the liquid and gaseous transportation fuels derived predominantly from biomass
[12].The biodiesel production process for diesel vehicle is shown in Fig.1. Currently, biodiesel
and bioethanol are the two most promising biofuels being projected to replace conventional
fossil fuels in transportation. Biodiesel or fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) is normally
synthesised through transesterification of vegetable oils with methanol and the aid of
appropriate catalysts. It can be used to replace mineral diesel in compression-ignition (CI)
engine which has almost similar properties without requiring any major engines modifications.
Commercial production of biodiesel has been well established and is available to be purchased
as turn-key plants in many countries [13] On the other hand, bioethanol is suitable to replace
the usage of gasoline in petrol engine. Conventional bioethanol is produced from the
fermentation of simple sugar or starch crops. Its large-scale production has been well proven
and demonstrated successfully in Brazil [14]. However, it competes with food sources for
human consumption which renders it susceptible to criticisms. Another alternative raw
material for bioethanol production is using inedible food sources mainly lignocellulosic
material such as forest and agricultural biomass waste. However, additional pretreatment steps
are normally required which will increase the overall production cost. Process optimisation is
still being researched intensively at pilot plant scale in order to find a more cost-effective
production method for mass commercialisation [15].

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Fig.1 Bio fuel for diesel vehicle [16]

3. BIOFUEL SCENARIO IN MALAYSIA

In Malaysia, palm oil is the main sources of biofuel. It is produced domestically which helps
to reduce the dependency of oil import of the country. In Malaysia biofuel also produces from
non-edible oil source such as Jatropha and some other domestic crops which are highly
potential and they do not contend with food crops [17, 18]. In 2009-2010, Malaysia produced
about 40% (consumed 7.5%) of world palm oil, while Indonesia 46%, Thailand 3%, Naigeria
2%, Colombia 2% and others 7% [19]. Malaysia produces more than 17 million tonnes of
crude palm oil (CPO) annually from a total of 4.69 million hectares of palm oil plantations
[13]. More than 88% of the total palm oil production is exported to countries such as EU,
China, India and US due to higher prices and demand. The rest of the palm oil is either being
processed into food products for local usage or biodiesel for foreign exportation. Based on the
current production volume and assuming that 80% of it was dedicated for food sources.
Malaysia had sufficient supply of palm biodiesel to support up to B50 biodiesel blend for
transportation [20]. At the same time, Malaysia have the potential to generate more than
104.55 million tonne of lignocellulosic biomass waste annually (including agricultural
biomass and forest residues) [21]. Currently, most of the domestic biodiesel fuels are supplied
by small and medium producers which can only cater for a restricted group of users.
Procurement of biodiesel from Malaysia can secure a reliable biodiesel supply over a long
term to prepare for the imminent mandatory biodiesel blending in transportation fuels. A
stable supply of biodiesel can effectively quash publics apprehension to embrace biodiesel as
their choice of transportation fuel. Moreover, Malaysia has been able to produce high quality
biodiesel consistently at optimised cost which meet the international standards for biodiesel
(ASTM D 6571 and EN 14214). Recently Malaysian government has set the target to use B5
(5% methyl ester blend with 95% diesel) [22]. Malaysia imports about 10 million tonnes of
petroleum diesel fuel annually and this import can be reduced by 500,000 tonnes by using
B5 saving an estimated amount of US $380 million per year [23] .In this respect every petrol
stations are selling B5 according to Malaysian government regulation since 1 January 2010
[24].

3.1 Global energy status and transportation perspective
The trend of world energy production from 1990 to present and the projection until 2030 has
been shown in Fig. 2. It is depicted from the Figure that in the year of 2035 the production of
total energy would be nearly 100Mb/d including development unused crude field, production
from the new fields which would be found, natural gas and unconventional oil sources.
However this is the big challenge to find new fields and implementation of energy form the
projected natural gas and unconventional sources. Besides, present scenario and projection of
consumption by transportation until 2050 is shown in Fig. 3. It is clear from the Figure that
biofuel would be the one of the major contributor to meet future energy demand.

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Fig. 2 World oil production by type in the New Policies Scenario [25]

Fig. 3 World Transport Energy Use by IEA/E TP Scenario [25]

4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY TRANSPORTATION SECTOR IN MALAYSIA

Energy consumption In Malaysia, the final energy use has risen at an annual growth rate of 6%
from year 2000 to 2008 and reached 45 Mtoe in 2008. A huge portion of total energy is
consumed in industrial and transportation sector. The transportation sector alone accounted for
36% of total energy use in 2008 as shown in Fig. 4 [26] The increased use of energy raised
serious concerns in the Malaysian government about the need to overcome heightened energy
expenditure by promoting the end-use energy efficiency. On top of that, transportation sector
is highly dependent on petroleum products as the source of energy. In 2008, Malaysia has
proven oil reserves of 5.46 billion barrels and 68% are located in East Malaysia Sabah and
Sarawak [27]. Malaysias crude oil production has declined in recent years and the average oil
production is around 690 thousand barrels per day in 2008. In terms of number of passenger
and freight carried, road transport is still leading among the transportation modes in Malaysia.
Fig. 5 shows the mode of transportation allocation for passenger [28]. There are more than
94% of passengers carried by road transport. The rail passenger is about 4.7% while air
transport served 0.5% of total passengers. Table 1 presents the trend of energy consumption in
transportation sector from different energy sources. It can be seen from the Table, that the
leading source of energy in transportation is petrol followed by diesel and Aviation turbine
fuel (ATF) and aviation gasoline (AV) gas. Recently a considerable change has been observed
in the use of natural gas for the transportation sector. Furthermore, mostly the total energy
consumption is increasing year by year and it has been more than doubled form the year of
1995 to 2008.

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Fig.4 Energy consumption by sector in 2008

Fig.5 percentage of passenger by transportation type

Table 7 Energy consumption trend by transportation sector in Malaysia (ktoe) [26, 29]
Year Petrol Diesel ATF and AV gas Fuel oil Natural gas Electricity Total
1995 4477 2168 1160 17 5 0 7827
1996 5161 2417 1335 32 4 1 8950
1997 5574 3106 1439 75 5 1 10200
1998 5849 2311 1619 9 4 1 9793
1999 6778 3174 1424 13 0 4 11393
2000 6378 4103 1574 4 7 4 12070
2001 6820 4534 1762 5 14 5 13140
2002 6940 4680 1785 4 28 4 13441
2003 7352 5019 1852 3 40 5 14271
2004 7867 5398 2056 4 54 6 15385
2005 8138 5132 2010 4 95 5 15384
2006 7838 4726 2152 3 120 5 14825
2007 8549 4859 2155 3 147 4 15717
2008 8788 5283 2112 3 194 15 16395

5. EMISSION

The vehicular exhaust emissions are one of the main sources of global warming and
environmental pollution. The vehicular exhaust emission is increasing dramatically due the
increasing numbers of vehicle in the world, which have an adverse effect on environment as
well as humans health [30, 31]. According to united state environmental protection agency
(EPA), the legislated maximum amount of emissions from the heavy duty diesel engines are
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CO: 15.5g/bhp-hr, PM: 0.01 g/bhp-hr, NO
x
: 0.20 g/bhp-hr and non-methane hydro carbon
(NMHC): 0.14 g/bhp-hr for the model year later 2007 [32]. Whereas, emissions standard of
Euro V for the diesel engine vehicles are, carbon monoxide (CO): 500 mg/km, particulate
matter (PM): 5 mg/km (80% lower than Euro IV standard), oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
): 180
mg/km (20% lower than Euro IV standard), combined emissions of hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides: 230 mg/km [33]. The world petroleum reserve is diminishing swiftly but its demand is
increasing day by day. Due to the depletion of fossil fuel along with environment concern,
attention has been drawn to develop a clean alternative fuel which will reduce both of the
exhaust emission and the petro fuel dependency [34]. Therefore, it became a global issue to
develop such clean alternative fuel which is technically feasible, domestically available and
environmentally acceptable. According to the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT, US),
ethanol, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, electricity, methanol are included as an alternative
fuels. It is reported that these fuels can be used to reduce petroleum consumption, harmful
pollutants and exhaust emissions. The use of biodiesel as internal combustion (IC) engine
fuels can play a vital role to help the developing countries in terms of reducing the both of
environmental impact and the adverse human health effect of fossil fuels. According to well
to wheel base assessment, biodiesel from oil seed reduces about 40-60% GHG emission [35].
The biodiesel extends many environmental benefits over petro diesel. It is less toxic, huge
biodegradable and emit lower CO, THC, and PM emission as compared to petro diesel [36].
Therefore, the production of biodiesel and its use is increasing steadily and hopefully retain in
future. The transportation sector which fully utilizes petroleum products is no doubt the main
contributor in CO2 emission [37]. However, the projected CO
2
emission relief by sector and
the key technology for reducing CO
2
emission has been shown in Fig.6 and 7 respectively. It
can be seen form the Fig. 6 that transportation accounts the second largest sector to reduce the
CO2 emission of 23%. While from Fig.7 it is depicted that
renewable energy is the third largest key factors to reduce (17%) projected CO2 emission.

Fig. 6 World energy-related CO2 emissions abatement by region [25]

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Fig 7.key technology for reducing global Co
2
emission [38]

6. CURRENT BIOFUEL POLICY IN MALAYSIA

Since the introduction of Fifth Fuel Policy under the Eighth Malaysian Plan (20012005),
Malaysia has been working to integrate renewable energy into its energy fuel mix.
Transportation sector had the largest energy demand in the year 2000 with roughly 41% out of
the total energy demand at 29.70 mtoe (million tonne of oil equivalent). Even though energy
demand for industry had surpassed transportation in 2008 as the largest energy demand sector,
transportation still recorded a considerable increase in energy demand up to 32.7% from 2000
within just an eight year span [39, 40] . Despite the fact that ample of efforts had been put
forward to rein in the escalation of energy demand, the annual increment was still being
forecasted at about 3.5% average. Due to the excessive energy demand coupled with a large
portion of its energy sources were still derived from fossil fuels, transportation remained as
one of the largest GHG emitters in Malaysia. The emission was worsen due to the lack of
proper public transportation infrastructure in Malaysia which has resulted in heavy reliance on
passenger vehicles. Biofuel policy and development of biofuel are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Chronology of biodiesel development in Malaysia [13, 41, 42]
Year Milestone
1982-1985 Feasibility study of palm oil methyl ester in the laboratory, steering committee
formation, construction of biodiesel plant heaving capacity 3000 tonnes in
each year, and field trial in taxis conducted from the government of Malaysia
and finally pilot plant launched at the end of this duration
1986-1994 Several Field trials conducted including 31 commercial vehicles and
stationary engines in phase I, bench test by Mercedes Benz in Germany in
phase II, and finally trail on commercial buses.
1995 Transfer of PME production technology to industry to produce oleochemicals,
carotenes (pro-Vitamin A) and Vitamin E
2001 Use of a CPO and fuel oil blend for power generation initiated andResearch
on low-pour-point palm biodiesel initiated
2002-2005 Field trials using processed liquid palm oil and petroleum diesel blends (B2,
B5, B10) in MPOB vehicles began (i.e. a straight vegetable oil SVO biofuel
blend), Trials of refined, bleached and deodorised (RBD) palm oil and
petroleum diesel blends (B5)using MPOB vehicles and shifting the
technology from MPOB to Lipochem (M) SdnBhd and CarotinoSdnBhd
2006 National Biofuel Policy launched, First commercial-scale biodiesel plant
began operations, Envo Diesel launched, 92 biodiesel licenses approved
2007 Increase in CPO price caused many biodiesel projects to be either suspended
or cancelled
2008 Malaysian Bio fuel Industry Act 2007 came into force
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Usage of Envo Diesel was scrapped and replaced with B5
2009-2010 Government vehicles from selected agencies began use of B5 blend and
Government announcement that the B5 mandate for commercial use will be
deferred to
June 2011.

7 CHALLENGES OF BIOFUEL

Recent study report [16] made concern on biofuel regarding its Supply cost, supply volume,
dependence on a specific country, Influence on food prices, competition with farmland, Forest
destruction etc. In addition, technological development, infrastructure, popularity, and policy
can be the important factors for the wider application of biofuel. These influential factors are
described in brief as follows.

7.1 Supply cost
One of the main barriers for the wider application of bio fuel is its supply cost. Depending on
the geographical situation and feedstock the price of the biofuel is several times higher than
diesel and gasoline. Resulting people are discouraged to use biofuel. Moreover, there have
various procedure including refining transesterification which are maintained to make
adaptable with the internal combustion engine. Thereby the production cost becomes higher.

7.2 Supply volume
Adequate supply of biofuel is an important factor for the frequency of use in transportation
sector. The cultivation of biofuels is not sufficient with compared to the amount required.

7.3 Dependency on specific country
Most of the countries in the world are not so much familiar on biofuel. Presently very few like,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil USA, and Nigeria are producing uttermost (more than 90%)
amount of world total production. However, there have several countries consisting huge lands
which are suitable for the biodiesel feedstock are not being utilized. In addition, some
biodiesel feedstocks like Jatropha can be grown in the marginal land and does not required
much water. Therefore it is a vital issue to find the land availability worldwide and cultivate
the biofuel feedstock. Otherwise, all other countries would be depended on the some specific
country although they become interested to use it.

7.4 Contend of food
Most of biofuel like palm, soybean, sunflower, coconut etc. which are available in the market
are used as a food thus there will be a great threat to the food price if the application of such
feedstock is increased in the biodiesel production as well. Therefore, it is our recommendation
to find new non-edible feedstock and use for biodiesel production. Meanwhile, some of non-
edible feed-stocks such that Jatropha curcas, Madhuca indica, and Pongamia pinnata etc. are
found to be very potential however, the cost of production is low as well as can be grown in
the marginal land as well. So the emphasize should be given to the investigation of
physicochemical properties of such feed-stocks and their standardization.

7.5 Technology
In order to replace the existing fossil fuel and make competitive with them, technological
development is the pre request. Implementation of advanced technology in biofuel production
can play their role for plantation, processing and final use. In order to enhance the production
rate or oil yield, there have no alternative regardless of the advanced technology. Especially
for the most populated country where the land for the cultivation is not enough is an important
demand to increase the production rate with in land available. This can be achieved through
intensive research in biotechnology, plant agronomy and precision agriculture techniques [9].
Technological advancement is required to for the oil extraction, transesterification and
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fermentation processes of the biodiesel and bioethanol production respectively. The former
had been well established but still requires some optimisation. The latter is still in research
phase and technology breakthrough will be needed for full commercialisation

7.6 Infrastructure
Another vital issue for the successful implementation of biofuels in transportation sector will
be the establishment of both hard and soft infrastructure. The relevant biofuels supply chain
infrastructure will need to be convenient and sufficient to reach to the end-users for their daily
usage. In terms of hard infrastructure, biofuels blending and refuelling station facilities will
need to be set up adequately together with complete transportation of biofuels supply network.
This is best to prevent any conflict of interest since biofuels and fossil fuels are competing
products of each other. Moreover, it can help to identify possible difficulties for better
planning in the future [43]. Blending facilities will have to be in minimum distance from both
conventional oil and gas refineries and biofuels processing facilities in order to minimize the
transportation cost. Existing refuelling stations will need to be supplied with biofuels blends
and equipped with necessary modifications. Some modification of existing diesel and gasoline
engine will further lead to the increase in the performance and emission behavior as well.

7.7 Policy
For the long term social and economic development, well established policy from the
government is pivotal. Government as the critical stakeholder in the implementation of
biofuels blends for transportation sector will be responsible to stage a suitable platform or
medium for other stakeholders such as industry players, non-governmental organisations
(NGO), research institutes and private investors to contribute towards the development of the
biofuels blends. government policies will be critical in areas such as sub sidisation scheme, tax
relief, financial assistance, information dissemination, investment environment, authorisation
and standards of biofuels blends. Previously, increasing environmental awareness had fuelled
the demand for biofuels such as biodiesel and plenty of biodiesel plants were constructed.
However, when the price of crude oil plummeted to about USD 30/bbl, expensive biodiesel
was unable to compete with mineral diesel and thus rendered its demand to drop substantially.
Consequently, most of the biodiesel plants were either being shut down or forced to cut down
their production [13] . Future policy makers will need to address the above shortcomings and
prevent the history from repeating itself.

7.8 Public acceptance
Public acceptance for biofuels will be the last challenge to be addressed once all the relevant
infrastructures and supply system are in place. Since mass public is the major user of fossil
fuels in transportation sector, their willingness to switch to biofuels blends is important to
ensure the success of the implementation. Lack of public support for new transportation fuels
can eventually lead to catastrophic failure as already seen in the case of natural gas in Canada
and New Zealand. Whilst mandatory biofuels blends can force the public to make the switch,
it was extremely important that they were being given sufficient information pertaining to the
changes. Many of the citizens in developing countries such as Malaysia had low
environmental awareness and are not familiar with the operation of biofuels.

8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

World is now confronted into two major crisis including energy crisis and global
environmental pollution and resulting rapid climate change. If the crude petroleum production
continues in the same manner as present then the production will be declined drastically from
roughly 65Mb/d to 18Mb/d. Even though it is tried to keep the production rate likewise today,
it is believed to fill up another 47 Mb/d by developing existing unproductive crude petroleum
fields and by the discovering new field. However the increasing demand of projected up to
2035 of about 100 Mb/d would be managed by the alternative resources like natural gas and
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unconventional oil. Resulting dangerous adverse effect would be imposed on the developing
countries including Malaysia. If the projected crude fields are not found as predicted and
alternatives sources are not implemented as thought then the world would be confronted a
dangerous threat which may be more dangerous that second world war. Meanwhile, the
scenario war for oil has already been started. On the other hand, without new policy
intervention with regards to oil and emission, the CO2 emission would be doubled within
2050. Since the transportation sectors are accountable for more than 37% of total emission
thus without especial care and strong policy world has be faced drastic climate change.
Consequently, huge part of the world would be submerged into the see. Vital part of the some
south Asian countries like Bangladesh, Maldives will be lost by the ocean. In addition
Malaysia and some other developing country will face dangerous challenge as they are not
much concern about emission climate change etc. Meanwhile USA and Europe has set
emission standard for their own countries. However those standards have been set considering
their own geographical circumstances, socio-economic infrastructures, own political situation
and policy. Hence it is recommended that every country including Malaysia should be
established their own energy policy and emission standards taking in to consideration above
mentioned factors. Biodiesel is gradually gaining acceptance in the market as an
environmentally friendly alternative diesel fuel. Malaysia has huge potential for palm oil base
biodiesel production and plays a role to reduce the environmental impact of fossil fuel.
However, the use of inedible vegetable oils as an alternative fuel for diesel engine is
accelerated by the need of edible oil as food and the reduction of biodiesel production cost.
Therefore, jatropha and calophyllum inophyllum have great prospect as feedstock for biodiesel
in Malaysia. Apart from that, various aspects must be examined and overcome before
biodiesel can be established and continue to mature in the market. This study serves as a
guideline for further investigation and research in order to implement and improve the
transportation sector

9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge the, University of Malaya, Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) of Malaysia for HIR grant (Grant No. UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/07) which
made this study possible.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Harmonics Measurement Analysis for a Stand Alone Photovoltaic System with
Linear and Non-linear Loads

Hamisu Usman
1
*, Hashim Hizam
1
, Mohd Amran Mohd Radzi
1
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Sardang Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+601) 08777032, Fax: (603) 89466327, E-mail:
hamisuusman94@yahoo.com

Abstract
Nowadays, Photovoltaic systems have become one of the dominant renewable energy sources
for generating electricity in the world. The Photovoltaic system is a clean, friendly and non
polluting energy source with the reduced carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emission, when compared with
the conventional energy sources, which pollutes the environment and makes it hazardous to
human health. However, the output wave forms of Voltage and Current generated by the
Photovoltaic systems produce harmonics. This is due to the power electronic converters and
the non-linear loads connected to the PV systems. In this paper, we present experimental
results and analysis for an interactive stand alone Photovoltaic system connected with different
linear and non-linear loads. The experiment was performed with HIOKI 3196 Power quality
analyzer. The percentage of total harmonics distortion (THD) of the Voltage (THD
V
) and
Current (THD
I
) have been studied in this paper. Results of the THD are presented and
compared with IEEE 519-1992 standard.

Keywords: Stand alone PV, Power quality, Measurement, THD and waveforms.

1. INTRODUCTION

Photovoltaics electricity generation is one of the promising and friendly renewable energy
that is free from environmental emission. Presently, PV cells are one of the fasted means of
electricity generation in at least over 100 countries in the world [1]. Almost about 16,600MW
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of PV arrays were installed in the World, with barely half of this capacity installed and
utilized in 2010 in Germany alone [2]. Moreover, the deregulation of power system generation
in the world, has given an autonomous freedom to generate and sale the produced renewable
power to the commercial and individual consumers in the energy market in the world [3].
Some of the major draws back of this Photovoltaic power generation are, disturbances caused
by irradiance and temperature variations due to the surrounding weather condition within the
installed PVs arrays. Similarly, the harmonics injected by the power electronics devices like
rectifiers, inverters, and mostly the non-linear connected loads associated with the PVs,
adversely affect the system generated output Voltage/Current wave forms. Harmonics injected
by these devices as a standalone PVs generation results in a serious severe problems which
causes over heating in the supply cables, interference in the nearby neighboring
communication facilities, equipment failure, loads unbalanced, power loses, and pre matured
ageing failure of equipment [4]. The problems of harmonics in power system are the most
devastating factors that seriously affect the power system performances which lead to the
power quality issues. It has become very imperative to look at these harmonics distortion
problems and similar power quality issues that militates the mis operations of equipment to
consumers. In order to safe guard the life expectancy of the consumers equipment and to
ensure proper operation and reliability of the power system, it is so important to make
measurements on the system Voltages/Currents in order to know the harmonics level at which
the equipment are operated. The measured harmonic distortions should be analyzed and study
it impacts in order to propose a remedial solution to the disturbances [5]. The results of these
power quality issues problems leads to a unique solution of the harmonics distortion, with an
appropriate device like filters to mitigate the unwanted harmonics within the system to it
minimal THD% level, and within the IEEE 519-1992 standard norms. In this paper, we
presents an experimental results and analysis for a 2.16KW stand alone Photovoltaic
generation connected with different linear and non-linear loads in order to study the behavior
of the THD % of Voltage (THDv) and Current (THD
I
) wave forms. Results presented, show
the THD% of the various linear and non linear loads, and were compared with the IEEE 519-
1992 standard.

2. THE PROPOSED SITE UNDER STUDY

A 14.8m
2
cabin was built for the purpose of researchers in PV System, for the graduate
students of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, Universiti Putra Malaysia. The
cabin consists of twelve numbers (12) of PV modules, connected in series and parallel mode.
Each module of capacity 180W, with total installed capacity of 2160W.

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The proposed system comprises of the following components, with their respective rating
capacity. Twelve number of PV modules rated 2160W, Lead-acid battery of capacity 325Ah at
48V, Charge controller rated at 48A, and a sine wave inverter of capacity 3000W. The overall
system as shown in Fig 2 below, various harmonics measurements have been conducted with
linear and non linear loads at the point of common coupling (PCC) i.e. between the inverter
and the loads. The harmonics measurement results were observed and monitored via HIOKI
3196 power quality analyzer. The quality meter allows measuring and displaying various
Power quality problems such as, Voltage sag, Flicker, Voltage swell, as well as THD% of the
Voltage and Current.

Fig.2 Complete block diagram of the proposed study

3. IMPOSED IEEE STANDARD FOR HARMONICS VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
LIMIT

Photovoltaic system inherits serious deterioration of Power quality problems nowadays. Power
quality effect caused by the interactive power electronics converters such as rectifiers,
inverters, and the non-linear loads connected with the system are the major contributing
devices militating power quality problems in Photovoltaic generation. However, the
atmospheric weather condition such as irradiance from the sun, ambient temperature of the
surrounding air are also affecting the system performance for the PV output Voltage and
Current generated by the system. In line with these problems, IEEE 519- 1992 standard were
first imposed in 1981 and revised in 1992, that aimed at providing a standard limit for the
THD% of the system Voltage and Current caused by the modern electronics converters and
Fig. 1 The site under study, (a) Front view, (b) Side view
(a). (b).
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the non-linear loads in a distribution system[6]. Table 1 below, depicts the IEEE 519 imposed
standard.

Table 1 Harmonic voltage distribution limits in percent of nominal fundamental frequency
voltage

In another development, IEEE 929-2000 standard recommended practice for utility interface
of Photovoltaic system, this standard gives guides for system operation and equipment
concerning the validity operation of Photovoltaic distribution and system networks. This
standard highlight, some vital information about the limits for personnel (individual) hazards
and safety of utility system operation of equipment devices and similar power quality issues
regarding the Photovoltaic system [7].

4. DEFINITION OF TERMS

4.1 Power Quality: Any deviation manifested in voltage, Current or frequencies that can
cause mis operation or failure in consumers equipment are called power quality.
4.2 Harmonics: Any deviation in the main supply fundamental frequency sine wave that can
result in non sinusoidal wave form due to integer multiples of the supply frequency (50HZ or
60HZ) the phenomenon is known as harmonics.
4. 3 linear loads: Are electrical loads in which voltage and current are purely sinusoidal in
nature. In linear loads the current is directly proportional to the system voltage. Examples of
linear loads are incandescent lamps, capacitors, electric stoves etc.
4.4 Non-linear loads: Are electrical loads in which voltage and current are non sinusoidal in
nature. In non-linear loads, the current is not directly proportional to the applied voltage. Non-
linear loads normally produce distortion in the current wave forms. Examples of non-linear
loads are air conditioner, computers, monitors, fluorescent fittings etc.

5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experimental results for various linear and non-linear loads for the measurement of
harmonics distortions are presented in this work. The experiment was conducted during the
day time, were the inverter is fully utilized and the battery storage device was in standby mode
operation due to the sufficient solar irradiance during the day time. Table 2 and 3 shows the
type and the ratings of the linear and non-linear loads that are used in this measurement
respectively.
Table 2. Linear Loads
Load Rating
3 incandescent lighting bulbs 300Watts
Electric filament stove 1000Watts
Resistive load 500Watts

Table 3. Non-linear Loads
Load Rating
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Air conditioner 746Watts
PC and Monitor 365Watts
2 4ft fluorescents ballast fitting 80Watts
Lap top 200Watts

(a). (b).
(c).
Fig. 2 Current wave form for (a) Air conditioner under distortion, (b) PC and it
monitor under distortion, (c) 2 number 4 ft fluorescent lamps, (d) Air
conditioner + incandescent lighting bulb
(d).
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Basically, with the presence of non-linear loads, THD
V
are within the stipulated guidelines of
the IEEE 519-1992 standard. However, sometimes certain harmonics loads are not within the
required IEEE standard [8]. In the other way, the THD
I
results for all the Currents distortions
measurements are out of range for the imposed IEEE 519-1992 standard. Appendix 1, Fig. 4
(a), (b), (c), (d) and Fig. 5 (a), (b), (c), and (d) Shows the results of the total harmonic
distortions for the currents and Voltages respectively.

6. CONCLUSION

In this paper, harmonics measurements analysis for a standalone Photovoltaic System with
linear and non-linear loads is presented. Harmonics distortions behaviors in both Voltages and
Currents for the interactive linear and non-linear loads are studied and presented in this paper.
Results of the Voltage measurements indicates that, no distortions were observed in Voltage
wave forms, this showed that, the THD
V
are within the standard and did not exceed the
required limits. THD
I
of fig. 4 (b) indicates the highest current distortion of the non-linear
loads. However, the Current wave forms measurements for the proposed study shows that, the
THD
I
are out of ranges of the IEEE 519-1992 standard limits. We therefore, recommend the
use of shunt active Power filter in mitigating the proliferation of harmonics distortions
disturbances in the proposed scheme.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors acknowledged Universiti Putra Malaysia for providing this research equipment for
the purpose of research students in the Department of Electrical Engineering, faculty of
engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Rahmani, R. Fard, M. Shojaei, A. A. Othman, M. F. and Yusuf, R. (2011) A Complete
Model of Stand-alone Photovoltaic Array in MATLAB-Simulink Environment, 2011 IEEE
Student Conference on Research and Development, pp. 46-51.
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policy.org/index.php?/indicators/c47/.
[3] Tripathy, P. K. Manjure, D. and Makram, E. B. (2002) Harmonic Analysis in a selected
distributed Generator devices, www.clemson.edu/ces/powsys/2002/Papers/.
Fig. 3 Voltage and Current wave forms for (a) Air conditioner + PC and it
monitor. (b) PC + Air conditioner + laptop
(a). (b).
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[4] Durgesh, M. (1999) Effect of Non-linear loads on power System harmonics, Msc Thesis,
Clemson University, Clemson, p 27.
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[6] Indranil, B. Yuhang, D. and Simon, S. Y. (2010) Active filters for harmonics elimination
in solar Photovoltaic grid-connected and stand-alone Systems, 2
nd
Asia Symposium on
Quality Electronic design, pp. 280-284.
[7] IEEE Standard Association, 929-2000-IEEE Recommended practice for Utility Interface of
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, http:// standards.ieee.org/findstds/929-2000.html.
[8] Marco B., Massimiliano L., Marcello P. and Gionpaolo P. (2007) Experimental analysis of
Power Quality issues in a mobile house supplied by Renewable energy sources,
International Conference on Renewable energy and Power quality.

9. APPENDIX 1
A. Current harmonic values for the non-linear loads

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Fig. 4 Harmonic Current values for (a) Air conditioner, (b) PC + monitor, (c) 2
flourescent lamps, (d) air conditioner + incandescent lamps
(c). (d).
(a).
(b).
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B. Voltage harmonic values for the non-linear loads

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Potential Applying Waste-to-Energy Concept at University Campus

Kian-Ghee Tiew
1*
, Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri
1

1
Department of Civil and Structural, Faculty of Engineering and Built of Environmental, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001, Fax: (673) 2453502, E-mail: tiew8585@yahoo.com

Fig. 5 Harmonic voltage values for (a) Air conditioner, (b) PC + monitor, (c) 2
flourescent lamps, (d) air conditioner + incandescent lamps
(c). (d).
(a).
(b).
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Abstract
The main aim of this study is to evaluate the potential applying Waste-to-Energy (WTE) at
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). The study is accomplished by dividing the study into
two sections. The first section is to determine the solid waste generation, composition (food
waste, plastic, paper, metal, glass and other) and characterization (moisture content, density,
pH, heat value, ash content, percentage volatiles matters and carbon-nitrogen ratio). The
baseline data obtained are used to estimate applying WTE in UKM. The daily waste
generation was obtained from daily collection by Alam Flora Sdn Bhd using a compactor
truck and weighted in the landfill in a year starting from July 2009 until July 2010. Waste
composition study was done by centralized waste separation method which was done in a
month starting from 27th July 2009 to 22nd August 2009 (LAGA PN 98). Characterization of
solid waste was carried out according to standard methods ASTM (American Society of
Testing and Materials Standard). The second section is a estimate potential of WTE concept to
manage waste disposal at UKM. The results are as follows: - i) The average daily waste
generation at UKM is 4.52 tons/day done by the collection activities of Alam Flora Sdn Bhd,
ii) Solid waste composition is 42.98% of food waste, 35.95% of plastic, 17.19% of paper,
1.75% of metal, 0.74% of glass and 1.39% of others; iii) Characterization of solid waste are as
follows: a) Moisture content in the range of 26.22% b) 48.17% volatile matter, c) 25.62% ash
content, d) Carbon-nitrogen ratio is 7.51:1; e) Bulk density of 273.55 kg/m3; f) The average
heat value 2422.38 kcal / kg, and g) The pH value show that the waste in acidity which is pH
5.18. In conclusion, the potential applying WTE concept at UKM could reduce depending
natural resources to generate electricity and win-win situation to reduce waste disposal to
landfills.

Keywords: Waste, Waste-to-Energy, Waste composition, Waste characteristic.

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is a main key of challenge of the global warming [1]. Hence, solid waste could be one
of energy resource to reduce depending on fossil fuel and at the same could reduce green
house gases (GHG) emission in the landfill through reduce rate of waste disposal. In the
global, waste as energy resource is not more a new concept [2]. There are literature review
shown already apply in current waste management such as renewable waste materials from
agriculture [3], industries [4] and domestic [5] sources are convertible to useful energy forms
like biohydrogen, biogas, bioalcohols, etc.

1.1 Background of case study
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) or the National University of Malaysia, is one of
Malaysias leading universities having a campus population of approximately 30,000,
comprising of lecturers and students. Because of the large size of this community, solid waste
management represents one of the greatest challenges for achieving institutional sustainability.
In year 2008, a major change took place in the solid waste management (SWM) system in the
university. A Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) was signed to upgrade collection of solid
waste to a centralized collection system through the collaboration between the university and
the solid waste collection company Alam Flora Sdn Bhd (AFSB). The collaboration intended
to institute integrated solid waste management (ISWM) at the university and will enable the
university to achieve its Zero-Waste campus objective. The rate of solid waste generation by
the university was recently estimated to be approximately 5 ton per day.
Waste composition is a very important baseline data in ISWM, especially in terms of the
goal of achieving institutional sustainability, and irrespective of the particular methods of solid
waste management techniques and options that are considered for implementation. Numerous
waste characterization studies have been conducted at universities level worldwide [6&7] to
analyze the recycling potential [8] and potential reuse of resource residues [9]. These measures
are expected to lead to reductions in solid waste disposal. The research provides information
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and better understanding. Such improvements in knowledge can help institutions of higher
education such as UKM to achieve higher rates of waste diversion and to meet the challenges
that universities and colleges may face when preparing to implement sustainable waste
management programmes on campus. The specific objective of this paper is to assess the
composition and characterization of solid waste on the main campus of UKM and potential of
solid waste become one of energy resource on the campus in the context of planning for a
future zero-waste campus and green campus.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Waste generation and waste composition
Daily waste generation was carried out based on the weight of solid waste collected by the
waste collector company Alam Flora Sdn Bhd (AFSB). For waste composition segregation
method, all baseline characterizations were performed according to the ASTM 5231-92
Standard Test Method for Determination of the Composition of Unprocessed Municipal Solid
Waste [10] and LAGA PN 98 [11]. During these four weeks the sampling was done every
Monday, Wednesday and Saturday by cone sampling. At first the samples were taken from a
heap and later out of a roro-container. Through the use of a wheelbarrow, public works
employees and master course students moved about 450 kg of municipal solid waste onto the
thin plastic sheet. Ripping and opening of the plastic bags and containers ensued with small
knives, and mixing was achieved with shovels and rakes. Then the large sample was quartered
so that approximately one fifth of the sample (91136 kg) was left to form a representative
sample. Finally, manual sorting of the waste was done according to ASTM categories i.e.
plastic bag, plastic bottle, polystyrene, mixed plastic (consists hard plastic), non-recyclable
plastic bag (black plastic bag), paper (newspaper, magazines, cardboard and box), aluminum,
rubber and leather, food waste (cooked waste and uncooked waste), and glass. After that,
different types of samples were placed into properly labeled buckets.

2.2 Waste characteristics
The determination of the total moisture content was done according to ASTM E 989 88 [12].
Hence, once the waste was sorted, the samples were weighed and sent to the laboratory for
further analysis. For the moisture content analysis, if there is moisture lost/gained then it will
be accounted for in the total overall moisture content of the sample. Once the samples reached
the laboratory, the samples were weighed initially to determine if there was any moisture lost
during the transportation.
C/N ratio analysis was carried out using the CHNS-O analyzer (Model EA 1108), which was
in accordance to the procedures as required by ASTME 777-87 [13] and ASTM E 778-87
[14]. This method gave results for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphate content in
the waste. Analysis of the samples was done not only for the individual components but also
on commingle samples. This approach allow for comparison of results from the individual
component analysis, calculated overall characteristics of the municipal solid waste based on a
weighted average and also on a commingled sampling basis.
To test the ash content (ASTM E 830-87) [15], samples prepared in the form of small pieces
of equipment using the blender. Weight of a small crucible weighed. Samples of moisture
content (70
0
C, 24 hours) is taken and put in the crucible prepared and weight and the weight
of the sample weighed crucible. Crucible and the sample introduced into a furnace
(WiseTherm) such as Fig.1 (a) and heated at 600
0
C for 2 hours. Sample removed and dried
and cooled in a dry chamber. Finally, the sample weight after burning weighed. Calculation of
percent ash content and percent loss by the following formula:

A = [(R, S) x 100] / (S-C)
where: A = percent ash percentage in the sample
R = weight of crucible and sample after burning 600
0
C
S = weight of crucible and sample before burning 600
0
C
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C = weight of crucible
Percent Volatile (volatiles) = 100 -% A
where: A = percent ash percentage in the sample

Fig.1 (a) Machine WiseTherm furnace to test the ash content and (b) Machine Bomb
Calorimeter

Heat value (ASTM E711-87) of the test is done by taking a sample from the moisture content
after 24 hours at 70
0
C and rotated in powder form [16]. The samples were sent to a laboratory
for testing chemicals Bomb Calorimeter for the heat value of the sample. Equipment used is
shown in Fig.1 (b).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Waste generation
The highest monthly waste generation was in July 2009 due to the new semester intake for
students. The waste generation in September 2009, which is during a week study period and
also the fasting month of Ramadhan for the Muslims is the lowest in comparison to other
months as shown in Fig.2. Waste generation in December 2009 and January 2010 was low as
well due to the semester break for the students. The results in Table 1 show the average daily
waste generation at UKM campus is approximately 4.76 ton/day.

Fig.2 Waste generation at campus UKM, Bangi

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Table 1 Average daily waste generation at UKM
Month
Average daily waste
generation (ton/day)
July 2009 5.70
August 2009 5.22
September 2009 4.27
October 2009 5.66
November 2009 4.84
December 2009 3.62
January 2010 3.41
February 2010 5.20
March 2010 4.88

3.2 Waste composition
These results indicate that 15.16% of the uncooked food waste can be reused as fertilizer by
using a composting method, rather than dumping the waste in sanitary landfill. Use of large
amounts of polystyrene food packaging is a SWM issue at UKM as shown in Table 2.
Management should encourage restaurant owners to use food containers that are compatible
with sustainable waste management goals. The problem could also be addressed by new
environmental protection regulations by university authorities that would ban the use of using
polystyrene as food packaging. Furthermore, academic staff and students should be made
aware of and educated about the problems caused by plastic bags. Plastic bags represented
13.39% by weight of solid wastes analyzed. Campus user groups should be encouraged to use
recyclable bags rather than plastic bags.

Table 2 Waste composition by centralized method in campus UKM, 2009

Types
Amount
(kg)
%
Plastic Bag 14.5 13.39
Plastic Bottle 1.4 1.33
Polystyrene 5.9 5.48
Mixed Plastic 10.3 9.56
Non-recyclable Plastic Bag 6.8 6.26
Newspaper, Magazines, Cardboard and Box
(Papers)
18.6 17.18
Aluminum Cans (Metals) 1.9 1.72
Rubber and Leather 1.5 1.37
Cooked (Food Waste) 30.1 27.79
Uncooked (Food Waste) 16.4 15.16
Glass 0.8 0.76
Total 108.2 100.00

3.3 Waste characteristics
Table 3 shows that the laboratory analysis of waste disposal in UKM. Moisture content in
UKM is lower compared to Kuala Lumpur because the sample in UKM is obtained from
compactor truck which compresses out the moisture in the samples. Hence, moisture content
in UKM is 26.22% which is lower compared to MSW of Kuala Lumpur which is 55.01% [17].
And the C/N ratio (7.51) is lower compared to standard value for composting which in the
range of 20 to 35 is best [2]. If organic waste sample C/N ratio is low, which means high
nitrogen content, this could be adjusted by adding carbon rich items like leaves or shredded
paper. Hence, composting method could be established in the system of waste management in
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UKM. Heat value of solid waste is 2,422.38 kcal/kg shows that could be apply refuse-derive-
fuel method to convert waste to energy.

Table 3 Laboratory analysis data in campus UKM, 2009

Laboratory Analysis UKM, 2009
Proximate analysis (Wet Basis)
Mositure Content, %
Volatile matter content, %
Ash Content, %
26.22
48.17
25.62
Elementary Analysis (Dry
Basis)

Carbon (%)
Nitrogen (%)
C/N ratio
Ultimate Analysis
Heat value (kcal/kg)
39.48
5.26
7.51:1

2422.38

3.4 Potential of solid waste as an energy resource
From the waste generation, waste composition and waste characteristics results indicated that
highly potential UKM waste management applying anaerobic digestion (Anaerobic Baffles
Reactor, ABR) as a one of waste to energy methods to manage the waste disposal. ABR could
be a good option is due to successful proved by local technology [18]. Fig.3 showing a study
using a mixture of 75% food waste and 25% activate sludge used as a substrate to carry out
anaerobic digestion process. The results show that the microorganisms in the digestive process
ABR system consists of a small number of protozoa (5%) and fungi (2%), but almost 93% of
bacteria [18]. This shows that bacteria play an important role for anaerobic digestion for food
waste. Finally, show that 93% of the bacteria are from Methanococcus, Methanosarcina and
Methanotrix which is the bacteria to produce methane gas in the ABR. Benefits of anaerobic
digestion for food waste is that it is an integrated solid waste management methods that
developing countries while maintaining the natural ecosystem in an acceptable cost. Next, it
can also extend the period of the landfill and renewable energy produced from anaerobic
digestion processes.

Fig.3 Lab scale of Anaerobic Baffles Reactor (ABR)
(Sources: Malakahmad et al., 2007)
Influent Tank
ABR System
Wet Gas Meter
Effluent Tank
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4. Conclusion

Waste-to-energy is future trend in global due to shortage of fossil fuel resources. Hence, this
research is to study baseline data about waste generation, composition and characteristics to
finding out potential of waste as one of energy resources. UKM waste management could be
tried to apply ABR as one of method to manage waste rather than dump into landfill. The
study presented here provides an example of the tools and methods that can be used to assess
the sustainability of a university waste management system in accordance with the universitys
goal of achieving a future Zero-Waste campus and Green Campus. The results clearly
demonstrate that organic materials represent a high percentage of solid waste and show that
highly potential as one of energy resource. It is thus appropriate to implement and establish
anaerobic methods that will reduce the amount of waste dumped in the landfill. An integrated
solid waste management approach should now be instituted on the UKM campus, thereby
making the campus a role model for Malaysia.

5. Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful for support this project which was carried out at the Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (under research grant UKM-PTS-007-2009) with cooperation of Alam
Flora Sdn Bhd (M).

6. REFERENCES

United States Global Change Research Program, (2009), Global Climate Change Impacts in
the United States, http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/energy.pdf
Richard, J. H. (2001), Processing Yard Waste, The McGraw-Hill Recycling Handbook,
Chapter 26
Traore, A. S. (1992), Bioresource Technology, 41, pp-105109.
Devianai K, Kasturi, B. R. (1995) Bioresource Technology, 52, pp.93104.
Ginkel, S.V. Oh, S. E, Logan B. E. (2005) International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30, pp.
15351542.
Smithers, W. (2005), Solid Waste Management. Retrieved October 9, 2005. from Cornell
University, Website: http://www.sustainablecampus.cornell.edu/rrr-solid.htm
Danielle P. S. Arthur L. Fredeen, Annie L. Booth. (2010), Resources, Conservation and
Recycling 54, pp. 10071016.
Carolina A. de. V. Sara O. B. Ma, E. R. B, (2008), Waste Management, 28, pp. 2126.
Mason, I.G., Oberender, A. & Brooking. A.K. (2004), Resources, Conservation and Recycling
40, pp. 155172
ASTM International. 2003, American Society for Testing and Materials,US.
[11] German Joint Working Group of the Lnder on Waste, (2001),
http://www.wasteconsult.de/Conditioning.pdf
[12] ASTM E 989 88, Standard Test Method for Total Moisture in a Refuse-Derived Fuel
Laboratory Sample.
[13] ASTM International, (2003), American Society for Testing and Materials, US, pp. 777-
787.
[14] ASTM International, (2003). Standard Test Method for Nitrogen in the Analysis Sample
of Refuse-Derived Fuel. In: ASTM E 778 87. American Society for Testing and Materials,
US,
[15] ASTM International, (2003) Standard Test Method for Ash in the Analysis Sample of
Refuse-Derived Fuel. In: ASTM E 830 87. American Society for Testing and Materials, US.
[16] ASTM International, (2003) Standard Test Method for Gross Calorific Value of Refuse-
Derived Fuel by the Bomb Calorimeter. In: ASTM E 711 87. American Society for Testing
and Materials, US.
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[17] Sivapalan, K. Muhd N. Muhd Y. Kamaruzzaman S. Abdul H. S, Renewable Energy 29,
pp.559567.
[18] Malakahmad, A. Zain, S.M. Basri, N.E.A. & Suja, F, (2007), Proceedings of EnCon2007
1st Engineering Conference on Energy & Environment.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Electricity Load Profile for Supply and Demand: Towards the Feasibility of
Solar Energy in Malaysian Rural Housing

Nur Azfahani Ahmad
1,2*
, Hugh Byrd
2
,
1
Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying,
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 32610, Perak, Malaysia
2
School of Architecture and Planning, NICAI, The University of Auckland, 1010, New
Zealand
*
E-mail: nahm066@aucklanduni.ac.nz

Abstract
The depletion of fossil fuels threatens the stability of the electricity supply in Malaysia, which
could potentially result in an increase in electricity costs and lead to a phase of power scarcity
and thus load shedding. Rural households, especially those of low-income groups, are
particularly vulnerable to the post-effects of a power outage.
Distributed generation of electricity by solar PVs reduces the vulnerability of these households
and can also offer a supply to the national grid. At the moment, the deployment of solar PV
installations is still in the introductory stage in Malaysia, where roof-mounted PV panels are
only available to commercial and urban residential buildings due to their high cost and the lack
of a suitable energy policy for rural households.
This paper reviews the energy consumption of rural households and the extent to which PVs
can mitigate electricity insecurity. The results present significant potential for distributed PV
power generation in rural areas in Malaysia. There is a considerable amount of electricity
needed to be harvested from roof-mounted solar PV for people living in the Kampong area.

Keywords: Load profile, Feed-in Tariff, Pay-back Period, Photovoltaic, Rural Housing

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent decades, Malaysia has been experiencing a growing electricity demand due to
population growth, economic growth and cheaper electricity prices [1]. Cheap fuel prices,
rising domestic incomes and the reduced cost of electrical appliances have all stimulated
energy demand in various sectors and caused people to consume more electricity. The Energy
Commission of Malaysia [2] stated that, as of June 2007, Malaysia had among the lowest
electricity tariffs for households worldwide (7.42 US cents/1kWh).
Electricity demand for the housing sector alone has experienced about 4.9 percent growth for
over the past 10 years due to the improved standard of living [3]. Electricity consumption in
the housing sector continues to grow and is significantly influenced by the cheap electrical
appliances market [4]. Despite the increase in fossil fuel prices, Malaysia's electricity
consumption continues to escalate every year. The electricity generated in 1965 was 336 MW;
by the year 2010, electricity generation had reached 25, 258 MW [5]. Because of this, the
Malaysian government aims to increase electricity generation by 10% [1] and the quota comes
from coal (estimated to reach up to 2000 MW) and gas (estimated to reach up to 700 MW) [6].
However, since the increase in the price of petrol and diesel in the global market, the peak oil
issue and the South China Sea oil crisis, fulfilling the growing demands of electricity for the
nation has become more and more difficult. Malaysia requires a more resilient electricity
supply to mitigate any future risk of power rationing or load shedding. With the main
resources for generating electricity under threat due to the peak oil issue, it is possible that
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power supplies will be reduced or cut-off in the future, especially in rural areas. Many
examples from Asian cities with high population densities like Jakarta, Dhaka and Mumbai
always have to face issues of power interruption, especially in rural areas [7].
In this context, distributed renewable energy resources, especially solar photovoltaic (PV), is
likely to play an important role in overcoming the problems of load-shedding. Malaysia has a
large solar-radiation resource, with an average irradiance per year of 1643 kWh/m
2
[8]. The
potential generation of solar PV energy on Malaysian roofs is about 50% more than that of
roofs in Germany and Japan, where PVs have been widely implemented across the residential
sector [9] (see Figure 2). PVs mounted on the roofs of houses in Malaysia could generate
about 25% of current electricity demand [9]. This is a significant proportion of the electricity
generation mix for Malaysia, especially in terms of meeting the electricity requirements of
low-income sectors of the population. Residential buildings in rural areas correspond to over
27% of the electricity demand in Malaysia [10]. In this article, we examine the electricity load
profile of residential dwellings in rural areas in order to extend the feasibility study of
potential distributed solar PV energy in this area by using roof-mounted solar PV.

2. THE CASE STUDY

The case study selected was a typical vernacular rural house in Malaysia, which is
representative of 35% of the middle-class rural houses in the country [11]. This prototype
house had a 16m x 15m floor plan, which was built on stilts (for the living room and 2
bedrooms) and an attached building for kitchen and bathroom. There was a 16m x 15m gable
roof and a 8.6m x 3.4m mansard roof for the car porch. Figure 1 presents the roof plan of the
house. The households occupation duration was considered over 24 hours (from 6 am to 6
pm) and divided into 3 types of occupants; (a) Stay-at-home occupants, (b) Fewer occupants at
home and (c) Working-outside occupants. Below are the brief descriptions of each category:-

a. Stay-at-home occupants: Electrical appliances are used from 6 am in the morning
until midnight (all electrical appliances), whilst from midnight to early morning,
appliances such as hand phone chargers, fans or night lamps might be used. Fridges
run throughout the day.

b. Fewer occupants at home: Electrical appliances are used from 6 am in the morning,
but between 8 am to 1 pm, the load profile decreased. There are less people in the
house during this time (those that might be home include a housewife and kids) and
those home will be using only a small numbers of appliances (e.g. washing machine
and rice cooker). Fridges run throughout the day.

c. Working-outside occupants: Electrical appliances are used from 6 am to 8 am in the
morning. Basically, significant electrical appliances such as the iron, electric kettle
and rice cooker will be used in order to prepare food for breakfast and clothing for
work. From 8 am to 5pm; there will be no electric appliances used, since no family
members are at home (except for fridge). Later in the day, appliances such as hand
phone chargers, fans or night lamps might be used. Fridges run throughout the day.

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Fig. 1 Roof plan for rural house prototype

3. HOUSEHOLDS ELECTRICITY DEMANDS

In the first phase, patterns of electricity consumption and behaviour among rural dwellers will
be identified. Three categories of load profiles were selected for this research, which are based
on the occupants lifestyles throughout a day (stay-at-home occupants, working-outside
occupants and fewer occupants at home). The readings were estimated on the basis of
electricity consumption in rural dwellers in order to represent a typical reading of the daily
load profiles in Malaysian rural areas.
In the second phase, data is analysed and the potential of electricity energy from roofs is
predicted. This will help in determining a feasible way to offer rural dwellers some degree of
resilience towards providing a link between solar PVs and electricity households. Domestic
electrical load profiles for rural households in Malaysia are usually categorised as low energy,
which is between 1 kW 5 kW [12]. Differences may transpire due to the use of different
electrical equipment in each household, but the load may not be as distinct as the types of
electrical appliances used which will usually be the same (lamps, televisions, fans and
refrigerators). Table 1 shows the usage of electrical appliances for the three types of
occupancy in rural Malaysia, excluding monsoon season.

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Table 1 The consumption of electricity for rural dwellings throughout the week.

* Data is based on typical electrical appliances which are used in rural Malaysia (Excludes
school holidays and weekends).
Note: Stay-at-home (Occupants always at home on daily-basis), Fewer occupants at home
(Few people at homes during the day, such as housewife and kids), Working outside occupants
(Nobody at home during the day).
Source: Adapted from [2-4].

Load requirements change each Monsoon season. Since Malaysia is a tropical country and the
temperatures are high, rural occupants will tend to use more fans. Therefore, the load
requirements would be high for certain times of the day, especially noon and night. However,
during monsoon seasons in Malaysia, which normally runs from November to January, the
weather would be slightly cooler and it is believed that during these months less electricity
demand would be used, especially for cooling purposes [13]. Figure 2 presents the load profile
for 3 types of occupancy; (a) stay-at-home occupants, (b) fewer occupants at home and (c)
working outside occupants.

(a) Stay-at-home occupants (b) Fewer occupants at home

Appliances
Standard
Load
(Watts)
*from TNB
Quantity
Daily
average
usage (h)
Total
Wh/daily
kWh/daily
Daily
average
usage (h)
Wh/daily kWh/daily
Daily
average
usage (h)
Wh/daily kWh/daily
Fridge/
Freezer
500* 1 24 2400 2.400 24 2400 2.400 24 2400 2.400
Ri ce cooker 905 1 1 905 0.905 1 905 0.905 0.4 362 0.362
Tel evi si on 100 1 10 1000 1.000 12 1200 1.200 5 500 0.500
Tabl e/stand
Fan
60 2 16 1920 1.920 16 1920 1.920 7 840 0.840
Cei l i ng Fan 120 1 11 1320 1.320 11 1320 1.320 5 600 0.600
Washing
machine
1080 1 0.15 162 0.162 0.3 324 0.324 0.3 324 0.324
Fluorescent
Lights
30 5 6 900 0.900 6 900 0.900 5 750 0.750
Bulb light 70 2 6 840 0.840 6 840 0.840 5 700 0.700
Electric kettle 1400 1 0.2 280 0.280 0.2 280 0.280 0.2 280 0.280
Iron 1000 1 0.45 450 0.450 0.15 150 0.150 0.15 150 0.150
10.177 10.239 6.906
Cell phone
chargers
35 2 8 560 0.560 9 630 0.630 9 630 0.630
Blender 300 1 0.3 90 0.090 0.3 90 0.090 0.15 45 0.045
Microwave/
Oven
1100 1 0.1 110 0.110 0.05 55 0.055 0.05 55 0.055
Radio 20 1 7 140 0.140 5 100 0.100 0 0 0.000
ASTRO-set
(Satellite TV)
200 1 10 2000 2.000 12 2400 2.400 5 1000 1.000
Computer 200 1 8 1600 1.600 4 800 0.800 3 600 0.600
Night Lamp 70 1 9 630 0.630 9 630 0.630 9 630 0.630
5.130 4.705 2.960
15.307 14.944 9.866
WORKING OUTSIDE OCCUPANTS
Others:
TYPES OF OCCUPANTS : STAY-AT-HOME FEWER OCCUPANTS AT HOME
TOTAL LOAD FOR COMMON ELECTRICITY APPLIANCES:
TOTAL LOAD (kWh) FOR OPTIONAL APPLIANCES:
OVERALL TOTAL (kWh/daily)
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
0 6 12 18 24
k
W

Time (Hour)
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0 6 12 18 24
k
W

Time (hour)
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(c) Working outside occupants

Fig. 2 (a), (b) and (c) The load profile for a typical rural house

4. THE POTENTIAL OF SOLAR PV GENERATION

4.1 PV System characteristics
Based on a study done by Ibrahim (2009), the solar radiation in Malaysia reaches its peak
emission at noon, with the reading reaching up to 1000 W/m
2
on a clear day (see Figure 3).
Today, PV panels convert energy from sunlight into electric energy within the range of 7% -
17% [14]. For the purposes of this research, it has been assumed that these PVs work in
tropical temperatures, with pre-photovoltaic losses (dirt and shadows) of 8%, system losses
(cable and inverter losses of 5% and maintenance downtime of 6%), tilt and orientation losses
of 5%, module losses of 50% and thermal losses of 10% [15]. This gives an overall solar
energy to electricity conversion efficiency of 16%.

Fig. 3 Annual solar radiation data (W/m
2
) daily
Source: adapted from [16]

For the purposes of this study, a 2 kWp and 4 kWp capacity output of a 16%-efficient PV
system are selected. Based on the rule of thumb provided by NREL, 14.8 and 29.7 square
meters of roof area are needed for a 2 kWp and 4 kWp PV system, respectively [15] (See
Table 2). This requires only 10% of the roof area of a typical rural house in Malaysia.

Table 2 Solar output based on 2 kW and 4 kW PV power system
Characteristics 2 kW power system 4 kW power system
Tim
e
W/m
2

PV
system
efficiency
(%)
Area of
roof (m
2
)
(NREL,
2003)*
Solar
output
(Watts)
Solar
output
(kW)
Area of
roof (m
2
)
(NREL,
2003)*
Solar
output
(Watts)
Solar
output
(kW)
8 180 0.16 14.8 426.24 0.4 29.7 855.36 0.9
9 300 0.16 14.8 710.4 0.7 29.7 1425.6 1.4
10 500 0.16 14.8 1184 1.2 29.7 2376 2.4
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
0 6 12 18 24
k
W

Time (hour)
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11 780 0.16 14.8 1847.04 1.8 29.7 3706.56 3.7
12 940 0.16 14.8 2225.92 2.2 29.7 4466.88 4.5
13 1000 0.16 14.8 2368 2.4 29.7 4752 4.8
14 920 0.16 14.8 2178.56 2.2 29.7 4371.84 4.4
15 640 0.16 14.8 1515.52 1.5 29.7 3041.28 3.0
16 400 0.16 14.8 947.2 0.9 29.7 1900.8 1.9
17 240 0.16 14.8 568.32 0.6 29.7 1140.48 1.1
18 180 0.16 14.8 426.24 0.4 29.7 855.36 0.9
* Basically, to generate 2,000 (2 kW) and 4,000 watts (4 kW) from a 16%-efficient system,
14.8 and 29.7 square meters of roof area is needed respectively [15].

4. 2 Pattern of electricity output from a 2 kWp and 4 kWp PV system.
Figure 4 demonstrates the patterns of electricity output for a 2kWp and 4kWp PV system in
comparison with the households energy demand (for the 3 types of occupancy) for rural
dwellings. The red curve represents a 4 kW PV system, the green curve represents a 2 kW PV
system and the blue curve represents the load profile of the house. During the day (from 7 am
6 pm), the amount of solar energy available is 2 times greater than the houses total demand,
indicating a significant link between the availability of solar energy and the electricity loads of
the house. From Figure 4, it can be seen that PVs supply 35% more electricity than is
consumed over a 24 hour period. Based on these 3 graphs, there is actually a well-defined
potential spot for solar energy, depending on the occupants patterns of electricity use [17].
During the day, a house would only consume 1/3
rd
of the electricity it produces. These results
show the considerable potential of solar energy for the building where 2/3
rd
of the energy
could be fed into the power grid or stored in batteries (e.g for electric vehicle) in the future.

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(a) Stay-at-home occupants (b) Fewer occupants at home

(c) Working outside occupants

Fig. 4(a), (b) and (c) The pattern of solar PV electricity generation for a typical rural house

It should be highlighted that these results are based on there being no shading effects from the
surroundings. Although this analysis was carried out over a 24 hour period, Malaysia is a
tropical country with little seasonal variation and so this analysis can be extrapolated to apply
to annual electricity supply and demand.

5. THE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS

For this section, a cost-benefit analysis will be made in order to identify (1) the savings that
can be gained by the homeowners and (2) to determine the payback period for installing a PV
system onto a house. This is essential, in order to attract people to install a PV system.

5.1 Calculations for Savings in Electricity bill per month
Based from Table 1, the overall total load (kWh) for a rural house is estimated to be 450 kWh
per month. Table 3 shows the actual expenses for monthly electricity bill for a rural house.

Table 3 Actual expenses for monthly electricity bill for a rural house (450 kWh power
consumption).
Electricity unit in
Malaysia
Malaysias
Electricity
tariff*
Maxim
um
kWh
Your
Consumption
(kWh)
Amount
(RM)
First 200 units (0-
200):
0.218 200 200 43.60
Next 100 units
(201-300)
0.334 100 100 33.40
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
k
W

Time (hour)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
k
W

Time (hour)
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
k
W

Time (hour)
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Next 100 units
(301-400)
0.400 100 100 40.00
Next 100 units
(401-500)
0.420 50 50 21.00

* TNB tariff
Total 138.00

From Figure 4, it can be estimated that by installing 4kWp PV system for a house; it will
produce 2.5 kWh of electricity per day/75 kWh per month. With a simple calculation (450
kWh 75 kWh = 375 kWh), the monthly electricity bill can be decreased to RM107.00 per
month/ RM1284.00 per annum, thus saving around RM 31.00 per month/RM 372.00 per
annum.
With an estimated increase of electricity prices up to 5% per year in the future [18, 19], the
price of electricity will increase up to RM 0.82 per unit (kWh) by the year 2030. Fig. 5 shows
the projection of escalating price for electricity in Malaysia from 2012 to 2030. Thus, by
providing an opportunity to install solar PV panel for rural people, it will help them to reduce
their electricity bills, provide an income from selling excess electricity back to the grid
through the Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) scheme and, at the same time, has the potential to help 3.5
million rural houses in Malaysia [20] not to be burdened with escalating electricity costs.

Fig. 5 The projection of electricity prices escalation (2012-2030)

5.2 Calculation of Simple Payback Period
Based on data from the Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia (SEDA), the
feed-in-tariff (FiT) rate for solar energy in Malaysia (up to 4kW capacity) is RM1.23 per kWh
with a contract period of 21 years [21]. The cost of installing a PV panel is decreasing, from
RM 31,000 per kWP in early 2005 [22] to RM 19, 120.00 per kWp in 2010 [22, 23]. Full
installation cost will be based on this figure, but for a larger installation (2 kWp and 4 kWp),
there will be a 10% cost reduction per 1kWp installed due to economic scale, which translates
to RM 36, 270.00 and RM 48, 000.00 [24] respectively. In assuming all electricity is fed into
the grid, a simple payback period plan can be determined and can be used to attract
homeowners to install solar PV system. This result depends on the location of installation and
with the assumption of no interest on the installation cost.
From Table 4, we have assumed 2 options, which consist of, (a) no interest during the process
of installing PV systems; either because the PVs were bought without a loan or because of a
100% loan subsidy and (b) PVs were bought using a private loan from local banks with 6%
interest rate per annum [25].

0.34
0.36
0.37
0.39
0.41
0.43
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.53
0.55
0.58
0.61
0.64
0.67
0.71
0.74
0.78
0.82
0.00
0.30
0.60
0.90
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
3
2
0
2
4
2
0
2
5
2
0
2
6
2
0
2
7
2
0
2
8
2
0
2
9
2
0
3
0
R
M

c
e
n
t
/
u
n
i
t

5% per annum
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Table 4 Calculation For A Simple Payback Period For Rural Housing (using 2 kWp and 4
kWp PV system)
ITEM
2 kWp
(RM)
4 kWp
(RM)

Installation Cost (RM)
(1)

36270.00 48000.00
Total revenue (annually)
*FiT [RM1.23 x Generation of electricity] for a year

-
6250.00
(a) 2kWp = RM 1.23 x 3000 kWh/year
(1)

(b) 4kWp = RM1.23 x 5080 kWh/year
(1)

3690.00
-
Payback period (Year)
Option (a) Without interest
* Installation Cost
Total revenue (annually)

9.8 years

7.7 years
Option (b) With 6% interest
(2)
* Installation Cost
[Total revenue (annually) (Installation Cost x 6% per
annum)]

24 years 14.2 years
(1)
Data from Malaysia Bosch Solar Energy
(2)
Interest rate is based from private loans provided by Maybank, Bank Rakyat and Bank
Simpanan Nasional

From Table 4, it is found that the best option is to choose 4kWp PV system, where the
duration for the homeowner to gain returns on the PV investment is shorter compared to 2kWp
PV system. Nonetheless, the payback period of 4kWp PV system is different between option
(a) and option (b) which are 7.7 and 14.2 years respectively. From this result, it has highlights
the importance of a subsidy for low income households in order to install a solar PV system.

6. CONCLUSION

This paper has analysed the supply and demand of electricity of households in rural areas in
Malaysia. It has identified that solar energy offers an important alternative to fossil fuels in
generating electricity and that the technology of photovoltaics could be implemented in a
typical rural house. The roofs of rural houses have the potential to generate surplus electricity
in order to satisfy occupants needs if a PV array can be installed on at least 10% of the roof
area (between 14 m
2
to 29m
2
), based on solar output performance.
Further studies will be needed in order to establish a specific program or loans that could make
PVs financially attractive to the locals. An extensive analysis should be introduced on surplus
electricity and whether selling excess electricity to the power grid or running electric vehicles
(EV) is more cost-effective in the future. In order for the system to allow a surplus of
electricity that can be fed into the grid to run electric vehicles, the areas of PV panel would
need to be extended. This could be implemented when the price of electric cars or motorbikes
becomes competitive in a few years time. To what degree this can be done depends on the
total of electricity that can be generated by the house.
In addition, with current feed-in tariffs provided by Tenaga Nasional Berhad, households can
profit from their renewable electricity within an acceptable payback period of 7-14 years. This
means that rural households can move towards being more self-sufficient in terms of
electricity and can also mitigate the unforeseen future of Malaysia by participating into feed-in
tariff scheme that involves national solar electricity. The degree to which rural houses can
participate in diffusing this technology has not yet been considered. It will depend on the
acceptance and knowledge of the community, the number of houses that invest in this
technology and also the capacity of the national grid to utilise this electricity.
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7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education
(MOHE) Malaysia, The University of Auckland and Faculty of Architecture, Planning and
Surveying, UiTM Perak for funding this research.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Dato Sri Mohd Najib Bin Tun Abdul Razak (2010) 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015),
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[4] Saidur, R., et al. (2007) Energy and associated greenhouse gas emissions from household
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[6] Economic Planning Unit (2005) Development Plan of Malaysia: Mid-term 8
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[7] Luke, T.W. (2010) Power Loss or Blackout: The Electricity Power Collapse of August
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[8] Chua, S.C., T.H. Oh, W.W. Goh (2011) Feed-in tariff outlook in Malaysia, Renewable and
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[10] Shafie, S.M., et al. (2011) Current energy usage and sustainable energy in Malaysia: A
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Fee (ed), 5, Archipelago Press, Kuala Lumpur.
[12] TNB (2010) Pricing and Tariff, [Online], Available:
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[14] Grtzel, M. (2005) Solar Energy Conversion by Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaic Cells.
Inorganic Chemistry, 44(20): pp. 6841-6851.
[15] NREL, (2003), A Consumer's Guide: Get Your Power From the Sun, In US Department
of Energy (ed), The US Government, Washington.
[16 Ibrahim, M., et al (2009) An experimental analysis of solar-assisted chemical heat pump
dryer. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 4(2), pp. 78-83.
[17] Walker, G. (1995) Renewable energy and the public, Land Use Policy, 12(1), pp. 49-59.
[18] Schuman, M. (2012) How High Will Global Oil Prices Rise?, In Time: Business, Time
Inc: US., [Online] Available: http://business.time.com/2012/03/20/how-high-will-global-
oil-prices-rise/
[19] Fantazzini, D., M. Hk, A. Angelantoni (2011) Global oil risks in the early 21st century,
Energy Policy, 39(12), pp. 7865-7873.
[20] Department of Statistic Malaysia (2010) Preliminary Count Report, Department of
Statistic Malaysia, , Government of Malaysia, Putrajaya, pp. 47.
[21] SEDA (2011) FiT Rates for Solar PV, [Online], Available: http://seda.gov.my/.
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[22] MBIPV (2011) PV System Cost [Online] Available:
http://www.mbipv.net.my/content.asp?zoneid=4&categoryid=12.
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in residential houses in Malaysia: Past, present, and future, Energy Policy, 39(12), pp.
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http://www.bnm.gov.my/index.php?ch=12&pg=622.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Performance and economic feasibility studies of a flat panel grid-tied PV pilot
plant with cognizance to Malaysia Feed-in-Tariff mechanism

M. Effendy Yaacob
1,4,*
, Hashim Hizam
1,2
, M. Amran M. Radzi
1,2
, Mudathir F. Akorede
3
, M.
Fuad Mahmood
4

1
Department of Electrical & Electronics, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia
2
Green Engineering & Sustainable Technology Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Technology (ITMA),
Universiti Putra Malaysia
3
Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Malaysia
4
Office of Development and Asset Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (019) 6787178 / (603) 89466258, Fax: (603) 86567099,
E-mail: fendyupm@gmail.com

Abstract
Public awareness on climate change and green house gas effect due to uncontrollable use of
fossil based energy generation has become a hot issue addressed worldwide. This reflects the
greater interest and increasing market in Renewable Energy Source (RES) and Distributed
Generation (DG). This paper deals with the energy performance monitoring and
environmental-based analysis for the duration of 6 consecutive months. The PV Generator
system installed in Serdang district of Selangor, Malaysia comprises of 4 units of Fixed Flat
and Tracking Flat with the total rated capacity of 4kWp. The data analysis is based on smart-
pv.net real-time data logging system and this study analyzed based on economic perspective in
Feed-In-Tariff (FiT) rates as to support Malaysian Government effort in promoting RE
sources. For a tropical-based 3-parameter on the ground conditions, it is shown that the energy
generation fluctuates rapidly with the change of environmental conditions with an average
value of 349 W/m
2
daily sun radiation with 29.4
o
C ambient temperature and wind value of
1.21 m/s recorded throughout the 6 months monitoring period. With the approval of
Renewable Energy (RE) and Sustainable Energy Development Authority of Malaysia (SEDA)
Bills by the Malaysian Parliament in June 2011, it is expected that the FiT rates initiates
handsome financial benefits with a huge amount of CO
2
reduction. This study shares a
practical adoption of the Solar PV as green energy resources in tropical-based ground
condition and highlights the continuous effort by the Malaysian government in culturing green
initiatives.

Keywords: PV systems, field test, feed-in tariff, renewable energy sources, environmental
effects, CO
2
emissions.

1. INTRODUCTION

Global energy consumption is expected to rise by 1.6% annually or 45% in total for the next
20 years. In Malaysia, electricity demand is forecasted at around 19,000 megawatts (MW) in
2020 and 23,000 megawatts (MW) in 2030. This is an increase of almost 35% from 2008
figure with the projection of energy mix from renewable energy sources up to 300MW for
Peninsular Malaysia and 50 MW in Sabah [1,2 and 3]. Public awareness on climate change
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and green house gas effect due to uncontrollable use of Fossil based energy generation has
become hot issue addressed worldwide. This reflects the greater interest and increasing market
in Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and Distributed Generation (DG). Shafie et.al [4]
describes in Figure 1 the large amount and increasing growth of CO
2
emission in Malaysia
which correlates directly with energy utilization for the past 26 years. Malaysia energy sector
is heavily depended on fossil-fuel based resources although the issues of energy security,
increasing production cost, GHG effect, and sustainable development still carry a huge burden
throughout the economic planning.

Fig. 1 Analysis of CO
2
emission and energy utilization for Malaysia case.

Since the main source of energy for electricity generation comes from fossil fuels, this large
increase will definitely put a constraint on the fossil fuel supply and contributes to the adverse
effect on the environment. Due to this, the Government of Malaysia is working towards
attaining energy independence and promoting efficient utilization of supply and utilization of
renewable energy resources. One of the main sources of renewable energy that is highly
promoted in the tropical climate like in Malaysia is the solar energy. There have been some
projects developed in Malaysia based on PV systems and mostly they are in remote areas and
are off grid [2,3,4, 5 and 6].
Linyun and Hongwu [7] analyzes China dramatic CO
2
emission increase over the past 30 years
which leads the country as the worlds number 1 in ranking by the year 2009. Various factor
has been table out and detailed economical analysis are done by adapting Kaya Equation of :
CO
2
emission volume = (CO
2
emission/ energy consumption) x (energy consumption/ GDP) x
(GDP/ Population) x Population , GDP = Gross Domestic Product
An interesting perspective have been concluded by the author as means of CO
2
reduction
which highlights energy efficiency as leading role, energy conversion as enhanced role,
industrial economic transformation as restrictive factor and population as the least affecting
element. A study in Shanghai capital, the largest city in China by human population reveal a
method of controlling GHG via creating inventory of energy-related CO
2
emission [8]. As
means of CO
2
conversion, the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) of
Malaysia [13] has assessed the overall average emission factor for Malaysia and Sabah and
declare it to be 0.69kgCO
2eq
/kWh. This was calculated using a methodology adopted by
United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and is based on the combined margin for power generation.
Under the Tenth Malaysia Plan (RM-10), Malaysia introduced the Renewable Energy (RE)
Action Plan which spelled out in detail the way forward to increase the market share of RE in
the generation mix of the country based on the renewable energy policies and initiatives for a
sustainable energy future. The action plan visions to enhance the full utilization of indigenous
RE resources as means of contribution in achieving electricity supply security and sustainable
socio-economic development. Through this effort, the Renewable Energy Policy 2010 was
brought forward with pre-defined objective of [4]:
i) To increase RE contribution in the national power generation mix
ii) To facilitate the growth of the RE industry
iii) To ensure the reasonable RE Generation cost
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iv) To conserve the environment for future generation
v) To enhance awareness on the role and importance of RE

In achieving this outcome, five strategic trust of appropriate regulatory framework, conducive
RE business environment, intensive human capital development, enhancing Research and
Development in RE and implementing RE advocacy program will be the guideline for the
workforce. This policy also includes long term goals and it covers until the 12th Malaysia Plan
(20212025) [5].
Chen [2] forecasted the solar Potential in Malaysia by the year 2030 which estimated to be
1,370 MW and majority of the application implies PV technology. The Malaysia Parliament
has approved and officially started the Fit-In-Tariff (FiT) Enactment of the Renewable Energy
(RE) and Sustainable Development Authority of Malaysia (SEDA) Bills by third quarter of
2011. The FiT incentives and the proposed quota for RE energy source with highlights on
Solar PV are shown in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively [2,7, and 9]. Solar PV received the
highest FiT rate compare to the other RE resources with the rates of RM1.23 to RM1.78 for
the duration of 21 years with 8% degradation. The increasing quota values for solar PV
energy mix each year starting from 2011 for 9 MW up to the forecasted value of 18,700 MW
by the year 2050 shows continuous effort by the government in resolving fossil-based issues
and future trend of energy reliability in Solar PV technology and applications.
Detail review of current state and future prospect of solar energy application in Malaysia by
Mekhilef et.al [9] highlights the importance of enhancing PV market through research and
development, widespread of RE knowledge in each school level, strong government policy
and effective role by mass media as a continuous effort in promoting solar energy as the best
alternative for future energy generation.

Table 1 Feed-in-Tariff rates for Solar PV endorse by Malaysian Government
RE Type Tariff
(RM/kWh)
Duration (Year)
Solar PV
< 4 kW 1.23 21
> 4 kW < 24 kW 1.20 21
> 24 kW < 72 kW 1.18 21
> 72 kW < 1000 kW 1.14 21
> 1 MW < 10 MW 0.95 21
> 10 MW < 30 MW 0.85 21
Bonus for rooftop 0.26 21
Bonus for BIPV 0.25 21
Bonus for local
modules
0.03 21
Bonus for local
inverters
0.01 21

Table 2 Quota proposed for Solar PV-based energy sources in Malaysia
Cumulative Quota on RE Capacity (MW)
Year Bioma
ss
Biog
as
Mini-
Hydro
Solar
PV
Solid
Waste
Total
2011 110 20 60 9 20 219
2012 150 35 110 20 50 365
2013 200 50 170 33 90 543
2014 260 75 230 48 140 753
2015 330 100 290 65 200 985
2016 410 125 350 84 240 1,209
2017 500 155 400 105 280 1,440
2018 600 185 440 129 310 1,664
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2019 700 215 470 157 340 1,882
2020 800 240 490 190 360 2,080
2025 1,190 350 490 455 380 2,865
2030 1,340 410 490 1,370 390 4,000
2040 1,340 410 490 7,450 410 10,100
2050 1,340 410 490 18,700 430 21,370

Continuous decrease in world market pricing for PV module especially crystalline base
module at current rate of RM7.50/Watt [12,13] creates opportunity for developing country like
Malaysia to fully adapt this technology as means of energy support. The launching of PV Pilot
Plant in Universiti Putra Malaysia was officiated by the Minister of Energy, Green
Technology and Water Malaysia ( KeTTHA) on 25th August 2011 accompanied by CEO of
Han Long Group of Companies and Vice Chancellor of UPM. Highlights were given on the
industrial research collaboration between UPM and Sichuan Zhonghan Solar Power Co. Ltd,
Sichuan Province China in the area of Solar PV Generator technologies and applications.

2. PV PILOT PROJECT SETUP

The UPM PV Pilot Plant as shown in Figure 2 implies Grid-Connected PV source power
generation concept where the energy produced from the system will be pump into the UPM
Energy Grid via Feeder Pillar switch box located at the site. The main elements for the project
consists of the PV Generator system, Grid-connected Distribution Cabinet, 2 units of 3.6 kW
Aurora Inverter, 3-parameter Weather Station installed eight feet from ground and PLC
controller for tracking system.
Since September 2011, data for energy generation and 3-parameter environment are monitored
via GPRS data transmission and web-based data logging system. Analysis of the collected data
is shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 Five month analysis for 3-parameter environmental conditions at the site.

An average value of 349 W/m
2
sun radiations with wind speed of 1.21 m/s and ambient
temperature of 29.41
0
Celsius are recorded and analyze for the duration of 6 consecutive
months except for December 2011 where maintenance for GPRS weather station are
conducted. Average monthly refers to summation of recorded data of 15 minutes interval for
each day of the month. For Malaysia tropical climate, although the average value for the 3-
parameter is relatively small, it is observed that the sun radiation recorded can achieve a
maximum value of 1500W/m
2
, wind speed up to 6 m/s and ambient temperature reaching 37
0
Celsius at a certain time of day.
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The setting up of a complete Tracking Flat (TF) PV Generator system as shown in Figure 3
requires approximately 1 full day of 2-man labor after the foundation works and underground
pipe already been installed properly. The maximum space for the whole system is 3.6 2.4
2.8 m with total weight of 290kg.
The Taoke PH weather station includes three components of meteorological sensors,
meteorological data collecting apparatus and meteorological software with variety of
communication interfaces (RS232/RS485/USB). The meteorological data collecting apparatus
functions to collect and set meteorological data, real time clock, time storage of data, other
parameters and communication peripherals.

Fig. 3 Overview of PV generator system with 3-parameter weather station installed at
UPM site

The design basis of Zstrack-PV Series dual-axis solar tracking system as shown in Figure 4
comprises of the following features:
i) anti-level 11 for wind and anti-level 7 for earthquake;
ii) protection class IP44 with operation temperature between -25 C to 65 C;
iii) Humidity range of 10% to 90% with life-time expectancy of 20 years.

Fig. 4 Architecture of Z- Strack PV-008 Tracking Flat Generator system

The PV generator system adapts CEEG 95W PV Modules with the characteristic of 95 W
maximum power (Pmax), open circuit voltage (Voc) of 22.32 V, short circuit current (Isc) of
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5.52 A and cell efficiency of 17.5%. The PV modules are rearranged and customized to
produce PV generator set of multiple technologies and applications. The tracking mechanism
controlled by Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) ensures maximum harvesting of sun
radiation by calculating the real-time location of the sun (elevation and azimuth angle) for
each day based on the following conditions:

- when the elevation is greater than 15 degrees, the device started to push the PV panel
upwards;
- when the azimuth is greater than -90 degrees, the system will track the sun on
elevation and azimuth, and adjust the panels position in real-time;
- when the elevation of the sun is below 15 degrees in the afternoon, the system will
face to the east and set to the flat level (end).

Based on web data monitoring approach through www.smart-pv.net [10] as shown in Figure 5,
the results of daily energy generation for 6 months starting from September 2011 until
February 2012 are analyzed. As electricity generation from renewable resources displaces the
generation of power from conventional fossil fuels, the generation of RE therefore reduces the
overall greenhouse gas emissions from the fossil fuel power stations connected to the grid
system.

Fig. 5 GUI of Web-based PV monitoring system for UPM Pilot Plant

Fig. 6 Sample plotted data for Fixed Flat ( FF) and Tracking Flat (TF) PV Generator in
January 2012
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Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively shows front view or Graphical User Interface (GUI) and
monthly energy generation for both PV generator systems for the month of January 2012. It is
shown that for 31 days of energy generation, Fixed Flat (FF) generator produces 271.51 kWh
of energy with daily maximum output of 12.44 kWh compared to Tracking Flat (TF) which
produces 271.12 kWh with daily maximum output of 16.20 kWh. The lower value of energy
generation for Tracking Flat PV is due to the period of energy generation is only for 28 days
with 3 days of non-generation activity.
Based on the 6 months data collected for UPM PV pilot plant as shown in Figure 7, Fixed Flat
PV Generator produces a sum of 1432.82 kWh of energy compared to Tracking Flat PV with
the sum value of 1213.3 kWh. The PV generator performance in producing electricity is
further analyzed in average daily generation where TF generator produces much higher energy
in each month. Such drastic reduction of energy generated can be seen in November 2011
where the TF generator only produces 100.74 kWh compared to 219.88 kWh from FF
Generator. This is due to TF generator system and inverter are malfunctioning and has to be
turn off for repair works.
From this monthly generation values, FiT incentives by the Malaysian Government are further
analyzed with approximate figure of RM1.23/kWh purchasing price [1,11, and 12]. This will
then create financial outcomes of RM1,762.40 for FF generator and RM1,492.40 for TF
generator for the whole 6 month generation.

Fig. 7 Six month energy data collected for the 4kWp PV generator system

For the environmental analysis, CO
2
reduction value is the main element to be highlighted in
this study. Based on [13], the CO
2
value of reducing GHG effect is as follows:

Total energy generated (for both system): 2646.12 kWh
Conversion Factor : 0.69 kg CO
2
/ kWh
The total CO
2
reduction = 1,825.8 kg CO
2
/ kWh

Return on investment (ROI) analysis can also be elaborated from this figure based on current
market value of RM15.00/Wp [3,12] for Grid-Connected PV system ( The market value
defined for this analysis does not reflect the installation cost for PV pilot plant). The power
system generation from this PV pilot plant feds directly to the UPM energy distribution grid
(not directly to TNB grid) therefore this approach are not applicable for the FiT incentive. For
financial analysis and based on the recorded generation, the system gives a sound value of 8
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142
years of ROI for 4 kWp Flat PV system in 6 months energy generation referring to the
calculation described.

The PV System: 4 kWp (2kWp for FF, 2kWp for TF)
Estimated overall installation cost (based on current market value): RM15.00 x 1000Wp x 4 =
RM60,000
Estimated energy generation (for both system based on daily value):

FF : 8.12 kWh/day TF : 8.85 kWh/day ( summation of both system = 16.97
kWh/day)

By using FiT incentive of RM1.23/kWh, the ROI value can be derived as follows

ROI = RM60,000 / (16.97 kWh/ day x RM1.23/ kWh)
= 2,875 days
= approx 8 Years

4. CONCLUSION

The increasing quota value in overall energy mix for solar PV each year starting from 2011 for
9 MW up to the forecasted value of 18,700 MW by the year 2050 shows continuous effort by
the government in resolving fossil-based issues and future trends of energy reliability in Solar
PV technology and applications. The six month energy generation from PV Pilot Plant with
4kWp capacity has achieved the value of 2646.12 kWh. Based on long hours of daily sunlight
throughout the year, this short-term analysis highlights approximate duration of eight years for
investment payback period, handsome financial benefits worth RM3,254.80 and achievement
towards green initiatives by CO
2
reduction of 1,825.8 kg CO
2
/kWh. Analysis shows a concrete
justification of adapting PV generator system as one of the main components in ensuring
successful energy mix for Malaysia tropical weather condition.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank Sichuan Zhonghan Solar Power Co. Ltd for the generous
support on setting up the PV Pilot Plant, assisting in data monitoring and analysis and sharing
of technologies throughout the research process.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Energy Commisson of Malaysia (2009), Electricity Supply Industry in Malaysia
Performance and Statistical Information 2009, [Online], Available:
http//www.st.gov.my. [March 2012]
[2] Wei-Nee Chen (2011), Solar Photovoltaic: Plug into the Sun, MBIPV, Project Malaysia
Energy Guide 2010/2011, pp. 42-56
[3] [Online],Available: http://www.mbipv.net.my online source assessed [June 2012]
[4] Shafie, S.M., Mahlia, T.M.I., Masjuki, H.H., Andriyana, A. (2011) Current energy usage
and sustainable energy in Malaysia, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
15(9), pp. 4370-4377.
[5] Salsabila Ahmad, Mohd Zainal Abidin Ab Kadir, Suhaidi Shafie (2011) Current
perspective of the renewable energy development in Malaysia, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15 (2) pp. 897-904.
[6] Haslenda Hashim, Wai Shin Ho (2011) Renewable energy policies and initiatives for a
sustainable energy future in Malaysia, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
15(9), pp. 4780-4787.
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[7] Shi Linyun, Zhang Hongwu (2011) Factor Analysis of CO
2
Emission Changes in China,
Energy Procedia, Volume 5, 2011, pp. 79-84.
[8] Z. Liu, Y. Geng, B. Xue (2011) Inventorying Energy-related CO
2
for City: Shanghai
Study, Energy Procedia, 5, pp 2303-2307.
[9] S. Mekhilef, A. Safari, W.E.S. Mustaffa, R. Saidur, R. Omar, M.A.A. Younis (2012)
Solar energy in Malaysia: Current state and prospects, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 16(1), pp. 386-396.
[10] Taoke, [Online] Available: www.smart-pv.net.
[11] Renewableenergyworld.com (2012) [Online] Available:
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2010/08/malaysias-2011-
proposed-solar-biomass-biogas-hydro-tariffs. (June 2012)
[12] Solarbuzz, [Online], Available: http://www.solarbuzz.com/facts-and-figures/retail-price-
environment
[13] SEDA Malaysia (2012) [Online], Available: http://www.seda.gov.my. (June 2012)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exploration Potential Jatropha Curcas (Jatropa curcas L.) Germplasm for
Sustainable Energy in Gorontalo Province Indonesia

Muhamad Rusliyadi
*

*PhD Student at Universiti Brunei Darussalam
*Institute Assessment for Agricultural Technology Gorontalo, Agency of Agricultural Research and
Development. Ministry of Agriculture Indonesia
Jl. Kopi No. 270 Kec. Tilong Kabila Kab. Bone Bolango Gorontalo Province Indonesia 96183
Corresponding Author : Tel : +673 897 3252; E-mail : m_rusliyadi@yahoo.com

Abstract
These day Jatropa curcas is very popular crop as oil fuel substitution able to repaired so that its
availability very required by society. Good Seed ready to use of course very supporting in high
productive Jatropha curcas conducting. Seed can be obtained from potential and good plant
which crop can be searching by Exploration potency at one area. Activity of this exploration is
to know genotype of variability at the same time identify the existence of accession potential
of Jatroppa curcas in gorontalo province to be able to support development Jatopa curcas in
gorontalo province. Exploration executed by collecting, germplasm documentation and
characterizations apart exist in Gorontalo province henceforth evaluate and conservation in
Indonesian Sweetener and fiber Crops Research Institute (ISFCRI) be used breeding activity
hereinafter. Jatropa curcas potency in gorontalo province can bear fruit during the year marked
with can bear fruit at dry season, long lived long lived potency more than 60 year and there to
resilience shading of which is showed ably bearing fruit. Jatropha curcas local type in
Gorontalo there is owning potency to be used upon which plant in supporting Jatropa curcas
development, come from select and only chosen crop fulfilling the above-mentioned criterion
able to be used as by seed plants.

Keywords : Exploration, Seed, Jatropha curcas, Gorontalo Province

1. INTRODUCTION

Jatropha curcas plant including the family Euphorbiaceae, a family with a rubber and
cassava. The tree form of the shrub with a height of 1-7 m, irregularly branched. Cylindrical
woody trunk release sap when injured. Leaves a single leaf, grooved, angled 3 or 5, bone
finger leaves with 5-7 primary bone, green leaf color (lower surface paler than the top). Petiole
length between 4-15 cm. Flowers greenish yellow, panicle-shaped form of compound interest,
married one. Male flowers and female flowers appear in the series of cup-shaped tip of the
stem or axillaries panicles. Fruit of the fruit is egg-shaped box, diameter of 2-4 cm, green
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when young and yellow when ripe. The distance divided 3-5 rooms each - each space is filled
1 seed.
Bean-shaped oval, blackish brown color. These seeds that contain lots of oil with yield
approximately 30-40%. [1].Jatropha curcas L. has long been known by people in various
regions in Indonesia, which since it was introduced by the Japanese in 1942's where people
were ordered to plant Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) as a garden fence. Some local name (local
name) given to the plant Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), among others Sundanese (Jarak Kosta,
jarak budeg), Java (Jarak Gundul, Jarak Pager), Nusa Tenggara (lulu mau, Paku kase, Jarak
Pageh), Alor (kuman nema), Maluku (ai Huwa Kamala, balacai kadoto) while in Gorontalo
province own local communities named Binthalo. [2].
Amid the soaring price of fuel oil, the presence of castor seeds is considered to give new
hope. Since the days of Japanese occupation more than 60 years ago castor oil has been known
as an alternative to diesel oil. Now, with oil prices rising to U.S. $ 66 per-barrel, like castor oil
gaining momentum for the show itself. [3]. Performance of territory, topography, soils, water
availability and climate have shaped the plant, especially the plant Jatropha curcas to grow and
adapt to specific locations. Usually cultivars or species that have been adapted with a good
tolerance on local circumstances known to the local varieties [4].Cultivar is a distance of germ
plasma is very important to the potential of each region in the province of Gorontalo different
appearance so that need to be conserved. Exploration activities aimed to identify the genetic
diversity of morphology as well as identify any potential accession (Assessed production)
Jatropha curcas in the region Gorontalo to be able to support the development of Jatropha
curcas in the province of Gorontalo.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Exploration activities carried out in December 2006. Areas to be explored consists of level II
region of Bone County Bolango, Regency Gorontalo, Gorontalo City Boalemo District and
less than 4 out of 5 Regional Level II in the Province of Gorontalo.Exploration carried out by
collecting, characterization and documentation of existing germplasm distance in the province
of Gorontalo to the next to be evaluated and conserved in Balittas to be used further breeding
activities.The approach used a survey method in which the field before carrying out field
activities are preceded by Pre Survey to collect data about the history and development
locations and other information from the Department of Forestry Plantations and Gorontalo
Province and the local community. Another form of survey material preparation prior to field
survey with an inventory of materials and tools necessary.
Each district explored taking 8 points / samples. Determination of sample trees is done
selectively used as a starting point of reference in the sampling of selected trees that have the
appearance of heavy fruiting, flowering or the number of female flowers per-clusters quite a
lot. According [5] dense fruit criteria are plants that bear fruit at least three bunches of clusters
that each have 10 pieces or more. The selected trees are marked wire, recorded on the passport
data, characterized, documented and taken seeds or roasts to be evaluated further in Balittas
(Indonesian Sweetener and fiber Research Institute) Karangploso, Malang. Methods of data
analysis used is descriptive analysis method and simple statistics.


Exploration results showed that characteristics of local Jatropha dipropinsi gorontalo almost
the same morphological characteristics of the color red, green plant shoots, green leaf color
and number of leaf indentation of five fruit. Other plants are found consists of 2 types of leafy
plants and broadleaf narrow. Most of the plants found in the type of narrow leaved plants
while the broad-leaf type found in the village leyato district south eastern city of Gorontalo
town but has not been fruitful. Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Gorontalo local also has the potential
shade tolerant because of some samples was found in sample number 4 / BB - GTL, 7 / BB -
GTL and 15 / KG - GTL is able to bear fruit in the dry season, although not so much. This
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gives a picture on a less than optimal conditions capable of fruiting, of the three samples
which have the highest production Assessed on sample number 4 / BB - GTL in toto village
north Bone Bolango County Tilong Kabila.
Plants have a range in altitude tolerance grows large enough, from 0-1700 m asl [6]. Height
varies from place sampling locations for each region taken from the beach about 4 m above
sea level to undulating hills with the highest area of approximately 165 m above sea level,
with different production variations.High places allegedly giving effect to the character
spacing of crop production in the Province of Gorontalo. Samples obtained from the place that
has a height of more than 100 m above sea level as much as 5 (sample) is the sample number
01 / BB - GTL (150 m asl), 16 / KB - GTL (140 m asl), 17 / KB - GTL (165 m asl), 26 / B -
GTL (110 m asl), and 27 / B - GTL (120 m asl). Considering the age it can be seen in Table 1
that the sample number 17/KB-GTL show good performance with the number of fruits per
bunch has as many as 8-18 fruit although the number of branches has not been too many (10
pieces).
The diversity of characters that crop performance indicated the distance is not too visible
because virtually all the same. On top of all the color samples taken reddish green even if it
differs not very real. Green leaf color all but the sample number 10 / KT - GTL has a wider
leaf than the other samples with a length of approximately 25 cm and 30 cm wide and almost
all the leaves have grooves 5 pieces. Age of plant samples taken varied from age 6 months to
63 years of age. Information age range of plants obtained from farmers or owners who provide
forecast information when planted. The diversity of plant life indicates samples taken have the
potential for long-lived and still bear fruit even in sample number 8 / BB - GTL plant has
reached 60 years old but still productive fruiting can even reach 4.243 kg of planting.
Number of bunches of plants sampled distance has a varied range of 3-128 bunches.The range
of the smallest three bunches were taken from samples with a variety of characters and still
broadleaf flowering stage so that the maximum formation yet tnadan - bunches. Bunch is the
formation of the fruit stalk which usually consists of several male and female flowers are
pollinated itself (selfing). Total fruit pertandan varies with the range - average between 60-20
units. Number of fruits pertandan this will affect the production of fruit cropping distance in
broad fruitful union. The diversity of production potential is highly dependent on the
biophysical condition of the plants grow, including altitude, rainfall, soil type and texture as
well as the genetic potential that dilapang with different conditions.
Assessed production represents the estimated results of the Jatropha plantation which the
calculation depends on the number of bunches and number of fruit in one season pertandan
fruition. The diversity of the performance of production from the samples taken showed the
highest yield potential obtained on samples 8 / BB - GTL located in the village of Bone
Bolango Panggulo Botupingge District. Yanng plant age reached 60 years with a canopy
spread and very heavy in fruit. The spacing of plants begin to bear fruit at the age of 6 months
and stabilized after the age of 5 years as for its economic life between the ages of 30-40 years
[7].
The potential of other plants found in sample number 19 / B - GTL production can be quite
high at 1, 053 kg of plant age of approximately 2 years with a rather large number of bunches
and number of branches 54 only 25 pieces. It can be seen - average each branch to form two
pieces of fruit bunches with an average of about 6-14 pieces. This sample is the best sample of
Boalemo District with the condition of the plants used as fences near waterways. Samples of
other collections that have good potential that is 17 / KG - GTL is located in the village
Batulayar Bongomeme Gorontalo District. From a young age of the plant about a year but
quite a lot perbuah range 8-18 fruits and visual appearance has a lot of ripe fruit (yellow) and
some have been blackened (dry), Assessed production is not too high it is because the number
of branches formed but still a little 10 pieces of these branches produce fruit bunches
all. Potential production is expected from the plant Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) in which each
branch to form bunches of fruit can be more than one.
In table 1, 2 3 and 4 describe the production Assessed broad unity in each district is shown in
several plant spacing when cultured with either course with a different population. The result
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is the production Assessed estimates of crop production, with a population of plants when
grown with regular spacing. For optimum plant spacing used for the cultivation of a distance
of 2 x 2 m Assessed highest production on sample number 8 / BB - GTL as much as 10 608 kg
ha-1 or the equivalent of 10.6 tons ha-1. This result is of course a picture when the plants
produce fruit the same as the samples taken. The production that was quite high at a spacing of
2 x 2 m obtained on the sample number 19 / B - GTL is able to produce 2632.5 kg ha-1,
equivalent to 2.6 tons ha-1. This is supported by [8] that the optimal planting jatropha
population is 2 x 2 m with a population of 2500 per hectare. Results - the results of other
studies showed that the population in 1111 to 2,500 plants per hectare gives good results [9].
At optimal conditions of plants grown by a spacing distance of 3 x 3 m which would reduce
the plant population is broad unity so that the Assessed production be greatly
reduced. Assessed range of production in this population of about 1111 plants per hectare
reaches various weights of 130 to 4714.7 kg ha-1. With a spacing of this magnitude from the
samples taken are still very high - average 2.4 tons per hectare. With closer spacing of 1.5 x
1.5 m with a total population of around 4444 plant crop production range of 520 to 18858.7 kg
ha-1 the average - rating of 9689.35 kg / ha.

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Table 1 Character Germplasm Jatropha curcas Number Collection, Local Origin, High plant; Stem diameter, High Places, Age of plant, Branches, Bunch
Number, Number of Fruit Per-Bunch, and Assessed Production Per-plant and Assessed production per unit area (ha) in Bone County Bolango,
Gorontalo Province, 2006

Number
Collection
Local Origin
High
plant
(m)
Stem
diameter
(cm)
High
Places
(m
asl)
Age of
plant
(year)
Number
of
Branche
s
Number
of
Bunch
Number
of Fruit
Per-
Bunch
Assessed
Productio
n Per-
plant (g)
Assessed production per unit area
(Kg ha
-1
)
Note Plant
spacing
(2X2 m)
Plant
spacing
(3X3m)
Plant
spacing
(1,5X1,5m)
01/ BB -
GTL
Boidu
Village,
Bulango,
Bone
Bolango
3

2,5 150 63 36 71 0 - 0 0 0
02/ BB -
GTL
Boidu
Village,
Bulango,
Bone
Bolango
1 2 12 1 5 6 6-14 117 292,5 130 520
Still
Flowe
ring
03/ BB -
GTL
Toto Utara
Village,
Tilong
Kabila, Bone
Bolango
2 3,5 10 2 7 14 8-20 382 955,5 424,7 1698,7
04/ BB -
GTL
Toto Utara
Village,
Tilong
Kabila, Bone
Bolango
2 3 10 2 8 13 7-19 330 823,8 366,2 1464,7
05/ BB -
GTL
Bongopini
Village,
Tilong
Kabila, Bone
Bolango
2,5 2,8 12 2 11 10 6-16 234 585 260 1040
Plants
in the
shade
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06/ BB -
GTL
Moutong
Village,
Tilong
kabila, Bone
Bolango
2 2 10 2 8 6 7-19 152 380,3 169 676
07/ BB -
GTL
Buwata
Village,
Botupingge,
Bone
Bolango
2,5 2 10 2 6 5 3-5 39 97,5 43,3 173,3
08/ BB -
GTL
Panggulo
Village,
Botupingge,
Bone
Bolango
4 30 3 60 34 128 6-28 4243 10608 4714,7 18858,7
Plants
in the
shade
Average 2,4 6,0 27,1 16,8 14,4 31,6 10,3 785,3 1717,8 763,5 3053,9
STDev 0,9 9,7 49,7 27,6 12,9 44,7 6,3 1529,4 3607,4 1603,3 6413,3
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Number
Collectio
n
Local
Origin
High
plant
(m)
Stem
diamet
er
(cm)
High
Places
(m asl)
Age of
plant
(year)
Number
of
Branche
s
Number
of
Bunch
Number
of Fruit
Per-
Bunch
Assessed
Production
Per-plant
(g)
(Kg ha
-1
)
Note Plant
spacing
(2X2 m)
Plant
spacing
(3X3 m)
Plant
spacing
(1,5X1,5
m)
11/ KB -
GTL
Huntu
Village,
Batu Daa,
Kab.
Gorontalo
2,5 16 5 10 22 17 6-16 365 911,6 405,2 1620,7
New
flowering
plants
(leaf
width)
12/ KB -
GTL
Tambong
o Timur
Village,
Batu Daa,
Kab.
Gorontalo
2 5 12 3 86 27 5-17 579 1447,8 643,5 2574
New
flowering
plants
13/ KB -
GTL
Kaliyoso
Village,
Bongo
Meme,
Kab.
Gorontalo
2,5 10 25 15 38 35 7-13 683 1706,3 758,3 3033,3
14/ KB -
GTL
Dulamayo
,
Bongome
me, Kab.
Gorontalo
1,5 20 25 15 14 14 10-20 410 1023,8 455 1820
15/ KB -
GTL
Bongo
Hulawa
4 32 90 25 46 40 1-3 156 390 173,3 693,3
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Village,
Bongome
me, Kab.
Gorontalo
16/ KB -
GTL
Otopade
Village,
Bongo
Meme,
Kab.
Gorontalo
2 7,5 140 3 11 11 11-18 322 804,4 357,5 1430
Plants in
the shade
17/ KB -
GTL
Batulayar
Village,
Bongome
me, Kab.
Gorontalo
1 7 165 1 10 10 8-18 254 633,8 281,7 1126,7
Fruit
shape bit
wide
18/ KB -
GTL

Mulyoneg
oro
Village,
Pulubala,
Kab.
Gorontalo
2 7 100 6 15 8 4-6 78 195 86,7 346,7
21/ KB -
GTL
Lakeya
Village,
Tolangoh
ula, Kab
Gorontalo
1,1 3 50 2 13 13 6-12 228 570,4 253,5 1014
Average 2,1 8,8 68,0 8,9 28,3 19,4 10,1 341,7 853,7 379,4 1517,6
STDev 0,9 5,7 58,3 8,1 25,1 11,7 4,3 194,6 486,3 216,1 864,6
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Number
Collection
Local
Origin
High
plant
(m)
Stem
diamet
er
(cm)
High
Places
(m
asl)
Age of
plant
(year)
Number
of
Branches
Number
of
Bunch
Number
of Fruit
Per-
Bunch
Assessed
Productio
n Per-
plant (g)
(Kg ha
-1
)
Note Plant
spacing
(2X2 m)
Plant
spacing
(3X3 m)
Plant
spacing
(1,5X1,5
m)
19/ B -
GTL
Rejonegor
o Village,
Paguyama
n, Kab.
Boalemo
2,5 8,3 80 2 25 54 6-14 1053 2632,5 1170 4680
New
flowerin
g plants
20/ B -
GTL
Bongotua
Village,
Paguyama
n, Kab.
Boalemo
2 5 50 1 20 35 5-9 478 1194,4 530,8 2123,3
22/ B -
GTL
Duloato
Village,
Paguyama
n,
Boalemo
2,5 3 50 1 11 10 6-10 156 390 173,3 693,3
23/ B -
GTL
Bongotua
Village,
Paguyama
n,
Boalemo
2,5 6 50 3 21 10 12-14 254 633,8 281,7 1126,7
24/ B -
GTL
Harapan
Village,
Wonosari,
Boalemo
4 6 50 2 36 37 9-13 794 1984,2 881,8 3527,3
25/ B -
GTL
Mekarjay
a Village,
Wonosari,
Boalemo
3,5 10 80 5 31 36 8-20 983 2457 1092 4368
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26/ B -
GTL
Batu
keramat
Village,
Wonosari,
Boalemo
1,5 5 110 3 12 16 10-20 468 1170 520 2080
27/ B -
GTL
Batu
keramat
Village,
Wonosari,
Boalemo
3 8 120 4 30 25 7-13 488 1218,8 541,7 2166,7
Average 2,8 6,3 76,7 3,0 23,5 22,3 11,8 523,8 1309,0 581,8 2327,0
STDev 0,9 2,4 32,0 1,4 10,5 12,3 2,6 315,1 787,6 350,1 1400,2


Number
Collection
Local
Origin
High
plant
(m)
Stem
diamet
er
(cm)
High
Places
(m
asl)
Age of
plant
(year)
Number
of
Branches
Number
of
Bunch
Number
of Fruit
Per-
Bunch
Assessed
Productio
n Per-
plant (g)
(Kg ha
-1
)
Note Plant
spacing
(2X2 m)
Plant
spacing
(3X3 m)
Plant
spacing
(1,5X1,5
m)
28/ KT -
GTL
Limba B
Village,
Kota
Selatan,
Kota
Gorontalo
3 7 5 2 28 28 6-16 601 1501,5 667,3 2669,3
29/ KT -
GTL
Donggala
Village,
Kota
Selatan,
Kota
3 2 5 10 58 38 7-13 741 1852,5, 823,3 3293,3
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Gorontalo
30/ KT -
GTL
Tenilow
Village,
Kota
Barat,
Kota
Gorontalo
2 2 6 3 20 19 2-4 111 277,9 123,5 494
31/ KT -
GTL
enda
Kalengko
ngan
Village
Kota
Selatan,
Kota
Gorontalo
1,5 12 5 4 18 12 6-10 187 468 208 832
New
flowerin
g plants
32/ KT -
GTL
Wumialo
Village,
Kota
Tengah,
Kota
Gorontalo
2,5 11 3 3 20 25 6-16 536 1340,6 595,8 2383,3
33/ KT -
GTL
Wongkadi
ti Timur
Village,
Kota
Utara,
Kota
Gorontalo
4 12 8 4 35 17 6-20 431 1077,4 478,8 1915,3
09/ KT -
GTL
Leyato
Selatan
Village,
Kota
Timur,
Kota
2 5 10 4 9 8 5-18 187 468 208 832
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Gorontalo
10/ KT -
GTL
Leyato
Selatan
Village,
Kota
Timur,
Kota
Gorontalo
1 2 10 0,5 4 3 0 0 0 0 0
Average 2,4 6,6 6,5 3,8 24,0 18,8 8,4 349,3 733,3 388,1 1552,4
STDev 0,9 4,5 2,6 2,8 16,8 11,4 4,6 264,5 572,0 293,8 1175,2
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Table 5. Average for each region where exploration for the variable Plant Height (m), stem
diameter (cm), Height place (m above sea level) , Age Plant (Year), Amount Branch and
amount of bunch.
Regency
Plant
Height
(m)
Stem
diameter
(cm)
Height
place
(m asl)
Age
Plant
(year)
Amount
branch
Amount
bunch
Bone Bolango
Regency
2,4 6,0 27,1 16,8 14,4 31,6
Kabupaten Gorontalo
Regency
2,1 8,8 68,0 8,9 28,3 19,4
Boalemo Regency 2,8 6,3 76,7 3,0 23,5 22,3
Gorontalo
Municipality
2,4 6,6 6,5 3,8 24,0 18,8
Average 2,4 6,9 44,6 8,1 22,6 23,0
STDev 0,3 1,3 33,3 6,3 5,9 5,9

Each district in Gorontalo whose location is an area of exploration showed mixed results on
several variables In the parameters plant height ranging from 2.1 to 2.8 meters on which the
district Boalemo have the highest accession. Stem diameter also shows each district on a range
of values 6.3 cm to 8.8 cm. At the altitude varies or fluctuates with the value of more than one
standard deviation in the district where Boalemo has the highest elevation sites. Age of plants,
number of branch and show the differences fluctuated bunches in each district, especially in
the Regency Bone Bolango because it was found accession Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), a 60-
year-old.

Table 6 Average for each region where exploration for variable-number of fruits per bunch,
Assessed production per plant (g) and Assessed production per ha (kg).
Regency
The number of
fruits per
bunch
Assessed
production
per plant.
(g)
Assessed production per ha (kg)
Spacing
(2x2m)
Spacing
(3x3m)
Spacing
(1,5X1,5m)
Bone Bolango
Regency
10,3 785,3 1717,8 763,5 3053,9
Kabupaten Gorontalo
Regency
10,1 341,7 853,7 379,4 1517,6
Boalemo Regency 11,8 523,8 1309,0 581,8 2327,0
Gorontalo
Municipality
8,4 349,3 733,3 388,1 1552,4
Means 10,1 500,0 1153,5 528,2 2112,7
STDev 1,4 208,0 450,6 182,6 730,3

Assessed production of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), which is found in every district has a high
level of variation where the highest score in the district Bone Bolango. This shows the district
has a potential Bone Bolango Jatropha curcas is better compared to other districts. The
productivity level of the reported range of plants varies widely abroad [10]. reported the
results of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) in Paraguay 3-4 tonnes ha-1 at the age of 7-9 years, in
Nicaragua and in Mali respectively 5.0 and 2.8 tons ha-1 [7] , while in Thailand 2.15 tons ha-1
(Ishii and Takeuchi in [10], As for the varieties that exist in Indonesia such as IP-1P
production potential of the first year from 0.23 to 0.3 tons ha-1, the fifth year of 4-5 tons ha-1
and recommended for wet climates, varieties of IP production potential year-1M first from 0.2
to 0.3 tons ha-1, the fifth year 4-5 tons ha-1 and recommended for temperate climates and dry,
the variety of IP-1A first-year production potential from 0.27 to 0.3 tons ha-1 , in the fifth year
4-5 tons ha-1 and is recommended for dry climates [11], So if we look at some of the
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information obtained from the exploration compared with the level of productivity than other
countries and high yielding varieties in Indonesia is much higher but it needs further research
in plant material that can be in Gorontalo at planting in other areas.

Fig. 1 Plant Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), which has the potential to be used as planting material
Collection no.08/BB-GTL Ds. Panggulo,Botupingge,Bone Bolango.

4. CONCLUSION

Diversity Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) dipropinsi Gorontalo local genetic diversity have
relatively similar in morphology, both in leaf color, leaf color and number of grooves on the
leaf but more production variables defined in the environmental conditions where the distance
grew. Potential of Jatropha Curcas (Jatropha curcas) in Gorontalo province is able to bear fruit
throughout the year which was marked by being able to bear fruit in the dry season, the
potential for long-lived a long life of more than 60 years and have shown resilience to the
shade with the ability to bear fruit. Jatropha curcas a local species in Bone Bolango regency of
Gorontalo has the potential to be used as planting material in supporting the development of
Jatropha curcas, the home is the selection and choose only plants that meet the above criteria
that can be used as seed.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Hariyadi (2005) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Theme Prospective Local Resources
Bioenergy on SISTEKNAS, Development Deputy, Ministry of Research and Technology,
Puspiptek Serpong.
[2] Akuba, R.H. (2005) Jatropha Cultivation, Gorontalo Post, 7.
[3] Duryatmo, S. (2005) Future Fuel Vehicles,Trubus Magazine June 2005 edition, No.
427, pp. 28-29. Trubus Swadaya.
[4] Hawkes, J.G. (1980) Crop Genetic Resources Field Collection Manual. Dept. Of Plant
Biology. Univ. Of Birmingham, England.
[5] Mahmud, Z., et al. (2006) Plant Technical Culture Jatropha, Proceedings of Workshop
on Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Puslitbangbun.
[6] Allorerung, D., Mahmud, Z., A. Arivin R., Dedi, S. E., Anny, M. (2006). Climate and
Land Suitability Map Distance (Jatropha curcas L.), Proceedings of Workshop on
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Puslitbangbun.
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[7] Henning, R.K. (2004) The Jatropha System. Economy and dissemination
strategy.International Conference of Renewable Energy, Bonn, Germany.
[8] Ratree, S. (2004) A Preliminary Study On Physic Nut (Jatropha curcas L.) In
Thailand, Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 7, pp. 1620-1623.
[9] Heller, J., (1996) Physic Nut. Jatropha Curcas L. Promoting The Use Of Conservation And
Underutilized And Neglected Crops. 1, Institute Of Plant Genetics And Crops Plant
Research, Gatersleben / International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.
[10] Hasnam and Hartati, R. S. (2006) Providing Superior Seed Jatropha Plant (Jatropha
curcas L.), Proceedings of Workshop on Jatropha Puslitbangbun.
[11] Sinar Tani (2007) Superior Seed Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.), 27 edition, No. 3181, pp.
16.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A Novel Method for Measuring the Photovoltaic Array Characteristics

Ahmad Rivai*, Nasrudin Abd. Rahim, Krismadinata Chaniago, and Syarkawi Syamsuddin
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Level 4, Wisma R & D, Lembah Pantai,
University of Malaya, 59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603) 22463246, Fax: (603) 22463257, E-mail:
ahmad_riv_41@yahoo.co.id

Abstract
This paper proposes a novel method to measure current-voltage (I-V) curve of the photovoltaic
array. In this method, the binary numbering concept with combination of switches and
resistors is applied to capture I-V curve of the photovoltaic array. The propose method can
minimize number of switches and resistor, and also able to measure I-V curve on high-power
level PV array. A prototype has been designed with ATMega8535 microcontroller and verified
through experiment. The experiment was conducted with 300 watt PV array and the result is
provided in this paper.

Keywords: Binary number, I-V curve scanner, photovoltaic.

1. Introduction

Photovoltaic (PV) system has been used in many applications and researchers are still
developing the PV system for better performance. Design and analysis of the photovoltaic
system performance require monitoring tools in order to collect and process such data. Hence,
many monitoring tools have been developed in order to evaluate PV systems performance[1].
Some researchers develop a monitoring system for current-voltage characteristic of PV
module [2, 3]. For example a system in [2] that is capable of continuously monitoring the
current-voltage I-V characteristics of seven modules. Also [3] has developed a computer-based
instrumentation system for PV module characterization that allows drawing of the I-V
characteristics of a PV module in real meteorological test conditions. Monitoring the I-V
characteristics can be used to investigate and compare the actual power produced by the
modules under realistic operating conditions [2].
An array of resistors and mechanical relays are employed to measure the I-V characteristics in
[2]. The resistors are switched on and off to enable the I-V characteristics to be swept from
short circuit to open-circuit. While [3] uses an electronic load that is developed based on linear
metal oxide semi conductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). This electronic load sweeps the
I-V characteristic of module by varying VGS of the MOSFET.
In this paper, a novel method that based on binary numbering concept to measure I-V curve of
PV array is proposed. The I-V curve scanner is designed to apply this method. It works a
number of switches and resistors to capture PV array characteristics. Although this I-V curve
scanner uses few resistors and switches, the capturing result is smooth. The low cost
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ATMega8535 microcontroller is employed as processor. The experiment results are presented
on a graphical data display.

2. PV Characteristic

Fig. 1 shows the power and current curve of PV array. This curve is called an I-V curve. The
horizontal axis refers to voltage and the vertical axis refers to current and power. The short-
circuit current (I
SC
) is the current produced when the positive and negative terminals of PV
array are short circuited, and the voltage between the terminal is zero. Whereas the open-
circuit voltage (V
OC
) is the voltage across the positive and negative terminals under open
circuit conditions, and the current is zero. The PV array power is zero in short-circuit current
and open-circuit voltage. The maximum power is generated between these two points, at
approximately the knee of the power curve. This point is the peak power of a PV array also
known as the maximum power point (P
MPP
). Voltage and current at the maximum power point
are called a peak power voltage (V
MPP
), and peak power current (I
MPP
). The fill factor (FF), or
the ratio of P
MPP
to the product of V
OC
and I
SC
is a parameter in evaluating the performance of
solar cells.

Fig. 1 Power characteristic of PV array.

The I-V curve varies with the level of solar irradiation and temperature, as shown in Fig. 2 and
Fig. 3. It can be observed that the PV output voltage is mainly affected by temperature
changes and the PV output current by the solar irradiation changes [4]. Changes in voltage and
current of PV array output will also affect the peak power of PV array. Therefore, the power
converter of a PV system requires a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) to ensure that the
PV system is operating at the maximum power point (MPP).

Fig. 2 The I-V curve of PV module affect to temperature.

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Fig. 3 I-V characteristic of a PV array influenced by solar radiation.

3. I -V Curve Scanner

In order to determine the I-V characteristics, the power generated by the PV panel must be
extracted. The I-V curve scanner is used to serve this purpose. Fig. 4 shows the conventional
schematic of the I-V curve scanner. It acts as an adjustable resistive load, which consists of
resistors and switches. The resistors are switched in and out of the circuit to enable the I-V
characteristic to be scan from short circuit to open circuit. One resistor value equals to one
point on the I-V curve. To get a smooth curve it needs a lot of points hence it will need a lot of
resistors.
A
PV Array
+ -
V
Conventional I-V curve
scanner
SW 7 R7
SW 6 R6
SW 5 R5
SW 4 R4
SW 3 R3
SW 2 R2
SW 1 R1
SW 0 R0
SW n-1 Rn-1

Fig. 4 Schematic of conventional I-V curve scanner.

To reduce the number of resistors, an adjustable resistive load based on the binary numbering
method is proposed. The schematic of this method is illustrated in Fig. 5. The resistors
(R0Rn-1) are connected in series. Each resistor (Rk) is parallel with a switch (SWk).
Combination of the switches (SWn-1 ... SW0) will change the resistance value in I-V curve
scanner. The resistance of Rk is expressed in Eq. (1). Number of resistance (NR) created by n
resistors is expressed in Eq. (2). The resolution or the smallest resistance can be distinguished
in the I-V curve scanner through R0. The maximum resistance that can be achieved in the I-V
curve is expressed in Eq. (3).
. 0 2 R Rk
k
=

(1)
. 2
1
0
=
=
n
k
k
NR

(2)
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. 0 2
1
0
max
=
=
n
k
k
R R

(3)
A
PV Array
SW scaning
SW 0
SW 1
SW 2
SW n-3
SW n-2
SW n-1
+ -
Rn-1
Rn-2
Rn-3
R2
R1
R0
V
Binary I-V curve scanner

Fig. 5 Schematic of binary I-V curve scanner.

This work uses 1 resolution and 8 resistors so the number of resistance is 255, and the
maximum resistance is 255 . The switches used in this project are MOSFET IRF640. The
MOSFETs maximum ratings are VDS = 200V, and ID=18A so, the I-V curve scanner is
capable to measure PV panel with voltage open circuit less than 200V and Short circuit current
less than 18A. The Combination of the switches is presented in Table 1. SW7SW0 represent
the sequence of bits and SW scanning represent switches condition. When SW=1 is switch on,
and when SW=0 is switch off.

Table 1 Switching combination of I-V curve scanner.
SW
scanning
SW7...SW0 Description
0

00000000

Open
Circuit
1 00000000 255
1 00000001 254
1 00000010 253
1 00000011 252
1 00000100 251
1 00000101 250
1 00000110 249
............... ............... .
............... ............... .
............... ............... .
1 11111000 7
1 11111001 6
1 11111010 5
1 11111011 4
1 11111100 3
1 11111101 2
1 11111110 1
1 11111111 Short
Circuit
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4. PV Monitoring System prototype Design

The PV monitoring system is developed to collect and display PV characteristics. The
prototype is developed using ATMega8535 microcontroller. The ATMega8535
microcontroller plays a big role in collecting data to determine the PV characteristic. However,
the main functions are:
- Control switching combinations
- Reading data from sensors
- Display data on LCD
- Transfer and receive data using serial communication.
Fig.6 shows the block diagram of prototype PV monitoring system. A computer is used to
present data and control the I-V curve scanner operations. For this purpose the graphical user
interface is developed using VB.Net, with features as the following:
- Graphical data display.
- Able to save file data.
The tool ability to trace I-V curve on high-power PV panel is one of its novelty (the maximum
voltage and maximum current depends on the resistor and switching component, for this work
maximum voltage=200 V and maximum current = 18 A). This allows to measure PV panel
characteristics directly at the PV system place of assembly.
PV Array
Gate Drive SW scaning
SW 0...7
SW rtm
2X16 LCD
PORT C,
PD6,
PD7
ADC
Port B,
PA6,
PA7
TX
RX
ATmega8535
Binary I-V
curve
scanner
+
-
+
-
A
V
Sensors

Fig. 6 The PV monitoring system block diagram.

5. Results and Discussion

In order to verify capability of I-V curve scanner the PV monitoring system prototype is
designed and tested using shell SP75 module. The Shell SP75 module consist of 36 series
connected 125 x 125 mm mono-crystalline silicon solar cells. The electrical characteristic of
the shell SP75 module at Standard Test Conditions (STC) is shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Electrical characteristic of the solar modules at Standard Test Conditions (STC)
Parameter SYMBOL VALUE
Peak power P
mpp
75W
Peak power voltage V
mpp
17V
Peak power current I
mpp
4.4A
Open circuit voltage V
oc
21.7V
Short circuit current I
sc
4.8A
STC: irradiance level 1000W/m
2
, spectrum AM 1.5 and cell temperature 25
o
C.

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162

In this test four PV solar modules are connected in series. The solar radiation sensor is located
at upper side of the PV module and the temperature sensor is located at under side of the PV
solar module. The experiment setup is shown on Fig. 7.

Fig. 7 The experiment setup.

This test was conducted on 13
th
October 2011. Fig. 8 shows result of scanning process at
12:56:03PM and the data as follow:
- Peak power (P
mpp
) = 206.6W.
- Peak power voltage (V
mpp
) = 59.44V.
- Peak power current (I
mpp
) = 3.48.
- Open-circuit voltage (V
oc
) = 76.48V.
- Current short-circuit (I
sc
) = 4.10A.
- Solar irradiance level (G) = 995.50 W/m
2
.
- Temperature of solar panel (T) = 44.29
o
C.
- Fill factor (FF) = 0.66.

Fig. 8 I-V curve and P-V curve of the scanning process.

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6. Conclusion

An I-V curve scanner of PV array characteristics have been designed and built. The binary
numbering concept has been applied in this scanner with combination of a number resistor and
switches. This method needs only few resistors to get curve smoothly. The experiment results
are presented in software that has designed in Visual Basic, therefore the graphic is more
interactive.

7. References

[1] E. Koutroulis and K. Kalaitzakis (2003) Development of an integrated data-acquisition
system for renewable energy sources systems monitoring, Renewable Energy, 28, pp.
139-152.
[2] E. E. van Dyk, et al. (2005) Monitoring current-voltage characteristics and energy output
of silicon photovoltaic modules, Renewable Energy, 30, pp. 399-411.
[3] H. Belmili, et al. (2010) Design and development of a data acquisition system for
photovoltaic modules characterization, Renewable Energy, 35, pp. 1484-1492.
[4] V. Salas, et al. (2006) Review of the maximum power point tracking algorithms for stand-
alone photovoltaic systems, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 90, pp. 1555-1578.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Biogas Purification by Automated Water Scrubbing System

Meena Krishania
*
, Amit Aggarwal and Virendra Kumar Vijay
Center for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India
Block III, IITD, Haus Khas, New Delhi, Delhi 110016, India
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: 01126596351 Fax: +91 11 26596351, E-mail: er.mkrishania@gmail.com

Abstract
Biogas from biomethanation processes of organic wastes is a renewable energy resource.
Biogas has been used to provide heat, electricity and fuel. Typical biogas contains 5565%
methane (CH
4
), 3545% carbon dioxide (CO
2
), moisture and traces of hydrogen sulphide
(H
2
S). Presence of other gases except methane in biogas adversely affects the engine
performance. Removing CO
2
and H
2
S content will significantly improve quality of biogas and
becomes Bio-CNG. In this work, a method for biogas scrubbing and CH
4
enrichment were
focused. Physical absorption of CO
2
and H
2
S by water in a packed tower was experimentally
analyzed. Water circulated through the column, contacting the biogas in countercurrent flow.
Absorption characteristics were examined. Test results revealed that the CO
2
is effectively
soluble with water in biogas (over 97% removal efficiency), creating CH
4
enriched fuel. H
2
S
was removed to below the detection limit. Absorption capability was transient in nature.
Regular replacement or regeneration of used water, upgraded biogas can be maintained. This
technique proved to be promising in upgrading biogas quality then a previous one.

Keywords: Packed tower, Physical absorption, Biogas purification

1. INTRODUCTION

The feasible renewable energy source for India is from biomass. Biomass availability in the
country is very high - 150 million MT/annum [1]. India has a huge population of human and
cattle. One fifth of the population of earth as well as millions of cattle reside in India, So
organic waste is available in abundance. Biogas from biomass is a valuable renewable energy
carrier.
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Recently, biomethanation technology has become more attractive as a source of renewable
energy, due to its low technological cost and high process efficiency [2]. A variety of
substrates such as waste water, animal waste, industrial waste, municipal solid waste,
agricultural residues, energy crops and water based resources like algae and water hyacinth are
extensively used for anaerobic digestion technology. Methane production through
biomethanation has been evaluated as one of the most energy- efficient and environmentally
benign ways of producing vehicle biofuels. Thus, it can provide multiple benefits to the users.
Biogas is mainly composed of methane (55-65%) and carbon dioxide (3545%), and also
contains significant quantities of undesirable contaminant compounds, such as hydrogen
sulphide (H
2
S), hydrogen gas (H
2
) and moisture. Their presence constitutes major problems
like hydrogen sulphide and halogenated compounds form corrosive acids, such as H
2
SO
4
, HCl
and HF during the combustion process in thermal or thermo catalytic conversion devices.
These compounds also generate harmful environmental emissions. It is therefore important to
purify the biogas for its final use processes [3].
There are various purification technologies for biogas. In parallel, new techniques are under
development. These new developments, both for new and more traditional techniques, can
lower investment costs and operational costs. Several technologies like water scrubbing,
pressure swing absorption, chemical and physical absorption, membrane and cryogenic for
biogas upgrading is commercially available [4] and others are at the pilot or demonstration
phase level. Out of these technologies, water scrubbing is found to be more appropriate for
small scale and one of the feasible and cost effective technologies [5, 6]. Water scrubbing is
used to remove CO
2
and H
2
S from biogas since these gases are more soluble in water than
methane. The absorption process is purely physical. Usually the biogas is pressurized and fed
to the bottom of a packed column while water is fed on the top and so the absorption process is
operated counter currently. In Water scrubbing H
2
S is more soluble than carbon dioxide in
water. The water which exits the tower with absorbed CO
2
and/or H
2
S can be regenerated and
re-circulated back to the absorption column. Regeneration is accomplished by de-pressuring or
by stripping with air in a similar tower. When cheap water can be used, for example, outlet
water from a sewage treatment plant, the most cost efficient method is not to re-circulate the
water. Atmospheric temperature for purification systems is more appropriate.
The aim of this work was to improve the existing purification system of Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi. Such a system should be automatic controls and capable to produce high
purity of BIO-CNG with no loses of gases. This research work has focused on the study of
biogas purification by water scrubbing, at ambient temperature (25 C). Our principal goal was
to identify a optimum column diameter, optimise the pressure throughout the column and then
all parameters should be automatic controls. Purify the biogas, with sulphur concentrations
below 250 ppm, with a high removal efficiency (>97%).

2. EXPERIMENT SETUP

Vijay et al, 2005 [4] was developed previous biogas purification plant at Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi (IIT D) as shown in fig. 2. This paper is focusing the improved version of
the previous plant. There were some gaps in previous purification plant like loss of gas,
manually operation system, flow rates controllers and high cost. To fulfill the gaps of previous
biogas purification try to develop a modified version or advance version of water scrubbing
technology. The whole setup was divided into two main components i). Packed tower for
removal of CO
2
and H
2
S and ii). High pressure compressor and cylinder cascade for storage
of purified gas.

2.1 Packed Tower for removal of CO
2
and H
2
S
The biogas purification system developed at IIT Delhi is based on water scrubbing. Automated
packed tower were shown in fig. 1. Raw biogas is first compressed from a raw biogas
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compressor and fed to the bottom of the packed bed. Water is first pressurized through a rotor
pump and then fed to the top of the packed bed.
In the packed bed gas and water comes into contact and water physically absorbs the CO
2
of
the biogas. Water sealing is maintained in the bottom section of tower in order to prevent the
escape of gas from water outlet.
Due to high turbulence inside the tower, purified gas contains water droplets with it; a mist
eliminator is used to prevent it. Water coming from the packed tower goes in to a flash tower,
which is hollow vessel at near atmospheric pressure. At the normal pressure water releases the
absorbed CO
2
& H
2
S into another tower, where after further upgradation CO
2
can be used for
other purposes. After releasing the absorbed gases, same water is recycled for further
upgradation. The H
2
S level of up to 2000 ppm can be purified satisfactorily along with CO
2
in
water scrubbing method.

2.2 Compression and bottling unit
Bottling part of the plant consists of a high pressure compressor having suction at 0.5 bar,
discharge pressure at 200 bar and having capacity 5 Nm
3
/h. Cylinder having water volume of
60 litres capacity. Dispensing nozzle used for filling the compressed purified gas in the
vehicles. Dried and purified gas goes into the suction of high pressure compressor, where it
compresses the gas to desired working (~20 Mpa) pressure and fill into the storage cylinders.
A CNG dispensing cable along with nozzle is used for filling of gas in the vehicles. In the
system a multi stage compressor is used for the compression of methane enriched biogas at 20
MPa pressure in CNG cylinder. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) was used for the moisture
removal. The storage cylinders used are high pressure, seamless, steel cylinders that are
already being used for compressed natural gas (CNG) application.

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of modified
packed tower

Fig. 2 Previous biogas purification plant at IIT
Delhi
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3. OPTIMIZATION OF PACKED TOWER

Design procedure involves finding the optimal parameters of a packed tower for a particular
absorption process. In present work, biogas is gas phase and water is liquid phase. Main
parameters to obtain are working pressure, tower packing, and height of packed bed and
diameter of packed bed.
The solubility of both CO
2
& CH
4
in water is directly proportional to pressure. That means as
the pressure increases, requirement of water and volume of packed column decreases for a
fixed flow rate of biogas. However higher working pressure pose the problem of difficult
fabrication of tower, difficulty in finding control equipments (sensor, valves etc.) and higher
electricity consumption for compression of gas. Very low pressure results in excess water
requirement and much bigger size of columns. Therefore an intermediate value of working
pressure is assumed 10 bar.

3.1 Diameter of Packed Bed
In the case of packed bed, diameter defines the capacity of tower and is directly proportional
to the capacity. In the case of counter current flow upward flowing gas puts a drag pressure on
free flowing water. As either the gas or water flow rate increases for a particular available
cross section area, gas pressure drop increases which further increases the gas velocity; the
increased gas velocity suspends the trickling water droplets in the tower. Little suspension of
liquid droplets in beneficial and is called loading condition, in extreme case it creates the
section of water lumps inside the tower and the condition is called Flooding. The working
flow rate should be the 70-80% of flooding flow rates.
In advance purification setup of IIT Delhi, column of 15 cm diameter with large transparent
windows of Acrylic glass on both side of it was used. By feeding the tower with variable flow
rate of air and water (through rotameter), flooding is observed at 20 m
3
/hr air flow rate and 2.5
m
3
/h water flow rate. Therefore working flow rates should be around 15m
3
/h and 2-2.5m
3
/h
water flow rate for 15 cm diameter column.

3.2 Height of Packed Bed
Height of the packed tower depends upon the initial and final concentration difference of
impurity and is directly proportional to the difference. Therefore keeping other conditions as
constant; purity level increases with increase in height of tower.
In the setup at IIT Delhi, three pieces of 1 M length and two pieces of 0.5 M length packed
column are constructed. Experiments are performed with different heights and it has been
observed that satisfactory purification is obtained at 3M of column height.

3.3 Optimization Water flow rate in packed tower
High pressure water scrubbing is a technique based on the physical absorption of dissolving
gases in liquid. In the case of upgrading biogas, it can be used because the solubility of
CO
2
and H
2
S is much larger compared to the solubility of CH
4
. Also, the solubility of all
components increases when the pressure is higher. Raw Biogas is compressed to a pressure of
10 bars and injected into the bottom of the Packed Scrubbing Tower with constant flow rate 10
m
3
/h while water is sprayed from the top of the column with various flow rates (m
3
/h) like 1.8,
1.9, 2 and 2.1. Inside the tower water absorbs the CO
2
& H
2
S at working pressure and purified
methane along with moisture exits from the top of tower. The gas leaving at the top of the
scrubber needs to be dried, which is performed by adsorbing moisture in suitable desiccants in
a pressure swing adsorption drier (Millcon). Gas exiting from the drier is completely purified
gas with desired gas composition.

3.4 Optimization gas flow rate in packed tower
In the packed tower water is sprayed from the top of the column with constant flow rates 2.1
m
3
/h. Raw Biogas is compressed and injected into the bottom of the Packed Scrubbing Tower
at different gas flow rates like 9, 10 and 11 m3/hr. Inside the tower water absorbs the CO
2
&
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H
2
S at constant working pressure (10 bar) and purified methane along with moisture exits
from the top of tower. The purified gas needs to be dried, which is performed by adsorbing
moisture in pressure swing adsorption drier (Millcon)

3.5 Atomization of purification system
3.5.1. Automatic Control System
Control system is used for maintaining the desired working parameters in the plant. There are
mainly three control systems in the plantwater flow rate control, gas pressure control, water
level control. Advance and Automated purification system was shown in fig 5.

3.5.2. Automatic Water Flow Rate Controller
Flow control of water was required to achieve the desired purification level of purified gas.
Control action was performed using a water rotameter and manual ball valve. Ball valve was
set accordingly for getting the desired flow rate in the packed tower through rotameter.

3.5.3. Automatic Pressure Controller
Pressure control was required to maintain the desired working pressure inside the plant. A
pressure sensor (Piezo-electric based) senses the pressure and converts it in to a 4-20 mA
signal. This signal goes into a PID controller, where the controller runs the PID algorithm and
calculates the signal for the electro-pneumatic ball valve. Electric signal is converted to a
corresponding 3-20 PSI pneumatic signal, which further moves the ball valve using a rack &
pinion mechanism for the desired opening level. Schematic of the system is shown in the
figure 3.

3.5.4. Automatic Pressure Sensor
Cost effective and ideal way for monitoring the pressure. Display shut-off facility is provided
so that display can be made 'ON' only if required through push button. Thus it saves the
battery power & results in long lasting operation.

3.5.5. Automatic Water Level Controller
Water level control was required for maintaining the water sealing at the bottom section of
packed tower [8]. A level sensor (Magnetic Reed Switch Based) sensor senses the water level
and converts it in to a 4-20 mA signal. This signal goes into a PID controller, where the
controller runs the PID algorithm and calculates the signal for the electro-pneumatic ball
valve. Electric signal is converted to a corresponding 3-20 PSI pneumatic signal, which further
moves the ball valve using a Rack & Pinion mechanism for the desired opening level.
Schematic of the system is shown in the figure 4.

3.5.6. Automatic Level Sensor
The inbuilt level sensor was consisting of a float & guide tube made of non-magnetic material
to achieve undisturbed magnetic flux. The float has magnetic system within it & moves along
the guide tube which contains glass encapsulated hermitically sealed reed switches. Float
follows level & magnetically actuates reed switches & provides continuous 4-20 mA DC
output as shown in fig. 4.

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Fig.3. Pressure Sensor

Fig.4 Level Sensor

Fig.5 Modified Purification Plant

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4. RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

Performance of the complete system, enrichment unit and compression unit were analyzed and
results were discussed in this session. The carbon dioxide content in the raw biogas during the
study period was found between 41.8543.10 % through gas chromatographic analysis.

4.1. Absorption of Carbon Dioxide in water
The packed tower was designed for 95 % CO
2
absorption from raw biogas in pressurized
water for 10 m
3
/h inlet gas flow rate at 10 bar gas pressure. Accordingly, variation in inlet gas
flow rates from 9-11m
3
/h were studied at 10 bar gas pressure. The values of CO
2
absorption
observed were 96.9, 97.4, 97.4 and 97.4 % at 9, 10, 11 and 12 m
3
/h gas flow rates respectively
as shown in fig. 6. It is clear from the fig. 6 that percentage CO
2
absorption from raw biogas is
initially increased when gas flow rate vary from 9 to 10 m
3
/h afterwards it become constant.
The highest CO
2
absorption (97.4 %) is observed at 10 m
3
/h gas flow rate at 10 bar gas
pressure. It shows that 10 m
3
/h gas flow rate is the best suited for CO
2
absorption at 2.1 m
3
/h
wash water flow rate. The packed tower works perfectly well around 2.1 m
3
/h wash water flow
rate, above this flow rate, flooding starts. The experimental results confirm the literature which
shows the CO
2
absorption in water is influenced by the flow rates of gas and water.
Effect of water flow rates on percentage CO
2
absorption was shown in fig. 7. The values of
CO
2
absorption observed were 96.9, 97.4, 97.3 and 97 .3 % at 2, 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 m
3
/h water
flow rates respectively as shown in fig. 7. Again the highest percentage CO
2
absorption is
observed for 2.1 m
3
/h water flow rate at 10 bar pressure in tower.

Fig. 6 Optimization of gas flow rate of packed tower at constant water flow rate 2.1 m
3
/h

Fig. 7 Optimization of water flow rate of packed tower at constant gas flow rate 10 m
3
/h

G
a
s

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

Gas Flow Rate (m
3
/hr)
CH4 CO2
G
a
s

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

Water Flow Rate (m
3
/hr)
CH4 CO2
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4.2. Effect of Water Pressure and Flow Rate
It was observed during the study that water pressure in the scrubber column depends on the
inlet gas pressure and increased with increase in gas pressure. Water flow rate was maintained
automatically through the valve at lower section of the scrubber to avoid flooding in the
scrubber column. Optimum water pressure, gas flow rate and water flow rate, for maximum
CO
2
absorption, were found to be 10 bar, 10 m
3
/h and 2.1 m
3
/h respectively.

4.3. Performance of the Scrubber
To see the effect of gas flow rate on the performance of the scrubber, raw gas was fed into the
scrubber at different gas flow rates under constant gas pressure 10 bar. This pressure was
selected as the highest % CO
2
absorption was observed at this pressure as stated in the
previous section. H
2
S was below to the detection limit at every variation of scrubber.
Observations on CO
2
absorption were noted with variations in gas flow rates and water flow
rates 4 sets of observations were taken and the average is reported in Table 1.

The performance index was computed by using
= (1 (ye/yr)) 100,
(1 (ye/100))

where is the performance index of scrubbing column, %; ye is the volumetric content of
carbon dioxide in methane enriched biogas, %; yr is the volumetric content of carbon dioxide
in raw biogas, %.

Table 1 The effect of gas and water flow rate ratio on upgrading efficiency and contents
of main components of product gases.
Water
flow rate(
m
3
/h)
Gas flow
rate(m
3
/h)
Gas flow
rate/
water flow
rate
Raw gas
(%)
Product gas
(%)
Performan
ce Index
(%) CH
4
CO
2
CH
4
CO
2

2 10 5 55 38 97 2 96.9
2.1 10 4.7 54 39 98 1 97.4
2.2 10 4.5 55 38 98 1 97.3
2.2 10 4.5 55 38 98 1 97.3
2.1 9 4.2 55 38 97 2 96.9
2.1 11 5.2 54 39 98 1 97.4
2.1 12 5.2 54 39 98 1 97.4

4.4. Comparison of previous with modified purification system
The present plant has much better flow pattern of gas and liquid inside the packed bed. This
is due to the usage of Intalox Metal Tower Packing (IMTP) instead of Ceramic Raschig
Rings, IMTP rings have much less weight to volume ratio, one of the best flow pattern
(give trickle effect to liquid, avoids channeling, high Void Ratio etc.) and very high service
life. The tower is constructed in three pieces with Packing Support & Liquid Re-distributor
in each piece, which avoids the wall effect and ensures the uniform distribution of water
throughout the packed bed. In the new plant all theoretical parameters of plant such as
working pressure, gas flow rate, and constant level of liquid sealing are maintained within
the well defined range. This results in consistent condition for purification operation
resulting in consisting quality of purified gas. In the current tower all the operation
parameters of plant such as pressure, water flow rate, and gas flow rate are automatically
controlled thus avoids the hectic manual operation and reliability of parameters. Provision
of water recirculation has been provided by using a flash tank and storage tank. Fig. 3
shows the major difference between the previous system and modified systems. The
previous plant mesh type filter is provided for the removal of moisture from purified wet
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171

gas, whose moisture removal capacity is much lesser than the required specifications. In
modified plant PSA (pressure swing adsorption) type drier is used for the removal of
moisture which achieves the satisfactory moisture level in the dried gas. Therefore the
modified packed tower has high purification efficiency with consistency in results and no
labour power is required. Feasibility analysis of packed tower and bottling system is shown
in table 3. Fig 8 shows the Schematic diagram of water scrubbing based methane
enrichment previous (a) and modified (b) systems at IIT Delhi campus.

Table 2 Comparison of Previous system with modified purification system

Parameters

Previous system

Modified system
Packing Material 15 mm Ceramic Raschig Rings 15 mm IMPT (Intalox Metal
Tower Packing) SS-304
Pressure in
Tower
Varies gradually according to
pressure in purified gas storage
vessel
Maintained constantly using
automatic pressure control
system
Water Level
Maintenance
Difficult to maintain through
manual control
Maintained through automatic
level control system
Liquid
Redistributors
Not available Provision of liquid re-distributor
for the proper distribution of
water throughout of tower
Moisture
Removal
Mesh type filter is provided for the
removal of moisture from purified
wet gas, whose moisture removal
capacity is much lesser than the
required specifications
PSA type drier is used for the
removal of moisture which
achieves the satisfactory
moisture level in the dried gas.

Consistency No repeatability of data Highly consistence

(a)

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(b)

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of water-scrubbing-based methane enrichment previous (a) and
modified (b) systems at IIT Delhi campus

Feasibility analysis of water scrubbing tower and bottling system was compiled in table 3. It
was analysed that advance and modified purification system was maintaining high purity at
low pressure. System energy requirement of purification and bottled biogas is 6.88 % of raw
biogas energy with very high service life. Automatically controlled system cut the man power
cost or hectic manual operation and increases the reliability of parameters. However, in
previous plant there was many gaps in system, these gaps were successfully modified and
make the purification technology more feasible, convenient and highly reliable for commercial
use.

Table3 Feasibility analysis of water scrubbing tower and bottling system
Design Parameters Previous Modified
Plant capacity 20 m
3
/h 20 m
3
/h
% of methane in raw biogas 55-65% 55-65%
% of methane in upgraded gas 90-98% 96-97%
Water pressure inside the scrubbing
tower
12bar 10 bar
Energy Required for Purification
1) For water pumping and pressuring
water
2.2kW 2 kW
2) For pressuring gas at 10 bar 1.1kW 3 kW
Energy required for controls and valves 0 0.25 kW
Energy Required for Compression And
Bottling
2.2 kW 3 kW
Total energy required for upgrading and
bottling
5.5kW 8.25 kW
Power consumption 0.275 kWh/nm
3

of raw biogas
0.412kWh/m
3
of
raw biogas
System energy requirement as a
percentage of raw biogas
4.58% of raw
biogas energy
6.88 % of raw
biogas energy

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5. CONCLUSION

The modified plant has much better flow pattern of gas and liquid inside the packed bed. This
is due to the usage of Intalox Metal Tower Packing (IMTP) instead of Ceramic Raschig Rings;
IMTP rings have much less weight to volume ratio, one of the best flow pattern and very high
service life. Three liquid re-distributors are inside the tower, which avoids the wall effect and
ensures the uniform distribution of water throughout the packed bed. In the modified packed
tower all theoretical parameters such as working pressure, gas flow rate, and constant level of
liquid sealing are maintained within the well defined range. These parameters are
automatically controlled thus avoids the hectic manual operation and reliability of parameters.
This results in consistent condition for purification operation and results in consistent quality
of purified gas. Water has been regenerated effectively through flash tank and almost re-
circulated for next cycles. PSA type drier is used for the removal of moisture in modified
purification plant which achieves the satisfactory moisture level in the dried gas.

6. REFERENCES

[1]. Krishania, M., Kumar, V., Vijay, V. K. and Malik, A. (2012) Opportunities for
improvement of process technology for biomethanation processes, Green Process
Synth, 1, pp 4959.
[2]. Alazraque, C. J. (2008) Renewable energy for rural sustainability in developing
countries, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 28, pp 2.
[3]. Eze, J.I. and Agbo, K.E. (2010) Maximizing the potentials of biogas through
upgrading, American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1(3), pp 604-609.
[4]. Vijay, V.K., Chandra, R., Subbarao, P. M. V. and Kapid, S.S., (2006) Biogas
purification and bottling into CNG cylinders: producing Bio-CNG from biomass for
rural automotive applications, 2nd Joint International Conference on Sustainable
Energy and Environment (SEE) Bangkok.
[5]. Abatzoglou, N. and Boivin, S.A (2009) Review of biogas purification processes,
Biofuels, Bioprod. Biorefin., 3, pp 42 71 .
[6]. Basu, S., Khan, A., Cano-Odena, A., Liu, C. and Vankelecom, I., (2010) Membrane-
based technologies for biogas separations, Chem. Soc. Rev., 39, pp 750 768.
[7]. Chandra, R.,Viraj,V. K. and Subbarao, P. M. V. (2012) Vehicular quality biomethane
production from biogas by using an automated water scrubbing system, ISRN
Renewable Energy, pp 1-6.
[8]. Kapdi, S.S., Vijay, V.K., Rajesh S.K. and Prasad R. (2005) Biogas scrubbing,
compression and storage, perspective and prospectus in Indian context, Renewable
Energy, 30(8).

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solar PV/T Air System: An Indoor Experimental Validation

N. A. Rahim
1
, N. A. A. Rahim
1*
, V. V. Tyagi
1
, J. Selvaraj
1

1
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre, University of Malaya, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603) 2246 3246, Fax: (603) 2246 3257, E-mail: mekis219@gmail.com

Abstract:
Major application of PV modules is to convert solar energy into electrical energy. One of the
weaknesses of PV module is its efficiency are depends on temperature. In simple way, it can
be describe that as temperature increase, the efficiency of PV module decrease. According to
that, new area of research called PV/T is given attention to generate more electricity while
cooling the PV module by extracting heat using fluid. In this paper, an indoor testing to
investigate the electrical and thermal performance of air based PV/T system with constant
irradiation level and different speed of air has been carried out. The electrical performance of
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PV/T system is then being compared to electrical performance of PV module without thermal
collector. Highest air temperature measured at the outlet of thermal collector in this
experiment is 62
o
C.The thermal and electrical efficiency of the system is 10% and 11%
respectively. Electrical output of the system can be used for the purpose of lighting and else
while heated air is important to provide warm and comfortable environment in the house
especially in cold climate country.

Keywords: PVT, solar energy, air heating, efficiency, temperature

1. INTRODUCTION

Due to the fast development, demands of comfort, a higher mobility and a larger world
population, the energy consumption is rising tremendously year by year. In present scenario,
fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, are playing a role to meet this energy demand. The
environmental pollution is also serious problem today due to the huge usage of fossil fuels. To
decrease the pollution and save the environment, renewable energy technology is agreed to
replace the current energy sources. It is known that among renewable energy sources, solar
energy is a reliable energy source and in most of the countries, government is providing
incentive to setup the solar energy based power plants. In order to convert solar energy to
other forms of energy that is usable for human needs, there are several thermodynamic
pathways. In general, heat, kinetic energy, electric energy and chemical energy can be
provided via solar energy conversion. Photovoltaic (PV) is the direct conversion of radiation
into electricity. Photovoltaic systems contain cells that convert sunlight into electricity. Inside
each cell there are layers of a semi-conducting material. Light falling on the cell creates an
electric field across the layers, causing electricity to flow. The intensity of the light determines
the amount of electrical power each cell generates. The semiconductors (IIIV and IIVI)
based solar cells were first investigated in the 1960s and at the same time, polycrystalline Si
(pc-Si) and thin-film solar cell technologies were also developed to provide high production
capacity at low material cost with low energy input in fabrication process [1]. It is widely
known that the performance of PV modules is strongly depending on its working condition.
High working temperature will affect the electrical efficiency of PV module. Most of the
researchers nowadays recommend using PVT concept in order to decrease the PV temperature.
Solar PVT collectors are devices that convert solar energy into electrical energy and thermal
energy. They are available in several designs, but the basic operating principles remain the
same which is to extract heat generated from PV module in order to increase its efficiency.
Combination of PV module and thermal collector with flowing fluid to extract heat will
provide electrical and thermal output at low cost which is a benefit in renewable energy field.
Rapid development on PVT project has been done by previous researchers by using different
approaches in order to increase the heat transfer between PV and thermal collector to improve
the efficiency of the system. However, such an interesting system like PVT also has its own
advantages and disadvantages [2]. The advantages of PVT are (i) Clean and renewable (ii)
Low maintenance (iii) Have a very long life span (20-30 years) (iv) Reliable system (v) Zero
pollution. While the disadvantages of PVT included (i) Longer payback period (ii) Need more
space for installation of the system (iii) Cooling cycle not uniform (iv)Highly dependent on
weather.
Long history of solar PVT collectors has started since 19
th
century along with the
commercialization of PV cell. The price of solar cell is quite expensive decades ago but
continuously decreases as the price for fuel energy increase due to the shrinking source [3].
First PVT air heating system was developed by Professor Ber from University of Delaware in
late 1973 [4]. There is some research to modify the PVT air system in order to maximize the
electrical and heat efficiency with low cost. Tonui and Tripanagnostopoulos [5] suggested the
usage of metal sheet or finned between the PV back and thermal collector to help enhancing
the electrical output and maximized the heat transfer from PV back to the collector.
Experimental testing has been carried out to validate the theoretical model where good
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agreement has been achieved. From experiment and calculation result, usage of metal sheet
and fin can improve the performance of the PVT air system. Kumar and Rosen [6] studied the
performance of double-pass PV/T collector system with and without fins. Analysis has been
done on energy balances of the upper glass cover, superstrate of PV module, absorber surface,
back plate and the air in upper and lower columns. It is concluded that, fins are helpful to
increase heat transfer rate from PV to thermal collector thus will increase thermal and
electrical efficiency of the system. Janjai and Tung [7] investigate the performance of 72m
2

PVT collectors that has been placed on a roof top of a farmhouse and conclude that it will take
3-4 days to dry 200 kg of rosella flowers and lemon-grasses by using the hot air produced by
the PVT. Another example of the advantage of solar PVT air heating system is investigated by
Bala et al [8] who applied the system to dry the pineapple. Hot air is flowed throughout the
tunnel using two dc fans operated by a flat plate solar module. Solar tunnel built for this
application has a loading capacity up to 150 kg of pineapple and can protect the product from
dust, insects and rain thus the dried pineapple produce is high in quality. During the study, air
temperature at the outlet varied from 34.1 to 64.0 C. It is concluded that drying time can be
reduced by using this system compared to directly using sun to dry the products.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Experimental setup
In the present work, Photovoltaic/Thermal system (PVT) has been designed and studied
experimentally. The experimental setup consists of a PV module with and without thermal
collector, SUN simulator test bench which can provide constant radiation, low energy air pump
with different flow rate and data logger with computer to store the temperature, radiation and
power data at different location. The experiment has been conducted to study the power output
from PV and PVT and also heat extracted with PVT module which can be extract by the help of
developed thermal collector attached with PV and air was flowed in the thermal collector as a
heat transfer fluid. Thermal collector is made from copper pipe and fins were used to enhance
the heat transfer rate from PV back. Thermal collector is design like rib style with seven pipes
and the size of the thermal collector are matched with the size of PV panel. Copper pipe are
painted with black color to maximized heat transfer from PV back to the thermal collector. The
75W mono crystalline silicon solar panel has been use in this experiment. The experiment has
been conducted in solar simulator placed in the room with controlled environment. The
photographic view of experimental setup is given in Figure 1. Two constant irradiations level
was set for 600 and 1000W/m
2
for two angles (3.15 and 18.15). Air with two different flow
rates (25 & 50 LPM) was maintained with the help of air pump during the experiment.

Fig. 1 Experimental view of PVT module in Sun Simulator

2.2 Experimental procedure
In this work, experiment has been conducted in two phase. For first phase of experiment, PV
module was tested in SUN simulator with two constant radiation levels and two tilt angles. The
irradiation was kept constant at 600 and 1000 W/m
2
in SUN simulator at two different angles
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(3.15 and 18.15
o
) for 150 minutes for every irradiation level and tilted angle respectively. The
Li-Cor pyrometer was used to measure the irradiation level on PV and PVT module. During
experiment, different data i.e. voltage, current, power and module upper and back temperature,
air inlet and outlet temperature were measured with the help of data logger at one minute
interval. Five sensors were used for temperature measurement at different locations i.e. upper,
back surface of PV and PVT, inlet and outlet air temperature of PVT and room temperature.
Some other sensors were used to measure PV/PVT power output. After every experiment done,
PV/PVT module was cooled with the help of control indoor environment. Same experimental
procedure is repeated for other irradiation level and tilt angle. The dimension of designed PVT
module and other parameters are given in table 1. In the PVT module test, air was used as a
cooling fluid with the help of low energy consumption pump. Total data was taken for 25 and
50 LPM flow rate.

2.3 Instrumentation
The following parameters have been measured during the experiment:
1. Air inlet temperature
2. Outlet air temperature
3. Upper and back surface temperature of solar cell
4. Room Temperature
5. Irradiation
6. Short circuit and open circuit current
7. Load current and load voltage

Table 1 Parameters value for testing.
Parameters Value
Solar simulator 90 halogen lamp (50W), 4
fan
Module type Monocrystalline silicon
PV module area 0.6324m
2

I
sc
(STC) 4.8A
V
OC
(STC) 21.7V
Collector material Copper
Length of thermal
collector
1.0 m
Diameter of thermal
collector
0.015 m
Fin length 1.0 m
Fin width 0.034 m
Specific heat for air 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Air flow 25lpm, 50lpm
Angle 3.15, 18.15
Irradiation 600, 1000 W/m
2

Time 150 minutes


This paper presents the comparative electrical and thermal performance study of PVT module
in control indoor environment. The experiment was conducted in control indoor environment
for 25 & 50 air LPM flow rate in designed PVT module. In the first phase of experimental
study PVT module was tested for two different angles i.e. 3.15 and 18.15.

3.1 Mathematical equations
From previous study [9-18], electrical efficiency can be described as:
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c
=
c,c|
|10.0045(T
_c
T
o|,c|
)| (1)

where
el
is the electrical efficiency,
el,ref
is the reference efficiency at T
amb,ref
=25
o
C and T
cell

is cell temperature.

Energy used from PV module to heat up the fluid in the thermal collector is calculated from:

O=X
t
(T) (2)

where O is the heat collected, is the mass flow rate of fluid, X
t
is the specific heat of fluid
and T is the temperature difference between inlet and outlet of pipe.

Thermal efficiency of the system can be calculated using:

(3)

where
th
is the thermal efficiency, Q is the heat collected, G is the irradiation level and A is
the area of thermal collector.

3.2 Electrical performance
For the constant 1000 W/m
2
irradiation and tilted at angle 3.15, PV power output is low
compared to PVT module for both air flow rate. It can be seen in figure 2 that average power
was achieved by PVT module with 50 LPM & 25 LPM and PV are 41 W, 39 W and 32 W
respectively. Due to the increment of temperature, power output were also decrease after some
time.

Fig. 2 Power output (W) at irradiation 1000 W/m
2
at angle 3.15

For the 18.15 angle in SUN simulator, The maximum power out was recorded as 31 W, 28 W
and 22 W for PVT 50LPM, PVT 25 LPM and PV module at same constant irradiations. The
result is given in figure 3.

30
40
50
60
1
3
:
3
0
1
3
:
5
0
1
4
:
1
0
1
4
:
3
0
1
4
:
5
0
1
5
:
1
0
1
5
:
3
0
1
5
:
5
0
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Time
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
PV
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Fig. 3 Power output (W) at irradiation 1000 W/m
2
at angle 18.15

The result of study showed that with the help of thermal collector in PV module, module
temperature can be minimized and it is helpful to improve the performance of PV. In this study
for two angles, maximum electrical power was achieved for 3.15 with PVT module. The
results with 600 W/m
2
irradiation test in SUN simulator are given in figure 4 and 5.

Fig. 4 Power output (W) at irradiation 600 W/m2 at angle 3.15

Fig. 5 Power output (W) at irradiation 600 W/m2 at angle 18.15

20
25
30
35
40
1
2
:
5
5
1
3
:
1
5
1
3
:
3
5
1
3
:
5
5
1
4
:
1
5
1
4
:
3
5
1
4
:
5
5
1
5
:
1
5
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Time
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
PV
15
20
25
30
1
3
:
0
0
1
3
:
2
0
1
3
:
4
0
1
4
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
0
1
4
:
4
0
1
5
:
0
0
1
5
:
2
0
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Time
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
PV
10
12
14
16
18
1
2
:
0
2
1
2
:
2
2
1
2
:
4
2
1
3
:
0
2
1
3
:
2
2
1
3
:
4
2
1
4
:
0
2
1
4
:
2
2
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Time
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
PV
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3.3 Thermal performance

Fig. 6 Heat (W) and temperature (
o
C) at irradiation 1000 W/m
2
at angle 3.15

Figure 6 shows the graph for heat output from PVT and temperature value at the inlet and
outlet of thermal collector for 25LPM and 50LPM air speed. It can be seen that more heat are
produced when the air speed increase. Highest temperature measured is 62
o
C for 50LPM air
flow and 60.7
o
C for 25LPM air flow. Total of 1645W and 2929W heat are produced at the end
of the experiment for 25LPM and 50LPM air flow respectively.

o
2
at angle 18.15

A total of 1202W and 2082W heat output has been collected for 25LPM and 50LPM air speed
respectively when angle is changed to 18.15
o
C which is less by average 20% than two angles
before. Graph can be seen in figure 7. More heat are collected when PVT use 50LPM of air
which means temperature of PV cell also decrease thus gives better power output compared to
25LPM air flow. This is because of the big temperature difference when flowing 50LPM air.
Temperature and mass flow rate of fluid do influence the amount of heat collected. It can be
seen that total heat collected decrease as the temperature value measured at the thermal
collector outlet decrease.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1
3
:
2
5
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3
:
4
5
1
4
:
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5
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:
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5
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:
0
5
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:
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5
1
5
:
4
5
H
e
a
t

(
W
)

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

TIN (50LPM)
TOUT(50LPM)
TIN (25LPM)
TOUT (25LPM)
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
H
e
a
t

(
W
)

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Time
TIN (50LPM)
TOUT(50LPM)
TIN (25LPM)
TOUT (25LPM)
QPVT AT 50LPM
QPVT AT 25LPM
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180

o
2
at angle 3.15

It can be seen that total heat collected decrease as the irradiation level decrease. For irradiation
600 W/m
2
at angle 3.15, only 809W and 1541W heat produces by our PVT system and the
highest temperature measured at the outlet of thermal collector is 37
o
C and 42
o
C for 25LPM
and 50LPM air speed respectively. Figure 8 shows the result for heat (W) and temperature (
o
C)
at irradiation 600 W/m
2
at angle 3.15.

o
2
at angle 18.15

Figure 9 shows the graph for heat and temperature at irradiation 600 W/m
2
at angle 18.15.
Highest temperature measured at the outlet of the thermal collector is 38
o
C and 42
o
C for
25LPM and 50LPM respectively. Heat generated at 18.15 with irradiation level 600 W/m
2
are
806W and 1661W for 25LPM and 50LPM air speed respectively. It can be seen that as we
increased the air speed, high heat amount and air temperature can be achieved.

4. CONCLUSION

In this research, indoor performance of PV and PVT air system has been investigated.
Temperature of PV module increase when it absorbs solar irradiation, this situation will affect
the efficiency of PV module. Applying heat recovery unit with flowing fluid on PV module can
help on solving this undesirable effect. Novel design of thermal collector has been proposed in
this study while other parameters like irradiation, mass flow rate and type of coolant are
approaches that have been taken into account in order to investigate the performance of PVT air
system.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

HICOE and government of Malaysia for supporting the fund to complete this project.

0
5
10
15
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
1
3
:
0
1
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3
:
3
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4
:
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:
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1
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5
:
0
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5
:
3
1
H
e
a
t

(
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)

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Time
TIN (50LPM)
TOUT(50LPM)
TIN (25LPM)
TOUT (25LPM)
PVT (50LPM)
PVT (25LPM)
0
5
10
15
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
1
2
:
3
5
1
3
:
0
5
1
3
:
3
5
1
4
:
0
5
1
4
:
3
5
1
5
:
0
5
H
e
a
t

(
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)

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Time
TIN (50LPM)
TOUT(50LPM)
TIN (25LPM)
TOUT (25LPM)
QPVT AT 50LPM
QPVT AT 25LPM
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181

6. REFERENCES

[1] El Chaar, L., Lamonta, L. A. and El Zein, N. (2011) Review of photovoltaic
technologies, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, pp. 21652175.
[2] Ibrahim, A., Othman, M.Y., Ruslan, M.H., Mat, S. and Sopian, K. (2011) Recent
advances in flat plate photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collectors, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 15, pp. 352365.
[3] Zondag, H.A. (2008) Flat-plate PV-Thermal collectors and systems: A review,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4, pp. 891959.
[4] Boer, K.W. and Tamm, G. (2003) Solar conversion under consideration of energy and
entropy, Sol Energy, 74, pp. 525528.
[5] Tonui, J.K. and Tripanagnostopoulos, Y. (2007) Air-cooled PV/T solar collectors with
low cost performance improvements, Solar Energy, 81, pp. 498511.
[6] Kumar, R. and Rosen, M. A. (2011) Performance evaluation of a double pass PV/T
solar air heater with and without fins, Applied Thermal Energy, 31, pp. 1402-1410.
[7] Janjai, S. and Tung, P. (2005) Performance of a solar dryer using hot air from roof-
integrated solar collectors for drying herbs and spices, Renewable Energy, 30, pp. 20852095.
[8] Balaa, B.K., Mondola, M.R.A., Biswasa, B.K., Das Chowdury, B.L. and Janjai, S.
(2003) Solar drying of pineapple using solar tunnel drier, Renewable Energy, 28, pp. 183190.
[9] Wolf, M. (1976) Performance analysis of combined heating and photovoltaic power
systems for residences. Energy Convers Manage, 1976, 16, pp. 79-90.
[10] Kern, J. and Russell, M.C. (1978) Combined photovoltaic and thermal hybrid
collector systems, In: Proceedings of 13
th
IEEE photovoltaic specialists, USA, pp. 1153-1157.
[11] Cox III, C.H. and Raghuraman, P. (1985) Design consideration for flat plate
photovoltaic/ thermal collectors, Sol Energy, 35, pp. 227-241.
[12] Garg, H.P., Agarwall, R.P. and Joshi, J.C. (1994) Experimental study on a hybrid
photovoltaic thermal solar water heater and its performance prediction, Energy Convers
Manage, 35, pp. 621-633.
[13] Infield, D., Mei, L. and Eicker, U. (2004) Thermal performance estimation of
ventilated PV facades, Solar Energy, 76, pp. 93-98.
[14] Hegazy, A.A. (2000) Comparative study of the performances of four photovoltaic/
thermal solar air collectors. Energy Converese Manage, 41, pp. 861-881.
[15] Conventry, S. J. (2004) Performance of a concentrating photovoltaic/ thermal solar
collector, Sol Energy, 78, pp. 211-222.
[16] Chow, T.T. (2010) A review on photovoltaic/ thermal hybrid solar technology,
Applied Energy, 87, pp. 365-379.
[17] Chow, T.T., He, W. and Ji, J. (2007) An experimental study of faade- integrated
photovoltaic water heating system, Applied Thermal Energy, 27, pp. 37-45.
[18] Dubey, S. and Tiwari, G.N. (2008) Thermal modeling of a combined system PVT
solar water heater, Sol Energy, 82, pp. 602-612.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Influence of Residence Time on Biochar Yield and Characteristics from Slow
Pyrolysis of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches

Adilah Shariff
1*
, Nur Syairah Mohamad
2
, Nurhayati Abdullah
3

1,2,3
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (604) 6533049, Fax: (604)6579150, E-mail: adilah08@gmail.com

Abstract
Slow pyrolysis process generates biochar as its main product. The operating parameters of the
pyrolysis process play important roles in determining the characteristics of the biochar
produced. In this study, the impact of residence time for the slow pyrolysis of oil palm empty
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fruit bunches (EFB) on biochar yield and its characteristics were investigated. The
characterization of raw empty fruit bunches was performed through proximate analysis,
ultimate analysis and thermogravimetric analysis. The pyrolysis experiments were conducted
using a lab-scale pyrolysis system for various residence times ranging from 0.5 hour to 4.0
hours at a fixed temperature and heating rate; 550C and 5C/min respectively. Proximate
analysis and ultimate analysis were done on the biochar obtained for each different residence
time. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and surface area analysis using Brunauer-
Emmett-Teller (BET) method were performed on selected biochar. It was found that the 1.0
hour residence time produce the highest percentage of biochar yield, 25.47 wt.% with the
highest fixed carbon content, 72.94 mf wt.%. SEM images show morphological and structural
changes for EFB biochar. The BET surface area is 0.1301 m
2
/g for the 1.0 hour residence time
and increased to 0.6413 m
2
/g for the 4.0 hours residence time.

Keywords: Bioenergy, biomass, biochar, pyrolysis, carbon.

1. INTRODUCTION

Biomass is one of the renewable energy resources and usually refers to organic matter from
plant due to small percentage of the total contribution from animal matter [1]. The utilization
and exploitation of biomass are practical and offers the economical and environmental
benefits. It gives an option in the attempts to decline fossil fuel resources. Besides, it is easily
generated, either through natural processes or as residue of human activities [2], widely
available in many areas [3] and can be used continuously. The utilization of biomass as a
renewable energy source can lead to a reduction of the greenhouse gases emission and
minimize the problems related to climate change [4].
Malaysia is the second largest producer and exporters of palm oil product in the world after
Indonesia since 2006 [5-6]. The planted areas of oil palm have reached 500 million hectares in
2011. This figures achieved an increment by 3.0% compared to the record in the previous year
[7]. The palm oil mills generate a large amount of solid wastes such as extracted oil palm
fibers, palm shells, palm stones and empty fruit bunches [8]. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is one
of the most common solid wastes generated in the palm oil extraction. It is the waste generated
after the fresh fruit bunch (FFB) undergone sterilization and stripping process [9]. Currently, a
part of EFB is used as fertilizer and soil cover material in the palm oil plantation areas. Most
of them are dumped in mill area due to high generation rate along with its limitation for
current utilization and application [10]. Thus, the abundance of EFB will make it as a high
potential biomass energy source.
Biomass such as EFB can be converted into various useful products via thermochemical
conversion process such as pyrolysis. The characteristics and compositions of the product
yield is depending on the initial biomass used (chemical composition, ash composition and
size), pre-treatment process (drying, washing or crushing) and the conditions of the system
such as the temperature, heating rate, residence hour and others [11-12]. Slow pyrolysis is one
type of pyrolysis process and it is the favourable process to produce biochar from biomass. In
general, the biomass is prepared in several centimetres of dimension and heated below 700C
under limited supply of oxygen and at a slower heating rates (~5C/min to 30C/min) [13-14].
The residence times will take from minutes, hours or days for biochar production [15].
Production of biochar as soil amendment is widely promoted and proposed as a way to
mitigate anthropogenic climate change as well as improving agricultural soil fertility [16].
Biochar can be produced from any type of biomass via slow pyrolysis. Therefore, each type of
biochar is not same and give different impacts depending on the biomass used, the process of
production and also the type and condition of soils which it is applied. Application of biochar
into soil can increase plant growth [17-19] with its high degree of porosity, upgrade water
retention of soil, aid soil pH and improve soil structure.
Besides, the physical behaviour of biochar influences its function as soil enhancer in the soil
system. The texture, structure, porosity, pore-size distribution and surface area of biochar may
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183

give the impacts on soil physical properties and on the plant growth then. For example, surface
area influences all the essential functions for fertility, including water, air, nutrient cycling and
microbial activity [14]. Thus, the study of surface morphology of biochars will helps us to
understand the characteristics and the performance of biochar in soil.
In this work, we investigated the influence of residence time on the yield and characteristics of
biochar prepared via slow pyrolysis of oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB). The slow pyrolysis
experiments were conducted with 6 different residence time ranging from 0.5 hours to 4.0
hours. For characterization of biochars, we performed proximate and ultimate analyses. The
morphological structures of biochars were taken by scanning electron microscope (SEM). In
addition, BET analysis which uses the gas adsorption method to determine the surface area of
finely-divided and porous material [20] was carried out to observe the effects related to the
surface area of biochar.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Sample
In this study, oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) was used. The samples were obtained from
MALPOM Industry Sdn. Bhd., Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang. The EFB samples were collected
right after they underwent stripping process. During the sample collection, the empty fruit
bunches were in the wet condition. To avoid the growth of orange fungus and grey mould, a
drying pre-treatment process of EFB sample was conducted. The samples were dried in the
conventional oven till their moisture content achieves less than 10 mf wt % moisture content.
Then, the bunches were manually chopped into smaller size, around 5- 10 cm.
Next, the proximate analysis of the EFB sample was conducted. The analysis was done via
ASTM E871 for moisture content, ASTM E872 for volatile matter and ASTM E1755-01 for
ash content determination. Fixed carbon value was obtained from the calculation. It is the
resultant of the summation of percentage ash and volatile matter subtracted from 100. The
ultimate analysis was performed in a Perkin Elmer 2400 analyzer to evaluate the percentage of
C, H, N and S in raw EFB sample. The percentage of O is obtained by calculation. All the
elements in both analyses are presented in moisture free weight percentage (mf wt %) basis.
By considering the elements in ultimate analysis (C, H, N, S and O), the empirical formula of
raw EFB is listed in Table 1.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was conducted to investigate the thermal degradation
characteristics of raw EFB sample using Perkin Elmer Thermogravimetric Analyzer TGA7.
The sample was heated from ambient temperature to 900C with a heating rate 10C/min.
The result of the proximate analysis and ultimate analysis are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Characteristics of raw EFB.
Analysis Result
Proximate Analysis (mf wt %)
Moisture content
Volatile matter
Ash content
Fixed carbon

1.33
77.46
5.29
17.25
Ultimate Analysis (mf wt %)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Oxygen

47.14
6.03
<0.01
0.84
45.99
Empirical Formula CH
1.52
O
0.73
S
0.01

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2.2 Experimental Section

2.2.1 Experimental Setup
The pyrolysis experiment of EFB was conducted in a lab-scale pyrolysis system. This system
consists of Thermolyne F600 Ashing Furnace, steel cylindrical sample holder (pyrolyzer), L-
shape iron pipe, rubber tube hose, glass tube condensers and spherical flask. The diagram of
the lab-scale pyrolysis system is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Lab-scale pyrolysis set-up.

2.2.2 Experimental Procedure
Before starting the experiment, the EFB samples were packed in the pyrolyzer. Around 100
gram of raw EFB was used as the feedstock for every experiment. Then, the pyrolyzer is
located in the muffle furnace. The temperature and heating rate of the pyrolysis experiment
were fixed at 550C and 5C/min respectively. During the experiment, the emission (white
volatiles) from the pyrolyzer was passed through the L-shape iron pipe, rubber tube and
condenser tube. Spherical flask was used to collect the condensates.
The products of the slow pyrolysis process of EFB are solid biochar, liquid condensate and
some non-condensable gases. After the pyrolysis process reached at the determined residence
time, the pyrolyzer was taken out from the muffle furnace and allowed to cool down.
Approximately after 2 hours, the pyrolyzer was weighed to calculate the biochar yield.
Biochar yield was calculated on weight basis according to Eq. (1) below [8, 21].

( ) Mass of char
Percentage of biochar yield, % = x 100
Mass of dry feedstock (g)
g
(1)

2.2.3 Product Analysis
Proximate and ultimate analyses were carried out on the biochar obtained from different
residence hours of slow pyrolysis of EFB. The EFB biochar was ground and then stored in
airtight bottles prior to these analyses. Proximate analysis provides details on moisture
content, volatile matter, ash content and fixed carbon percentage. This analysis was conducted
using ASTM D1762 (Procedure for Chemical Analysis for Wood Charcoal) with some
modification as suggested by Hugh McLaughlin [22]. The temperature range utilized during
the analysis is adjusted to be more aligned with the temperature encountered during pyrolysis
and carbonization. Moreover, biochar is destined for soil amendment that will not be subjected
to high heat. The ultimate analysis was performed in a Perkin Elmer 2400 analyzer to
determine the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur contained in the biochar.
The percentage of oxygen is obtained by calculation.
In order to investigate the influence of residence time on biochar structure, Scanning Electron
Microscopy analysis (SEM) was conducted to obtain the high resolution images of EFB
biochar. The SEM images were obtained using Scanning Electron Microscope JEOL JSM
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185

6460 LV model which is operated at 15kV. BET surface area analysis was performed by
using the Quantachrome Autosorb-1 Surface Analyzer.


3.1 Characteristics of raw EFB
Proximate and ultimate analyses of raw EFB was conducted to find out the suitability of the
biomass for the pyrolysis experiment. Having high volatile content with low ash and sulphur
content are the main criterion of the suitability of the feedstock to be used for pyrolysis
conversion process [23]. The result of these analyses in Table 1 shows that the EFB sample
has high volatile content (77.46 mf wt %), medium level of ash content (5.29 mf wt %) and a
rather low fixed carbon content (17.25 mf wt %). The moisture content of raw EFB shown in
Table 1 is obtained after the drying pre-treatment procedure conducted. Meanwhile the
ultimate analysis result shows that the EFB sample has low sulphur and nitrogen content.
Thus, raw EFB sample is suitable for pyrolysis process and environment friendly.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) present the data in thermogravimetric (TG) and derivative
thermogravimetric (DTG) curves as shown in Fig. 2. The curves indicate the fractional weight
loss in the raw sample as a function of temperature and time. Note that, the slope change
represented by TG curve is used to analyze the sample. Meanwhile, DTG curve is a plot of the
rate of mass change, dM/dt versus temperature. It is used because sometimes the slope change
of TG curve is uncertain.

Fig. 2 TG and DTG curves of raw EFB sample.

According to TG and DTG curves in Fig. 2, the thermal degradation of raw EFB started
around 200C. Below this temperature, the insignificant weight loss represents the moisture
reduction [24]. After 200C, the weight loss starts promptly. The rate of degradation was
maximum between 225C and 350C. After the temperature reached 400C, no obvious
weight loss is observed. The devolatilization process of the sample was almost complete at
temperature 700C. Therefore, it can be summarized that the terminal temperature selected for
pyrolysis experiment should not be higher than 700C to obtain a reasonable high yield of
char.

3.2 Influence of Residence Time on Biochar Characteristics

3.2.1 Biochar Percentage Yield
Percentage of biochar yield was calculated using Eq. 1 and plotted as in the graphs in Fig. 3
below.

D
e
r
i
v
a
t
i
v
e

w
e
i
g
h
t

l
o
s
s
,

w
t
.

%
/
m
i
n

W
e
i
g
h
t
,

%

Temperature, C
TG
curve
DTG
curve
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186

Fig. 3 Graph of biochar percentage yield for various residence time.

From Fig. 3, it was observed that the 1.0 hour residence time produced the highest yield
percentage of EFB biochar. The yield percentage of biochar for the 1.0 hour residence time is
25.47 wt % and the yield percentage decreased to 24.32% when the residence time is increased
to 1.5 hours. The yield percentage further decreased to 23.99% for the 2.0 hours residence
time. It is apparent that the yield percentage again increased up to 24.74% for the 3.0 hour
residence time and decreased once again to 24.66% for 4.0 hour residence time. The pattern of
the graph as shown in Fig. 3 may repeat itself for longer residence times.

3.2.2 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Biochar
The results of the proximate and ultimate analyses are given in Table 2. The percentage
volatile content, ash content and fixed carbon content of the biochar fluctuate as the residence
time increased from 0.5 hours to 4.0 hours. The biochar with the highest fixed carbon content
is the one produced from the 1.0 hour residence time experiment.
As expected, the C content of biochar was concentrated and higher compared to its percentage
in the raw EFB. However, the percentage of C decreases with increasing residence time.
As compared to the raw EFB sample, the EFB biochar has a lower percentage of volatile
matter and a higher percentage of fixed carbon. The percentage of ash content in the EFB
biochar is also higher than the raw sample. It is due to the mineral matter which form ash
remains in the biochar after the pyrolysis process [25].

Table 2 Proximate and Ultimate analysis of EFB biochar.
Samples
Proximate Analysis , mf wt % Ultimate Analysis, mf wt %
Moistur
e
Volati
le
Ash
Fixed
Carbon
C H N S O
EFB Biochar
0.5 hours
6.00 8.64 19.41 71.95
69.0
3
0.94 7.07
<0.0
1
22.9
6
EFB Biochar
1.0 hour
5.15 7.20 19.86 72.94
67.0
9
2.02 6.83 0.16
23.9
0
EFB Biochar
1.5 hours
6.32 9.35 22.05 68.60
67.0
5
0.95 6.34
<0.0
1
25.6
6
EFB Biochar
2.0 hours
5.79 8.08 20.21 71.71
68.5
5
1.70 1.18 0.41
28.1
6
EFB Biochar
3.0 hours
6.12 8.94 21.29 69.77
66.3
8
0.70 7.88
<0.0
1
25.0
4
EFB Biochar
4.0 hours
5.78 8.90 22.37 68.73
63.8
8
0.89 7.18
<0.0
1
28.0
5

Y
i
e
l
d

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
,

w
t

%

Residence Time,hour
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3.2.3 SEM Study and BET analysis of EFB Biochar
Morphological structure of selected biochar produced from various residence times for the
slow pyrolyis experiment were observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and
examined by BET analysis. For SEM, the images were magnified 2500 times.
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 show the images of EFB biochar for the 1.0 hour and 4.0 hours residence
times respectively. It can be observed that the biochar morphological structures change as
residence times is extended. The images below show the surface of biochar produced from 1.0
hour residence time was found to be smooth compared to biochar produced from 4.0 hours
residence time. In Fig. 5, it can be observed the structure of biochar tend to appear clearer and
more pronounced. This might lead to the increment of surface area of biochar as represented in
Table 3.

Table 3 BET surface area of biochar.
Samples
BET surface area
(m
2
/g)
EFB Biochar 1.0
hour
0.1301
EFB Biochar 4.0
hours
0.6413

Fig. 4 EFB Biochar 1.0 hour. Fig. 5 EFB Biochar 4.0 hours.

4. CONCLUSION

The utilization of oil palm waste empty fruit bunches in slow pyrolysis process is suitable to
produce biochar since it is easily degraded. In this study, EFB biochar was produced from
various residence hour of slow pyrolysis experiment. The 1.0 hour residence time produces the
highest percentage yield of biochar (25.47 wt. %) with the highest fixed carbon value (72.94
mf wt %). The surface morphological changes of EFB biochar for two different residence
times was apparent in the SEM images. The BET surface area increased from 0.1301 m
2
/g for
the 1.0 hour residence time to 0.6413 m
2
/g for the 4.0 hours residence time. The surface area is
greater for longer residence time of slow pyrolysis process for the EFB. The application of
biochar with larger surface area into soil may increase the net soil surface area and lead to the
improvement of water retention and overall sorption capacity in the soils.

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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wished to acknowledge the USM Short Term Grant and Postgraduate Incentive
for the financial support. The researchers also wish to thank the management of MALPOM
Industry Sdn. Bhd., Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang for their cooperation in providing the EFB.

6. REFERENCES

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Lumpur.
[2] McKendry, P. (2002) Energy production from biomass (Part 1): Overview of biomass,
Bioresource Technology, 83(1), pp. 37-46.
[3] Zanzi, R., Sjstrmand, K. and Bjrnbom, E. (1996) Rapid high-temperature pyrolysis of
biomass in a free-fall reactor, Fuel, 75 (5), pp. 545-550.
[4] Bridgewater, A.V. (2003) Renewable fuels and chemicals by thermal processing of
biomass, Chemical Engineering Journal, 91(2-3), pp. 87-102.
[5] Malaysian Oil Palm Board (2012) World Major Producers of Palm Oil: 1999-2008.
Available at http://econ.mpob.gov.my/economy/annual/stat2008/ei_world08.htm
[6] The Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia (2012) World Palm Oil Production.
Available at
http://www.poram.org.my/v1/poram/statistic/3.%20World%20PalmOil%20Production.pd
f
[7] Malaysian Oil Palm Board (2012) Overview of the Malaysian Oil Palm Industry 2011.
Available at http://econ.mpob.gov.my/economy/Overview%202011_update.pdf
[8] Lua, A.C. and Guo, J. (1998) Preparation and characterisation of chars from oil palm
waste, Carbon, 36(11), pp. 16631670.
[9] Singh, R.P., Ibrahim M.H., Esa, N. and Iliyana, M.S. (2010) Composting of waste from
palm oil mill: a sustainable waste management practice, Reviews in Environmental
Science and Biotechnology, 9, pp. 331- 344.
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biological solid materials and agricultural wastes, Asian Journal on Energy and
Environment, 10(01), pp.19-27.
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torrefaction and pyrolysis conditions, BioResources, 6(4), pp. 4824-4839.
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palm oil waste pyrolysis in a packed bed, Energy & Fuels, 20, pp. 1321-1328.
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Lehmann and S. Joseph, eds., Earthscan, London-Washington DC.
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for Environmental Management-Science and Technology, J. Lehmann and S. Joseph, eds.,
Earthscan, London-Washington DC.
[15] Sohi, S., Lopez-Capel, E., Krull, E. and Bol R. (2009) Biochar, Climate Change and Soil:
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1-45.
[16] Woolf, D. (2008). Biochar as a Soil Amendment: A Review of the Environmental
Implications. Available at:
http://orgprints.org/13268/01/Biochar_as_a_soil_amendment_-_a_review.pdf
[17] FFTC (Food and Fertilizer Technology Center) (2007) Application of rice husk charcoal.
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of pyrolysed organic matter in soil amelioration, Proceedings of the 12
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International
Soil Conservation (ISCO) Conference, Beijing, China.
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Morris, S. (2007) Papermill char: Benefit to soil health and plant production, Proceedings
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Pyrolysis of Oil Palm Trunk (OPT), Proceedings of the 20
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samples obtained from carbonization of various biomass materials, Renewable Energy,
35, pp. 1319-1324.

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Dual-Axis Solar Tracking System

Lee Jhee Fhong, Nasrudin Abd Rahim
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre, University of Malaya, Jalan Pantai Bahru 50603 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603) 22463257, Fax: (603) 22463257, E-mail: wallacelee86@gmail.com

Abstract
The depletion of fossil energy and its environmental impacts has made the renewable energy
to become more essential in recent decades. Solar energy has been given substantial attention
as there are abundant of sunlight received by the earth surface throughout the year especially
in tropical countries. However, its high overhead cost is one of the drawbacks that hinder the
growth of solar. Extensive researches on increasing the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) system
are ongoing in order to boost its competitiveness amongst the available renewable energy
sources. Solar tracking system is one of the most direct approaches adopted to harvest more
solar energy compare to fixed-position system. Solar tracker will follow the position of Sun
over the course of the day from east to west in a daily basis. Hence, the PV panels able to
receive maximum sunlight and generate more energy. The dual-axis solar tracker proposed is
able to track the Sun on Azimuth and Tilt axis by using light sensors and timer incorporated
algorithm. The performance of dual-axis tracking system and fixed-position system are
compared and discussed qualitatively and quantitatively. Comparative results depicted that
performance and efficiency of solar system thrives by dual-axis tracking system.

Keywords: Dual-Axis Tracking, Renewable Energy, Solar Tracker, Solar Panel.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Energy depletion and solar energy
Fossil fuel played a major rule in the mankind development since industrial revolution. It was
coal that fired up the revolution since 1700s with the invention of steam engine and followed
by the discovery of petroleum and natural gas in 19
th
century that rapidly driving up the
development of the developed countries in modern world. As the ongoing of development
especially in the developing countries especially BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China), there
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would be no way that the energy consumption and demand of fossil energy would slow down
in the future. It was forecasted that global energy demand will continue the upward trend by
one-third from 2010 to 2035, with emerging economies as China and India accounting for half
of the growth [1]. Furthermore, 87% of current energy utilization is generated from fossil fuel
such as coal, oil and natural gas [2]. It would not be exaggerated to state that the world is over-
dependent on fossil fuel. The heavily reliance on fossil fuel has raised a serious question which
is how long the fossil fuel would last as it is non-renewable in nature. [3-4] has calculated that
the reserves of oil, coal and gas will last for around 40, 200 and 70 years respectively based on
the constant consumption rate on 2006. The actual period will be reduced with the increase of
consumption rate due to energy-hungry developing countries. Furthermore, the greenhouse
gases emission from the consumption of fossil fuels may even lead to catastrophe
consequences before the end of fossil age. Energy depletion is inevitably looming on the
horizon and alternative energy source must be found to prevent and alleviate this crisis. In
order to fulfill the increasing energy demand without compromise on the deteriorating
environment, the world has gradually looked for solution from green energy which also known
as renewable energy. Solar photovoltaic has the most promising future amongst the various
renewable energy sources due to its ability to directly convert solar energy to electrical energy
without moving parts or high geographic elevation as its counterparts [4-5]. Hence, it is one of
the most environmental benign of any electricity generating source.

1.2 Suns location, irradiance and composition
Earth revolves around the sun in its elliptical orbit throughout the year. Besides that, the earth
also rotates on its own polar axis in approximately a day. These 2 factors made the suns
location vary in a daily and seasonal basis. Figure 1 shows the Suns position relative to the
earth. The z (zenith) axis is an axis perpendicular to the surface of the earth. The location of
the sun relative to a particular site on surface of the earth is characterized by 3 parameters
which are Solar Altitude angle (), Solar Azimuth angle () and Solar Zenith angle (
z
). The
angle between the suns position and the horizontal plane of the solar panels installation site
on earth surface made up Solar Altitude angle (). Solar Azimuth angle () specifies the angle
between a vertical plane containing the solar disk and x (north) axis. Solar Zenith angle (
z
) is
an angle between the suns location and the z (zenith) axis. Both and
z
are complement to
each other and their relationship is as equation (1).

+
z
= 90 (1)

The , and
z
angles vary throughout the daylight period and in different seasons as the sun
rise on east and set on west as well as travel on longer sun path on summer and shorter sun
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path on winter. Hence, a dual-axis solar tracker orients the PV system to the suns position in
order to be perpendicular to the direct suns rays as , and
z
angles change.
The total solar radiation incident on a solar panel (G
G
) can be measured by using a
pyranometer mounting on the surface of the solar panel. G
G
is contributed by the combination
of direct beam radiation (G
B
) and diffuse radiation (G
D
). This is expressed by equation (2).

G
G
= G
B
+ G
D
(2)

Beam radiation (G
B
) is coming directly from the solar disk on a clear sky without obstruct by
the clouds while diffuse radiation (G
D
) is the radiation found in cloudy day with the direct
solar ray first scattered by molecules and particles on the clouds before reaching the solar
panels [6-8]. There is also a very meager amount of radiation reflected from the ground is
neglected here due to its insignificant contribution as compared to G
B
and G
D
. The Dual-axis
solar tracker proposed is to take advantage of the gain from the beam radiation in a bright and
sunny day as 85%-90% of the suns energy comes from G
B
while the other 10%-15% is made
up by the diffuse radiation from the sky, mostly scattered from atmospheric aerosols [9-10].
The improvement in solar energy harvested in tropical countries especially Malaysia would be
significant as it has a sunny weather on most of the days throughout the year.

1.3 Types of solar tracker and previous works
Solar tracking system is a combination of electronics and mechanical system for aligning the
Photovoltaic (PV) panels to the position of the sun. Thus, maximum solar radiations from the
sun will fall on the solar panels and leads to maximum electrical energy gained. Basically,
solar trackers can be categorized in to 3 types which are active tracker, passive tracker and
chronological tracker [11]. Electrical motors, light sensors and mechanical parts such as
bearing and gears together with an electronic controller are used to direct the active tracker
towards the suns position. A preset algorithm for tracking the sun would be programmed into
the controller beforehand. On the other hand, a passive tracker utilizes a low boiling point
compressed gas fluid that would be imbalance and tilt to the more sun-radiated side which
leads to the tracker to move accordingly. Chronological tracker tracks the sun by computing
the solar time (hour angle) which changes as the earth rotates around the sun and changes on a
preset interval.
There are prior designs which use different approaches on sun tracking mainly on dual-axis
solar tracking. Ozcelik [12] used the local solar declination angle and equation of time, E
time
to
calculate the instantaneous solar hour angle. Amir Abas [13] emphasized on the improvement
of mechanical design on the structure of solar tracker by using bearing and gear for axis
rotation and turning. Kassem [14] adopted a 3-sensor configuration to sense the sunlight
intensity and output signals will be sent to stepper motors to move the PV panels towards the
sun. Argeseanu [15] built a low cost solar tracking system by using an adaptive solar sensor
made by 8 photoresistors to form a Matrix Sun Sensor (MSS) to track the sun on 8 different
directions as compared to the conventional 4 directions.

2. SOLAR TRACKER PROTOTYPE

Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the proposed dual-axis solar tracker. The roles of the 5
major components of this dual-axis solar tracker will be explained in depth in this section. The
dual-axis solar tracker prototype on a field test is shown in Figure 2.

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Fig. 1 Block diagram for dual-axis solar tracker prototype

Fig. 2 Dual-axis solar tracker at field test. Fig. 3 Light Dependent Resistors
(LDRs) placement on PV panels.
2.1 Microcontroller
As indicated on the block diagram, a Microchip 18F4520 PIC microcontroller is playing an
imperative role in this prototype as it acts as the central processing unit that handle the input
signals from Light Dependent Resistors (LDR), position encoder and Real Time Clock (RTC),
making the arithmetic and logical operations. Subsequently, it would output corresponding
signal to the actuator, in this prototype which are 2 linear actuators to align the PV panels to
the incident sunlight. PIC microcontroller is chosen over other controllers due to its ease of
use, competitive cost and the well-integrated embedded modules for development in this
project. PIC C Compiler has been used to compile the tracking algorithm via C language and
programmed into the PIC microcontroller.

2.2 LDR Sensors
Light Dependence Resistor (LDR) is a photo resistor made of Cadmium Suphide (CdS). Its
resistance has an inversely proportional relationship with the light incident on its photo
detecting surface. 2 pairs of LDRs would be used for the sun-tracking purpose. The first pair
of LDR is placed on the Azimuth axis in order to track the suns movement from east to west
during the course of the day. On the other hand, the second pair is placed on the Tilt axis for
the change of altitude of sun in different season in a year. Each LDR will be connected to a
resistor in series and thus form a voltage divider network. The output voltage from the series
resistor will be proportional to the incident sunlight. This signal would be sent to the Analog to
Digital Converter (ADC) channel of microcontroller (C). The differential result of ADC

Encoder
-Azimuth
-Tilt
Actuator
-Azimuth
-Tilt
RTC
Microcontroller
LDR Sensor
- Azimuth (east, west)
-Tilt (south, north)

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voltage signals (ADC_Diff) as in equation (3) that lie on Azimuth and Tilt direction would be
compared to a tolerance value as in equation (4). If the result exceeds the tolerance, the
microcontroller will give output signal to linear actuator to rotate the solar panel to the
Optimum Position (AZ
opt
for Azimuth axis and TI
opt
for Tilt axis) for the direct sun ray.
Actuator for Azimuth axis (Actuator
AZ
) would drive the solar tracker towards AZ
opt
and the
ADC_Diff
AZ
would reduce at the same time. The tracking of east-west axis will stop only after
the differential ADC_Diff
AZ
lie within the tolerance value. The tracking method of Tilt axis
would be identical to the Azimuth axis tracking. As soon as the solar tracker is aligned to the
suns position, the microcontroller will go into idle mode and wait for the signal from RTC in
the next 5 minutes for another tracking session. Thus, the solar tracker can reduce the energy
consumption. The flowchart of the tracking mechanism is shown in Figure 4.

ADC_Diff = V
ADC1
V
ADC2
(3)

ADC_Diff < Tolerance, tracking done (4)

As shown in Figure 3, the 4 LDRs are placed on 4 different directions and shielded from each
other by 2 pieces of 10cm tall Perspex sheet in black color. The Perspex sheet has a function to
cast a shadow on either side of the 2 pairs of LDRs which will results in imbalance resistance
of the LDRs pairs as the incident solar ray does not strike perpendicular to the LDRs and also
the PV panels. The tracking would be initialized under this situation until the PV panels align
with the sun.

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Fig. 4 Flowchart of the tracking mechanism

2.3 Linear Actuators
The linear actuators are 24v 60W dc motors which are doing the tracking job upon the signal
from the microcontroller. Linear actuators are favored over stepper motor, and dc brushless
motor in this prototype due to its high holding torque and robustness. Besides that, neither
chain nor sprocket is needed in addition to the motor. The 2 actuators are responsible to rotate
the solar tracker on Azimuth and Tilt axis, respectively. The Azimuth axis actuator has a
tracking range of 140 while the Tilt axis actuator can track on a range of 60. Both of the
tracking ranges are fair enough for the tracker to track from sunrise to sunset and throughout
the different seasons in a year.

2.4 RTC and Encoders
Real-Time Clock (RTC) is a very precise clock module that keeps track of the time just as the
watches and clocks. It has 2 functions on the solar tracker. The first function is to keep track of
the interval between consecutive tracking sessions so that the solar tracker can track the sun on
a predefined the interval in a precise way. In this prototype, 5 minutes interval is set between 2
consecutive tracking. However, this interval can be changed with a tweak of program on the
microcontroller. RTC is preferred over delay function in microcontroller due to its higher
accuracy and it does not block microcontroller from doing other tasks as the delay function.
The second purpose of RTC is to work together with the position encoder to bring the solar
tracker back to the origin position for the following day tracking at a specific time at night. In
addition, an alarm can be set via the RTC to wake the microcontroller up to initialize the
tracking session at the following day sunrise.

Stop for 5 mins
Stop
ActuatorTi move tracker towards TIopt
Yes
No
Yes
Start
Capture LDR pairs intensity & send to ADC channels
ADCAzDiff >
tolerance
ActuatorAzi move tracker towards AZopt
ADCTiDiff >
tolerance
C compute ADC_Diff of AZ & TI
No
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3. DATA ACQUISITION

Solar Irradiance measurements are the most important parameter to evaluate the performance
the dual-axis solar tracker and static system on this experimental setup. In order to improve the
accuracy of the results, a silicon-photodiode pyranometer sensor (LI-200SL) is placed on the
solar panels of the solar tracker and static system respectively. These pyranometer sensors are
manufactured by Li-COR Biosciences (Lincoln, NE). There were calibrated by the
manufacturer and were inter-compared with each other on the field. Hence, each of the Li-
COR sensors has a certificate constant which needs to be taken into calculation for computing
the solar irradiance. The accuracy of the irradiance data from the Li-COR sensors was
estimated by the manufacturer to be 5%, with up to 80 of angle of incidence of sunlight on
the sensor. The spectral response of the sensor is from 400nm to 1100nm which is sufficient
for the natural daylight conditions. The output of the sensor is in microamp (A) which is too
small for a data logger to log the data. Hence, a Transconductance Amplifier is used to
amplify and convert the sensor output into a voltage output between 0-2.5V. The data logger
would log the solar irradiance into its memory on an interval of 1 minute. At the end of a day,
the data logged in the data logger would be extracted and export to MS Excel for graph
plotting.


The dual-axis solar tracking system and a static 15 tilted south-facing solar system are put
into field to obtain the experimental results. The solar irradiance measurements for the both
system are acquired by using the pyranometer sensor, Transconductance Amplifier and data
logger mentioned in previous part. Figure 5 and 6 shows the solar irradiance level of the dual-
axis solar tracking system and a static system in a sunny day and cloudy day on the same
graph respectively. The graphs are being normalized to discard the fluctuations due to the
cloud cover. The fluctuations are typical in geographical location as in Malaysia as it reflects
the tropical climate of Malaysia being a maritime country close to the equator. The cumulative
irradiation of the Dual-axis solar tracking system recorded 7.106kWatt/m
2
while the static
system recorded 4.889kWatt/m
2
.The difference of the area between solar irradiance levels of
both systems are the gain of solar irradiation captured by using solar tracker over static
system. There is a difference of 2.217kW/m
2
of solar irradiation which equivalent to 45% of
extra solar irradiation gained by using solar tracker as compared to static system. Dual-axis
solar tracking system is able to capture 45% of solar energy in excess of a static system due to
its ability to follow the suns position throughout a day. The dominant Beam Radiation in a
sunny day is absorbed by the solar tracker as it follows the suns position. The output energy
captured by a static system trails behind the dual-axis solar tracking system because its
exposure time to direct sunlight is limited by its static position. However, the advantage of
dual-axis solar tracking system diminishes during a cloudy day as shown in Figure 2. The
extra irradiation gained by the solar tracker is very marginal both the systems are receiving
close to identical diffuse radiation as the direct sunlight is being covered by the clouds. Dual-
axis solar tracker captured 2.561kW/m
2
while static solar system captured 2.467kW/m
2
and the
gain is merely 3.8% of solar energy on top of static system.

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Fig. 5 Solar Irradiance level of dual-axis tracker and static system in a sunny day.

Fig. 6 Solar Irradiance level of dual-axis tracker and static system in a cloudy day.

5 days of data for both systems in sunny days and cloudy days are presented on figure 7 and 8
respectively. A comparison of the ratio of daily irradiation for the dual-axis solar tracking
system to a static system for 5 days in sunny days and cloudy days are shown in Table 1. For
the given 5 days, the ratio of the dual-axis solar tracker to a static system varied from 1.19 to
1.45, with a mean over 1.32. On the other hand, in a cloudy or rainy day, both systems have
similarly low irradiation captured. The ratio of the solar tracker to static system recorded a
minimum 1.02, maximum 1.08 with a mean on 1.04. It justifies that both the systems are
receiving almost equal amount of diffuse radiation from the sun when beam radiation or direct
sunlight is absent. Clearly, the dual-axis solar tracker provides a remarkable increase in the
solar irradiation captured for a given PV system area over a static system in a sunny day
although the advantage diminishes in cloudy day. However, in tropical and equator countries
as Malaysia, dual-axis solar tracker is a feasible approach to increase the solar energy captured
as it is rare that it has consecutive cloudy days in a row.

Fig. 7 5 days Irradiation data for tracking system and static system in sunny days.

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Fig. 8 5 days Irradiation data for tracking system and static system in cloudy days.

Table 1 Comparison of the ratio of irradiation for the dual-axis solar tracking system to a
static system in 5 days

5. CONCLUSION

This paper has presented a solution to increase the energy output of solar-energy harvesting
system by using a dual-axis solar tracking system. With the PIC microcontroller and LDR
sensors, it would be able to follow the suns path in a day and thus have the maximum incident
sunlight fall on the solar panels. By doing so, it is able to absorb greater amount of the major
component of sunlight which is Beam Radiation from the sunlight as compared to a static
system. As a result, an increase of as high as 45% solar irradiation can be captured over the
static solar system in a sunny day. The solar tracker does not have large energy gain as
compared to static system in a cloudy day. But as the climate in tropical countries as in
Malaysia is sunny most of the days throughout the year, dual-axis solar tracker is still a
feasible approach to increase the solar energy captured without enlarge the solar system. This
solar tracking system would have vast potential as the gain of solar energy can reduce the
initial overhead cost of a solar system substantially.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This project was funded by the Postgraduate Research Fund of University of Malaya and
additional technical and financial assistance of UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre
(UMPEDAC).

7. REFERENCES

[1] IEA, 2011. World Energy Outlook 2011, Canberra.
http://www.ret.gov.au/energy/Documents/facts-stats-pubs/12DecCanberraWEO2011.pdf.
[2] BP, 2012. BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2012.
http://www.bp.com/assets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publicat
ions/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_review_of_wo
rld_energy_full_report_2012.pdf
[3] Shafiee, S. and Topal, E. (2009) When will fossil fuel reserves be diminished?, Energy
Policy, 37(1), pp. 181-189.
Tracked/Static
Sunny Cloudy
Minimum 1.32 1.04
Maximum 1.19 1.02
Average/Mean 1.45 1.08
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[4] Joseph Iwaro, A. M. (2010) Towards energy sustainability in the world: the implications
of energy subsidy for developing countries, International Journal of Energy and
Environment, 1(4), pp. 705-714.
[5] Khan, M.T.A., Tanzil, S.M.S., et al. (2010). Design and construction of an automatic solar
tracking system. Electrical and Computer Engineering (ICECE), 2010 International
Conference on.
[6] Iqbal, M. (1983) An Introduction to Solar Radiation. Academic Press.
[7] Lorenzo, E. (2003) Energy collected and delivered by PV modules. In: Luque, A.,
Hegedus, S. (Eds.) Handbook of Photovoltaic Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., pp.
905907 (Chapter 20).
[8] Duffie, J.A. and Beckman, W.A. (2006) Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, third ed.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[9] Stine, W.B. and Geyer, M., Power from the Sun.
http://www.powerfromthesun.net/book.htm.
[10] Myers, D.R. (2005) Solar radiation and measurements for renewable energy applications;
data and model quality, Energy, 30, pp.15171531.
[11] Hwang, L. H., S.K. Na, et al. (2007) A development of the solar position tracker on the
program method for the small typed stand-alone PV system. Power Electronics, 2007.
ICPE '07. 7th Internatonal Conference on.
[12] Ozcelik, S., Prakash, H., et al. (2011) Two-Axis Solar Tracker Analysis and Control for
Maximum Power Generation, Procedia Computer Science, 6(0) pp. 457-462.
[13] Abas, M.A., Hilmi Fadzil M.S., et al. (2010) Improved Structure of Solar Tracker with
Microcontroller Based Control, Advances in Computing, Control and Telecommunication
Technologies (ACT), 2010 Second International Conference on.
[14] Kassem, A. and Hamad, M. (2011). A microcontroller-based multi-function solar tracking
system. Systems Conference (SysCon), 2011 IEEE International.
[15] Argeseanu, A. and Ritchie, E., et al. (2010). New low cost structure for dual axis mount
solar tracking system using adaptive solar sensor. Optimization of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (OPTIM), 2010 12th International Conference on.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
P&O Fuzzy Logic Control Approach for Standalone Photovoltaic System

Ahmad H. El Khateb*, Nasrudin Abd Rahim, and Jeyraj Selvaraj
UM Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, University of Malaya,
59990 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (601) 26652270, E-mail: akhateb84@hotmail.com

Abstract
The theme of this paper is a new fuzzy logic controller as a maximum power point tracker
mimicking perturbation and observation (P&O) tracking method. The new controller improves
P&O search method by rules fuzzifying and eliminates its drawbacks. An accurate and fast
converging to maximum power point is offered by fuzzy logic tracker during both steady-state
and varying weather conditions compared to conventional maximum power point tracking
methods. The performance of the proposed maximum power point tracker is demonstrated in
both simulation and experiment at different operating conditions.

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Potential use of Peat in Brunei Darussalam for Fuel Purpose: An Alternative,
Sustainable and Eco-friendly Energy Source and as Low Cost Biosorbent for
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Disposal of Toxic Waste

Tasneem Zehra
1
, Cheing Hei Ing
1,
Linda B. Lim
1
, DTB Tennakoon
1
, Namal Priyantha
2

1
Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link,
Gadong, BE 1410, Negara Brunei Darussalam
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail: if_tz@hotmail.com

Abstract
Peat has been used as a fuel in many countries such as Ireland, England, the Netherlands,
Germany, Sweden, Poland, Finland and the USSR. Brunei is blessed with a large supply of
peat. About 18% of the land area in Brunei consists of peat lands. Hence peat is a possible
future source of energy for Brunei. Energy contents of peat could be expressed as its calorific
value. Peat samples were collected from 3 different locations in Brunei Darussalam. Calorific
values of the peat samples were determined using bomb calorimeter. Results indicate that the
peat in Brunei Darussalam is of good quality and could be used as a resource for energy
purposes. Other than that, peat could be used as an adsorbent for the removal of toxic
materials such as heavy metals and dyes from waste water. Studies show that peat is a low cost
biosorbent and it does not require much energy for the process. Such studies would be
important and beneficial as peat in Brunei Darussalam could be used as an alternative energy
source giving a long-term assured supply of environmentally favorable quality fuel.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Impact of Heating Rate on Biochar Yield and Characteristics via Slow Pyrolysis
of Tapioca Stem

Adilah Shariff
*
, Nurhidayah Mohamed Noor and Nurhayati Abdullah
School of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: +604-6533049, Fax: +604-65179150, E-mail: adilah08@gmail.com

Abstract
Biochar is a porous and carbon-rich product that can be produced from slow pyrolysis process.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of heating rate on the biochar yield and its
characteristics. The proximate, ultimate and thermogravimetric analyses were carried out on
the tapioca stem (TS) to identify their properties as the sample of feedstock. Slow pyrolysis of
TS was conducted in a lab-scale pyrolyzer at the heating rate in the range of 5C/min to
25C/min. The biochar was characterized through the proximate analysis, Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) and Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) method. TS is an environmental
friendly sample and very suitable to be converted via thermochemical conversion process. It
contained low sulphur and nitrogen but high volatile matter. As the heating rate was increased
from 5C/min to 25C/min, the biochar yield was relatively maintained at 35 wt. %, while the
fixed carbon content increased by 2.74%; from 78.39 mf wt. % to 80.54 mf wt. %. SEM
images apparently showed that the biochar made at 25C/min is more porous and had a higher
BET surface area of 10.58 m
2
/g compared to biochar produced at 5C/min with a lower BET
surface area of 0.83 m
2
/g. The heating rate parameter had shown no significant effect on the
biochar yield but it significantly affected its chemical and physical characteristics.

Keywords: Biomass, tapioca stem, biochar, pyrolysis, carbon.

1. INTRODUCTION

Tapioca (Manihot esculenta) also known as cassava is the third largest source of carbohydrates
for human consumption in the world with an estimated annual world production of 208 million
tonnes [1]. According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
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tapioca is the third most important source of calories in the tropics, after rice and maize. FAO
had estimated that 229 million tonnes of tapioca was produced worldwide in 2010. The soils
used for the planting are usually low in fertility and there is a frequent need to apply fertilizers
and organic manures. In Malaysia, the process of planting and harvesting the tapioca occur all
year around. The harvests is about 400,000 tonnes of tapioca per year from an area about
39,000 hectares [2]. Mainly, Malaysia planted tapioca for starch extraction, particularly for
making monosodium glutamate (using about 3,000 tonnes of starch per month) [3]. The
abundant of tapioca residues such as the stem which is not edible for human was kept aside.
The land fill of organic wastes including the tapioca wastes will results in the release of
significant quantities of methane which is one of the greenhouse gas. The tapioca wastes could
be directly used for energy production by direct combustion, but in this study, we are using the
greener biomass conversion process which is the pyrolysis process.
Pyrolysis is currently being developed mainly with the goal to maximize the quantity and
quality of the energy carrier such as bio-oil, but optimization of biochar properties has not
been the focus of research. For example, studies on fast pyrolysis of tapioca residues were
carried out in a fluidized-bed reactor to produce and characterize the bio-oil but not the
biochar product. In fast pyrolysis process, biomass is rapidly heated (high heating rate) to
transforming the solid biomass mainly into bio-oil [4]. Slow pyrolysis involves a process
where the feedstock is heated slowly (>300
o
C) with restricted air flow. It will generate the
biochar as the main product while liquid and gaseous as the other products [5]. The properties
of the products are varied by pyrolysis parameter and choice of raw sample [6]. Heating rates
is one of the pyrolysis parameters that affect the yield and characteristics of the pyrolysis
products [7]. Therefore, the present study aim at understanding the influence of heating rate
parameter on the biochar yield and characteristics upon slow pyrolysis of tapioca stem (TS).
The range of studied heating rate is from 5/min to 25C/min.
According to open literature, there is not much research work on the production and
characterization of biochar from tapioca wastes. Understanding the basic properties of biochar
would be beneficial for identifying their appropriate applications and for upgrading them.
Biochar is the highly porous and carbon-rich product that can increase the capacity to hold
nutrients and also more stable than most fertilizer and other soil organic matter (SOM) [3]. As
a soil application, it is important for a biochar to have large surface area per gram to reduce
from erosion [8]. Evidence suggests that components of the carbon (C) in biochar are highly
recalcitrant in soils, with reported residence times for wood biochar being in the range of
1001,000 of years, i.e. approximately 101,000 times longer than residence times of most
SOM. The global flux of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) from soils to the atmosphere is mainly from the
microbial respiration within the soil system as the microbes decompose SOM. Since the
components of biochar are considerably more recalcitrant than SOM and decomposed very
slowly, biochar allows C input into soil to be increased greatly compared to the C output
through soil microbial respiration. This is the basis behind biochars possible C negativity [9].
This characteristic makes the biochar as a potential tool to slow the global warming.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Characterization of biomass samples
The stem of the tapioca tree were obtained from the tapioca plantation in Penang, Malaysia.
TS samples of 1.52 cm diameter were cut into pellets size about 34 cm length and undergo
pre-drying treatment. The pre-drying was conducted in the conventional oven at temperature
of 105C and continued until their weight remained constant. This step is important to give off
non-flammable component such as CO
2
and water, for more efficient heating process later.
Characterization studies on biomass samples are important to express suitability of feedstocks
for thermochemical conversion. High volatile matter content of biomass with low ash and
sulphur content is the main criterion for pyrolysis conversion process [10]. Hence, the
proximate analysis was performed on the TS samples according to ASTM International
standard test method E1756-01, E872-82 and E1755-01 to determine the moisture, volatile and
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ash content respectively meanwhile the fixed carbon content was calculated using Eq. (1).
Perkin Elmer 2400 elemental analyzer was used to determine their carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
and sulphur content. The oxygen contents were calculated according to Eq. (2). Results from
both proximate and elemental analysis were presented in weight percentage on moisture free
basis (mf wt. %).

Fixed carbon = 100 [Volatile matter + Ash content] (1)
Oxygen = 100 [Carbon + Hydrogen + Nitrogen + Sulphur] (2)

The commercial Parr adiabatic bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calorific value of
the TS samples whereas to see their degradation temperatures, we have performed the
thermogravimetrical analysis (TGA) using Perkin Elmer thermogravimetric analyzer model
TGA 7.

2.2 Experimental
The experiments were carried out in the lab-scale slow pyrolysis system as illustrated in Fig. 1.
The pyrolyzer (stainless steel tube) was heated externally by an electrical furnace (Thermolyne
F62700). During the pyrolysis process, the emissions of product from the pyrolyzer were led
out through an exit pipe to the first water-cooled condenser that attached to the first ice-cooled
spherical flask, then further condensed in second water-cooled condenser with second ice-
cooled spherical flask. The incondensable gases were then allowed to escape out via the fume
cupboard.

Fig. 1 The schematic of experimental setup.

The experiment was conducted at a fixed temperature of 400C which is the optimum
temperature for biochar yield from previous study [11] and heating rates of 5, 10, 15, 20 and
25C/min. Once the experiment reach the terminal temperature, it was maintained for an hour,
until no further significant release of gas was observed. A 100g of sample was used for each
run.
The quantity of biochar produced was determined by weighing the pyrolyzer after each
pyrolysis run. The biochar product were kept neat within the sealed plastic container and
placed inside the dessicator. For each varied heating rates, the average biochar yields from
three pyrolysis runs were presented. Biochar yield was calculated using Eq. (3) and expressed
in mf wt. %. Biochar produced in each experiment was characterized and neither the liquid nor
the gas product was examined any further in this study.

Weight of biochar produced (g)
Weight of moisture free sample (g)

X 100 (3) Biochar yield =
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2.3 Biochar characterization
The suitable test method was chosen in order to characterize the biochar. The information
from the proximate analysis of biochar is appropriate to evaluate the general stability of
biochar in the soils [12]. The analysis was performed by using ASTM D1762-84 [13]. The
surface morphologies of selected biochar were observed using JEOL scanning electron
microscope (SEM) model JSM-6460 LV.
Based on Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) theory, the surface area of the biochar produced
was determined by the physical adsorption of gas (adsorbate molecules) on the biochar
(adsorbent surface). The number of molecules required to cover the adsorbent surface with a
monolayer of adsorbed molecules (N
m
) can be estimated by BET theory. Multiplying N
m
by
the cross-sectional area of an adsorbate molecule yields the sample's surface area [14]. The
surface area analysis was completed using the Micromeritics Accelerated Surface Area and
Porosimetry System model ASAP 2020 and the adsorbate used is the nitrogen gas.


3.1 Characteristics of tapioca stem
The analysis results of TS sample is presented in Table 1. TS sample contain high volatile
matter and fairly high calorific value (18.39 MJ/kg) compared to the other biomass such as
empty fruit bunches (17.08 MJ/kg) and straw-stalk of rapeseed plant (17.64 MJ/kg) [15,16]. It
suggested that TS sample is suitable to undergo the thermochemical biomass conversion
process such as pyrolysis. From the result of the ultimate analysis, both nitrogen and sulphur
content in TS sample is quite low (<1 mf wt. %). This indicated that TS is environmental
friendly, since if it was burnt as the sample for biochar production, it only will give off low
rates of nitrogen oxide and sulphur oxide.

Table 1 Characteristics of the TS samples.
Characteristics Values
Proximate analysis,
a
(wt. %)
Moisture 2.08
Volatiles 81.51
Ash 2.42
Fixed Carbon 16.07
Ultimate analysis,
a
(wt. %)
Carbon, C 44.47
Hydrogen, H 5.82
Nitrogen, N < 0.01
Sulphur, S 0.83
Oxygen, O 48.88
Molecular formula CH1.56 O0.83
Calorific value, (MJ/kg) 18.39
a
Weight percentage on moisture free basis.

TGA determine the changes in the weight of sample in relation to a range of temperature. We
had transform the weight loss curve obtained from TGA into the derivative weight loss curve
as displayed in Fig. 2 in order to identify more clearly the point where the weight loss is most
occurring. The graph shows that the weight loss of TS sample is more apparent between the
temperature range of 240C380C and is maximum is at 340C. So, for the pyrolysis of TS
sample, it is appropriate to choose 400C as the terminal temperature because we confirmed
that at this temperature the weight loss of TS is more stable and the sample will completely
transformed into biochar product.
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Fig. 2 The thermogravimetric analysis of TS sample.

3.2 Influence of the heating rate on biochar yield
The biochar yield for the TS samples that were heated between 5C/min and 25C/min for a
residence time of one hour is shown in Fig. 3. The various heating rate tend to give not much
significant changes in the weight percentage of biochar yield. The percentage biochar yield
was rather maintained in the range of 35 wt. % 36 wt. %. The overall picture of the graph
pattern showed that higher heating rate produced lower amounts of biochar. As the heating
rate was elevated from 5C/min to 25C/min, the percentage of biochar yield was slightly
decreased from 35.86% to 35.43%. A similar trend was also observed in the literature on the
pyrolysis of other lignocellulosic biomass [7,10,17].
For the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, their cellulose decomposition includes an
exothermic pathway via anhydrocellulose that yields the biochar [18]. Anhydrocellulose is the
term used for more stable cellulose. During the rapid heating or high heating rate, the
dehydration of sample to become anhydrocellulose is limited and slow [19]. Consequently,
smaller amounts of biochar are produced at higher heating rate.

Fig. 3 Effect of heating rate on TS biochar yield.

T
h
e
r
m
o
g
r
a
v
i
m
e
t
r
y
,

T
G
A

(
w
t
.
%
)

Temperature (C)
TGA
DTG
Y
i
e
l
d

o
f

b
i
o
c
h
a
r
,

w
t
.

%

Heating rate, C/min
5
E
n
c
o
d
e
r

-
A
z
i
m
u
t
h

-
T
i
l
t

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204

3.2 Influence of the heating rate on the chemical characteristics of the biochar
Fig. 4 presents the compositions of biochar produced from five different heating rates. There
was not much dependence on heating rate that was observed for the moisture and ash content
of TS biochar. More significant effect was seen for the volatile and fixed carbon content. The
main constituent of biochar produced at any studied heating rate is the fixed carbon. As the
heating rate was raised from 5C/min to 25C/min, the fixed carbon content of TS biochar had
slightly increased by 2.74% (from 78.39 mf wt. % to 80.54 mf wt. %).
Higher heating rate will enhance the release of volatiles because rapid heating leads to a fast
depolymerization of the sample to primary volatiles [10]. This has resulted to the decreased of
the remaining volatiles matter in the biochar product by 14.00%, as the heating rate was
increased from 5 to 25C/min.

Fig. 4 Compositions of TS biochar at different heating rates.

3.2 Influence of the heating rate on the physical characteristics of the biochar
SEM backscattered electron images of cross-section from two different TS biochar are
presented in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 at a magnification of 500 times. Both images showed a relatively
equal hexagonal shape cell structure. However, the shape of the cell structure of TS biochar in
Fig. 6 had changed to almost circular shape because of the rapid heating process. The
deformation of cell structure at higher heating rate biomass biochar can be assigned to the
melting of the cell structure [20].
The porosity is an important physical feature of a biochar to expect positive behavior in soil
processes [21]. Biochar with higher porosity can increased the water and nutrient holding
potential. High water retention in biochar may inhabit some soil organisms such as nematodes
and protozoa which require the presence of water for mobility as well as to function [9]. When
we compared the pore development in image of Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, we can clearly observed that
TS biochar produced at heating rate of 25C/min is more porous than the biochar produced at
5C/min. Higher heating rate resulted in melting of the char particles and the creation of
smoother surfaces and spherical cavities or pores [20]. It is believed that this is associated with
the rapid depolimerization of the samples chemical structure, caused by the high kinetic
energy during the pyrolysis at high heating rate [10]. This result also tends to emphasize the
fact that the removal of volatile matter at higher heating rate led to the development of the
biochar porosity [16].

C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

o
f

b
i
o
c
h
a
r
,

m
f

w
t
.

%

Heating rates, C/min
moisture
volatiles
ash
fixed carbon
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Fig. 5 TS biochar prepared at heating rate of 5C/min

Fig. 6 TS biochar prepared at heating rate of 25C/min.

Biochar with high surface area is more able to capture any particulates that may pass through
the biochar fertilized soil. Therefore, the longevity is increased and C capture can take place
over a longer period of time [8]. Surface area can vary widely depending upon the particles
size, shape and porosity. The influence of pores can overwhelm the size and external shape
factors where surface area will be increased if more porosity was generated [14]. The result
from BET analysis in Table 2 shows that higher heating rate increased the surface area of
biochar. The BET surface area of biochar produced at 25C/min was nearly 13 times larger
than the surface area of TS biochar produced at 5C/min. It is due to the rapid pore
development at higher heating rate as can be seen from the previous SEM results in Fig. 5 and
Fig. 6.

Table 2 BET surface area of TS biochar produced at different heating rates.
Pyrolysis heating rates (C/min) Surface area
(m
2
/g)
5.0 0.83
15.0 0.97
25.0 10.58

4. CONCLUSION

In this study, as the heating rate was increased from 5C/min to 25C/min, the biochar yield
was relatively maintained at 35 mf wt. %, while the fixed carbon content increased by 2.74%;
from 78.39 mf wt. % to 80.54 mf wt. %. The fixed carbon content in the biochar was much
higher (78.39 mf wt. % 80.54 mf wt. %) compared to their raw feedstocks (16.07 mf wt. %).
The BET surface area of biochar produced at 5C/min and 25C/min is 0.83 m
2
/g and 10.58
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m
2
/g respectively. Therefore, it is apparent that the heating rate has a more pronounced effect
on the chemical and physical characteristics of the biochar.

5. ACKONOWLEDGEMENT

The financial support from Universiti Sains Malaysia (under short term research grant
304/PFIZIK/6311063) is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also would like to thank
Madam Zaiton Mohamed, the owner of tapioca plantation at Penang, Malaysia, who kindly
supplied the tapioca wastes for this research.

6. REFERENCES

[1]. Kuiper, A. L., Ekmekci, B., Hamelinck, C., Hettinga, W., Meyer, S. and Koop, K.
(2007) Bio-ethanol from tapioca, Ecofys Netherlands B.V., pp. 1-3.
[2]. Onwueme, I.C. (2002) Cassava in Asia and the Pacific. In: Cassava: Biology,
Production and Utilization, CAB International, R.J. Hillocks, J.M. Thresh and A.C.
Bellotti (eds.), pp. 55-65.
[3]. Tan, S.L. and Khatijah, I. (2000) Present situation and future potential of cassava in
Malaysia, Proceedings of the 6th Regional Workshop on Cassavas Potential in Asia
in the 21st Century, pp. 102-109.
[4]. Pattiya, A. (2010) Bio-oil production via fast pyrolysis of biomass residues from
tapioca plants in a fluidized-bed reactor, Bioresource Technology, 102, pp. 1959-1967.
[5]. Wereko-Brobby, C.Y. and Hagan, E.B. (1996) Biomass Conversion and Technology,
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[6]. Kwapinski, W., Byrne, C.M.P., Kryachko, E., Wolfram, P., Adley, C., Leahy, J.J.,
Novotny, E.H. and Hayes, M.H.B. (2010) Biochar from biomass and waste, Waste
Biomass Valor, 1, pp. 177-189.
[7]. Williams, P.T. and Besler, S. (1996) The influence of temperature and heating rate on
the slow pyrolysis of biomass, Renewable Energy, 7(3), pp. 233-250.
[8]. Stoyle, A. (2011) Biochar Production for Carbon Sequestration, B. Sc. thesis, Faculty
of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, United States.
[9]. Verheijen, F., Jeffery, S., Bastos, A.C., van der Velde, M. and Diafas, I. (2010)
Biochar application to soils - A critical scientific review of effects on soil properties,
processes and functions, EUR 24099 EN, Office for the Official Publications of the
European Communities, Luxembourg.
[10]. Gheorghe, C.B., Marculescu, C., Badea, A. and Apostol, T. (2010) Pyrolysis
parameters influencing the bio-char generation from wooden biomass, U.P.B. Sci.
Bull., 72(1), pp. 30-38.
[11]. Nurhidayah, M.N., Adilah, S. and Nurhayati, A. (2012) The influence of temperature
and heating rate on biochar production via slow pyrolysis of tapioca wastes,
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Environmental Research and
Technology, pp. 388-392.
[12]. Joseph, S., Peacocke, C., Lehmann, J. and Munroe, P. (2009) Developing a biochar
classification and test methods. In: Biochar for Environmental Management: Science
and Technology, Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph (eds.), First Edition,
Earthscan, UK and USA.
[13]. McLaughlin, H. (2010) Characterizing biochars prior to addition to soils. Alterna
Biocarbon Inc, (1).
[14]. Lowell, S., Shields, J.E., Thomas, M.A. and Thommes, M. (2004) Characterization of
porous solids and powders: Surface area, pore size and density, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
[15]. Sukiran, M.A., Loh, S.K., Nasrin, A.B. and Choo, Y.M. (2011) Production and
characterization of bio-char from the pyrolysis of empty fruit bunches, American
Journal of Applied Sciences, 8(10), pp. 984-988.
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[16]. Karaosmanolu, F., Igr-Ergdenler, A. and Sever, A. (2000) Biochar from the
straw-stalk of rapeseed plant, Energy & Fuel, 14, pp. 336-339.
[17]. Beis, S.H., Onay, O. and Kockar, O.M. (2002) Fixed-bed pyrolysis of safflower seed:
Influence of pyrolysis parameters on product yields and compositions, Renewable
Energy Journal, 26 (1), pp. 21-32.
[18]. Brown, R. (2009) Biochar production technology. In: Biochar for Environmental
Management: Science and Technology, Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph (eds.),
First Edition, Earthscan, UK and USA.
[19]. Chen, G.X., Yu, Q.Z. and Sjstrm, K. (1997) Reactivity of char from pyrolysis of
birch wood, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 40-41, pp. 491-499.
[20]. Cetin, E., Moghtaderi, B., Gupta, R. and Wall, T.F. (2004) Influence of pyrolysis
conditions on the structure and gasification reactivity of biomass chars, Fuel, 83, pp.
2139-2150.
[21]. Downie, A., Crosky, A. and Munroe, P. (2009) Physical properties of biochar. In:
Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, Johannes Lehmann
and Stephen Joseph (eds.), First Edition, Earthscan, UK and USA.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Image Analysis of Nile Red Fluorescence of Neutral Lipid in Micro Algae as a
Rapid Screening Technique for Biodeisel Production Potential

Tarip Noelda Iryani
1
, Bandara JMRS
1
, Silva, LCD
2
and Ekanayaka,P
2
.
1
Biology Programme., Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam,
2
Physics Programme Faculty of Science Universiti Brunei Darussalam,
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail: noelda.iryani@gmail.com

Abstract
The increase in demand and depletion of fossil fuel resources and continued environmental
pollution have force the world to look for an alternative energy that are renewable and
sustainable. The field of algal biofuel has drawn great interest to many as an alternative. In this
study, the microalgae species was Chaeteceros muellerii obtained from Brunei Aquaculture
research centre. The optimal growth conditions for Chaeteceros muellerii were studied using
a laboratory bioreactor. The set up was back lit with cooled fluorescent lights in room
temperature of 25-27 C and exposed to 12 / 12 hours of light and dark. Medium with depleted
sodium silicate at pH 8.2 showed optimal growth estimated by OD measurement. Chaeteceros
muellerii cells were stained by suspending in a solution of Nile red in DMSO for 10 minutes at
40 C in water bath kept in the dark. The images were observed under fluorescence
microscope and RGB colour images were recorded for colour calibration and measurement.
Using the recorded images, the percentage areas of lipid globules in the cells were estimated.
A correlation between the percentage area of lipid globules and the amount of lipid extracted
is established. The tropical environment of Brunei provides an immense prospect to endeavor
into biofuels from microalgae as Brunei experiences a stable state of 12 hours day and night
throughout the year. In addition, this will provide a huge opportunity to remedy the rapid
changes to the world climate as 1 kg of dry algal biomass fix about 1.83 kg of CO
2.
The
crucial challenges that remain are finding the effective and rapid isolation of microalgae
strains that have high intrinsic lipid content and biomass yield. The use of Nile red which is a
fluorescence dye has been documented as a simple, rapid and sensitive measurement of lipid
content in microalgae. Incorporating image analysis, facilitate rapid quantitative assessment of
neutral lipid production facilitating screening for high yielding strains of microalgae.

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The influence of Particle Size on the Overall Mass Balance of Torrefaction of
Biomass

Raimie H. H. Ibrahim*, Zhiwen Tao, Leilani I. Darvell, Jenny M. Jones, Alan Williams,
Energy Research Institute, School of Process, Environmental and Materials Engineering (SPEME),
University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (44) 7712134473, E-mail: pmrhhi@leeds.ac.uk

Abstract
The torrefaction of biomass is a mild thermal treatment at temperatures <300C, in the absence
of oxygen, which has been found to improve fuel properties (e.g. higher friability, energy
density and hydrophobicity). The technology is still in the development stage and so
underpinning knowledge and science is still required. This work provides fundamental insight
into how particles of different sizes might behave in terms of yields of key products. Thus, the
influence of particle size on the torrefaction of willow (Salix spp.) and eucalyptus (E.Gunii)
was investigated by torrefying different particle sizes ( 5x5x5 mm) in a Netzsch STA 449C
Jupiter simultaneous thermal analyser (TGA), coupled to a Nicolet Magma-IR 560
Spectrometer. The samples were treated at two temperatures (270 and 290C) and two
residence times (30 and 60 mins), to compare their mass yield, energy yield and evolution of
volatile product. Results show that the larger the particle size, the higher the mass yield,
mainly due to heat transfer limitations. In terms of volatile products, eight species (H
2
O, CO
2
,
CO, CH
4
, CH
3
OH, acetaldehyde, acetone and formic acid) were identified, and the first three
were quantified. In general, it was found that the amount of each of the volatile products
studied increased with particle size. However, the effect of particle size on the fuel properties
of the chars was not significant.

Keywords: Torrefaction, Biomass, Particle sizes

1. INTRODUCTION

Biomass is one of the most important renewable sources of energy worldwide. Its use is
advantageous in terms of reduction of greenhouse gases emissions, especially with respect to
carbon dioxide levels and energy security due to more flexibility in fuel supply [1, 2]. Biomass
is utilized for heat, electricity and fuel. However, biomass in general has higher volatile and
moisture content and lower energy value than coal. It is also prone to degradation upon long
storage and it is very fibrous and therefore, tenacious to grind. For an efficient and sustainable
usage of bioenergy, a number of pre-treatments of biomass have been developed. These
include biological processes, which make use of enzymes from bacteria and fungi to destroy
lignin, chemical processes that involve acid-based and alkali-based treatments to allow the
breakdown of lignin and hemicellulose and physical processes such as thermal treatments and
freezing [3] but one that is receiving attention in recent years is torrefaction.
Torrefaction is a mild temperature pyrolysis (200 290C), which is able to improve the
physicochemical properties of biomass. The torrefied solid product becomes hydrophobic,
easier to grind and has a higher energy value than when it is untreated [1, 2, 4-6, 8]. Biomass
is made up of three principal components, namely, hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin.
Torrefaction leads to the decomposition of thermally unstable hemicellulose and produces
higher energy density torrefied biochars, containing mainly cellulose and lignin. Kim et al [4]
looked into the thermal decomposition behavior of raw and torrefied yellow poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera) and observed the disappearance of hemicellulose at increasing
torrefaction temperature. This provided evidence that a large proportion of hemicellulose is
consumed while cellulose and lignin are mostly retained during torrefaction. When
hemicellulose degrades, it releases a number of gaseous and condensable organics [1].
Bridgeman et al [1] investigated the volatile and gases products from torrefaction of reed
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canary grass at 563 K. They found that the major products were water, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and methane, while the condensable organics were formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,
acetic acid, formic acid, acetic acid and methanol. They also detected traces of phenol, furfural
and ammonia at the most severe condition.
Operating parameters such as temperature, residence time and heating rate together with fuel
physical characteristics such as particle size and composition influence the quality of the end
product from torrefaction. Almeida et al [5] studied the influence of temperature on eucalyptus
(E.grandis and E.saligna) at 220, 250 and 280C with a residence time of 60 mins. They
observed a great mass loss of E.grandis and E.saligna at the highest torrefaction temperature
(37% and 39% respectively). Sadaka and Negi [6] investigated the influence of residence time
on wheat straw, rice straw and cotton gin waste. These samples were torrefied under five
residence times, 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 mins at 260C. As a result, they observed a reduction in
moisture content and an increase in the HHV and mass loss as the time lengthened. Residence
time did not seemed to have any effect on the volatiles contents of wheat straw and cotton gin
waste but it showed a reduction in the volatile matter of rice straw from 71.13% to 64.45%.
With regards to heating rate, Williams and Besler [7] looked into the influence of heating rate
on the slow pyrolysis of pine wood, which ranged from 5 to 80C min
-1
to a final temperature
of 300C. They concluded that heating rate affects the pyrolysis products: char yield
decreased, followed by an increase in the gas and tar yields while the aqueous phase was
reported to be independent of the heating rate.
With regards to particle sizes, several studies can be found in the literature on the effect of this
parameter on fast pyrolysis but very few on torrefaction. Peng et al [8] studied the effect of
particle size of pine chips on torrefaction (0.23, 0.67 and 0.81 mm) using a fixed bed reactor.
These samples were torrefied at two temperatures (573 and 553 K) and two residence times
(15 and 30 mins). The results showed the influence of particle size on the weight loss during
torrefaction, where the particle size is indirectly proportional to the weight loss; smaller
particles lost weight faster than bigger particles. They concluded that the rate of torrefaction of
bigger particles could be influenced by the interparticle heat and mass transfer.
In general, studies of the pyrolysis, and in particular of torrefaction of larger particles are very
scarce. When torrefaction is to be carried out in an industrial scale, large particles of biomass
will be required for it to serve its purpose as an alternative method of energy densification.
The understanding of the effect of larger particle sizes on torrefaction in terms of the transport
processes and yields is important. This present study examines the influence of large particle
sizes of biomass on torrefaction, in terms of mass yield, energy yield, properties of the
resultant solid and evolution of volatile products during treatment.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Sample preparation
Samples of willow (Salix spp.) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Gunii) were collected from farms
around Yorkshire, UK. The barks were removed and the resultant white woods were cut into
cubes of four different sizes: 5x5x5 mm, 6x6x6 mm, 7x7x7 mm and 8x8x8 mm.

2.2 Torrefaction using TGA-FTIR
For comparison purposes, the willow (except 5x5x5 mm) and E.Gunii particles were treated at
three conditions: at 270C with residence times of 30 mins and 60 mins, and at 290C with a
residence time of 30 mins, where these conditions are labelled A, B and C respectively.
Torrefaction runs were performed using a Netzsch STA 449C Jupiter simultaneous analyser,
coupled to a Nicolet Magma-IR 560 Spectrometer via a heated gas transfer line, for the
determination of the rate of mass loss and quantification of the evolved gases and light volatile
compounds respectively. The temperature programme started off with a drying period at
150C for 30 min at a heating rate of 10C min
-1
and then ramped to the desired torrefaction
temperature at the same heating rate under helium flowing at 80 mL min
-1
.
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2.3 Fuel analysis

2.3.1 Elemental analysis and calorific value determination
Duplicates of the C, H and N contents were measured using a CE Instruments Flash EA 1112
Series elemental analyser and corrected to a dry ash free basis. The calorific values were
calculated based on the elemental composition, according to Friedl et al [9].

2.3.2 Proximate analysis
Data from the pyrolysis tests and burning profiles were used to determine the moisture,
volatile, fixed carbon and ash contents of the raw and torrefied samples. Pyrolysis tests were
carried out using a TGA Q5000 analyser at a final temperature of 900C at 10C min
-1
under
nitrogen with a holding time of 10 mins.


3.1 Fuel analyses
The proximate and ultimate analyses, and calculated heating values of the raw willow and
eucalyptus samples studied are shown in Table 1. Table 1 also listed the particle sizes and their
equivalent volumes used for the study. It can be seen that willow has a higher volatile matter
and ash content as well as a lower energy value than eucalyptus.

Table 1 Fuel characteristics of raw willow and eucalyptus.
Willow E.Gunii
Particle size (Volume)

Proximate analysis (wt %)
Moisture
Volatile matter
Fixed carbon
Ash
5x5x5 mm (125 mm
3
)
6x6x6 mm (216 mm
3
)
7x7x7 mm (343 mm
3
)
8x8x8 mm (512 mm
3
)

3.3
85.4
13.3
1.4
5x5x5 mm (125 mm
3
)
6x6x6 mm (216 mm
3
)
7x7x7 mm (343 mm
3
)
8x8x8 mm (512 mm
3
)

4.2
83.5
16.3
0.2
Ultimate analysis (wt %)
C
H
O
a

N
S
HHV (MJ kg
-1
)

46.8
5.8
47.4
0.0
ND
18.5

50.1
4.8
45.1
0.0
ND
19.5
a
Calculated by difference.
ND Not Detected.

3.2 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA-FTIR)
A typical plot of the mass loss curve for the torrefaction process is shown in Fig. 1, where two
stages of mass loss can be observed. The first stage at a temperature ~150C is due to water
evaporation, while another distinct mass loss can be seen at temperatures >200C, that is
largely due to hemicellulose degradation. Fig. 2 illustrates the mass yields of raw and torrefied
biomass of different particle sizes that underwent treatment C. Peng et al [8] stated that weight
loss can be influenced by differences in particle size. They explained torrefaction is an
endothermic process, where heat from the hot gas travels across the boundary layer to the
surface of the particle and then to the particle interior by thermal conduction [8].
Subsequently, intraparticle heat and mass transfer could influence torrefaction. Smaller
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particles have less limitation so they will give rise to a faster heat transfer [10]. In order to see
a clearer trend of mass loss for treatment C, torrefaction experiments of E.Gunii of particle
size smaller than 5 mm (cubes of 2 mm and 3 mm) were carried out, which resulted in a
positive correlation between the particle size and mass yield (see Fig. 2). Beaumont and
Schwob [11] and Heo et al [12] discussed how larger particle sizes would yield more char and
that they can influence the heating rate. They stated that larger particles require more time to
heat by intra-particle conduction.

Fig. 1 Typical mass loss and temperature profile during torrefaction of willow and eucalyptus.

Fig. 2 Mass yield of willow and E.Gunii of different particle sizes for torrefaction at
treatment C (290C, 30 mins).

Fig. 3 shows the curve for the first derivative for the mass loss with time (DTG) for the
torrefaction of willow and E.Gunii samples. The large peak observed in each torrefaction run
resulted from the decomposition of the highly reactive hemicellulose [13]. This was also when
a large amount of volatiles rich in hydrogen and oxygen were produced [2]. With regards to
willow with a particle size of 7x7x7 mm, there was only a minor difference between the
intensity of the DTG peaks for willows at treatments A and B (0.24% min
-1
), while the
difference between the DTG peak intensities for treatments A and C was 1.76% min
-1
. This
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
M
a
s
s

(
%
)
Time (mins)
Mass loss (%)
Temperature profile
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
M
a
s
s

y
i
e
l
d
,

d
r
y

b
a
s
i
s

(
%
)
Volume (mm
3
)
Willow
E.Gunii
2x2x2 mm
3x3x3 mm
Powdered willow
5x5x5 mm
5x5x5 mm
6x6x6 mm
6x6x6 mm
7x7x7 mm
8x8x8 mm
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shows that temperature has a greater effect on torrefaction than the residence time. Similar
trends could also be seen in eucalyptus. The rates of mass loss of E.Gunii for treatments A and
B were almost the same, while for treatment C, larger differences were found (1.39% min
-1
)
when compared with the other two conditions.

a) Willow b) E.Gunii
Fig. 3 DTG of a) willow and b) E.Gunii of particle size 7x7x7 mm for treatments A, B and C
(at 270C with residence times 30 and 60 min and at 290C with residence time 30 min
respectively).

3.3 Properties of torrefied solid product

3.3.1 Moisture, ash, volatile and char contents
Fig. 4 shows typical results for the influence of treatment conditions on the proximate analysis
of the solid. It was observed that the volatile contents decreased and the fixed carbon contents
(FCC) increase as the treatment became more severe. Ash content decreased with increasing
particle size, but this probably is due to ash contents decreasing with particle size in the raw
fuel, as seen by Bridgeman et al [14]. In general, the volatile contents of torrefied fuels were
lower and the char contents were higher than those of raw fuels due to the partial
devolatisation suffered during torrefaction. Moreover, at increasingly more aggressive
torrefaction conditions, the volatile content decreases. In terms of particle sizes, Fig. 4 presents
an overall decrease in ash and FCC, with a corresponding increase in the volatile content as
the particle sizes increased from 5x5x5 to 7x7x7 mm, followed by a slight change in trend for
the particle size 8x8x8 mm. This change of behaviour could also be attributed to the
hemicellulose decomposition that took place during the treatment. Smaller particle sizes are
very reactive, which promotes a greater loss of volatiles.
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Fig. 4 Typical plots of proximate analysis of torrefied biomass of different particle sizes. These
plots were taken from torrefaction of E.Gunii from treatment C.

3.2.2 Influence of particle sizes on the pyrolysis of torrefied biomass
The TGA curves for the pyrolysis of the different particle sizes of willow and E.Gunii from
treatment C are shown in Figs. 5a and b compared to their raw counterparts. Figs. 5c and d
illustrate the corresponding DTG curves for the pyrolysis of torrefied willow and E.Gunii of
different sizes respectively for treatment C. The peaks and shoulders shown in these figures
can be attributed to the decomposition of the major components of biomass (hemicellulose,
cellulose and lignin). In these figures, there is an obvious distinction between the raw and
torrefied biomass. The shoulder in the DTG curves of raw biomass in Fig. 5c (observed in the
range 200<T<325C) due to the presence of hemicellulose disappears upon torrefaction. Chen
et al [15] explained that most of the cellulose does not react during torrefaction but as the
treatment becomes severe, the peaks of cellulose decreased resulting in, an increase of the
amount of lignin retained in the torrefied biomass. These changes were also observed in a
number of studies such as in Bridgeman et al [1] and Kim et al [4]. In terms of particle sizes,
there seemed to be very little change in the lignocellulosic contents upon torrefaction.

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a)

b)

c)

d)

Fig. 5 TGA and DTG curves for the pyrolysis of raw and torrefied willow and eucalyptus of
different particle sizes from treatment C.

3.3.3 C, H, N contents and calorific values
The ultimate analysis of biomass investigated the change in the chemical composition of
different particle sizes of biomass when they are exposed to torrefaction. The carbon content
increased while oxygen and hydrogen contents decreased from raw to torrefied fuels. The
nitrogen remained almost constant. Particle sizes did not seemed to have any significant effect
on the chemical composition of both types of fuels and hence, no effect on the energy content,
and energy yield for willow. E.Gunii did not undergo change in energy yield at condition A,
but those at condition B and C, the highest energy yields (89.4% and 82.7% respectively) of
E.Gunii were observed of the biggest particle size (8x8x8 mm).

3.4 Gas evolution profile
There were eight species of interest identified in the torrefaction of willow and eucalyptus:
water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, methanol, acetaldehyde, formic acid and
acetone. Fig. 6 illustrates the evolution of volatile products during the torrefaction of willow
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and eucalyptus (6x6x6 mm) at 290C. These products are mainly resulted from the
decomposition of hemicellulose.

Fig. 6 Evolution of volatile products during torrefaction of a) willow and b) eucalyptus from
treatment C.

Fig. 7 illustrates the influence of particle size on the amount of volatiles released, such as
carbon dioxide. The data for volume presented in this figure were calculated taking into
account the mass and density of the sample. A positive relationship between the mass of
carbon dioxide and the calculated volume could be observed.

Fig. 7 The release of carbon dioxide during torrefaction of eucalyptus of different particle
sizes torrefied at different conditions.

4. CONCLUSION

The influence of particle sizes of biomass on torrefaction of willow and eucalyptus was
studied. Four particle sizes ( 5x5x5 mm) were torrefied in an STA coupled to a mass
spectrometer to allow for the analyses of the evolved gases and volatiles. These samples were
torrefied at 270 and 290C with residence times of 30 and 60 min. Results show that for larger
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particle sizes, the solid mass yield increases as there are heat transfer limitations. However, the
effect of particle size on the fuel properties of the solid chars was small. In terms of volatile
products, eight species (H
2
O, CO
2
, CO, CH
4
, CH
3
OH, acetaldehyde, acetone and formic acid)
were identified. In general, it was found that the amount of each of the volatile products
studied increased with particle size.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are grateful to the Energy Programme (Grant EP/H048839/1) for financial
support. The Energy Programme is a Research Councils UK cross council initiative led by
EPSRC and contributed to by ESRC, NERC, BBSRC and STFC. RHI would also like to thank
Brunei Government Scholarship for the support.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Bridgeman, T.G., Jones, J.M., Shield, I. and Williams, P.T. (2008) Torrefaction of reed
canary grass, wheat straw and willow to enhance solid fuel qualities and combustion
properties, Fuel 87(6), pp. 844-856.
[2] Medic, D., Darr, M., Shah, A., Potter, B. and Zimmerman, J. (2012) Effects of torrefaction
process parameters on biomass feedstock upgrading, Fuel 91(1), pp. 147-154.
[3] NNFCC, 2009. Marketing study for biomass treatment technology. Available from
www.nnfcc.co.uk [Accessed 02/09/2012].
[4] Kim, Y-H., Lee, S-M., Lee, H-W. and Lee, J-W. (2012) Physical and chemical
characteristics of products from the torrefaction of yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera),
Bioresource Technology, 116, pp. 120-125.
[5] Almeida, G., Brito, J.O. and Perre, P. (2010) Alterations in energy properties of eucalyptus
wood and bark subjected to torrefaction: The potential of mass loss as a synthetic indicator,
Bioresource Technology, 101(24), pp. 9778-9784.
[6] Sadaka, S. and Negi, S. (2009) Improvements of biomass physical and thermochemical
characteristics via torrefaction process, Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy,
28(3), pp. 427-434.
[7] Williams, P.T. and Besler, S. (1996). The influence of temperature and heating rate on the
slow pyrolysis of biomass, Renewable Energy, 7(3), pp. 233-250.
[8] Peng, J.H., Bi, H.T., Sokhansanj, S. and Lim, J.C. (2012) A study of particle size effect on
biomass torrefaction and densification, Energy and Fuels, 26(6), pp. 3826-3839.
[9] Friedl, A., Padouvas, E., Rotter, H. and Varmuza, K. (2005) Prediction of heating values of
biomass fuel from elemental composition, Analytica Chimica Acta, 544 (1 2), pp. 191-
198.
[10] Oyedun, A., Lam, K-L., Fittkau, M. and Hui, C-W. (2012) Optimisation of particle size in
waste tyre pyrolysis, Fuel, 95(1), pp. 417-424.
[11] Beaumont, O. and Schwob, Y. (1984) Influence of physical and chemical parameters on
wood pyrolysis, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development,
23(4), pp. 637-641.
[12] Heo, H.S., Park, H.J., Yim, J-H., Sohn, J.M., Park, J., Kim, S-S., Ryu, C., Jeon, J-K. and
Park, Y-K. (2010) Influence of operation variables on fast pyrolysis of Miscanthus sinensis
var. purpurascens, Bioresource Technology, 101(10), pp. 3672-3677.
[13] Haykiri-Acma, H. (2006) The role of particle size in the non-isothermal pyrolysis of
hazelnut shell, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 75(2), pp. 211-216.
[14] Bridgeman, T.G., Darvell, L.I., Jones, J.M., Williams, P.T., Fahmi, R., Bridgwater, A.V.,
Barraclough, T., Shield, I., Yates, N., Thain, S.C. and Donnison, I.S. (2007) Influence of
particle size on the analytical and chemical properties of two energy crops, Fuel, 86 (1-2),
pp. 60-72.
[15] Chen, W-H., Hsu, H-C., Lu, K-M., Lee, W-J. And Lin, T-C. (2011) Thermal pretreatment
of wood (Lauan) block by torrefaction and its influence on the properties of the biomass,
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Energy, 36 (5), pp. 3012-3021.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Investigating the Power Losses of Various Transformerless Inverter Topologies

Maaspaliza Azri
1*
, Nasrudin Abd. Rahim
2

1
Faculty of Engineering, Technical University Malaysia Melaka, Malaysia
2
UMPEDAC, Level 4, Wisma R&D UM, University of Malaya, Jalan Pantai Baharu, 59990 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603) 22463249, Fax: (603)22463257, E-mail: maaspaliza@utem.edu.my

Abstract
Topologies introduced to reduce the drawbacks of a transformerless inverter system include
ones that solve the problems of keeping common-mode voltage constant and limiting ground
leakage current to within acceptable range. This paper compares the ability of various H-
bridge transformerless inverter topologies in addressing those two problems. The efficiency of
transformerless inverters are maximized by power semiconductor devices (IGBT), thus the
performance-affecting power losses of these devices are also studied, analyzed through the
Thermal Module of PSIM 9.0 software.The paper finds that a Thermal Module allows
manageable loss distribution of the devices. Designing a high-performance inverter circuit is
thus possible. Accurate calculation from experiments on the Thermal Module identified
hardware-suitable devices.

Keywords: Transformerless H-bridge inverter, leakage current, common-mode voltage,
unipolar SPWM, power semiconductor losses.

1. INTRODUCTION

A new trend in grid inverter design is transformerless power conversion [1]. An important
advantage of transformerless is 2% increase in system efficiency [2-6]. Without line-frequency
transformers, the disadvantages to DC grid current are grid-current offset and non-sinusoidal
current; both disable grid connection [7]. Another disadvantage is that without galvanic
isolation, connection between inverter and grid is direct, energizing fluctuation potential
between the PV arrays (comprising parasitic capacitor and ground) [8]. The energized
potential will produce high ground leakage current, posing electrical hazard when the PV array
is touched [8, 9].
The problems of keeping common-mode voltage constant and ground leakage current
amplitude low (to VDE DIN 0126-11 standard of <300mA) are solved by disconnecting the
inverter. The disconnection can be by either ac-bypass or dc-bypass. Ac-bypass is an
additional switch on the inverter ac-side, between the inverter and the grid, whereas dc-bypass
is between the inverter and the PV array. Ac-bypass is proposed for HERIC (High-Efficiency
Reliable-Inverter Concept) and HB-ZVR (H-Bridge Zero-Voltage Rectifier) [10-12]. Dc-
bypass was introduced in H6, H5, and oH5 topologies [13-15].Generally; the proposed
transformerless inverter has an H-bridge transformerless circuit and uses unipolar sinusoidal
pulse width modulation (SPWM). Use of unipolar-SPWM in H-bridge transformerless inverter
reduces inductor-filter current ripple and increases conversion efficiency [10,16].
This paper proposes a method to identify the performance of the inverter circuit. The
performance of the inverters depends on many factors such as the types of circuit, the
switching technique and the power semiconductor devices losses. The power semiconductor
losses for different inverter topologies and different switching control techniques are analyzed.
Currently, there are many different methods for calculating the power semiconductor losses in
inverter circuits [17-25]. The estimation of power semiconductor losses is easier and reduces
time constraint with software simulation. Therefore, PSIM 9.0 software with Thermal Module
is used for the proposed method. The advantages of Thermal Module in PSIM 9.0 software are
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the ease of use and the real device database from manufacturer is calculated automatically in
the simulation [26-28]. Based on the simulation results, a high performance prototype of
transformerless inverter circuit can be designed.
The performance factors of transformerless inverter circuits include circuit type, switching
technique, and losses in the power semiconductor devices. This paper analyzes the power
semiconductor losses in various inverter topologies and against various switching control
techniques, proposing a method for identifying performance.

2. DEVICELOSS SIMULATION VIA THE THERMAL MODULE OF PSIM
SIMULATION SOFTWARE

The switching losses and conduction losses of power semiconductor devices can be calculated
automatically by PSIM simulation. The PSIM software has a Thermal Module toolbox to which
a user can add the datasheet information of the semiconductor devices to be used in the
simulation for losses calculation.

2.1 Losses of the diode
The conduction losses of diode devices are calculated via Eq. (1).

d d
I V losses conduction = (1)

with
d
V and
d
I respectively the diodes voltage drop and forward current. The switching
losses of the diode consider only the turn-off losses as the turn-on losses are neglected.
Calculation for the turn-off losses is defined by Eqs. (2) and (3).

f V Q osses switchingl
r rr
4
1
=
(2)
Or
f V I t osses switchingl
r rr rr
8
1
= (3)

Where
rr
Q is the reverse recovery charge,
r
V the reverse blocking voltage,
rr
t the reverse
recovery time,
rr
I the peak reverse recovery current, and f the Frequency parameter; all as in
the device Thermal Module datasheet. The switching losses have been calculated through Eq.
(2) and if
rr
Q is given in the thermal module datasheet. When
rr
t and
rr
I are given, the losses
will be calculated through Eq. (3).

2.2 Losses of the IGBT
The conduction losses of the IGBT devices are calculated through Eq. (4).

c sat ce
I V losses conduction
) (
= (4)

The transistor collector-emitter saturation voltage is indicated as
) (sat ce
V . The collector current
is
c
I .The switching losses of the IGBTs are generated during turn-on and turn-off. They are
calculated through Eq. (5).

f E f E osses switchingl
off on
+ = (5)

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Where
on
E and
off
E respectively are the transistor turn-on and turn-off energy losses, and f the
switching frequency.
In this section, the various transformerless inverter topologies are simulated with the
parameter values as in Table 1. The IGBT and diode devices used the Thermal Module
toolbox were the discrete type.

3. SIMULATION RESULTS

For simple simulation analysis, the DC source voltage models the PV array. The grid elements
represent resistor load because the ground leakage current does not influence the grid
elements.

Table 1 The simulation parameters
Parameter Value
Diode Fairchild Semiconductor ISL9R3060G2
(600V, Stealth Diode)

IGBT

1)Fairchild Semiconductor
HGTG20N60A4D(600V,SMPS Series
N-Channel IGBT with Anti-Parallel
Hyperfast Diode)
Input DC source
voltage
400V
L
f,
inverter filter
inductance

4mH
C
f
inverter filter
capacitor

5uF

C
dc
,DC-link capacitor

270uF
C
PV,
Parasitic capacitor 100nF

f
sw

10kHz
Load resistor 20

3.1 HERIC topology
Fig. 1 is the HERIC topology with additional switch at the ac side to disconnect the inverter
circuit from the grid element during freewheeling or zero activity. There is zero output inverter
voltage (V
ab
) during freewheeling. Fig. 2 shows the FFT spectrum of the ground leakage
current centered at the switching frequency.

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Fig 1 HERIC topology.

Fig. 2 FFT spectrum of ground leakage current.

As in Fig. 2, the ground leakage current is very small (<300mA) and this is verified for the
transformerless inverter grid-connected system. Besides measuring ground leakage current, the
distribution losses of each device are also measured by simulation (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Distribution of the device losses in the HERIC topology.

S1
S2
S3
S4
S5

S6
Lf1
Lf2
Cf
R1
R2
Cdc1
Cdc2
Cpv
Cpv
VDC
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (KHz)
0u
0.01u
0.02u
0.03u
I(Cl eakage_current)
0
5
10
15
20
25
S1 S4
0
5
10
15
20
25
S2 S3
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Ti me (s)
0
2
4
6
8
10
S5 S6
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Fig. 4: HB_ZVR topology

3.2 HB_ZVR topology
Fig. 4 shows another ac-bypass topology proposed in HB_ZVR topology. A bidirectional
switch comprising one anti-parallel IGBT and four diodes are used. It is operated during
freewheeling or dead time, when the grid element and inverter circuit disconnects, producing
the small ground leakage current, verifying the simulation result (see Fig. 5). Fig. 6 shows the
loss distribution of the HB_ZVR topology.

Fig.5 FFT spectrum of the ground leakage current

Fig. 6 The power loss distribution of the HB_ZVR circuit

S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
Lf1
Lf1
Cf
R1
R2
Cdc1
Cdc2
Cpv
Cpv
VDC
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (KHz)
0u
0.01u
0.02u
0.03u
0
5
10
15
20
25
S1 S4
0
5
10
15
20
25
S2 S3
0
-2
2
4
6
8
10
12
S5
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Ti me (s)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
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3.3 H6 Topology
Dc-bypass topology (H6) is another option to reduce ground leakage current in transformerless
inverter circuit (see Fig.7). The additional switch connects at the line and the neutral of the DC
side. In positive half wave, switches S1 and S4 are ON at low frequency (50Hz). When
switches S1 and S4 are OFF, S5 and S6 commutate at high switching frequency (10 kHz).
During negative half cycle, S2 and S3 are ON, whereas S5 and S6 commutate at high
switching frequency. This topology with the proposed switching pattern proves to produce low
ground leakage current (see Fig. 8). Fig.9 shows the losses of all the devices in the circuit
topology.

Fig.7 The H6 topology

Fig.8 The FFT spectrum of the leakage current

S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
Lf1
Lf2
Cf
R1
R2
Cdc1
Cdc2
VDC
CPV
CPV
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (KHz)
0
0.002
0.004
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Fig. 9 Power losses of the devices in the H6 topology

Fig. 10 H5 topology

3.4 H5 topology
H5 topology as shown in Fig. 10 is one dc-bypass technique proposed to reduce leakage
current in transformerless inverter circuit. During positive half wave, it has S1 switched ON
with low frequency and S4 commutating at high frequency. During negative half wave,
switches S2 and S3 respectively function at low and high frequencies. Switch S5, however, is
always switching at high frequency during both cycles. Fig. 11 shows small leakage current at
parasitic capacitance; the proposed transformerless grid-connected inverter topology is thus
verified as valid. Fig.12 shows distribution of the device power losses in the H5 topology.

Fig. 11 Ground leakage current spectrum

0
2
4
6
8
S1 S4
0
2
4
6
8
S2 S3
0
-20
-40
20
40
S5 S6
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Ti me (s)
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
D1 D2
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
Lf1
Lf2
Cf
R1
R2
Cdc1 VDC
CPV
CPV
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (KHz)
0m
0.02m
0.04m
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Fig. 12 Power loss distribution for H5 topology

3.5 oH5 TOPOLOGY
oH5 is another dc-by pass topology that reduces ground leakage current (see Fig. 13). Two
additional switches (S1 and S2) on the dc side commutate alternately at high switching
frequency. S2 connects at the two midpoints of the dc-link capacitors. During positive and
negative cycles and at high frequency, S3 & S4 operate alternately with S5 & S6.

Fig. 13 The oH5 topology.

Fig. 14 Ground leakage current spectrum.

0
4
8
12
S1
0
5
10
15
20
25
S4
0
5
10
15
20
25
S2
0
4
8
12
S3
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Ti me (s)
0
10
20
S5
S3
S4
S5
S6
VDC
S6
Lf1
Lf2
Cf
R1
R2
Cdc1
Cdc2
S1
S2
CPV
CPV
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (KHz)
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
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Fig. 14 shows the ground leakage current as it appeared in the FFT spectrum and Fig. 15 the
power loss distribution from all the topologys devices.

Fig. 15 Distribution losses of oH5 topology

4. COMPARISON
Table 2 compares the average distribution losses of the various transformerless inverter
topologies. The devices used in the comparison are HGTG20N60A4D (device 1) from
Fairchild Semiconductor. In the HERIC and HB-ZVR topology, the losses occur in S1, S2, S3,
and S4. Furthermore, in H6 topology, the losses occur in S5 and S6 due to high switching
frequency, whereas S1, S2, S3, and S4 commutate only at low switching frequency (50Hz). In
H5 topology, S5 has high losses as it commutates at high frequency switching all the time. In
oH5 topology, S1, S3, and S5 have high losses.

Table 2 Average power loss distribution for various H-bridge transformerless inverter
topologies
Topology

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 Total
(Watt)
HERIC 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 6.0 6.0 41.2
HB_ZVR 10.6 10.6 10.61 10.61 7.92 - 50.32
H6 5.75 5.75 5.75 5.75 10.2 10.2 43.4
H5 6.27 6.1 6.27 6.1 12.2 36.94
oH5 12.7 6 12.7 6 12.7 6 56.1

The advantages and disadvantages of the selected transformerless inverter topologies are
illustrated in Table 3. For the case of unipolar SPWM H-Bridge inverter circuit, the common-
mode voltage is not constant and causes the high leakage ground. Therefore, this topology is
not suitable in transformerless PV inverter application. The H-Bridge with bipolar modulation
does not produces varying voltage ground thus significantly reduce the leakage ground
current. Therefore this switching technique in H-Bridge inverter circuit is suitable for PV
transformerless inverter system. However, this topology with bipolar modulation has low
power converter efficiency. Concerning the AC bypass topologies, HERIC generates no
varying voltage ground and low leakage ground current. The HERIC topology offer high
efficiency due to additional switches (S5 and S6) commutated at low switching frequency
0
10
20
S1
0
0.04
0.08
S2
0
10
20
30
S3
0
10
20
S6
0
10
20
S4
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Ti me (s)
0
10
20
30
S5
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226

(50Hz) compared to the HB-ZVR topology. The H5 topology has higher efficiency topologies
due to fewer components compare to other DC bypass topologies. However, the additional
switch S5 has short life time due to continue switching at all state condition.

Table3: Advantages and disadvantages of selected topologies.
Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
H-Bridge Unipolar High efficiency
Three level
output voltage
Large leakage ground
current

H-Bridge Bipolar Low leakage
ground current
level

Low efficiency
Two level output voltage

HERIC High efficiency
Three level
output voltage
Low leakage
ground current
Current can only flow in
a predefined direction
[10].
H5 High efficiency
Three level
output voltage
Low leakage
ground current
Short life time of the
additional switch (S5)

5. CONCLUSION
Personal safety is an important issue to consider when transformer is omitted in the PV array
inverter system. It is also ensure the leakage ground currents would not appear. Besides it
prevents the injection of DC current to the grid. Hence, this paper discusses the working
principle of the various transformerless inverter topologies which do not generate common-
mode voltage and low leakage ground current. Efficiency calculation depends on the total loss
of the power semiconductors, estimated by the Thermal Module in the PSIM 9.0 software.
Real power semiconductor devices were used, so the power losses are well approximated for
the experiment results. Use of the Thermal Module reduces inverter circuit design cost. As
summarize in Table 2, the HERIC topology has higher power converter efficiency in AC
bypass case. For DC bypass case, the highest efficiency is proposed by H5 topology, which
uses fewer components.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been supported by University of Malaya Power Energy Dedicated Advanced
Centre (UMPEDAC) and University Malaya Post-Graduate Research Grant (PPP). The
authors would like to thank all the people who are concern.
7. REFERENCES

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th
European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference, pp.22-26.
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[4]. PhotonInternational (2007) ThePhotovoltaic Magazine.
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[7]. R.Gonzalezet.al. (2007) Transformerless Inverters for Single-Phase Photovoltaic
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[9]. E.Gubiael.at. (2007) Ground Currents in Single-phase Transformerless Photovoltaic
Systems-An Overview, Progress in Photovoltaic: Research and Applications, Vol.15,
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[10]. T.Kerekeset.al. (2011) A new high-efficiency single-phase transformerless PV inverter
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Employing Digital PI Controller, IEEE Transaction on Industrial
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[12]. German Patent HERIC-Topology:DE 102 21 592 A1 (2003).
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Inverter, IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics, Vol.58, pp.1887-1895.
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Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems, IEEE Transaction on Industrial Electronics,
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[17]. Xiaolin Mao et.al. (2009) Optimal Variable Switching Frequency Scheme for Reducing
Switching Loss in Single-Phase Inverters Based on Time-Domain Ripple Analysis,
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[18]. F.Blaabjerget.al. (1995) Power losses in PWM-VSI inverter using NPT or PT IGBT
devices, IEEE Transaction on Power Electronics,Vol.10,pp.358-367.
[19]. M.H.Bierhoff,F.W . Fuchs (2004) Semiconductor Losses in Voltage Source and Current
Source IGBT converter based on Analytic Derivation, Power Electronic Specialists
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Inverters, Telecommunication Energy Conference, pp.1-5.
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Anuual Meeting, pp.882-888.
[22]. D.Linzen,R.W.DeDoncker (2002) Simulation of Power Losses with
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in Power Electronics.
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semiconductors of the matrix converter using simple simulation methods, Industry
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[27]. J.Pou et.al. (2009) Power Losses Calculation Methodology to Evaluate Inverter
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[28]. G.Vazquezet.al. (2009) Losses and CMV Evaluation in Transformerless Grid-
Connected PV Topologies, Industrial Electronics IEEE International Symposium, pp.5-
8.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Energy Evaluation on Hydrogen Fermentation Potential of Escherichia Coli XL1
blue

Gopalakrishnan kumar
1
, Chiu-Yue Lin
1, 2*

1
Department of Environmental Engineering and Science, Feng Chia University, Taiwan
2
Green Energy Development Center, Feng Chia University, Taiwan
*
Corresponding Author. Prof. C.Y. Lin Tel: +886-4-24517250 ext. 6200; Fax: +886-4-35072114; E-
mail: cylin@fcu.edu.tw

Abstract
The biohydrogen production potential of E.Coli XL1 blue was investigated with two pure
substrates (glucose and sucrose), complex natural feedstock (Acid (HCl) +microwave assisted
and enzymatic (Viscozyme mediated) hydrolysate) of Deoiled jatropha waste (DJW) in order
to check the efficiency of the strain towards fermentative hydrogen production. The results
show that the strain has a conversion efficiency sugar degradation of more than 75% in all
cases. The hydrogen formation from DJW hydrolysate revealed that the strain could work
efficiently in complex substrates also. Applied immobilization technique could effectively
enhance the production rates. The peak hydrogen production rate (HPR), specific hydrogen
production rate (SHPR) and hydrogen yield (HY) were obtained as 4.770.4 L H
2
/L-d,
11.940.4 L H
2
/g DCW-d and 365.68.4 mL H2/g Substrate
added
when substrate (sucrose)
concentration 5 g/L, incubation temperature 37
0
C and biomass concentration was set to 0.4 g
DCW/L (immobilized cells). These values indicated that process efficiency is almost doubled
compared with free cells. The SMP analysis revealed that the acetate is the sole end product
since normally E coli strains do not bear the genes responsible for the butyrate formation. The
energy evaluation report states that the bioenergy produced from this process were calculated
as peak energy generation rate (EGR) and energy yield are 55.80.34 kJ/L-d and 40.3 kJ/g
Substrate
added
.

Keywords: biohydrogen production, pure substrate, conversion efficiency, DJW hydrolysate

1. INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen is revealed as a future potential energy carrier by various researchers in the world
due to the advantages like high energy content, non pollutant nature and utilization of wide
varieties of substrates for the production methods, especially in biological way.
Biotechnological way of hydrogen production is received more interest of all the hydrogen
production methods (chemical and thermo chemical means) is mainly because of the easy
operational procedures and high production rates which promises towards scale up and
commercialization process [1].Even though the fermentative hydrogen production is an
attractive process, the process efficiency in terms of yield and immature technological process
are the bottlenecks of the commercialization process. Some pilot scale plants were established
using the pure cultures. The advantages of pure cultures over the mixed cultures are the
relatively high yield, although the chances of contamination and difficulties in maintenance.
Thus the facultative anaerobes are attaining much more attention and great interest towards
biological production because of their easy operation and possibilities of metabolic
engineering applications. For example Khanna et. al., have demonstrated the Enterobacter
cloacae IIT-BT08 in various studies as a feasible hydrogen producer [2] due to the alterations
done in the genes responsible for hydrogen production.
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E.Coli is showed as an attractive hydrogen producer by many authors either immobilized or
genetically engineered in recent studies [3,4]. Here we demonstrate the feasibility and
potential of the E coli XL1 blue which has been used by a group of researchers, recently and
proved as a hydrogen producer [5]. Easy maintenance and fast growing nature of this
bacterium gained a great attention among scientists. There are few strains for example E coli
DJT 32 and some other strains by modifying formate hydrogen lyase gene usually [3, 6] are
metabolically engineered to produce more amount of hydrogen. Thus in this study a wild
strain E coli XL1 blue was demonstrated as a hydrogen producer and the feasibility was
checked with various pure substrates (glucose and sucrose). However pure substrates are cost
effective, thus use of real waste could attain more interest in this field. For this purpose the
potential of this strain also checked with a real waste Deoiled Jatropha waste (DJW) acid
hydrolysate) in terms of fermentative hydrogen production.


2.1 Bacterial source
E.coli XL1 blue strain was received from University of Pannonia, Veszprem Hungary as a part
of the student exchange programme with Feng Chia University, Taiwan. The inoculum
preparation and maintenance were followed as mentioned accordingly [5].

2.2 DJW hydrolysate and pure substrate
The DJW hydrolysate used in this study was prepared in such a way that BDSR is first treated
with acid (HCl) and then kept in microwave oven purchased from local supermarket (model ,
Taiwan) for 15 minutes at 200MV. Then the supernatant was used in the fermentation
reactions. Enzyme hydrolysate is prepared as the solid portion remained in the acid treatment
is treated with 1% enzyme (Viscozyme purchased from sigma Aldrich) at 50
0
C for 30 minutes
in a boiling water bath. Glucose and sucrose are of commercial grade obtained from sigma
Aldrich.

2.3 Immobilization of E.Coli XL1 blue
The cell suspension was made by preparing the cell concentration of 0.4 g/L dry cell weight
and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The cells were washed thrice with sterile 0.9
NaCl saline solution to remove the residual nutrients from the cell suspension .The prepared
cell suspension was mixed with a mild constant stirring in a sodium alginate stock solution
(2.5 % w/v) to make a final alginate concentration of 2%(w/v). The alginate-cell mixture was
extruded into sterile cold calcium chloride solution (0.2 M) for cell entrapment in alginate
beads. The beads formed (23 mm) were further hardened by stirring the beads in a fresh
solution of calcium chloride (0.2 M) for two more hours. Finally, the beads were washed
thrice with sterile distilled water and dried, later stored in refrigerator until further use.

2.4 Hydrogen fermentation
The batch fermentation was performed in 125 ml vials. The working volume was set to 60 ml
with the mixture of 40 ml of the substrate (either glucose or sucrose) at a concentration of 5
g/L in case of DJW hydrolysate the supernatant was added, 5 mL pH adjustment solution (1 N
NaOH or HCl), and inoculum (E.Coli XL1 blue) 10 ml and rest was distilled water. The strict
anaerobic condition was established by argon gas purging for 8-10 minutes. Immobilization
experiments were carried out with the similar conditions except the addition of immobilized
beads instead of free cells. The initial cultivation pH of 6.5 was set prior to fermentation. Then
the vials were placed in a reciprocal air-bath shaker at 150 rpm with the temperature control of
55
0
C.
The volume and composition of gas were analyzed in a periodic interval. Fermentation was
carried out until the observation of no gas production. All reagents used were analytical grade
and the distilled water was used and others were specified. The vials used were shown in fig.1.

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2.5 Liquid and gas analysis
The pH was measured from a pH meter. The reducing sugar (RS) analysis was done following
the DNS method. The biogas which is a mixture of hydrogen and CO
2
were analyzed using
sterile glass syringe and the contents measured as mentioned in the earlier studies [7].

2.6 Gompertz equation
Gompertz equation (Eq. 1) was used to get the kinetic parameters such as hydrogen production
potential (P), maximum hydrogen production rate (R
m
) and lag phase time () under each
experimental condition. The software details are Sigma plot software 10.0 (Systat Software
Inc., USA).
( )
)
`
= 1 exp exp ) ( t
P
e R
P t H
m
(1)
Where, H (t) represents the cumulative hydrogen production (mL); P is the hydrogen
production potential (mL); Rm is the maximum hydrogen production rate (mL/h); e is
2.71828; is the lag phase time (h) and t is the cultivation time (h). Hydrogen production rate
(HPR L H
2
/L-d) was defined as R
m
value divided by the reactor volume (0.06 L) and
multiplied with a day (24 h). Hydrogen yield (HY) was calculated by the cumulative hydrogen
production (ml) divided by the substrate concentration added (g /L for glucose and sucrose
where as g VS added for DJW hydrolysate).


3.1 Hydrogen production profile of E.Coli XL1 blue regards to free and immobilized
cells
Biohydrogen production is attaining great interest towards the sustainable future and solution
to the energy demand due to the wide variety of feedstock and organisms present in nature.
Here a demonstrative study of hydrogen fermentation of a wild strain E. Coli XL1 blue with
regards to pure substrates (glucose and sucrose) and real time application of this study in terms
of usage of a complex substrate (BDSR hydrolysate , acid and enzyme mediated) is
elucidated. Hydrogen production and biogas formation values were given in table 1.
The Hydrogen production rate (HPR), Specific hydrogen production rate (SHPR) and
hydrogen yield were for glucose 1.590.3 L H
2
/L-d, 3.970.3 L H
2
/g DCW-d and
152.21.9 mL h2/ g substrate
added
for sucrose 1.590.3 L H
2
/L-d, 3.970.3 L H
2
/g
DCW-d and 261.15.1 mL h2/ g substrate
added
respectively. The efficiency of this
strain towards a complex substrate Deoiled jatropha waste (DJW) hydrolysate, since
the solid waste cant be used directly for the fermentation process, pretreatment
methods such as acid (HCl) + microwave assisted and enzyme (Viscozyme) mediated
also reported. The acid hydrolysate and Enzyme hydrolysate are mentioned as AH, EH
hereafter. The results show that HPR, SHPR and HY values are ranged for AH as
0.790.1 L H
2
/L-d, 1.970.3 L H
2
/g DCW-d and 30.00.7 mL h2/ g VS
added
, for EH
as 1.480.2 L H
2
/L-d, 4.930.6 L H
2
/g DCW-d and 39.20.8 mL h2/ g VS
added

respectively. These values revealed that this strain could efficiently work in complex
substrates also. The exploration of new feedstock could be an interesting study in near
future.
Table 1 Hydrogen production performance

Substrate
used
Inoculum
used
Total
biogas
Cumulative
H
2

HPR SHPR HY
(mL) (mL) (L H
2
/L-d) (LH
2
/g (mL H2/g Substrate
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*calculated based on g VS
added

Fig.1 Prepared immobilized cells (left) batch vials used (right)

Hydrogen production in immobilized cells is enlightened in table 1. The main purpose of
immobilization is to make the cells reuse and some authors reported that immobilization could
acts as anaerobic condition for the bacteria, thus increases the hydrogen production [3]. Thus
the enhanced hydrogen production is seen in immobilized cells. The production rates were
improved almost double than the free cells; however the yield was not much improved except
sucrose. This could be that sucrose is the more feasible form of the sugar could be utilized
easily by many organisms including E.Coli XL1 blue. The AH and EH are comprised of
mainly cellulose and hemicellulose since the substrate (DJW) is a lignocellulosic waste. These
form of sugar is not utilizable to this strain, this ultimately turn in to the lower yield and
production rated comparatively with pure substrates. The trend of hydrogen generation is
shown in fig 2. It is clearly seen that pure substrate (glucose and sucrose) is easily metabolized
by E. coli since the hydrogen evolution time is very short and ended up nearly 50 hours.
However the formation of hydrogen from AH and EH was prolonged to nearly 150 hours
which is approximately three times longer than the pure substrates. The peak HPR, SHPR and
HY were achieved from the sucrose feedstock and the values as 4.770.4 L H
2
/L-d, 11.940.4
L H
2
/g DCW-d and 365.68.4 mL H
2
/ g substrate
added
respectively.

3.2 Water quality analysis
The final pH, ORP and sugar degradation values are reported in table 2. The pH reduction
values indicating that the pathway was mediated by formation of acid which is the
intermediate step of the anaerobic fermentation. The OPR values were ranged from 31410 to
39121, which favored the anaerobic condition. Sugar degradation is calculated based on the
sugar consumption from the initial level provided. The results show that the better degradation
occurred with the pure substrates. In fact glucose (monomer) and sucrose (glucose+fructose)
are having the 100% conversion, since they are the easily degradable by the organisms
biologically. However the complex substrate was shown less conversion efficiency than the
DCW-d)
added
)
Glucose
Free cells 72.71.2 45.70.5
1.590.5 3.970.3 152.21.9
Immobilized 71.70.5 46.01.0
3.180.2 7.950.5 153.33.3
Sucrose
Free cells 123.12.3 78.31.5
2.770.3 6.930.8 261.15.1
Immobilized 167.73.5 109.22.5
4.770.4 11.940.4 365.68.4
Acid
hydrolysate
Free cells 76.32.3 48.71.2
0.790.1 1.970.3 30.00.7*
Immobilized 79.33.1 49.61.5
0.810.3 2.020.7 31.00.5*
Enzyme
hydrolysate
Free cells 108.01.7 66.71.1
1.480.2 4.930.6 39.20.8*
Immobilized 123.70.6 73.30.6
2.950.3 7.380.3 43.10.4*
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pure substrates. This might be due to the complex (cellulosic and hemi cellulosic) nature of the
substrate. Since the organism is a wild type strain and cant metabolically utilize these sugars.
However the conversion efficiency is better for a facultative anaerobic organism.

Cutivation time (hrs)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

H
2

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
l
)
0
20
40
60
80
glucose
Sucrose
AH
EH
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

H
2

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
l
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
(A)
(B)

Fig.2 Time profile of hydrogen formation (AH-Acid hydrolysate, EH-Enzyme hydrolysate),
A) free cells, B) Immobilized cells

3.3 Evaluation of energy production
The details of the total energy production values are given in Table 4. The peak total energy
production rate and yield were obtained as 55.80.3 KJ/L-d and 4.40.3 KJ/g substrate
added
.
This kind of bioenergy is much cleaner comparatively with the fossil fuel derived energy. The
heating value parameter of hydrogen (285.8 J/mmol) was considered as a factor for the energy
evaluation. Since it is the basic study towards the potential of the above mentioned organism,
further studies related to its optimal conditions such as substrate concentration, temperature
and pH could generate more energy.

Table 2 Water quality analysis

Substrate Nutrient adding
Final pH
Final ORP
(-mV)
Sugar
degradation
(%)

Glucose
Free cells 5.00.3 31723 87.32.4
Immobilized 5.80.2 31414 88.23.6
Sucrose
Free cells 5.50.4 3509 87.52.6
Immobilized 5.60.3 37111 87.71.2
Acid
hydrolysate
Free cells 5.60.2 39120 77.31.2*
Immobilized 5.60.1 3809 78.72.1*
Enzyme
hydrolysate
Free cells 5.90.1 38910 82.01.0*
Immobilized 5.70.1 39010 84.31.5*
*based on RS (reducing sugar)

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Table 4 Energy evaluation
Substrate
HPR
(mmol/L-d)
EPR
(kJ/L-d)
HY (mmol/ g
Substrate
added
)
EY
(KJ/g
Substrate
added
)
Glucose 130.50.6 37.30.2 6.30.2 1.80.6
Sucrose 195.30.7 55.80.3 15.60.5 4.40.3
AH 33.70.5 9.60.1 1.60.3 0.40.1
EH 120.90.5 34.50.2 1.90.1 0.50.3
AH-Acid hydrolysate, EH-Enzyme hydrolysate, *heating value parameter: H
2
285.8 J/mmol,
EPR-energy production rate, EY-energy yield

4. STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE THE ENERGY FORMATION VIA ENHANCEMENT
OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

The yield of the biological process is always lower when compared with the production rates
especially in case of dark fermentative hydrogen production whilst using pure cultures. The
main reason for this can be enlightened as the substrate provided/ converted is boosting the
growth of organisms rather than the formation of hydrogen [8].There are various approaches
which deals this issue. One of the promising approaches is the metabolic engineering of these
wild type organisms. Since this technique could block the genes which are involve in the
metabolic activity that results in the unwanted products (such as lactate in hydrogen
fermentation) and different aspects of genetic engineering were proposed so far, however the
proper understanding of metabolic pathways is essential [9]. The second option could be the
exploration of wide varieties of organisms (isolation from various places such as hot spring-
since extreme thermopiles bearing stable hydrogenase enzymes which could enhance the
yield) and substrates rather than pure substrates (such as solid and lignocellulosic waste, they
are rich in sugar content). These strategies could enhance the energy yield of the biological
process.

5. CONCLUSION

This study made an attempt in terms of bioenergy production via Hydrogenic fermentation of
a facultative anaerobic organism E.Coli XL1 blue. The results show that this strain could
efficiently work on pure and complex substrates. The production rates and yields were
compared. The energy produced also evaluated and provides basic information about this
process towards scale up for further energy production enhancement, ultimately the strategies
to be handled as the solution of the bottlenecks which are related with this process also
discussed. Further studies related to optimization and scale up of this process could efficiently
enhance the ways target as a solution of the energy related issues.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by Taiwans Bureau of Energy
(grant no. 101-D0204-3), Taiwans National Science Council (NSC-99-2221-E-035 -024 -
MY3, NSC-99-2221-E-035 -025 -MY3, NSC-99-2632-E-035 -001 -MY3), Feng Chia
University (FCU-10G27101), APEC Research Center for Advanced Biohydrogen Technology.
The supply of E.Coli XL1 blue from university of Pannonia and the valuable comments given
by Peter Bakonyi is highly appreciated.

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7. REFERENCES

[1] Das D, Verziroglu T.N. (2001) Hydrogen production by biological process: a survey of
literature, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 26, pp. 13-28.
[2] Khanna N, Kotay S.M, Gilbert J.J, Das D.(2011) Improvement of biohydrogen production
by enterobacter cloace IIT-BT 08 under regulated pH. Journal of Biotechnology, 152, pp.
9-15.
[3] Ishikawa M, Yamamura S, Takamura Y, Sode K, Tamiya E, and Tomoyima M. (2006)
Development of a compact high-density microbial hydrogen reactor for portable bio-fuel
cell system, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 31, pp. 1504-1508.
[4] Ghosh D, and Hallenbeck P.C. (2010) Response surface methodology for process
parameter optimization of hydrogen yield by the metabolically engineered strain
Escherichia coli DJT135, Bioresource Technology, 101, pp. 1820-1825
[5] Bakonyi P, Nemestthy N, Lvitusz , Blafi-Bak K. (2011) Application of Plackett-
Burman experimental design to optimize biohydrogen fermentation by E. coli (XL1-
BLUE), International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 36, pp. 13949-13954.
[6] Yoshida, A, Nishimura T, Kawaguchi H, Inui M, and Yukawa H. (2005) Enhanced
Hydrogen Production from Formic Acid by Formate Hydrogen Lyase-Overexpressing
Escherichia coli Strains. Applied Microbial Biotechnology, 71, pp. 6762-6768.
[7] Chen C.C, Lin C.Y and Lin M.C. (2002) Acid-base enrichment enhances anaerobic
hydrogen production process. Applied Microbial Biotechnology, 58, pp. 224-228.
[8] Hallenbeck P.C, Ghosh D, Skonieczny T.M, and Yargeau V. (2009) Microbiological and
engineering aspects of biohydrogen production, Indian Journal of Microbiology. 49, pp.
48-59.
[9] Oh Y.K, Ray S.M, Jung G.Y, and Park S. (2011) Current status of the metabolic
engineering of microorganisms for biohydrogen production. Bioresource Technology. 102,
pp. 8357-8367.

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Catalytic Pyrolysis of Rice Husk, Jatropha and Parinari Polyandra with ZSM-5

Muhammad Saifullah Abu Bakar*
1
, James O. Titiloye
1
, Temitope E. Odetoye
2

1
European BioEnergy Research Institute, Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, Aston
University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK.
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin, PMB1515, Ilorin, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author. Tel: 44 (0)121 204 3388, Fax: 44 (0)121 204 3679, E-mail:
abubakas@aston.ac.uk

Abstract
Catalytic and non-catalytic pyrolysis experiments have been carried out on Rice Husk,
Jatropha Curcas press cakes and Parinari Polyandra Benth fruit shells to obtain bio-oil using a
fixed-bed pyrolysis rig. The catalytic pyrolysis condition mimics intermediate pyrolysis, with
a yield of about 40 wt. % of liquid. A slight decrease in liquid yield was observed for both the
rice husk and jatropha catalytic runs. Properties of the product bio-oil produced with and
without ZSM-5 catalysts were analysed in terms of water content, pH, viscosity, density and
heating value. The chemical composition was analysed using gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry (GC-MS). Analysis shows that the acidity of bio-oil varies, rice husk pyrolysis
oil being the most acidic and parinari pyrolysis oil being the least.

Keywords: Catalytic pyrolysis, ZSM-5, Rice Husk, Jatropha, Parinari Polyandra.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The conversion of biomass renewables into fuels and chemicals is becoming more popular
with the aim of reducing worlds dependence on fossil fuels and to mitigate global warming
and diversify energy sources [1]. Biomass from agricultural residues are known to be suitable
sources for producing second generation biofuels, and are expected to lead to a reduction in
greenhouse gases emissions and not directly competing with food production [2]. Agricultural
residues in the form of husks, fruit shells and press cakes are mostly underutilised, and there is
a lot of potential in exploiting the residues for energy generation purposes.
Thermochemical conversion processes such as pyrolysis is a promising technology which can
produce bio-oil, and by-products in the form of char and gases [3]. Pyrolysis of agricultural
wastes has been widely studied from different sources, but the bio-oil produced is less
desirable and requires upgrading into a more usable fuel or higher valuable chemicals [4].
Catalysis in pyrolysis system often referred to as catalytic pyrolysis is the application of
catalysts to pyrolysis processes whereby the thermal decomposition of biomass material in the
absence of oxygen is aided by foreign chemicals to obtain higher quantity and quality of
targeted products. Biofuels derived from biomass pyrolysis contains significant amount of
oxygenated compounds which accounts for relatively low heating values, low stability, high
viscosity, low volatility and low pH. One way of overcoming most of these problems is by
introducing catalyst into the pyrolysis process designed in such a way to enhance de-
oxygenation, cracking and reforming reactions. One of the most useful catalysts used for
upgrading biomass pyrolysis oils is the hydrogen form of zeolite, H-ZSM-5. In the
temperature range of 350-450C oxygenated compounds in contact with zeolite catalysts have
been found to undergo a group of reactions including dehydration, decarboxylation, cracking,
aromatization, alkylation, condensation, and polymerization. Improving the bio-oil quality via
catalytic pyrolysis using zeolites is therefore an option. The product from catalytic pyrolysis
using zeolites always produced a two-phase liquid (aqueous and organic) and gas, while coke
deposits are also known to be formed on the catalyst surface [5]. Catalytic pyrolysis using
zeolite ZSM-5, has been reported for biomass such as rice husks [6] and jatropha [7, 8],
however no literature is found yet on the catalytic pyrolysis of parinari polyandra benth with
ZSM-5.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Feedstock
The feedstock used in this study are Rice Husk (RH), Jatropha Curcas press cakes (JC) and
Parinari Polyandra Benth fruit shells (PPB). The RH is obtained from Brunei, and JC and PPB
were obtained from West Africa. Table 1 shows the characterisation data for these feedstock.
The proximate analysis was performed to measure the moisture, volatiles and ash contents of
solid biofuels following the BS EN 14774-3:2009, BS EN 15148:2009 and BS EN
14775:2009 respectively [9-11] .The ultimate analysis describing the elemental composition of
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, and Chlorine in the sample was carried out by
external laboratory using a Carlo-Erba 1108 elemental analyser. The gross heating value was
determined using an oxygen bomb calorimeter model Parr 6100 according to ASTM D5865
[12]. The compositional analysis was determined using the Van Soest method [13-16]. This
determine the lignocellulosic content of the sample, and the procedure includes the
determination of neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent
lignin (ADL) for evaluating the hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin contents in the biomass.

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Table 7. Characterisation data for the feedstock*
RH JC PPB
Proximate Analysis (dry basis, wt. %)
Moisture 8.43 11.16 2.65
Volatile Matter 68.25 70.65 78.17
Ash 14.83 9.83 4.67
Fixed Carbon 16.92 8.36 14.51
Ultimate Analysis (dry and ash-free basis, wt. %)
C 39.48 52.51 48.04
H 5.71 7.35 5.76
N 0.67 3.25 2.13
S <0.10 0.59 0.10
Cl 0.03 - 0.44
O 54.12 36.30 43.53
Heating Value (as received, MJ/kg)
Higher Heating Value (HHV) 15.88 19.33 20.47
Compositional Analysis (dry, ash and extractives-free,
wt. %)
Extractives 10.77 27.11 18.06
Cellulose 41.52 48.83 45.41
Hemicellulose 14.04 10.08 6.42
Lignin 33.67 13.96 30.11
*RH (Rice Husk); JC (Jatropha Curcas); PPB (Parinari Polyandra Benth)

2.2 Experimental pyrolysis setup
The catalyst used in this experiment is zeolite ZSM-5 obtained from Acros Organics. The
catalyst was coated on to a ceramic cordierite monolith support with a clay binder. The
catalyst coated monolith are then dried to remove moisture, and calcined at 550C for at least
3 hrs. The catalytic pyrolysis rig is a close-coupled reactor configuration shown in figure 1. It
consists of a primary fixed-bed reactor containing the biomass feed, coupled to a secondary
fixed-bed reactor containing the catalyst. The primary reactor consists of a temperature
controlled furnace containing a fixed-bed quartz tube. The quartz tube is filled with the feed at
the start of the experiment while nitrogen gas is passed continuously throughout the system as
the carrier gas. A thermocouple connected to the furnace heating system is inserted into the
quartz tube to measure the feed temperature. The secondary reactor containing the catalyst is
heated up to 500C at the start of the experiment. The condensation unit consists of the dry-ice
condenser and a second condenser, acting as a cooling trap. The pyrolysis vapours are mostly
condensed in the dry-ice condenser and is collected in oil-pot 1. The condensation medium is a
mixture of dry-ice and acetone. The wet scrubber containing isopropanol is to remove excess
condensable vapours or char fines before venting out the remaining gases. The pyrolysis
condition for the primary reactor is 450C with a heating rate of 25C/min. The secondary
reactor, containing the ZSM-5 catalyst is kept at a range of 490-540C. A nitrogen gas flow of
50 cm
3
/min is maintained continuously throughout the experiment to purge the system.
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Figure 13. Catalytic pyrolysis rig setup
2.3 Bio-oil analysis
GC-MS analysis of bio-oil was conducted using a Hewlett Packard HP 5890 Series II Gas
Chromatograph with an Agilent auto sampler and coupled to an HP 5972 detector. Helium is
used as the carrier gas with a DB 1706 non-polar capillary column. The initial oven
temperature was 40C and rising up to 290C at a rate of 3C/min. The injection temperature
was held at 310C with a volume of 5l. Identification of the GC-MS peaks is based on the
NIST mass spectra library. The dilution solvent used was ethanol and the dilution rate was 1:5.
The water content of the bio-oil was determined using a Karl Fisher Titrator V20 based on
ASTM D1744 [17]. The pH was obtained using the Sartorius basic meter PB-11. Viscosity
was measured according to the ASTM D445. Density was measured using the Mettler Toledo
30PX Densitometer. The higher heating value (HHV) was calculated via correlations using
data obtained from ultimate analysis [18].


3.1 Product Yield
The mass balance obtained for the pyrolysis experiments is shown in table 2. The solid char
and liquid bio-oil are obtained by weighing the components before and after experiments, and
the gases are obtained by difference. A liquid bio-oil yield of up to 40 wt. % was recorded for
the catalytic experiments. The pyrolysis conditions can therefore be classified as intermediate
pyrolysis due to the moderate temperature used and yield comparable to the patented
Haloclean process [19]. The product yield for the catalytic run increases the gases yield for
RH, but decreases slightly for JC and more significant for PPB. This might be due to the initial
catalytic activity from the high ash content present in RH with about 14% ash, compared to the
low ash content of 9.83% and 4.67% in JC and PPB respectively.
Table 8. Yield from Non-catalytic and Catalytic Intermediate Pyrolysis Runs

Rice Husks Jatropha Press Cakes Parinari Fruit Shell
Yield (wt
%)
Non-
catalytic Catalytic
Non-
catalytic Catalytic
Non-
catalytic Catalytic
Liquid 39.61 38.29 43.57 43.06 37.93 40.96
Char 41.92 42.27 38.87 39.53 38.14 37.50
Gases 18.47 19.45 17.56 17.41 23.93 21.54

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3.2 Bio-oil composition
The GC-MS total peak areas for non-catalytic and catalytic runs for the biomass feedstock are
shown in table 3. There are over 100 peaks detected, and were classified into different
chemical groups. The RH bio-oil did not detect any presence of alkanes/alkenes and nitrogen-
containing compounds. The presence of alkane/alkene is not normally found in biomass
samples, but can be seen mainly in JC which probably originates from the residual oil left over
in the press cakes. This is evident in table 1 showing the high level of extractives content in JC
with 27.11 wt. %. The peak areas for light and heavy phenols were also less for JC compared
to RH. Phenolics are the major products from lignin degradation [20] where JC was found to
have a lower lignin content of 13.96 wt. % in comparison to RH with 33.67 wt. %. The
comparison with PPB is less noticeable indicating reduced degradation of lignin.
ZSM-5 decreases the organic acids, alcohols, and the nitrogen-containing compounds for all
the samples. Catalytic upgrading also increases the aromatics for RH and JC, but decreases for
PPB. The decrease in the nitrogen-containing compounds in catalysed bio-oil was noted by
Murata et al., which reported a dramatic decrease during the pyrolysis of jatropha seed cakes
[7]. Our study showed that the catalysed JC bio-oil decreased in the % peak area from 6.06%
to 5.34%. This was also found for PPB, which dropped from 3.02% to 0.58%.

Table 9. GC-MS total peak areas (%) for non-catalytic and catalytic bio-oils
Peak Areas (%)
Chemical groups RH
Catalytic
RH JC
Catalytic
JC PPB
Catalytic
PPB
Alkanes/Alkenes 0.00 0.00 6.85 5.23 0.73 0.00
Aromatics 1.51 2.43 7.10 8.18 7.15 5.02
Esters 0.87 1.04 8.31 7.41 0.90 2.48
Furans 8.99 9.63 2.79 1.92 1.49 1.11
Acids 16.06 15.49 20.11 14.00 21.63 14.80
Alcohols 6.91 5.48 3.74 3.49 5.78 5.00
Aldehydes and Ketones 16.99 14.97 7.56 8.44 21.07 19.11
Light Phenols 12.77 14.44 9.89 11.94 9.12 10.63
Heavy Phenols 14.74 14.33 5.86 7.07 6.04 9.48
Anhydrosugars 3.65 2.04 0.71 0.56 0.95 1.98
Nitrogen-containing
compounds 0.00 0.00 6.06 5.34 3.02 0.59
TOTAL 82.47 79.83 78.95 73.56 77.85 70.18

Figure 14. Peak areas for the selected chemicals from catalytic and non-catalytic bio-oil for
RH and JC
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Figure 15. Peak areas for the selected chemicals from non-catalytic and catalytic bio-oils from
PPB
Figures 2 and 3 shows the selected chemicals from non-catalytic and catalytic bio-oils from
RH, JC and PPB. Toluene, an aromatic compound, was shown to increase with RH and JC, but
decrease for PPB. Phenol was shown to increase for all, and guaiacol decreased for RH and
PPB, but increased for JC. Levoglucosan, an important anhydrosugars, was detected in RH
and shown to decrease with ZSM-5. 9-octadecanoic acid, methyl ester, a major ester
component detected in JC, decreased with catalytic cracking.

3.3 Bio-oil ultimate analysis
The bio-oil ultimate analysis was carried out externally by MEDAC Ltd., Surrey, UK for
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. Oxygen was calculated by difference (Table 4). The
carbon value for the PPB non-catalytic samples was the lowest with 14.08%, compared to RH
with 23.38% and JC with 30.88%.
The highest nitrogen value is for non-catalytic JC with 2%, and the lowest is for RH with
0.51%. The nitrogen content decreases for all of the samples following catalytic runs, and this
relates to the decrease in the peak area of the nitrogen containing compounds from the GC-MS
for JC and PPB.

Table 10. Characteristics of non-catalytic and catalytic bio-oil from RH, JC and PPB
RH JC PPB
Ultimate Analysis Non-
Catalyti
c
Catalyti
c
Non-
catalyti
c
Catalyti
c
Non-
catalyti
c
Catalyti
c
C 23.38 19.99 30.88 28.39 14.08 18.435
H 10.39 11.38 12.52 12.43 10.56 10.33
N 0.51 0.41 2.00 1.88 0.97 0.685
S < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.48
O (difference) 65.63 68.13 54.5 57.2 74.31 69.935

pH 3.00 2.40 3.05 5.08 4.32 3.87
Acetic acid (% peak
area)
10.74 9.57 18.17 12.58 18.20 11.73

*HHV-wet basis
(MJ/kg)
13.61 13.34 19.87 18.61 9.65 11.40
HHV-dry basis
(MJ/kg)
28.71 30.01 38.62 37.74 11.51 20.57

Kinematic Viscosity
(cSt)
1.68 1.55 1.34 1.49 1.35 1.85
0
2
4
6
P
e
a
k

A
r
e
a

(
%
)

PPB
PPB (ZSM-5)
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Water content (%) 52.60 55.56 48.56 50.68 39.02 44.56
Density (kg/m
3
) @
25C
1065 1053 1031 1027 1027 1032
*Higher Heating Values

3.4 Acidity and pH
The acidity for the bio-oils was measured using the pH meter. The non-catalytic bio-oil for RH
was found to be the most acidic with a pH of 3, while PPB bio-oil had a pH of 4.32. This can
be related to the hemicellulose content in the biomass itself, as the hemicellulose degradation
will produce acetic acid as one of the products [20]. Hemicellulose in RH was measured to be
14.04 wt. %, followed by JC with 10.08 wt. %, and the least for PPB with 6.08 wt. %. After
catalytic runs, the pH for RH and PPB dropped to 2.4 and 3.87 respectively, showing the oils
are more acidic. The pH values were in contrast with the total acid peak areas from GC-MS.
This showed a decrease in the values for all the samples especially for acetic acid. The peak
areas obtained from GC-MS may only be compared for the same sample before and after
catalytic runs, due to the difference in number of peaks, and the compounds produced from
different biomass. The pH measures the hydrogen ions concentration in the aqueous phase
[21], which might not be an accurate measurement for the pyrolysis oil here, which consists of
an aqueous phase and an organic phase.

3.5 Heating value
The non-catalytic bio-oil higher heating values (HHV) in dry basis is highest for JC with 38.62
MJ/kg compared to the rest of the samples. The GC-MS values for JC showed a high peak
area for alkanes/alkenes and aromatics in comparison to the other samples, which might
explain the increase in the calorific values relative to others. The HHV values for the RH and
PPB were found to increase after catalytic run, and decreases slightly for JC.

3.6 Water content, viscosity and density
The highest water content obtained was 52.60% for RH and the lowest was 39.02% for PPB.
The water content for the samples will have an effect on increasing the yield of the liquid
samples. The water content for the bio-oils is around 40-55% which is a typical yield from
intermediate pyrolysis [3]. After the catalytic runs, the values for water content increases for
all the bio-oil samples.
The low viscosity values for all shows that the water content have a great influence on the bio-
oil, as suggested by Nolte and Liberatore [21]. The viscosities for the samples are shown to
decrease for RH, but increase for JC and PPB when subjected to catalytic cracking. The
increase in viscosity in the sample may be caused by the increase in the heavy phenols in both
the bio-oils, in addition to the presence of ketones and aldehyde which are more pronounced
for JC, and esters for PPB.
Oasmaa et al. reported that the density is a function of water content [22], which explains the
low values of bio-oil density. The density of the bio-oil decreases after catalysis for RH, from
1065 kg/m3 to 1053 kg/m3 and JC from 1031 kg/m3 to 1027 kg/m3, but increases for PPB
from 1027 kg/m3 to 1032 kg/m3.

5. CONCLUSION

Catalytic pyrolysis have been performed on rice husk, jatropha press cakes and parinari fruit
shell samples, and are shown to reduce the acetic acid and nitrogen-containing compounds in
the bio-oil. ZSM-5 improved the heating value of PPB bio-oil significantly. Initial catalytic
effects from the ash present in RH further increase the gas yield after catalysis. Water content
increases in all of the samples after catalysis, viscosity decrease for RH, but increases for both
JC and PPB.

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6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The award of Brunei Government Scholarship to Muhammad Saifullah Abu Bakar is
gratefully acknowledged. Help from EBRI (European Bioenergy Research Institute)
colleagues is appreciated.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Briens, C., Piskorz, J. , Berruti F., (2008). Biomass valorization for fuel and chemicals
production - A review, International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering, 6 (1).
[2] Perego, C. and Bosetti, A., (2011). Biomass to fuels: The role of zeolite and mesoporous
materials. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 144 (1-3), pp. 28-39.
[3] Bridgwater, A.V., (2012). Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading,
Biomass & Bioenergy, 38, pp. 68-94.
[4] Bridgwater, A.V., (1994). Catalysis in thermal biomass conversion. Applied Catalysis A-
General, 116(1-2), pp. 5-47.
[5] French, R. and Czernik, S., (2010). Catalytic pyrolysis of biomass for biofuels production.
Fuel Processing Technology, 91(1), pp. 25-32.
[6] Williams, P.T. and Nugranad, N., (2000). Comparison of products from the pyrolysis and
catalytic pyrolysis of rice husks. Energy, 25(6), pp. 493-513.
[7] Murata, K., et al., (2011). Analyses of Liquid Products from Catalytic Pyrolysis of Jatropha
Seed Cakes. Energy & Fuels, 25(11), pp. 5429-5437.
[8] Murata, K., et al., (2012). Catalytic fast pyrolysis of jatropha wastes. Journal of Analytical
and Applied Pyrolysis, 94, pp. 75-82.
[9] British Standard Institution, BS EN 14774-3:2009 Solid biofuels Determination of
moisture content Oven dry method Part 3: Moisture in general analysis sample:
London.
[10] British Standard Institution, BS EN 15148:2009 Solid biofuels Determination of the
content of volatile matter: London.
[11] British Standard Institution, BS EN 14775:2009 Solid biofuels Determination of the ash
content: London.
[12] ASTM International (2007). ASTM D5865 Standard Test Method for Gross Calorific
Value of Coal and Coke, West Conshohocken, PA.
[13] FOSS Analytical AB (2003). Determination of amylase treated Neutral Detergent Fibre
using the Fibertec system according to AOAC 2002:04/ISO 16472:2005. 200
[14] FOSS Analytical AB (2003). Determination of Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) and Acid
Detergent Lignin (ADL) using Fibercap 2021/2023.
[15] Du, L., et al., (2009). Physicochemical Characteristics, Hydroxycinnamic Acids (Ferulic
Acid, p-Coumaric Acid) and Their Ratio, and in Situ Biodegradability: Comparison of
Genotypic Differences among Six Barley Varieties, Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 57(11), pp. 4777-4783.
[16] Carrier, M., et al., (2011) Thermogravimetric analysis as a new method to determine the
lignocellulosic composition of biomass, Biomass and Bioenergy, 35(1), pp. 298-307.
[17] ASTM International, (1992). ASTM Standard D1744, Standard Test Method for
Determination of Water in Liquid Petroleum Products by Karl Fisher Reagent, West
Conshohocken, PA.
[18] Parikh, J., S.A. Channiwala, and G.K. Ghosal (2005). A correlation for calculating HHV
from proximate analysis of solid fuels, Fuel, 84(5), pp. 487-494.
[19] Roggero, C.M., et al., (2011). Characterization of Oils from Haloclean (R) Pyrolysis of
Biomasses, Energy Sources Part a-Recovery Utilization and Environmental Effects, 33(5),
pp. 467-476.
[20] Wild, P.d. (2011). Biomass pyrolysis for chemicals, Ph.D, University of Groningen.
[21] Nolte, M.W. and M.W. Liberatore (2010). Viscosity of Biomass Pyrolysis Oils from
Various Feedstocks, Energy & Fuels, 24, pp. 6601-6608.
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[22] A. Oasmaa, E.L., P. Koponen, J. Levander, E. Tapola (1997). Physical characterisation of
biomass-based pyrolysis liquids, Application of standard fuel oil analyses, VTT
Publications.

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Sustainable Hydrogen and Fertiliser from Industrial Wastewater using Microbial
Fuel Cells

Laura Porcu
1*
, John M. Andresen
1

1
Energy and Sustainability Division, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, United
Kingdom
* Corresponding Author. Tel: (+44) 1623 557420, Fax: (+44) 1623 440381
E-mail: laura.porcu@nottingham.ac.uk

Abstract
Wastewaters from domestic, animal and food processing sources are estimated to contain a
total of 6,400 GWh of energy annually in the UK alone. In 2006, the UK water treatment
companies spent 3.3 billion and consumed 7,703 GWh to remove this energy. In particular,
the UK food processing industry generates wastewater with a high organic content that can be
costly to dispose of and they are eager to find a sustainable solution to decrease their costs.
Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) are bio-batteries, made of an anode, a cathode and a proton
exchange membrane (PEM), which use micro-organisms to consume organic matter presented
in the wastewater by converting the waste material directly into energy. MFCs can
significantly reduce the organic content in the wastewater and also produce renewable energy
from it. This study has contributed to make the scaling up of MFCs a reality.
The 25.5 l bench scale tank MFC was designed and tested to assess the removal of organics,
measured as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), from artificial and food processing
wastewaters and correlate the COD removal with the MFC efficiency in terms of converting
this to electricity, biogas and microbial residues. The entirely innovative 4 chamber tank MFC
operated in absence of a PEM and at continuous flow. Reduction of COD by 50% within the
first 24 hours was observed. At optimum conditions, 43-75% of the energy in the COD was
converted into hydrogen rich biogas. About 12% of nitrogen was retained in the microbial
biomass which has a potential to be used as fertiliser. Hydrogen production was promoted at
pH lower than 6.5 and methanogenesis inhibited. The 25.5 l bench scale reactor was scaled up
to 1 m
3
pilot scale MFC and showed results consistent with those obtained with the 25.5 l
bench scale reactor indicating that this technology could be used for real scale applications. In
particular, an innovative, robust and low cost anode and cathode material was tested in this
work, which can greatly decrease MFC scaling up costs.
It was estimated that a company that produce 150 m
3
of high strength wastewater per day with
a COD of 81 kg/m
3
can use a MFC to save about 160,719 in water disposal savings, 41,669
from the sustainable hydrogen produced and 14,751 from the microbial residues if used as
fertiliser.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Performance of 2MW Commercial Wind Turbines in Bruneis Wind Regime

Hamed Namoora
*1
, Haseeb Shah
1
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
, Chee Ming Lim
1

1
Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
*
Corresponding Author: ha2med@live.com

Abstract
In this paper the performance efficiencies of seven different commercial wind turbines with
capacity power of 2MW are computed from their respective power curves. Subsequently their
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suitability is compared for low wind speed regimes as found in Brunei Darussalam. The wind
speed was adjusted to the height of 100 m. Each turbine was processed by the data-fit program
to find out the velocity power proportionality. The statistical wind data set was analyzed using
Weibull distributions in order to investigate the Weibull shape and scale parameters. Wind
speeds are parameterized using Weibull probability, and cumulative density functions and the
methodology allows yielding greater energy production at a higher capacity factor. The results
show that the commercial wind turbines considered in this study have a poor efficiency at low
wind speeds, typical of the tropical wind regimes with an average Wiebull shape factor of 1.87
and scale factor of 5.41 m/s, prevailing in Brunei Darussalam.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Low Reynolds Number Airfoil for Small Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Blades

Haseeb Shah
1*
, Nikesh Bhattarai
2
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
, Chee Ming Lim
1

1
Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
2
Division of Aerospace, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of
Korea
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail: H.shah.nuaa@hotmail.co.uk

Abstract
The present study is an approach to design new airfoils for small horizontal axis wind turbines
operating at low wind speeds and consequently at lower Reynolds numbers (Re). The so
called direct design method is employed. Post-design viscous study tool Xfoil is used for
optimization of the airfoil. The aim is to attain higher values of lifttodrag ratio (L/D ratio)
for the tip of the blades. The new airfoil, named UBD-5494, was tested in Xfoil with Re in
the range of 30 000, 55 000, 70 000, and 100 000. Each of these cases is analyzed at various
angles of attack, ranging from 0 to 20 degrees at one degree increments. Performances of other
existing airfoil options are also compared with UBD-5494. The new airfoil shows
distinctively higher efficiency in comparison to other existing airfoils at low Re in terms of
Lift-to-drag ratio at its design lift coefficient and is therefore recommended for tip of small
horizontal axis wind turbine blades.

Keywords: Low Reynolds number, separation bubble, lift-to-drag ratio, airfoil.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wind Power has proven to be one of the best alternatives to fossil fuels since it is clean,
renewable, and free of green house emissions. In 2010 alone, the European Union (EU) could
offset 126 million tons (Mt) of CO
2
by generating 84 GW of energy from wind [1]. Production
of electricity from wind turbines has increased very rapidly and widely around the word in the
last decade and by 2020, 8-12% of the global electricity is aimed to be extracted from the wind
[1].
Apart from the large sized systems in the MW range, small-scale wind turbines are also
projected to be significant players in the future sustainable energy mix. These contributions
can be in forms of stand alone, grid connected, or building- integrated systems. Both small and
large turbines rely on the same working principles as the fundamental aerodynamics is
independent of the size of the turbine. However, due to the difference in size, there could be
some distinctions: for example the range of Reynolds number (Re) within which the system
operates [2][3].
Reynolds number (Re), in general, is an important dimensionless parameter employed to
characterize the flow and is essentially used in the selection of an airfoil. Due to the blade
radius, small wind turbines operates at low Re, generally lower then Re =500 000. At the tip of
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the blade, the Re values are found to be even smaller [4]. For example, a standstill blades Re
is reported to be within a low range of 1000 to 10 000 [3].
At low Re, performance of an airfoil degrades because of the higher drag and lower
maximum lift values. Hence, the flow in the boundary layer is mainly laminar, relatively
fragile and thick [5]. Consequently, gaining very high maximum lift (C
Lmax
) at low Re can be
challenging. Flow in the attached boundary layer, operating in such low Re medium, detaches
from the airfoil surface before it transits to a complete turbulent flow. A so called separation
bubble is formed when the separated flow reattaches to the airfoil surface. Such separation
bubble transfers towards the leading edge with increase in angle of attack (AOA). A quicker
shift of this separation bubble towards the leading edge causes a moderate trailing-edge stall
(longer separation bubble) and a slower shift of the bubble causes a low trailing-edge stall
(shorter separation bubble). Moderate trailing edge stall causes a sudden jump in the drag ,
where as in low trailing-edge stall, slow movement of the separation bubble responds in lesser
jump in the drag [6], as shown by the drag values at corresponding angle of attack in Fig 8 .
This complex nature of flow around the blades in low Re warrants for a careful and clever
selection of the airfoil profiles in the small wind turbine design process.
Wide ranges of Low Re, airfoils documented in literature, were particularly for free flight
model aircrafts, heavy lift Radio Controlled (RC) aircrafts and RC sail planes [12][13][14].
These airfoils are sometimes adopted for small horizontal axis wind turbine applications [5]
[9] [11]. Airfoils, exclusively designed for small HAWT are limited and the airfoil
performance data in the Re range 10 000 100 000 is not extensive [3]. Low Re airfoils used
for small wind turbine applications require special features, for example they are to be thin
(chord thickness of 5 %) to reduce the suction peak near the leading edge which causes
decrease in Average Pressure Gradients (APG) on the upper surface of

Fig. 1 Lift to drag ratios of various airfoils considered for small wind turbines at Re = 30 000.

the airfoil[3][8][10]. Some of the commendable efforts made in developing and testing tailor-
made airfoils for small wind turbines are reported in [6] [9] [11] [15] and [17]. Only few of
these studies [11] [15] are aimed develop to airfoils producing maximum lift to-drag ratio
(L/D ratio) at the blade tip for maximizing the power.
However, for maximizing the overall performance of small wind turbines, apart from
maximizing the power contributed from the blade tips (by designing for maximum L/D ratio at
the tips), the starting behavior of the turbine also has to be optimized. This becomes more
significant for small wind turbines designed for low speed, fluctuating wind regimes. The
starting behavior can be improved by targeting higher C
Lmax
at the hub of the blades [3]. In the
L
i
f
t

t
o

d
r
a
g

r
a
t
i
o
.

L
/
D

angle of attack,degrees
E374
RG15
S3010
S6063
S9037
SD800
0
E62
Aquila
S1223
S1210
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present study, a novel airfoil profile is proposed to meet these dual objectives of maximizing
the power (through higher L/D ratio at the tips). The so called direct design method is
adopted for developing the proposed airfoil profile .The Xfoil code is employed to optimize
the shape and analyzing the performance of the new airfoil. Performance of the new airfoil is
examined at Re = 30 000, 55 000, 70 000 and 100 000. The results are also compared with the
performances of various available airfoils at Re = 30 000.

2. AIFOIL DESIGN

The method employed in the present study for the airfoil design is known as direct designing
method which involves designing of section geometry and calculating airfoils performance.
Xfoil was employed as a post-design viscous study tool. To match the Xfoil viscous conditions
with wind tunnel, turbulence level was set to < 1%, by adjusting Ncrit = 2.65 and Vacc= 0.
The panel nodes were set to 230 for all the airfoils tested in Xfoil. To examine the flow
behavior closely, all airfoils are tested at angle of attack (AOA) 0
0
to 20
0
with an increment of
1
0
. For the design and comparison purposes, different exiting airfoils designed to operate
under low Re conditions are also examined in Xfoil, particularly the tip performance, at Re 30
000. The air foils considered are (1) Aqualism Aquila, (2) Selig S1210, (3) Selig S1223 (4)
Selig S6063, (5) Selig S9037 , (6) Selig S3010 (7), Selig-Donovan SD8000 (8), Bergy BW3
(9), Selig and Gigure SG6043, (10) Eppler E387, (11) Eppler E374 ,(12) Eppler E62 and
(13) Rolf Girsberger RG15 [17].
The performances of these airfoils are shown in Fig1. From this analysis, E62 airfoil which
shows the highest L/D ratio of 32 was chosen as a base airfoil for this study. The airfoil has a
maximum thickness of 5.62% at 26.2% of the chord length, camber of 5.3% at 49.3 % of the
chord length, and leading edge radius of 0.35%.

Fig. 2 Lift to drag ratios of UBD5494 airfoil at Re = 30 000, 55 000, 70 000 and100 000

In an effort to derive a new efficient (maximum L/D ratio under low Re) airfoil from the E62,
leading edge nose radius and maximum camber and thickness of E62 were altered
independently and then by combinations. Failed attempts in meeting the design objectives
were taken as experience which is then used to redesign the airfoil, until the aimed high L/D
performance was achieved. The highest C
Lmax
of 1.28 at an AOA of 10
0
and L/D ratio of 35 at
an AOA of 6
o
was observed at the thickness of 4.81% at 22.8 % of the chord length, camber of
5.4% at 49.1 % of the chord length and leading edge radius 0.31 %. Hence, these dimensions
were chosen for the newly designed airfoil which was named as UBD5494.
The new airfoil, UBD5494, was tested in Xfoil for Re 30 000, 55 000, 70 000 and 100 000
adopting similar conditions described earlier. The results are shown in Fig. 2. Impressive
increase in L/D ratio can be seen with increase in Re. At Re = 30 000, a maximum L/D ratio of
35 could be attained at an AOA of 6
o
, whereas the maximum L/D ratio of 55 (AOA 6
o
), 59
(AOA 4
o
) and 71 (AOA 4
o
) were observed for Re 55 000, 70 000 and 100 000 respectively.
L
i
f
t
-
t
o
-
d
r
a
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

L
/
D

Angle of attack , degrees
Re30000
Re55000
Re70000
Re100000
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The lift coefficient (C
L
) increases with the increase in Re can be observed in Fig.3. For all
considered Re, C
L
values increases almost linearly up to AOA 10
o
where it reaches its
maximum. C
Lmax
of 1.28 , 1.38, 1.41 and 1.45 were observed at Re 30 000, 55 000, 70 000
and 100 000 respectively. Sudden fall in C
L
at AOA 11
o
(Fig.3) represents the stall caused by
the flow separation at the trailing edge of the airfoils which consequently results in an increase
in drag coefficient (C
D
). The steep fall in lift before the point of stall indicates a slow progress
of the turbulent separation point towards the leading edge with the increase in the AOA.
Figure 4 represent the drag polar plots of UBD5494, which demonstrates the lift and drag
behavior of the airfoil in different Re. The so called drag bucket in which the drag remains
almost constant due to the slow trailing edge stall can be observed in the Fig. 4 .

Fig. 3 Lift coefficient of UBD5494 airfoil at Re = 30 000, 55 000, 70 000 and100 000.

Fig. 4 Drag polar for UBD5494 at Re = 30 000, 55 000, 70 000 and 100 000.

At Re 55 000, shallow drag bucket is formed as a result of the steady movement of the
separation bubble towards the leading edge with constant length over a period of time. With
increase in angle of attack, at C
L
1, the bubble tends to increase in length followed by the
rapid increase in drag, until the transition occurs. With increasing Re, the drag (C
D
) tends to
trim down due to reduction in the size of the separation bubble resulting in even shallower
drag buckets. Slight increase in C
D
at Re 30 000 is because of the increase in length of the
bubble; whereas the movement of the bubble most likely remains the same until C
L
1, after
which usual trend of increase in C
D
with separation bubble growth is observed. However at
very low Re (for example Re lower than 30 000), the drag behavior can be critical to be
reported due to deviations.

L
i
f
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
.

C
L

Angle of attack, degrees
Re30000
Re55000
Re70000
Re10000
L
i
f
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

C
L

Drag coefficient, C
D

Re30000
Re55000
Re70000
Re100000
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3. RESULT COMPARISON

Performance of the new UBD5494 airfoil under a low Re of 30 000 is compared with 13 other
airfoils mentioned in Section 2 using the Xfoil. All Airfoils are tested at angle of attacks
(AOA) ranging from 0 to 20. The Turbulence level was set to <1%, by adjusting Ncrit = 2.65
and Vacc= 0. Panel nodes were set to 230 for all the airfoils. The results are compared in Figs.
5 through 7.

Fig. 5 Comparison of variations in maximum Lift to Drag ratio with Lift coefficient for
various airfoils at Re = 30 000.

Fig. 6 Comparison of various airfoils Lift-to-drag ratio at Re = 30 000.

As evident from Fig. 5, UBD5494 produces maximum L/D ratio at a C
L
value of 1.13 at Re 30
000. This is higher than the maximum L/D ratio observed for all other airfoils considered. Fig.
6 shows the variations in L/D ratio against the lift coefficient for various airfoils at Re 30 000.
UBD5494 displays the maximum L/D ratio of 35.46 at AOA 6
o
. E62 ranks second, BW3 third
and S1210 fourth with L/D ratios of 32.12 (AOA 5
o
)

, 30.78 (AOA 6
o
)

and 29.66 (AOA 4
o
)
respectively. From Figs. 5 and 6, it is evident that the new airfoil UBD5494 can generate
higher L/D ratio compared to the other airfoils while operating under low Re and over a broad
L
i
f
t
-
t
o
-
d
r
a
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

L
/
D

Lift Coefficient, C
L

E387
SG6043
BW3
Aquila
S1210
S1223
E62
UBD5494
S9037
S6063
S3010
RG15
E374
SD8000
L
i
f
t
-
t
o
-
d
r
a
g

r
a
t
i
o
,

L
/
D

E374
RG15
S3010
S6063
S9037
SD8000
E62
Aquila
S1223
S1223
BW3
SG6043
E387
UBD5494
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248

range of design lift coefficient. This clearly indicates that a new airfoil, with the profile of
UBD5494 at its tip, can perform very well as the blade for small wind turbines working under
low Re.
The relationship between the lift and drag coefficients of the airfoils are shown in Fig. 7. It
could be seen that, S1223 airfoil shows the highest maximum lift coefficient C
Lmax
= 1.47 at
AOA 7
o
. At AOA higher than 7
o
, the lift developed by this airfoil drops significantly which
is an indication of stall. In comparison, UBD5494 shows a C
Lmax
of 1.28 at an AOA of 10
o

and shows slower trailing edge stall. Variations in C
D
with AOA in case of UBD5494 and
S1223 are compared in Fig. 8. It is seen that the drag is minimum for a wide range of AOA for
UBD5494. As a result, it could show maximum L/D ratio along with an impressive C
Lmax
in
compariosn with all other aifoils considered under the study. This makes UBD5494 an
attractive option for small wind turbines working under low Re.

Fig. 7 Lift and drag coefficients of the airfoils at Re = 30 000.

Fig 8 Comparison of Drag Coefficicent for UBD5494 and S1223 at different AOA

4. CONCLUSION

A new airfoil, UBD5494, showing high lift-to-drag ratio at low Re has been designed for
possible use at the tip of small horizontal wind turbine blades. UBD5494 has maximum
L
i
f
t

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

C
L

Drag coefficient, C
D
UBD5494
E374
RG15
S3010
S6063
S9037
SD8000
Aquila
E387
SG6043
BW3
S1210
S1223
E62
D
r
a
g

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

C
D

UBD549
4
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249

thickness of 4.81% at 22.8 % of total chord length, maximum camber of 5.4% at 49.1 % of the
total chord length and leading edge radius 0.31 %. The Xfoil code is employed to optimize the
shape and performance of UBD5494. Performance of this airfoil was examined at Re 30 000,
55 000, 70 000 and 100 000 which showed impressive increase in L/D with increase in Re. At
Re 30 000, a maximum L/D ratio of 35 at an AOA of 6
o
could be attained by UBD5494,
whereas the maximum L/D ratio of 55 (AOA 6
o
), 59 (AOA 4
o
) and 71 (AOA 4
o
) were
observed for Re 55 000, 70 000 and 100 000 respectively. Performance of the proposed airfoil
was compared with thirteen existing airfoils at Re 30 000 using Xfoil. UBD5494 could show
distinctly high L/D ratio compared to other airfoils, which makes it suitable for the tip of the
small wind turbine blades. However, more detailed CFD simulation and wind tunnel tests are
required to verify the results.

5. AKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to the University of Brunei Darussalam for providing necessary
funding for this research under the S&T Research Grant. We would also like to thank Prof.
David Wood, University of Calgary, Canada, for his support during this research work.

6. REFERENCES

1. Global Wind Energy Council Reports. (2010 2011) www.GWEC.net.
2. Clausen, P.D. and Wood, D.H. (1999) Research and development issues for small wind
turbines, Renewable Energy, 16 : 922-927.
3. Mathew, S. and Philip, G.S. (2011) Advances in wind energy conversion technology, pp.
159-161, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
4. Miley, S.J. (1982) A catalog of low Reynolds number airfoil data for wind turbine
applications, report; RFP-3387, UC-60.
5. Gigure, P. and Selig, M.S. (1997) Low Reynolds number airfoils for small Horizontal
axis wind turbines, Wind Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 6
6. Selig, M.S. and Guglielmo, J.J. (1997) High-lift low Reynolds number airfoil design ,
Journal of Aircraft , Vol. 34, No. 1.
7. Selig, M.S. (2003) Lecture notes on Low Reynolds number airfoil design, VKI lecture
series.
8. Lissaman, P.B.S. (1983) Low-Reynolds-number-airfoils, Annual review Fluid
mechanics, Vol. 15:233-239.
9. Selig, M.S. and Macgranahan, B.D. (2004) Wind tunnel aerodynamic tests of six airfoils
for use on small wind turbines, AIAA.
10. Tangler, J.L. (2000) The evolution of rotor and blade design, NREL report.
11. Gigure, P and Selig, M.S. (1998) New airfoils for small horizontal axis wind turbines,
Transactions of ASME , Vol.1.
12. Selig, M.S., Guglielmo, J.J., Broeren, A.P., Gigure, P. (1995) Summary of low-speed
airfoil data, SOARTECH publications, USA, vol:1.
13. Selig, M.S., Lyon, C.A., Gigure, P., Ninham, C.P., Guglielmo, J.J. (1996) Summary of
low-speed airfoil data, SOARTECH publications, USA, vol: 2.
14. Lyon, C.A., Broeren, A.P., Gigure, P. Gopalarathnam, A., Selig, M.S. (1997) Summary
of low-speed airfoil data , SOARTECH publications,USA, vol: 3.
15. Tangler, J.L., Somers, D.M. (1995) NREL airfoil families for Small HAWT, AWEA,
Washington.
16. Henriques, J.C.C, Silva, M., Estanqueiro, A.I., Gato, L.M.C. (2001) Design of a new
urban wind turbine airfoil using a pressure-load inverse method, Renewable Energy , 34:
2728-34.
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17. University of Illinois (UIUC)- Airfoil coordinates data base, UIUC Applied
Aerodynamics group , Department of Aerospace Engineering
.http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads.html.
18. Habili , S.M and Saleh, I.A. (2000) Local design , testing and manufacturing of small
mixed airfoil wind turbine blades of glass fiber reinforced plastics , Part I : Design of the
blade and root, Energy Conversion & Management, 41 : 249-280.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effects of Oxygen on Biochar Yield from Pyrolysis of Mangrove Wood

Ramlan Zailani
1,
Halim Ghafar
1*
,Mohamad Sufian Soaib
2

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (006) 0355443502, Fax: (006) 03-55443510, E-mail:
aleem_83@yahoo.com

Abstract
Oxygen infiltration in mass scale industrial application of mangrove char production is
inevitable. The presence of oxygen is detrimental to the production of biochar yield because it
burned away the biomass. The experiment was carried out in fixed-bed pyrolysis reactor by
changing the composition of oxygen from 0% to 10% by varying Nitrogen composition to
balance the oxygen presence at desired composition. Temperature and holding time were also
varied. Process optimization was carried out by response surface methodology (RSM) by
employing central composite design (CCD) using Design Expert 6.0 software. The effect of
oxygen ratio and holding time on biochar yield within the range studied were statistically
significant. From the analysis result, optimum condition of 15.2% biochar yield was predicted
at pyrolysis temperature at 402.5
o
C, oxygen percentage of 2.29% and holding time of two
hours. This prediction agreed well with confirmation experiment of 15.1% biochar yield.

Keywords: Slow Pyrolysis, Biochar, Oxygen, Mangrove, RSM.

1. INTRODUCTION

The increase scarcity of fossil fuels makes the pursuit of alternative fuels increasingly
important. Furthermore, fossil fuels are often implicated with the environmental pollutions due
to the release of greenhouse gases, rogue natural disasters blamed on climate change and acid
rain [1]. The utilisation of biomass waste such as agricultural by-products is perceived with
great commercial appetite thus becoming an important subject matter in many bioenergy field.
It holds brilliant future in countries with huge agricultural sector because the utilisation of this
inexpensive and renewable resource not only provides a cleaner form of energy to fulfil the
energy demand but also offers a brilliant solution to the waste disposal problem.
For decades, studies on biochar, a form of alternative fuel produced by pyrolyis of various
plant precursors containing high carbon content had been carried out from for various
applications. Pyrolysis consists of three stages; moisture and volatile loss, followed by
formation of primary biochar and finally the formation of secondary biochar. The final
products are biochar, bio-oil and gases, where fraction of each is determined by the
decomposition of key chemical components of the biomass; cellulose, hemicelluloses and
lignin [2]. The optimum pyrolysis condition is critical for biochar quality. It determines the
suitability of biochar to fit the intended applications; soil conditioning [3-5], pollutants
absorbent [6], fuel pellet [7] and catalysts support [8] in which heating value, porosity, surface
area and pore size are important quality criteria which are largely controlled by operating
conditions such as pyrolysis temperature, particle size, heating rate and holding time.

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Mangrove-derived biochar has excellent sorption capacity to store essential nutrients for plants
thus had been applied in soil as carbon fixation method. It is appeared as a hard and heavy
charcoal which is produced by kilning the mangrove wood logs over a lengthy eight to ten
days at 220C followed by baking process for another two weeks at 83 C [9]. There is bright
prospect of utilising this abundant resource owing to Malaysias excellent conservation
programme as evident from abundant of mangrove forest reserve along its coastline.
Nonetheless, traditional charcoal production technique contains several loopholes such as the
lack of established fact regarding the optimum temperature for biochar yield, while studies on
other biomass found that biochar is formed favourably at lower pyrolysis temperature, lower
sweeping gas rate and longer holding time to allow secondary coking and repolymerisation
reactions [1]. Moreover, studies conducted on the effect of oxygen infiltration were rarely
conducted, though such phenomenon is very likely to occur in large scale production plant. A
study on the effect of oxygen concentration on pyrolysis of olive waste solid found that
increased oxygen concentration did not affect the decomposition of hemicellulose which
marked the first volatilisation stage but caused the oxidation of char to occur at lower
temperature i.e. 295C compared to 335C in the absence of oxygen. Similar conclusion was
also made regarding oxygen concentration effect on decomposition of cellulose[10].
The aim of this work is to study the influence of oxygen concentration on biochar yield by
carrying out pyrolysis of fixed size mangrove wood (1 cm cube) under inert atmosphere (0%
oxygen) and oxidative atmosphere (5.65% to 11.0 %) and to establish fact on optimum
pyrolysis temperature and holding time condition for mangrove-based biochar.


2.1 Material
Mangrove wood solid waste is obtained from a mangrove forest on the Malaysian West Coast.
It was cut into about 1cm
3
cube size before finally dried for about 24 hours at 60C. The gross
calorific value of mangrove is 16.38 MJ/kg. The proximate and ultimate analysis of mangrove
wood solid waste is shown in

Table 11.

Table 11: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Mangrove wood.
Proximate Analysis Ultimate analysis
Contents wt% Element wt%
Volatile 55.65 C 44.09
Fixed Carbon and
Ash
21.61 H 5.06
Moisture 7.24 N 0.28
O 50.00*
S 0.57
*by weight difference

2.2 Fixed Bed Pyrolysis Experiment
The experiment was run in a fixed bed pyrolysis system as shown in Figure 16. The dimension
of main reactor is 52mm diameter 150mm height. This is the where the sample is placed and
the pyrolysis occurs. There is pre-heat area to make sure the required gas temperature can be
obtained in before entering the main reactor. The size of the pre heat area is 52mm diameter
300mm height. Both pre-heat area and main reactor are fixed with heater and controlled by
PID controller. About 5mg sample was used in each experiment. Then, nitrogen gas was used
to sweep out the oxygen in the reactor about 10 minutes before starting the experiment.
Experiment was carried out under gas flow containing oxygen between 0% and 11% at flow
rate 200ml/min. The heating rate is set to 10K/min. The experiments was conducted in
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difference temperature, oxygen ratio and residence time. The char obtained from the pyrolysis
was collected and analyzed.

2.3 Response surface methodology
Response surface method (RSM) was employed as design of experiment (DOE) method. RSM
investigated the effect of temperature, oxygen percentage and holding time on biochar yield.
The advantage of RSM is fewer experimental trials required, by assigning parameters values
at certain points on geometric design shape such as cube plus extrapolated points known as
alpha. This allows the observation on point to point effect of parameter within the range
studied as well as predicting its effect within alpha which can be described by a model. The
first step of RSM is selecting the parameters and specifying the low and high values (lower
and upper extreme) of each as shown in Table 12. This design information was fitted into
RSMs central composite design (CCD) to produce an experimental design shown in Table 3.

Table 12: Parameters and range under study
Factor Units Low High
Temperature C 400 560
O
2
percentage % 2.3 9.0
Holding time hour 2.00 4.25

Figure 16: Schematic Diagram of Fixed Bed Pyrolysis System
Gas
Exhaus

N
2

O
2

Flowmeter Flowmeter
Heater Heater

Thermocouple

Sample
Pre-heat
area
Reactor
Temperature
Controller
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Table 13: Design matrix of CCD
Run
A:Temperature
(C)
B: Oxygen
percentage
(%)
C: Holding
time (hour)
Yield
Percentage
(%)
1 400 2.3 2.00 15.1
2 560 2.3 2.00 9.1
3 400 9.0 2.00 7.5
4 560 9.0 2.00 16.2
5 400 2.3 4.25 4.6
6 560 2.3 4.25 0.95
7 400 9.0 4.25 1.3
8 560 9.0 4.25 1.26
9 345 5.6 3.13 17.1
10 614 5.6 3.13 2.25
11 480 0 3.13 22.4
12 480 11.3 3.13 1.3
13 480 5.6 1.23 17.9
14 480 5.6 5.02 1.3
15 480 5.6 3.13 4.5
16 480 5.6 3.13 1.1
17 480 5.6 3.13 1.1
18 480 5.6 3.13 1.3
19 480 5.6 3.13 1.4
20 480 5.6 3.13 1.7

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION

3.1 Thermal decomposition of mangrove wood
Figure 17 shows the weight changes at temperature 25-800 C. Thermogravimetric (TG)
profile provides thermal characteristics of biomass as a result of thermal degradation of its key
elements such as hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin. As expected, TG profile of mangrove
wood was typical to TG profile of other biomass. Initial weight loss (6.8%) observed at up 120
C was attributed to moisture loss. Afterwards, another significant weight loss by almost
54.5% due to decomposition of biomass was occurred up to 470 C. This leaves 21.6% residue
as the remainder which consists of fixed carbon and ash. The decomposition of mangrove
wood occurred in two stages; the first stage between 210-420 C was ascribed to the
decomposition of cellulose and almost a complete release of volatiles, whereas the residue
after second stage above 420 C is considered as char. DTG curve exhibits fast decomposition
at 340 C, signalling high reactivity of cellulose responsible for its decomposition. Lignin also
started to decompose above this point, but mass decrease is not noticeable due to its stable
benzene rings. The smaller DTG peak at 280 C indicates the decomposition of hemicellulose.

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Figure 17: Weight changes during pyrolysis of raw mangrove wood

3.2 Factor affecting biochar yield
Significant factors were optimised using CCD. Upon transformation suggested by Box-Cox
plot, linear model of base log 10 was the best model to describe the variation of biochar yield
attributed to the factors under investigation since it had insignificant lack of fit and F-value of
1.49. ANOVA test shown in Table 14 revealed that main factors B and C which represent
oxygen percentage and holding time respectively were statistically significant with p-value <
0.05.The data are normally distributed as shown in the normal plot of residuals in Figure 18.

Table 14: ANOVA Analysis
Source
Sum of
squares
DF
Mean
square
F Value Prob> F
Model 2.67 2 1.33 12.58 0.0004
B 0.53 1 0.53 4.97 0.0395
C 2.14 1 2.14 20.19 0.0003
Residual 1.80 17 0.11
Lack of
Fit 1.45 12 0.12 1.69 0.2923
Pure Error 0.36 5 0.07
Cor Total 4.47 19

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Figure 18: Normal plot of residuals

RSM analysis found that maximum biochar can be achieved at lower pyrolysis temperature,
shorter holding time and lower oxygen percentage as shown in Figure 19. With regard to
lower pyrolysis temperature, earlier study which reported high char yield at 400 C whereas
above 600 C gas generation such as CO and CH
4
would be favoured [11]. Others reported
steady decrease of char yield when temperature was raised from 300 C to 700 C [1, 12].
Such trend was due to release of most condensable volatiles as a result of hemicelluloses and
cellulose degradation between 260 C and 360 C, as observed in aforementioned TG curve.
There is possibility that most lignin, combustible gases and condensable liquid tar degraded at
420 C, leaving the char as the only remain. Above this point, cellulose deviates further from
degradation process which otherwise converts it into a more stable anhydrocellulose which
favours char formation because its high molecular weight hydrocarbons starts to depolymerise
into volatiles[13, 14].

Figure 19: Effect of operating parameters on char yield

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Intuitively, decomposition of hemicelluloses and cellulose increased porosity of the char
which encourages diffusion of oxygen. This allowed better reaction between polymers and
oxygen which led to volatilisation, even the relatively more stable and less reactive lignin was
not spared. The extent of polymers oxidation was reportedly increased with increasing oxygen
concentration, as indicated by the decrease of decomposition temperature. Similar result was
found on char oxidation in which CO release began at lower temperature in oxygen-rich
environment and vice versa [10]. Such findings perfectly agreed with this studys observation
regarding the unfavourable effect of increasing oxygen concentration on char yield.
The decrease of char yield was observed with longer holding time despite previous studies
reported the increase of char yield with longer holding time[15]. This is due to the absence of
oxygen during the pyrolysis in the latter. In oxidative atmosphere, the longer holding time
possibly allows greater chance of oxygen to oxidize more biomass, though this is not proven
statistically in the study. Hence, further study must be conducted to investigate about the
relationship between oxygen presence and holding time.

5. CONCLUSION

The effect of oxygen ratio and holding time on biochar yield within the range studied were
statistically significant i.e. (<0.05). Based on the model linear suggested by RSM during
result analysis, optimum condition of 15.2% biochar yield was predicted at pyrolysis
temperature of 402.5
o
C, oxygen percentage of 2.29% and holding time two hours. This
prediction agreed well with confirmation experiment which obtained 15.1% biochar yield, thus
validated the method. The study oxygen proved the unfavourable effect presence in real
application i.e. biochar yield decrease with increase oxygen composition. Biochar yield was
10.02% and 3.83% at 2.29% and 9.0% oxygen composition respectively. However, further
study on the relationship between oxygen presence and holding time must be conducted in the
future to explain the decrease of char yield at longer holding time in the presence of oxygen.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The financial support from the RMI-UiTM Research Grant No. 600-
RMI/ST/FRGS5/3Fst(89/2010) is highly appreciated.

7. REFERENCES

[1] S. Katyal, K. Thambimuthu, and M. Valix,(2003) Carbonisation of bagasse in a fixed
bed reactor: influence of process variables on char yield and characteristics, Renewable
Energy, vol. 28, pp. 713-725.
[2] A. Demirbas,(2006) Effect of temperature on pyrolysis products from four nut shells,
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 76, pp. 285-289.
[3] K. Karhu, T. Mattila, I. Bergstrm, and K. Regina,(2011) Biochar addition to
agricultural soil increased CH4 uptake and water holding capacity Results from a short-term
pilot field study, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 140, pp. 309-313.
[4] E. W. Bruun, H. Hauggaard-Nielsen, N. Ibrahim, H. Egsgaard, P. Ambus, P. A.
Jensen, and K. Dam-Johansen,(2011) Influence of fast pyrolysis temperature on biochar labile
fraction and short-term carbon loss in a loamy soil, Biomass and Bioenergy, vol. 35, pp. 1182-
1189.
[5] E. W. Bruun, P. Ambus, H. Egsgaard, and H. Hauggaard-Nielsen,(2012) Effects of
slow and fast pyrolysis biochar on soil C and N turnover dynamics, Soil Biology and
Biochemistry, vol. 46, pp. 73-79.
[6] A. C. Lua, F. Y. Lau, and J. Guo,(2006) Influence of pyrolysis conditions on pore
development of oil-palm-shell activated carbons, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,
vol. 76, pp. 96-102.
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[7] S. H. Beis, . Onay, and . M. Kokar,(2002) Fixed-bed pyrolysis of safflower seed:
influence of pyrolysis parameters on product yields and compositions, Renewable Energy, vol.
26, pp. 21-32.
[8] W. Li, K. Yang, J. Peng, L. Zhang, S. Guo, and H. Xia,(2008) Effects of carbonization
temperatures on characteristics of porosity in coconut shell chars and activated carbons
derived from carbonized coconut shell chars, Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 28, pp. 190-
198.
[9] M. Guerrero, M. P. Ruiz, M. U. Alzueta, R. Bilbao, and A. Millera,(2005) Pyrolysis of
eucalyptus at different heating rates: studies of char characterization and oxidative reactivity,
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 74, pp. 307-314.
[10] A. Chouchene, M. Jeguirim, B. Khiari, F. Zagrouba, and G. Trouv,(2010) Thermal
degradation of olive solid waste: Influence of particle size and oxygen concentration,
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 54, pp. 271-277.
[11] K. M. Isa, S. Daud, N. Hamidin, K. Ismail, S. A. Saad, and F. H. Kasim,(2011)
Thermogravimetric analysis and the optimisation of bio-oil yield from fixed-bed pyrolysis of
rice husk using response surface methodology (RSM), Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 33,
pp. 481-487.
[12] M. K. Hossain, V. Strezov, K. Y. Chan, A. Ziolkowski, and P. F. Nelson,(2011)
Influence of pyrolysis temperature on production and nutrient properties of wastewater sludge
biochar, Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 92, pp. 223-228.
[13] A. Demirbas,(2004) Effects of temperature and particle size on bio-char yield from
pyrolysis of agricultural residues, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 72, pp.
243-248.
[14] P. T. Williams and S. Besler,(1996) The influence of temperature and heating rate on
the slow pyrolysis of biomass, Renewable Energy, vol. 7, pp. 233-250.
[15] J. Wannapeera, B. Fungtammasan, and N. Worasuwannarak,(2011) Effects of
temperature and holding time during torrefaction on the pyrolysis behaviors of woody
biomass, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, vol. 92, pp. 99-105.

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Understanding the Magnetotelluric Method in Geothermal Exploration

Rivan Tri Yuono
1
*
1
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author. Tel: (+62)81314844680, E-mail: rivantriyuono@gmail.com

Abstract
Geothermal energy is another abundant resource. Being a relatively clean and renewable
energy resource, it has been a preferred choice for an alternative energy resource. The future
use of geothermal energy would very much depend on overcoming technical barriers both in
production and utilization.
This paper aims to explain about technology of geothermal energy. One of the methods used
in geothermal exploration, magnetotelluric method. This method utilizes naturally occurring,
broadband electromagnetic waves over the Earths surface to image subsurface resistivity
structure. The electromagnetic waves originate from regional and worldwide thunderstorm
activity and from the interaction of solar wind with the Earths magnetosphere. Due to the
remote nature of the sources and the high refractive index of the Earth relative to air, the
electromagnetic waves are assumed to be planar and to propagate vertically into the Earth. The
method has been used successfully at several geothermal locations worldwide. Researches are
under-way to construct a three-dimensional (3D) conductivity model of a hydrothermal system
by 3D magnetotelluric inversion and modelling. Such studies are, at present, quite demanding
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in terms of computational resources and time, and development of efcient modeling tools
could result in a new quantitative tool for locating geothermal wells. (Newman, 2005)

Keywords: Geothermal, Magnetotelluric Method, Renewable Energy

1. INTRODUCTION

Magnetotelluric (MT) is a passive exploration technique that utilized abroad spectrum of
naturally occurring geomagnetic variations as a power source for electromagnetic induction in
the Earth. As such, Magnetotelluric is distinct from active geoelectric techniques, in which a
current source is injected into the ground as a power source for conduction. The
Magnetotelluric method is a frequency domain electromagnetic tool that utilizes natural
variation in the earths magnetic field as a source. Variations in the Earths natural magnetic
field supply frequencies ranging from nearly DC (0.001 Hz) to ten Hertz. The wide frequency
range Magnetotelluric gives us the ability to study the electric substructure of the Earth from
near surface to greater depth. The large frequency range also means that the method can
handle conductive overburden and has large penetration depth. The Magnetotelluric method
measures simultaneously the electric and magnetic fields in two perpendicular directions. This
provides useful information about electrical anisotropy (mostly structural) in an area.
In fact, Magnetotelluric and Geoelectrics have little in common other than the physical
parameter (electrical conductivity) imaged. Magnetotelluric is more closely related to
Geomagnetic Depth Sounding (GDS), which was developed in the late nineteenth century
after the existence of magnetovariational fields. In the 1950s, Tikhonov (1950, reprinted 1986)
and Cagniard (1953) realized that if electric and magnetic field variations are measured
simultaneously then complex ratios (impedances) can be derived that describe the penetration
of electromagnetic fields into the Earth. The penetration depths of electromagnetic fields
within the Earth depend on the electromagnetic sounding period, and on the Earths
conductivity structure. This is the basis of the Magnetotelluric technique. Magnetotelluric has
been a worldwide geophysical method applied in geothermal exploration. Magnetotelluric is
also a powerful geophysical method to delineate conductive clay zone overlying a geothermal
reservoir. Accordingly, Magnetotelluric has been utilized to guide drilling sites in many
geothermal explorations (Daud et al., (2003).

2. BASIC THEORY

Starting from Maxwells equations, we derive the diffusion equation for the electric field.
Diffusion governs not only electromagnetic induction but also the spreading of thermal fields.
Therefore, there is an analogue in your kitchen: pre-heat the oven to 250
0
C, and put a roast (2
kg) into it. Remove after 15 minutes and cut in two halves. The outer most 2 cm are cooked
but the inner bit is quite raw. This tells us that 2 cm is the penetration depth of a thermal field
with period 15 min in beef. A shorter period would yield a smaller penetration depth and a
longer period would penetrate deeper. In addition, the thermal field arrives with a delay inside
the beef. This delay is governed by the thermal conductivity of the beef. Electromagnetic
induction in the earth is governed by the skin effect and behaves in a similar way to the beef
analogue: there is a period - dependent penetration depth, and we observe the delayed
penetration (phase lag) and decay of an electromagnetic field into the conductive subsoil. Due
to the phase lag of the penetrating fields we have a complex penetration depth, which we call a
transfer function. Electromagnetic sounding is a volume sounding. Therefore, for the
simplest case of an homogeneous Earth, Magnetotelluric transfer functions contain
information about the electrical conductivity in a hemisphere, with the Magnetotelluric site
located at the center of the bounding horizon. Some mathematical gymnastics allow us to
write Maxwells equations either in spherical co-ordinates (if the conductivity of the entire
Earth is the subject), or in Cartesian co-ordinates if a regional survey is performed. Because of
BiotSavarts Law, we expect that electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular northsouth
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electric fields should be associated with eastwest magnetic fields, and vice versa. The
impedance tensor is introduced as a first example of hypothesis testing, and it will turn out that
the expectation of orthogonal electric and magnetic fields is violated very often.
For the purposes of considering electromagnetic induction in the Earth, a number of
simplifying assumptions are considered applicable (e.g., Cagniard, 1953; Keller and
Frischknecht, 1966), Maxwells general electromagnetic equations are obeyed. The Earth
does not generate electromagnetic energy, but only dissipates or absorbs it. All fields may be
treated as conservative and analytic away from their sources. The natural electromagnetic
source fields utilized, being generated by large-scale ionosphere current systems that are
relatively far away from the Earths surface, maybe treated as uniform, plane-polarized
electromagnetic waves impinging on the Earth at near-vertical incidence. This assumption
may be violated in polar and equatorial regions. No accumulation of free charges is expected
to be sustained within a layered Earth. In a multi-dimensional Earth, charges can accumulate
along discontinuities.
This generates a non-inductive phenomenon known as static shift. Charge is conserved, and
the Earth behaves as an ohmic conductor, obeying the equation:
(1)
Where, j is total electric current density (in A m
-2
), is the conductivity of the sounding
medium (in S m
-1
), and E is the electric field (in V m
-1
).
The electric displacement field is quasi-static for Magnetotelluric sounding periods. Therefore,
time-varying displacement currents (arising from polarization effects) are negligible compared
with time-varying conduction currents, which promotes the treatment of electromagnetic
induction in the Earth purely as a diffusion process. Any variations in the electrical
permitivities and magnetic permeabilities of rocks are assumed negligible compared with
variations in bulk rock conductivities.

Fig. 1 Electromagnetic Induction (Basic Concept MT Method)

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3. SOURCE

The Earth's time-varying magnetic field is generated by two different sources, which strongly
differ in amplitude and in their time-dependent behaviour. The primary cause is
magnetohydrodynamic processes in the Earth's outer core (McPherron, 2005). However, for
the MT method the external, small-amplitude geomagnetic variations are special interest as
they induce Eddy Current and secondary magnetic fields in the Earth due to their transient
behaviour. The geomagnetic fluctuations range between periods of 10
-3
s and 10
5
s (for
between frequencies of 10
3
Hz and 10
-5
Hz) depending on their origin (Vozoff, 1991).
Meteorogical activity such as lightning discharges produces EM fields with periods shorter
than 1 s. The signals travelling within the waveguide are also known as spherics. Between 0.5
- 5 Hz lies the dead-band at at which the natural EM fluctuations have a low intensity. MT
measurement in this frequency range usually suffers from poor data quality.
Magnetotelluric measurement presented throughout this work has a period bandwidth of 10 -
10
4
s. This period range is due to interactions between solar wind and the Earth's
magnetosphere and ionosphere. Solar wind is a continuous stream of plasma, carrying a weak
magnetic field. Constant pressure of the solar wind onto the magnetosphere causes
compressions on the sun-directed side and a tail on the night-side. Due to changes in density,
velocity, and strength of the solar wind, the earth's magnetosphere is subject to varying
distortions and changes in the magnetic field. On the day side of the earth, soft x-rays and
ultraviolet light cause ionization of the ionized air molecules and thus establishes large-scale
electric currents acting as magnetic field sources. The change in magnetic field strength
produces geomagnetic pulsations with periods of up to 600 s.
Longer periods can be divided into variations from quiet and disturbed days. Quiet days
comprise, for example, the solar-quiet (Sq), lunar (L) variations and the solar flare effect (sfe).
However, on disturbed days sudden storm commencements (SSC) cause an increase in ring
currents and bay anomalies, which result in higher amplitude variations than the Sq
(Campbell, 1997).
The electromagnetic field are generate by two sources:
1. First is the interaction of the earths magnetic field with the solar wind (charged
particles emitted from the sun) that result in fluctuation in the magnetosphere. The
field resulting from this interaction typically contain frequencies below 1 Hz
2. Second is the electromagnetic energy that comes from lightning activity which
typically result in frequencies above 1 Hz

4. SURVEYS EQUIPMENTS

A typical full suite of Magnetotelluric equipment consists of a receiver instrument with five
sensors: three magnetic sensors (typically induction coil sensors), and two telluric (electric)
sensors. For long-period MT (frequencies below approximately 1-10 Hz), the three discrete
magnetic field sensors can typically be replaced with a single compact triaxial fluxgate
magnetometer. In many situations, only the telluric sensors will be used, and magnetic data
borrowed from other nearby soundings to reduce acquisition costs.
A complete five-component set of MT equipment can be backpack-carried by a small field
team (2 to 4 persons) or carried by a light helicopter (such as the MD Helicopters MD 500),
allowing deployment in remote and rugged areas. Most MT equipment is capable of reliable
operation over a wide range of environmental conditions, with ratings of typically 20
0
C to
45
0
C, from dry desert to high-humidity (condensing) and partial immersion. Each MT station
will typically consist of the following; one data logger, one fluxgate magnetometer or three
magnetic induction coils, four electrodes, four telluric cables, one magnetometer cable or three
magnetic induction coil cables, one metal stake to earth, one Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver (optional), one power source (e.g., batteries), a notebook computer can be used for
downloading data from the data logger and making in-field data processing.
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In addition, the following accessories will be of use during installation and servicing of the
MT site; compass, measuring tape, spirit level, spare cables, digging tools , siting poles, spare
data storage media, spare batteries, battery charging devices, insulating tape, digital
multimeter, pencil and paper, zip disks (or similar) for archiving data.

Fig. 2 General Measurement Setup

5. THE ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETOTELLURIC METHOD

Geophysical methods are very useful for the exploration of natural resources. Especially for
geothermal exploration, MT method has advantages geophysical methods than others. The
advantages of this method include, great depth of penetration, provides information in a non-
seismic or poor seismic areas, no transmitter required, light-weight equipment - very portable,
good production rate, can access almost anywhere, little impact on environment, better
resolution than gravity or magnetic, well-developed 2D or 3D, and interpretation procedures.
However, behind the advantages of this method, there are also some disadvantages of the
method MT. weaknesses MT method, among others, irregular natural and industrial noise
signal, resolution less than seismic, complex data processing, static shift of apparent resistivity
curves sometimes significant, inversion techniques rely on smooth models Tougher to
interpret in complex areas.

6. CONCLUSION

Magnetotelluric is typically the most cost-effective method of imaging resistivity if the base of
the clay cap over a geothermal reservoir dips below 500 to 1000 m depth, Magnetotelluric is
often the default geophysics method chosen for geothermal exploration.
In the magnetotelluric (MT) method, natural electromagnetic fields are used to investigate the
electrical conductivity structure of the earth. Natural sources of MT fields above about 1 Hz
are thunderstorms worldwide, from which lightning radiates fields which propagate to great
distances. At frequencies below 1 Hz, the bulk of the signal is due to current systems in the
magnetosphere set up by solar activity.
In both cases the electromagnetic (EM) fields at the surface of the earth behave almost like
plane waves, with most of their energy reflected but with a small amount propagating
vertically downward into the earth. The amplitude, phase, and directional relationships
between electric (E) and magnetic (H or B) fields on the surface depend on the distribution of
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electrical conductivity in the subsurface. By use of computed models, field measurement
programs can be designed to study regions of interest within the earth from depths of a few
tens of meters to the upper mantle.
Equipment to carry out the measurements consists of magnetometers for the frequency range
of interest; pairs of electrodes separated by suitable spacings to sense the electric field
variations; plus amplifiers, filters, and suitable digital recording and processing systems to
permit the signals to be captured and analyzed. The magnetometers in particular must have
very low noise and great stability because those signals are so weak.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank Mr Yunus Daud of University of Indonesia for discussions about
explanation of the scope of this paper theme, and Mr Dzil Mulki for the information about the
Magnetotelluric Method for Geothermal Explorations

8. REFERENCES

[1] Gupta, Harsh, K.,Roy and Sukanta.(2006) Geothermal Energy: An Alternative Resource
for the 21st Century, Elsevier Science, pp. 113.
[2] Simson, Fiona, Bahr and Karsten. (2005) Practical Magnetotelluric. Cambridge press.
[3] Jiracek, R. and George. The Magnetotelluric Method. San Diego State, pp. 3-7.
[4] Daud, et al., 2010. The First Magnetotelluric Investigation of the Tawau Geothermal
Prospect, Sabah, Malaysia,Proceeding World Geothermal Congress, pp. 1-6.
[5] Ussher et al., 2000. Understanding The Resistivities Observed in Geothermal Systems,
Proceeding World Geothermal Congress, pp. 1915-1920.
[6] Widarto and Jeddy. S. One Day Course Pertamina, Electromagnetic Method for
Geothermal Exploration, Jogja.
[7] http://www.KMSTechnologies.com.
[8] http://www.ess.washington.edu/SolidEarth/Magnetotellurics/overview.html.
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetotellurics.

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A New Low Cost and Effective Passive Method for Islanding Detection of Single
Phase Grid Connected Inverter

Ku Nurul Edhura Ku Ahmad
*
, Jeyraj Selvaraj and Nasrudin Abd. Rahim

UMPEDAC, Level 4, Wisma R&D UM, University of Malaya, Jalan Pantai Baharu, 59990 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (603) 22463249, Fax: (603)22463257, E-mail: edhura@gmail.com

Abstract
This paper proposed a new low cost and effective passive method for islanding detection of
single phase grid connected inverter. An analog circuit has been developed for under and over
voltage protection in order to precisely ensure a very fast detection without adding any delay
to the system. Next is under and over frequency circuit that has been developed in order to
guarantee accurate and fast frequency detection with minimum of external components. The
proposed algorithm is developed using PIC18F4550 to integrate the designed circuits with the
existing DSP TMS320F2812 control system on the single phase grid connected inverter. The
comparison table summarizing disconnection time between the proposed method and
previously developed method for the single phase grid connected inverter is also provided.
The drastically improved disconnection time in the proposed method compared with that in the
previously developed method is an attractive solution for single phase grid connected
inverters. The low cost, effective and minimal of external components are also the forte of this
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proposed method. A prototype is developed and tested to demonstrate the performance and
feasibility of the proposed method.

Keywords: Passive islanding, Distributed Generation, Inverter.

1. INTRODUCTION

Over the last decades, there is a drastic development for renewable energy. These energy
sources produce low pollution compared to the fossil fuels and nuclear generation system [1].
With this benefit, the new paradigm of distributed generation (DG) is gaining technical
importance and better profit around the world [2]. In principle distribution generation is a
small scale generation unit that need to be installed to the load and also connected to the grid
for selling or buying energy purposes. One of the most important criteria that need to be taken
care of is the islanding condition [1]. The islanding condition as specified in [3], occurs when
a portion of utility system that contains both load and distributed resources remains energized
while it is isolated from the remainder of the utility system. Such an undesirable event could
potentially occur due to the circuit tripping, accidental disconnection of the utility due to
equipment failure, human error, disconnection for maintenance services or perhaps the
uncommon event that due to the reconfiguration of the network [1, 2]. One of the major
challenges faced by the designer is the integration of the DG to the utility. One of the issues
faced is that the DG may, unintentionally continue to supply the local load demand where in
reality the networks are already isolated from the main system. Many designers regarded the
importance of successfully detecting this condition as ongoing challenges because of the
existing methods are not entirely satisfactory [4]. Before defining the different types of anti
islanding methods, it is important to highlight the two basic factors for better understanding in
islanding phenomenon. The first one is the available standards that have been established for
the grid connected system. These standards addressed the issue of islanding as well as
procedure for testing and qualifying the DG system [5].The second feature is associated with
the so called Non-detection zone (NDZ) which can be defined as the zone for which an
islanding detection method would fail to operate in timely manner.
Based on the research on anti-islanding methods, there are two types of anti islanding methods
which are the local and remote methods. The local methods can be divided into passive and
active. There are a few numbers of standards that is available nowadays for reference in
islanding scope. Among the popular standards are IEEE 929-2000, IEC 62116, IEE 1547,
VDE 0126-1-1, and AS 4777.3-2005. These standards have been fully utilized to help the
designers in designing their product. Passive islanding detection methods detect any changes
in electrical parameters for determining whether islanding has occurred or not [5]. In the
earlier phase, passive methods were the first to develop. Then as the technology progress there
has been an increase in the number of active method papers produced by the researcher.
Meanwhile, remote methods have better reliability but not as cost-effective and simple to
implement as being compared to passive or active methods. In applications, each specific
methodology has its own advantages and drawback. In principle, the main idea of islanding is
monitoring the changes in the output parameter of the inverters or other system parameters in
indicating islanding. Passive techniques detect islanding based on the setting thresholds on
certain parameter. The advantages of these techniques are easy to implement (do not have
additional controller), will not degrade the quality of the power generation of the PV inverter
and inexpensive. Meanwhile, the primary drawbacks of these techniques are a relatively large
non-detection zone (NDZ) and ineffectiveness in multi- PV inverter systems [6, 7]. The most
commonly used passive technique for islanding detection are under and over voltage and
under and over frequency (OV/UV & OF/UF), phase jump detection (PJD), voltage harmonic
monitoring, current harmonic monitoring, rate of change of power output (ROCOP) and rate
of change of frequency (ROCOF). Active techniques intentionally injected a small disturbance
at the output of the PV inverter for the islanding detection. The main advantage of these
techniques is relatively small non-detection zone (NDZ) compared to passive methods.
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Meanwhile, the main drawbacks of these techniques are they may deteriorate the quality of the
output power causing instability to the PV inverter and normally require additional controllers
which increased the complexity of the method [6, 7]. Some examples of active techniques that
have been developed until today are impedance measurement (IM), sliding mode frequency
shift (SMS) or active phase shift (APS), sandia frequency shift (SFS) or active frequency drift
with positive feedback and reactive power export error detection (RPEED). Remote islanding
detection techniques are based on the communication between utilities and PV inverter units
[7] . This technique do not have the NDZ, do not degrade the quality of the generating power
of the PV inverter, effective in multi-PV inverter systems but they are expensive to implement
especially for small systems and have a complicated communications techniques for multi-PV
inverter systems. Examples of the common techniques which used communication based are
power line carrier communication (PLCC), signal produced by disconnect (SPD) and
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA).
The primary objective of this paper is to propose a new low cost and effective passive method
for islanding detection of single phase grid connected inverter and compare between the
proposed algorithm and the existing algorithm.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Overall block diagram of PV grid connected inverter with the proposed method
Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of the Photovoltaic Grid Connected Inverter (PV) system with
PIC 18F4550 microcontroller. DSP TMS320F2812 is the controller for the existing single
phase grid connected inverter developed by author of reference [7]. In this paper, the proposed
method is developed using microcontroller PIC18F4550 as the main controller. This controller
deal with the proposed passive islanding of under and over voltage and under and over
frequency detection before these signals are sent to the main controller of the single phase grid
connected inverter which is DSP TMS320F2812. The proposed method takes voltage of the
grid to the under and over voltage circuit and sends this signal as inputs to PIC18F4550 for
under and over voltage detection. For under and over frequency, the proposed method detects
zero crossing detection pulses and sends the signal as interrupts input to PIC18F4550. These
signals are used as conditional detection for the developed islanding detection algorithm. As
the end result, the output of the islanding detection algorithm from PIC18F4550 will then be
an input to DSP TMS320F2812 through GPI0A11. To further simplify the algorithm, the input
signal will either be 1 or 0. This GPI0A11 input will be used as a signal to turn off the relay in
order to disconnect the inverter from the grid.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC
ARRAY
PHOTOVOLTAIC
SINGLE-PHASE GRID
INVERTER
GRID
G
a
t
e

d
r
i
v
e

S
a
Voltage
Sensor
Circuit
Current
Sensor
Circuit
P
W
M
1

(
P
8
-
9
)
P
W
M
3

(
P
8
-
9
)
P
W
M
4

(
P
8
-
1
0
)
G
N
D

(
P
8
-
3
9
)
Portable
power
supply
LCD
16x4
P6 Power
Connector
ADCINA0
(P9-2)
ADCINA1
(P9-4)
GPIOA11
(P11-11)
ADCINA3
(P9-8)
ADCINA2
(P9-6)
GPI0A5
(P8-14)
GPIOB0-9
Over/
under
voltage
circuit
Zero
crossing
circuit
RD7
RD6
RB0
G
a
t
e

d
r
i
v
e

S
4
G
a
t
e

d
r
i
v
e

S
1
G
a
t
e

d
r
i
v
e

S
2
G
a
t
e

d
r
i
v
e

S
3
5V input
RC1
eZdsp
TM
F2812 PIC 18F4550
IINV
IPV
VPV
VPCC

Fig. 1 Block diagram of Photovoltaic Grid Connected Inverter (PV) system with PIC
18F4550. [7]

2.2 The proposed under voltage and over voltage circuit

15V
10k
1M 10k
1F
+
-
2W06
Op Amp1
LM311
To Port RD6
Grid
10k
1k
LED
10k
+
-
Op Amp2
LM311
10k
1k
LED
15V
To Port RD7

Fig. 2 Under and over voltage circuit.
PIC 18F4550 was design to read analog signal between 0 until 5V, hence the under and over
voltage circuit is designed to not exceed that range. In this work, from the utility source, a
transformer 240V - 6V is being connected. Next, a rectifier is employed to transform the lower
AC voltage into DC. By adding a large resistor 1M in parallel with 1F capacitor, this
circuit can be used to convert a high voltage signal down to a very stable low DC voltage
signal. This stable DC signal will then act as an input to under voltage circuit which used the
Op Amp1. Potentiometer of 10k is used as a tuner for the reference voltage V
ref1
. The DC
voltage and reference voltage V
ref1
are compared using Op Amp1 acting as a comparator. The
output of the Op Amp1 comparator is fed to the RD6 as input signal for the microcontroller.
The same concept is applied to the over voltage circuit. The only difference are the location of
the reference voltage now is at the positive side of the Op Amp2 and the stable DC voltage is
now connected to the negative input of the Op Amp2. This circuit has been developed in order
to ensure an accurate and fast detection of the under and over voltage without having to
continuously calculate the root mean square (RMS) of the grid voltage like the previous
method. This will ensure a very fast detection without adding any delay to the system.
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2.3 The proposed under frequency and over frequency circuit

Fig. 3 Zero crossing detector circuit for under and over frequency detection.
This circuit has been developed in order to ensure accurate and fast frequency detection with
minimum of external components. The 510 resistor is added to force the voltage down. Pair
of 1k resistors are used as a voltage divider to produce 2.5V as a reference voltage for the
Op Amp LM311. The output of this circuit is connected to RB0. In this work, a100nF
capacitor is connected to the output of the Op Amp to act as a noise filter that gives the
possibility to prevent noise in a simple and cost effective way. This capacitor improves the
triggering of the interrupt by reducing the noise in the low voltage square wave signals. As the
square wave signal is in phase with the grid voltage, using the falling edge will indicate very
accurately where the zero crossing happens. This square wave signal will be the inputs for the
interrupt routine INT0 which makes it possible to design the zero crossing detection routine in
an interrupt routine and automatically make the detection fully interrupt driven.

2.4 Islanding Algorithm
Control algorithm of the proposed passive islanding detection for the single phase grid
connected inverter is shown in Fig. 4 and the algorithm is applied in PIC18F4550. The
algorithm is processed by PIC18F4550 using C programming language. PIC18F4550 collects
analog inputs data from the under and over voltage circuit through RD7 and RD6. There is a
filter in the programming algorithm in meeting the AS 4777.3-2005 standards reconnection
time. The filter samples the signals 150 times for normal voltage condition which is 240V and
compares the values to see if the value is stable or not. Only when the value is the same for all
the samples, the event will proceed to the next procedure. This filter samples value can be
changed according to the standards that are followed by the designer.
Meanwhile for frequency calculation, a simple zero crossing circuit has been fully utilized.
The square wave produced by the zero cross detector will have the same exact frequency as
the grid. By feeding this produced signal into the RB0 of the PIC18F4550, the microcontroller
has been programmed to be a very accurate zero crossing detectors with interrupt driven code.
In this proposed algorithm, RC0 will be set high for a short period of time and then
immediately start looking for the next falling edge zero crossing. In order to make sure that the
interrupts are valid and not only products of spikes on RB0, a filter has been implemented in
the interrupt routine. The filter samples the level on the interrupt line 25 times and compares
the values to see if the value is stable or not. If the value is not the same for all the samples,
the event will be discarded and the routine returns to the main program waiting for the new
interrupt.
Next procedure will be toggling the light-emitting diode (LED) if the routine passed the above
noise filter. While LED is turned on, the timer will be on and vice versa. The value of the
overflow counter is stored into the TMR0L and TMR0H memory. The obtained values from
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the memory are then compared with the constant frequency value according to the standards
that are followed by the designer. In order to set the value of the constant frequency, Port D is
fully utilized to serve this purpose. TMR0H and TMR0L memory values are then transferred
to Port D and the frequency value can be identified. If the compared value from the memory is
out of range from the constant, then microcontroller will trigger another filter. This under and
over frequency filter samples the signals 3 times for under and over frequency and 150
samples for normal condition to ensure the value is stable or not. If the value is the same for
all the samples, the routine will proceed to the next procedure. To further optimize the filter,
the samples value can also be changed according to the standard that ones require. If the
routine passed under and over voltage filter and under and over frequency filter, last stage is
the confirmation stage before islanding signal is sent from PIC18F4550 to inverters controller
which is DSP TMS320F2812. The islanding signal will trigger the DSP TMS320F2812 to turn
off the relay in order to disconnect the inverter from the grid.

Start
End
Has OVUV
occured?
Has external
INT0 occurred?
Is it a
noise
Toggle
LED
LED On?
Timer
ON
Timer
OFF
Has OFUF
occured?
Temp KO++
Temp OK=0
Temp OK++
Temp KO=0
If Temp KO > 3
RC2=0
If Temp OK > 150
RC2=1
Voltage OK=0
RC7=0
Voltage
OK++
If voltage
OK > 150
RC7=1
Islanding confirmed?
(RC7=0 || RC2=0)
Islanding
Not islanding
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes Yes
Yes
No

Fig.4 Flowchart of islanding detection.

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3.1 Disconnection time for different method and algorithm
To prove that the proposed passive islanding detection has advantages over the implemented
algorithm in DSP TMS320F2812 in terms of disconnection times, the corresponding
comparisons were made on both passive islanding methods. PM6000 Universal Power
Analyzer is used for this purpose. The comparison is between the proposed method using
PIC18F4550 and the previous developed method for the single phase grid connected inverter
which used ATMEGA and DSP TMS320F2812 with under and over voltage and under and
over frequency islanding detection algorithms. Details of circuit connection and algorithms of
the previous method are written in [7]. The prototype of both methods monitored the grid
voltage and grid frequency at the point of common coupling (PCC). In the case of
PIC18F4550, the disconnection time is much faster compared to the ATMEGA and DSP
TMS320F2812 based. The cost of design and implementation for the proposed method are
also much lower. All disconnection times for ATMEGA and DSP TMS320F2812 based
method were taken from Testing of PV inverter no 2/2010 by Inverter quality control centre
(IQCC) University Technology Malaysia Skudai Johor, 2010 report conducted on 15
th
July
2010 [8]. Validation of disconnection times were carried out according to the standard as
specified by AS 4777.3-2005 [9, 10].The following table shows the comparison of
disconnection time between the two methods.

Table 1 Disconnection time between the two methods.

Under voltage
disconnection
time
Over voltage
disconnection
time
Under
frequency
disconnection
time
Over frequency
disconnection
time
ATMEGA and
DSP based
algorithm
Could not be
determined
1.2 seconds 2.1seconds 52.5 seconds
PIC 18F4550
algorithm
0.9 seconds 0.9 seconds 0.9 seconds 0.9 seconds

As shown in above table, the result from the proposed method is much faster and stable
compared to the previous method which is very unstable. Although over voltage disconnection
time of the previous method has passed the less than 2 seconds standard, the proposed method
still able to disconnect the inverter in much faster time. From [7] , this method used DSP
TMS320F2812 for reading the voltage of the grid at sensors signal through its analog digital
converter and calculates the root mean square (RMS) value of the voltage for the under and
over voltage disconnection. This may add some lagging to the systems in detecting the under
and over voltage. Therefore improvements on circuit and algorithm have been made in the
proposed method to overcome this problem. Fig. 5(a-b) show the over and under voltage
islanding condition where the relays disconnect the inverter from the grid. The frequency is
maintained at 50Hz. Fig. 6(a-b) illustrate the over and under frequency islanding condition
respectively. At this point, the voltage is maintained at 240V.

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269

(a)
(b)

Fig.5 (a) Over voltage islanding and (b) Under voltage islanding: (C1) Grid voltage and (C2)
Inverters current.

(a)
(b)

Fig.6 (a) Over frequency islanding (b) Under frequency islanding: (C1) Grid voltage and (C2)
Inverters current.

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4. CONCLUSION

This paper has proposed a new low cost and effective passive method for islanding detection
of single phase grid connected inverter. An analog circuit has been developed for under and
over voltage protection in order to precisely ensure a very fast detection without adding any
delay to the system. Next is under and over frequency circuit that has been developed in order
to ensure accurate and fast frequency detection with minimum of external components. The
proposed algorithm is also developed using PIC18F4550 to integrate the designed circuits with
the existing DSP TMS320F2812 control system on the single phase grid connected inverter.
The circuits topology, control algorithm and operational principle of the proposed method
were presented and described in details. A PIC18F4550 optimized the performance of the
proposed method. The drastically improved disconnection time in the proposed method
compared with that in the previously developed method is an attractive solution for single
phase grid connected inverters. The low cost, effective and minimal of external components
are also the forte of this proposed method. A prototype is developed and tested to demonstrate
the performance and feasibility of the proposed method.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been supported by University of Malaya Power Energy Dedicated Advanced
Centre, UMPEDAC, Higher Institution Centre of Excellence, HICoE and Ministry of Higher
Education, Malaysia (MOHE). The authors would like to thank all the people who are
concern.

6. REFERENCES

[1] B. Yu, et al.(2010) A review of current anti-islanding methods for photovoltaic power
system, Solar Energy, 84, pp. 745-754.
[2] S. P. Chowdhury, et al.(2009) Islanding protection of active distribution networks
with renewable distributed generators: A comprehensive survey, Electric Power
Systems Research, 79, pp. 984-992.
[3] "IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems,"
IEEE Std 929-2000, p. i, 2000.
[4] H. T. Yip, et al., (2010) Islanding detection using an accumulated phase angle drift
measurement, Developments in Power System Protection (DPSP 2010). Managing
the Change, 10th IET International Conference, pp. 1-5.
[5] W.-J. Chiang, et al.(2010) Active islanding detection method for the grid-connected
photovoltaic generation system, Electric Power Systems Research, 80, pp. 372-379.
[6] H. Zeineldin and J. Kirtley.(2009) A simple technique for islanding detection with
negligible non-detection zone, Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2009. PES
'09. IEEE, pp. 1-1.
[7] S. Syamsuddin, et al. (2009) Implementation of TMS320F2812 in islanding detection
for Photovoltaic Grid Connected Inverter, Technical Postgraduates (TECHPOS),
2009 International Conference, pp. 1-5.
[8] D. Z. S. D. N. A. Azli. (2010) Testing of PV inverter report no 2/202 15th July 2010,
Inverter quality control centre (IQCC) University Teknology Malaysia Skudai Johor.
[9] "Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters - Part 2: Inverter requirements,"
2005.
[10] "Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters - Part 3: Grid protection
requirements.," 2005.

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Performance Evaluation of bioethanol Production Through Continuous
Fermentation with a Settling Unit

Norhayati Hamzah
1*
, Mark Nelson
2

1
Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
2
School of Mathematics and Applied Statistics, University of Wollongong, Australia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001, Fax: (673) 2453502, E-mail:
norhayati.hamzah@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
The interest in biofuels has increased markedly in recent years as they are environmentally
friendly and offer a mechanism to reduce reliance on oil. One of the most promising biofuels
is ethanol, which can be derived from renewable sources such as lignocellulosic waste-
materials. Ethanol is a much cleaner fuel than gasoline, reducing CO levels by 25-30% and
dramatically reducing emissions of hydrocarbons, a major contributor to the depletion of the
ozone layer. Ethanol blends are increasingly used worldwide as they provide high octane at
low cost, and without the need for harmful fuel additives. As long ago as 2002 more than 10
percent of all gasoline sold in the US contained ethanol. Recent US legislation has called for a
sixfold increase in the use of ethanol to 136 billion litres per year by 2022. In this paper, we
analyse a model for the production of bioethanol that has been calibrated against laboratory
data by previous researchers. We use a mixture of tools from non-linear dynamical systems
theory to investigate the improvement in productivity that can be obtained when a centrifuge is
used to recycle cells that would otherwise leave the reactor system in the effluent stream.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Assessment of Wind Energy Potential for City of Zahedan, Iran

Ali Mostafaeipour
1*
, Mohsen Jadidi
2

1
Industrial Engineering Department, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
2
Mohsen Jadidi- Ardekani, Industrial Engineering Department, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (98) 351 821 2001, Fax: (98) 351 812 2402, E-mail:
mostafaei@yazduni.ac.ir

Abstract
The advantages of different renewable energy sources have urged many countries to pay more
attention to clean energy sources. Wind is one of the energy sources which are
environmentally safe. In order to assess wind energy potential of an area, analyzing the wind
data is needed. The purpose of this study is to assess wind energy potential for city of Zahedan
in southeast of Iran. Weibull density function has been used to calculate the wind power
density and energy of the region. Five-year wind data has been analyzed to obtain wind power
density and wind energy potential of the Zahedan. Weibull parameters, k and c were 1.492 and
3.578 (m/s). Finally, the obtained wind power density (about 47.44 W/m
2
) showed that the
location does not have a good potential for big wind turbine installation.

Keywords: Wind energy, potential, Weibull, Zahedan city, Iran.

1. INTRODUCTION

The current trend of consuming fossil fuels in the world causes these resources to deplete
within the next centuries [1]. On the other hand, using fossil fuels has negative environmental
problem such as greenhouse effect, pollution to atmosphere, and soil and water contamination
[2]. Many developed and developing countries around the world try to harness renewable
energies like wind and solar in order to reduce their dependency on nonrenewable resources of
energies like oil [3].
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One of the most popular renewable sources of energy is wind. Use of wind turbine for
generating electricity is in combination with other energy resources like diesel generator since
wind energy source is inherently stochastic in nature and therefore it is unreliable power
source by itself in many locations [4]. Thus when the wind energy source is not available, the
diesel generator supplies the required power [4]. This study involved in determining the
feasibility of installing wind turbines in city of Zahedan in Southeastern part of Iran in order to
reduce carbon emission, also to supply electricity for different purposes.
The next section offers description of the site for this study which is the city of Zahedan. In
Section 3, we describe theoretical analysis of wind data. In Section 4, we review statistical
analysis procedures and finally the conclusion is discussed in Section 5.

2. DESCRIPTION OF ZAHEDAN

Zahedan is located in central part of Sistan-Baloochestan province in the southwest of Iran. It
is located in 29 28 N latitude and 60 53 E longitude. The city is about 1370 m above the sea
level[5].The township of Zahedan is limited from north to Zabol county and South Khorasan
province, from east to Afghanistan and Pakistan countries, from west to Kerman province and
from south to Khash and Iranshahr cities[6].
Sistan-Baluchestan province accounts for one of the driest regions of Iran with a slight
increase in rainfall from east to west, and an obvious rise in humidity in the coastal regions.
The province is subject to seasonal winds from different directions, the most important of
which are, the 120-day wind of Sistan known as Levar, the Qousse wind, the seventh (Gav-
kosh) wind, the Nambi or south wind, the Hooshak wind, the humid and seasonal winds of the
Indian Ocean, the North or (Gurich) wind and the western (Gard) wind[7]. The province is
amongst the windiest part of Iran. Therefore, it can be predicted that city of Zahedan has a
good potential for installing wind turbines too. Meteorological data for the site was obtained
from Iranian Meteorological Organization [8]. The data illustrate a better view for potential of
the region for installing wind turbines in order to generate electricity.

3. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF WIND DATA

In order to model the frequency of wind speed curve, several probability density functions can
be used [2]. Some of these functions are beta function, Gamma function, lognormal function,
logistical function, Rayleigh function, and Weibull function [9]. But the most common method
which many researchers are using is Weibull function[1].The general form of Weibull function
for wind speed is shown as follows [2]:

() (
) (
((
) (1)

() ((
) (2)

Where f (v) and F (V) are probability density function and cumulative distribution function for
speed v respectively. The parameter
K
(dimensionless) is Weibull shape parameter and the
parameter c (in the unit of wind speed) is Weibull scale parameter [1, 2].Weibull parameter
K

shows peak of the wind distribution for the region [1]. The following equations were used for
calculation of shape and scale parameters [1][10]:

(3)

)
(4)

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The average wind speed, and the variance of wind velocity can be calculated as follows [1]:

(5)

(6)

The values of and
can be calculated on the basis of the Weibull parameters [1, 10, and
11]:

(
) (7)

[ (
)] (8)

where is gamma function defined as follows[1]:

()

(9)

The main restriction of Weibull density function is that it does not accurately represent the
probability of observing very low or around zero wind speeds. However, since the purpose is
to estimate the potential of wind energy for commercial use of wind turbine, and wind energy
in very low wind speeds is negligible (because wind energy is proportional to the cube of wind
velocity) and below the operating range of wind turbines (i.e. the cut-in wind speed is usually
between 2.5 and 3.5m/s), this restriction can be ignored [1].

3.1. Wind power and wind energy density
The speed at which a turbine begins to produce power is called cut-in speed and the speed at
which a turbine will be shut down to prevent its failure is known as cut-out speed. The range
of cut-in speed is usually 3.04.5 m/s, and cut-out speed is about 25m/s[1]. So, the probability
for wind speed of 25m/s or more is negligible for Zahedan.
Wind power flowing at speed v through a blade sweep area A is calculated using the following
equation [1]:

()
(10)

where is density of air at sea level at a mean temperature of 15 C and a pressure of 1
Atmosphere (1.225 kg/m3) and v is the mean wind speed (m/s). The corrected monthly air
density (kg/m
3
) is calculated as follows [1, 10, and 12]:

(11)

is the average monthly air temperature in Kelvin, is the average monthly air pressure in
Pascal and R
d
is as gas constant for dry air with the value of 287 J/Kg-K. Air density decreases
with increase of elevation and temperature [1].
If we want to calculate the corrected available power at elevation of 10m above the ground,
the following formula can be used [1, 10, and 13]:

) (12)

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Calculation shows that the difference between the corrected monthly air density and the
standard one ( = 1.225kg/m3) is small, thus the latter value was considered in this study. For
many case studies the standard air density is considered [1].
The calculation of wind power density or wind power per unit area can be done by formula
(13). This formula is useful for evaluating wind resource at a site. In fact, it shows how much
energy is available in a site for conversion to electricity using a wind turbine [1, 14, and 15].

()
) (13)

The next stage is calculation of wind energy density. The following equation calculates wind
energy density [1]:

) (14)

where n is the number of measurement periods, t, in the whole duration. The Bitz limit tells
that a wind turbine cannot extract more than 59.3% of the available wind power [1, 10].

3.2. Optimal wind speed and most probable wind speed
Optimal wind speed is the speed that produces the most energy. While choosing a wind
turbine, optimal wind speed (v
op
) should be considered. The equation of this parameter is
given in below [1, 11]:

(15)

The most probable wind speed (v
mp
) is the most frequent wind speed for a given wind
probability distribution. The following equation calculates v
mp
[1]:

) (16)

4. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The three-hour wind speed data of 10-meter elevation was analyzed in this study is for a 5-
year period from January 2003 to December 2007 for Zahedan. Then Weibull distribution
function parameters (c and k) were calculated. In the last stage, mean wind power was
predicted in order to determine the potential of wind turbine installation.

4.1. Monthly wind speed and its standard deviations
Figure 1 illustrates the monthly mean wind speed for 2003-2007. According to this figure, the
whole year wind speeds with the lowest and highest values happen in October and February
with values of 2.166 and 4.269 m/s, respectively.

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Fig. 1 Monthly mean wind speed 2003-2007.

4.2. Diurnal mean wind speed
The diurnal mean wind speeds are illustrated in figure 2. It illustrates that the windiest time is
at noon from 2003 to 2007. As it shows, for all five years the maximum wind speed occurs at
noon. Despite the night time that is calm, the day time is windy. From 0 a.m. (24) to 3 a.m. the
mean wind speed decreases and then it increases till 12 at noon that is its peak, then again it
decreases till late at night. So, one way is to store wind energy in day time for street lighting at
nights.

Fig. 2 Diurnal mean wind speed for Zahedan (2003-2007).

4.3. Weibull distribution
The best probability distribution for wind speed that has been widely used in studies is
Weibull distribution [1, 2, 16, 17, and 18]. Weibull function has shown an acceptable
distribution function that accurately fit the wind speed frequency in the given duration course.
Weibull function is determined by its two parameters i.e. k (dimensionless) and c (m/s) [17].
The higher values for k (between 2 and 3)means the curve is more skewed towards higher
wind velocities, and lower values for k (between 1 and 2) means the curve is more skewed
towards lower wind velocities, thus indicating that lower wind velocities are more probable to
happen. The scale parameter c shows how the Weibull curve is peaked. In fact, higher values
for c mean the distribution is spread over a wider range [1].

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Equations 5 and 6 were used for calculating k and c values. The shape and scale parameters for
city of Zahedan are presented in Table 1 that were calculated from a five-year period (2003-
2007).

Table 1 Yearly Weibull parameters (k, c), characteristic speeds, wind power density and
energy.
Year K c (m/s)

()
)
2003 1.536 3.802 1.915 6.545 3.423226 54.08668 473.7993
2004 1.494 3.586 1.709 6.334 3.238893 47.55796 416.6077
2005 1.462 3.427 1.559 6.179 3.104016 43.37248 379.9430
2006 1.462 3.428 1.560 6.180 3.104369 43.32976 379.5687
2007 1.506 3.647 1.767 6.393 3.290575 49.39256 432.6788
whole 1.492 3.578 1.702 6.326 3.232219 47.43767 415.5540

Values of k are around 1.5 and they range from 1.462 to 1.536 for 2005-2006 and 2003,
respectively. Values of c are more than3 (m/s) and they range from 3.427 to 3.802 (m/s) for
2005 and 2003 respectively. The average values for k and c are 1.492 and 3.578 (m/s),
respectively.

4.4. Calculations of wind power density and energy
Yearly and monthly wind power density and energy for Zahedan are illustrated in Table 3 and
4, respectively. It can be seen in Table 3 that the highest value of wind power density for
Zahedan was in 2003 with amount of 54.08668 (W/m
2
) and the lowest one was in 2006 with
amount of 43.32976 (W/m
2
). The highest value of energy for the location was in 2003 with
amount of 473.7993 (kWh/ m
2
/year) and the lowest one was in 2006 with amount of 379.5687
(kWh/ m
2
/year). Average annual values of wind power density and energy were 47.43767
(W/m
2
) and 415.5540 (kWh/ m
2
/year), respectively.
The final stage is to determine how suitable the predicted output energy is for the location. For
this purpose, we can apply some classifications to rate the site. One classification comes in the
following [1]:

)

According to this classification, rating of Zahedan for installing wind turbine is poor.
Since any machine does not have ideal energy conversion efficiency, we use the Betz relation
to calculate maximum extractable power from an optimum wind energy conversion system.
The Betz relation considers a power coefficient of 0.593 [1]. Hence, maximum extractable
power can be obtained as: 0.59392.868W/m
2
A (swept area of the installed wind turbine).
The maximum monthly wind energy density for Zahedan is 92.868 (kWh/ m
2
/month) for
February and the minimum monthly energy density is 20.120 (kWh/ m
2
/month) for October.

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5. CONCLUSION

The present trend of consuming fossil fuels will lead to a tragedy situation in the future. On
the other hand, environmental problems with fossil fuels are becoming a serious disaster for
people in many countries. The best alternative for combating this situation is to utilize
renewable energy sources such as wind. Electricity generation using wind energy has been
done by many countries for decades and the trend is increasing. For this purpose, assessment
of the wind energy potential for a given location is the first step. In this study, assessment of
wind energy potential for city of Zahedan (in the southeast of Iran) has been analyzed. The
three-hourly wind data for a period of 5 years has been statistically analyzed using Weibull
distribution. Finally, the obtained yearly average wind power density was about 47.4 (W/m
2
)
and the site corresponded in wind power class 1. This class shows that Zahedan is not in a
good location for wind turbine installation.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors gratefully thank Iranian Meteorological Organization for providing wind speed
data of Zahedan.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Mostafaeipour, A., Sedaghat, A., Dehghan-Niri, A.A., Kalantar, V. (2011) Wind energy
feasibility study for city of Shahrbabak in Iran, Journal of Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews , 15, pp. 2545 2556.
[2] Eskin, N., Artar, H., Tolun, S.(2008) Wind energy potential of Gkeada Island in
Turkey. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12, pp. 839-851.
[3] Chaparzadeh Feseqandis, R. (1999) Feasibility of applying wind turbine for achieving
sustainable development, 2nd National Conference of Energy, Tehran, Iran.
[4] Hessami, M.A., Campbell, H., Sanguinetti, C. (2011) A feasibility study of hybrid wind
power systems for remote communities, Journal of Energy Policy, 39, pp. 877-886.
[5] http://www.irimo.ir/farsi/amar/r43.asp.
[6] Atlas -e- Gitashenasi ye- Ostanha ye- Iran, Gitashenasi Geographical & Cartographic
Institute. Tehran; 2005.
[7] Iranian Provinces: Sistan and Baluchistan. Iran Chamber Society. Available at:
http://www.iranchamber.com/provinces/21_sistan_baluchistan/21_sistan_baluchistan.php
[8] Iran Meteorological Organization. (n.d.). Iran Meteorological Organization. Available at:
http://www.irimo.ir
[9] Chang, T.P. (2011) Estimation of wind energy potential using different probability
density functions, Journal of Applied Energy, 88, pp. 1848-1856.
[10] Keyhani, A., Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, M., Khanali, M., Abbaszadeh, R. (2010) An
assessment of wind energy potential as a power generation source in the capital of Iran,
Tehran, Journal of Renew Sustain Energy Reviews, 35, PP. 188201.
[11] Jamil, M., Parsa, S., Majidi, M. (1995) Wind power statistics and evaluation of wind
energy density, Renewable Energy, 6, pp. 623628.
[12] Aslan, Z., Mentes, S., Yukselen, M.A., Tolun, S. (1994) Global wind energy
assessment of Turkey and a case study in the northwest, International Energy Symposium
in 21st Century, 2830 April, Istanbul, Turkey.
[13] Ahmed Shata, A.S., Hanitsch, R. (2006) Evaluation of wind energy potential and
electricity generation on the coast of Mediterranean sea in Egypt, Renewable Energy, 31,
pp.11831202.
[14] Mirhosseini, M., Sharifi, F., Sedaghat, A. (2011) Assessing the wind energy potential
locations in province of Semnan in Iran. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 15, pp. 449459.
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[15] Manwell, J.F., McGowan, J.G., Rogers, A.L. (2002) Wind energy explained: theory,
design and application, Amherst, USA.
[16] Mostafaeipour,, A., Mostafaeipour, N. (2009) Renewable energy issues and electricity
production in Middle East compared with Iran, Journal of Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 13, pp.16411645.
[17] Al-Nassar, W., Alhajraf, S., Al-Enizi, A., Al-Awadhi, L. (2005) Potential wind power
generation in the State of Kuwait. Journal of Renewable Energy, 30, pp. 2149-2161.
[18] Ozerdem, B., Ozer, S., Tosun, M. (2006) Feasibility study of wind farms: A case
study for Izmir, Turkey, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 94,
pp. 725-743.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Study of Wind Power Potential in Zarrineh, Iran

Ali Mostafaeipour
1*
, Kasra Mohammadi
2

1
Industrial Engineering Department, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Kashan University, Kashan, Iran
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (98) 351 821 2001, Fax: (98) 351 812 2402, E-mail:
mostafaei@yazduni.ac.ir

Abstract
The use of renewable energy sources towards a global sustainable future energy system is
increasing. Clearly, fossil fuel consumption will remain dominant in the next few decades in
many countries. The price of fossil fuel is increasing, because of high demand and also limited
reserves of oil in the world. The principal objective of this paper is to analyze wind
characteristics and wind power potential for city of Zarrineh in Iran. The three-hourly period
measured wind speed data at 10 m from 2004-2009 was analyzed The obtained yearly mean
wind speed and mean wind power are 4.07 m/s and 161.44 W/m
2
respectively. Weibull
distribution base on two methods; the standard deviation method and the power density
method were used to estimate the mean wind power as an alternative method for calculating
wind power. Statistical comparison shows that power density method is more accurate. The
mean wind power of the region indicates that the location may not be ideal for grid-connected
electricity production, but has sufficient wind for off-grid electricity production in Zarrineh.
Results indicate that the site is suitable only for small scale wind turbines.

Keywords: Wind energy, standard deviation method, power density method, Weibull,
Zarrineh City, Iran.

1. INTRODUCTION

Recent increasing global demand for fossil fuel has motivated many countries to think about
possibility of using renewable energy sources like wind, solar, biomass, wave, tidal, and
geothermal which are environmentally friendly, abundant, affordable, inexhaustible, clean,
and economically sounded. Among different renewable energy sources wind and solar are the
most available resources in many countries throughout the world. In Middle East, solar
radiation is abundant in almost all the regions, but wind is available only in some areas.
Almost more than 1000 GW of wind power is available in the earth which could supply global
energy demand for all the countries [1]. For any wind power generation program, feasibility
study of wind potential is an essential task which must be done. Improper decision for locating
the wind turbine site yields to loss of investment. It is extremely important to analyze wind
data of any selected region accurately for harnessing wind energy for any purpose like
generating electricity.

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Many researchers have investigated the potential for wind energy in different locations in Iran
such as Tehran, the capital city of Iran [2], Jarandagh [3], Isfahan [4], Manjil in Gilan province
[5], and Semnan city in province of Semnan [6]. This study presents feasibility of wind energy
potential in Zarrineh which is in northwest province of Kurdistan.
This study summarizes the results of the analysis of three-hourly period measured wind speed
data at 10 m from 2004-2009 for city of Zarrineh in Kurdistan province of Iran.
The wind characteristics and wind power potential for the city was investigated to find
possibility of wind turbine installation. For this purpose, the long-term wind data from year
2004-2009 was analyzed. The wind data at this site are measured at height 10 m in the time
interval of 3 hours. The collected data was obtained from Iranian meteorological organization.
This comprehensive research work involved in determining the feasibility of deploying wind
turbines for Zarrineh city in northwest of Iran. The next section offers main characteristics of
the study region. In Section 3, comprehensive analysis is done thoroughly. The result and
discussion are presented in Sections 4. Finally concluding remarks are presented in Section 5.

2. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF REGION

Kurdistan province with an area of 28,203 km
2
is located in the west part of Iran between
3444
/
N and 3630
/
N and also between 4531
/
E and 4816
/
E. The city of Sanandaj is the
center of the province, this area includes 1.7 percent of the total country area and has ranked
16th in the country. The province of Kurdistan is bordered by the provinces West Azerbaijan,
Zanjan, Kermanshah and Hamadan, and from west is bordered by country of Iraq. Kurdistan
province is a mountainous region that also high plains and wide valleys are wide spread across
the region. Weather condition in the province is affected by the masses of warm and moist
Mediterranean that cause rainfall in spring and snowfall in winter. The air masses from the
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea to Zagros Mountain show a considerable part of
their moistures scattered snow and rainfall in this region. In normal conditions of climate the
number of frost days are 109 days per year and rainfall is 500mm. Adequate moisture and
rainfall cause Oak forest and species rainforest. Zarrineh is small town located in the north of
province at 3605
/
N and 4715
/
E, and its elevation is 2142.6 m above sea level and also is
one of the coldest towns of Iran with total population of less than 2,000 and only 12 years have
passed since become town from village [7].

3. ANALYSIS

3.1 Wind power density
To investigate the feasibility of wind energy resource at any site, calculation of wind power is
very important factor. Generally, two methods exist to evaluate wind power. The first and the
most accurate method to calculate wind power potential is based on measured values that
record at meteorological station. The wind power is proportional to cube of wind speed and
can be calculated using the following equation:

( )
3 2
1
2
P v W m =

(1)

where is the air density and for standard condition (i.e. at sea level with temperature of 15 C
and pressure of 1 atmosphere) is equal to 1.225 kg/m
3
and v is the wind speed (m/s).
Therefore, mean wind power density for any specified periods of time can be calculated as
follows:

( )
3 3 2
1
1 1
2 2
n
i
P v v W m
n

=
= =
(2)

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n is the number of all data that was used in the specified period of time. The second method to
asses wind power potential is using probability distribution function. Among several
probability distribution functions that have been presented, Weibull is most commonly used.

3.2 Weibull distribution function
Weibull distribution function for wind speed can be obtained as [8]:

( )
1
exp
k k
w
k v v
f v
c c c
| |
| | | |
= |
| |
|
\ . \ .
\ .
(3)

Where v, k and c are wind speed (m/s), shape factor (dimensionless) and scale factor (m/s),
respectively. Several methods are found in literature to estimate Weibull factors.
In this study, two methods were selected; standard deviation method and power density
method.

3.2.1 Standard deviation method
In this method, Weibull factors can be obtained as follows [8, 9]:

1.086
k
v
o

| |
=
|
\ .
(4)
( )
1
1
v
c
k
=
I +
(5)

where v

and o are mean wind speed and standard deviation of wind speed for any specified
periods of time, respectively and can be calculated as following [9]:

1
1
n
i
i
v v
n
=
=

(6)
( )
0.5
2
1
1
1
n
i
i
v v
n
o
=
( | |
=
( |
\ .
(7)

And also ( ) x I

is the gamma function and is defined as follows [9]:

1
0
( ) exp( )
x
x u u dx
I =
}
(8)

3.2.2 Power density method
To obtain shape factor and scale factor through this method, firstly the energy pattern factor is
computed. The energy pattern factor usage is for turbine aerodynamic design and defined as a
ratio between mean of cubic wind speed to cube of mean wind speed [9, 10]:
( )
( )
3
3
1
3 3
3
1
1
3
1
1
1 1
n
i
i
p f
n
i
i
v
v n k
E
v
k v
n
=
=
I +
= = =
I + | |
|
\ .
(9)

Once, energy pattern factor was calculated, shape factor can be estimated from the following
formula [10]:

2
3.69
1
p f
k
E
= +
(10)

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The calculation method for scale factor is same as standard deviation method and can be
estimated from Equation 5.

3.3 Coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation (COV) demonstrating mutability of wind speeds and is the ratio
between mean standard deviation to mean wind speed. The coefficient of variation (COV) is
defined in percent and can be expressed as following formula [11]:

(%) 100 COV
v
o
=
(11)


In this study, wind speed data for the years 2004 to 2009 have been statistically analyzed.
Calculation process led to obtain better method for Weibull distribution function for this city
using statistical comparison. Moreover, mean wind speed, and coefficient of variation (COV)
were obtained. Also mean wind power based on measured data and Weibull distribution
function at 10 m height was obtained. To find the characteristics of wind at higher heights,
mean wind speed and mean wind power are calculated at 30 m and 50 m using Weibull
distribution. In addition, to highlight obtained results, closest values of mean wind power
based on Weibull distribution function to the values of mean wind power based on
measurement data, the largest and the smallest values of RPE for both methods, the smallest
values of MPE and MAPE and also R
2
are shown in bold in considered Tables.

4.1 Monthly wind pattern
Fig. 1 illustrates wind speed variations during different months of each year and also average
of total years. According to average values of the whole years, the maximum and the
minimum wind speed occurred in March and December with values of 5.494 m/s and
3.217m/s, respectively. The wind speed, standard deviation, coefficient of variation and
Weibull factors values for each month are given in Table 1. The maximum and the minimum
values of standard deviation are equal to 4.243 and 3.11 and also obtained in March and
August. Coefficient of variation values for December, January and February are higher than
100% and it means for these three months variation of the wind speed is very high.

Dec Nov Oct Sep Aug Jul Jun May Apr Mar Feb Jan
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Months
M
e
a
n

w
i
n
d

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
)
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Whole year

Fig. 1 Monthly mean wind speed (m/s) at 10 m

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Table 1 Monthly wind speed, standard deviation, coefficient of variation and Weibull factors
Standard deviation method Power density method
Month V (m/s) COV (%) k () c (m/s) k () c (m/s)
Jan 3.321 3.667 110.4 0.898 3.153 1.109 3.451
Feb 4.139 4.216 101.8 0.980 4.104 1.14 4.338
Mar 5.494 4.243 77.2 1.324 5.97 1.365 6.003
Apr 5.301 3.986 75.2 1.363 5.791 1.436 5.838
May 4.376 3.674 83.9 1.209 4.661 1.319 4.751
Jun 4.086 3.189 78.1 1.309 4.43 1.429 4.497
Jul 3.995 3.229 80.8 1.260 4.297 1.392 4.379
Aug 3.955 3.110 78.6 1.298 4.281 1.430 4.353
Sep 3.862 3.205 83.0 1.224 4.127 1.335 4.203
Oct 3.623 3.437 94.9 1.059 3.705 1.193 3.845
Nov 3.514 3.385 96.3 1.041 3.572 1.185 3.723
Dec 3.217 3.411 106.0 0.938 3.124 1.128 3.36

Comparison between shape factor values show that for all months except December, January
and February, obtained values from both methods are close together. Shape factor for standard
deviation method, are between 0.898 and 1.363 and for power density method are between
1.109 and 1.436. Besides, scale factor values for standard deviation method ranged from 3.124
m/s to 5.970 m/s and for power density method ranged from 3.360 m/s to 6.003 m/s. Monthly
mean wind power and statistical parameters for each month are presented in Table 2. It can be
seen from table, the obtained values from power density method are very close to obtained
power from measured data for seven months from March to September. Due to same reason
that was stated in the hourly analysis section, some big differences between mean power
values for both methods are occurred. The maximum and the minimum values of mean wind
power based on measurement data are equal to 322.775 W/m
2
and 109.466 W/m
2
in December
and March, respectively. Statistical indicators show power density method is better alternative
method than standard deviation method in monthly analysis. According to Table 2, for
standard deviation method the highest and the lowest values of RPE are obtained in January
and March with values of 37.619% and 4.623%, respectively. While, for power density
method the highest and the lowest value of RPE are obtained in January and April with values
19.024% and 0.124%. RPE, MPE, MAPE and R
2
can be seen in Table 2. Overview of wind
power in different months indicates, wind power during the January to May have the highest
values.

Table 2 Monthly mean wind power based on measured data and Weibull distribution and
statistical parameters
Measured
data
Standard deviation method Power density method
Month P (W/m
2
) P (W/m
2
) RPE % MPE % MAPE % P (W/m
2
) RPE % MPE
%
MAPE
%
R
2
Jan 130.391 179.442 37.619 19.187 19.187 105.585
19.024
5.709
5.709 0.963
Feb 222.782 274.046 23.01 192.592
13.552

Mar 322.775 337.697 4.623 320.297 0.768
Apr 265.442 288.639 8.739 265.113 0.124
May 174.693 201.849 15.545 171.863 1.62
Jun 122.527 141.766 15.702 122.328 0.162
Jul 119.791 141.937 18.487 119.252 0.45
Aug 110.944 130.414 17.55 110.77 0.156
Sep 117.093 135.445 15.673 115.609 1.268
Oct 127.244 152.221 19.63 117.579 7.595
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Nov 118.659 144.47 21.752 108.812 8.299
Dec 109.466 144.408 31.92 92.512
15.488

4.2 Wind speed and wind power analysis at 30 m and 50 m
Since the wind speed in Zarrineh meteorological station are only measured at 10 m, one of
objective of this study is to derive wind speed, wind power and also probability of wind speed
at heights 30 m and 50 m. For this aim we used method that mentioned earlier. This analysis
was conducted in monthly, seasonal and yearly basis. Tables 3 indicates monthly values of
power law coefficient, wind speed and Weibull factors at 30 m and 50 m and Table 4 indicates
seasonal and yearly values.

Table 3 Monthly wind speed, power law coefficient and Weibull factors at 30 (m) and 50 (m)
Month n V
30
(m/s) k
30
() c
30
(m/s) V
50
(m/s) k
50
() c
50
(m/s)
Jan 0.261 4.299 1.228 4.597 4.857 1.293 5.252
Feb 0.241 5.252 1.263 5.652 5.878 1.329 6.391
Mar 0.212 6.835 1.512 7.578 7.576 1.591 8.446
Apr 0.215 6.630 1.590 7.391 7.366 1.673 8.247
May 0.233 5.558 1.460 6.136 6.221 1.536 6.910
Jun 0.238 5.240 1.582 5.838 5.890 1.665 6.592
Jul 0.240 5.130 1.542 5.700 5.770 1.622 6.443
Aug 0.240 5.088 1.584 5.669 5.727 1.667 6.410
Sep 0.243 4.967 1.478 5.493 5.592 1.556 6.220
Oct 0.251 4.667 1.321 5.068 5.258 1.390 5.763
Nov 0.254 4.539 1.312 4.923 5.120 1.381 5.606
Dec 0.263 4.181 1.249 4.488 4.730 1.314 5.134

Table 4 Seasonal and yearly wind speed, power law coefficient and Weibull factors at 30 (m)
and 50 (m)
n V
30
(m/s) k
30
() c
30
(m/s) V
50
(m/s) k
50
() c
50
(m/s)
Winter 0.255 4.558 1.238 4.883 5.135 1.303 5.562
Spring 0.22 6.338 1.503 7.022 7.051 1.582 7.855
Summer 0.239 5.152 1.568 5.735 5.795 1.65 6.48
Autumn 0.25 4.723 1.361 5.158 5.322 1.432 5.859
Year 0.24 4.895 1.375 5.684 5.828 1.447 6.425

According to Tables 3 and 4, the maximum and the minimum values of wind speed at height
30 m and 50 m occurred exactly at the same time that these values happened at height 10 m.
The mean wind power values and also probability of wind speed that happen lower than 3 m/s,
between interval 3 m/s and 25 m/s and upper than 25 m/s at height 30 m and 50 m for different
month of year are shown in Table 5. These ranges of wind speed to find probability are
selected due to the fact that most wind turbine work within this range. These values based on
seasonal and yearly are listed in Table 6.

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Table 5 Monthly power density and probability of wind speed at 30 (m) and 50 (m)
Month P
30
P
50
V
30
< 3 V
30
(325) V
30
> 25 V
50
< 3 V
50
(325) V
50
>25
Jan 185.733 243.389 0.55134 0.4474 0.00126 0.52207 0.4758 0.00213
Feb 321.431 410.937 0.48836 0.50789 0.00376 0.46403 0.53044 0.00553
Mar 525.637 665.792 0.45032 0.54285 0.00683 0.43172 0.55928 0.00901
Apr 446.62 572.429 0.47555 0.51984 0.00462 0.45596 0.53777 0.00627
May 297.848 387.053 0.51023 0.48716 0.00261 0.48678 0.50937 0.00385
Jun 221.938 294.442 0.55652 0.44234 0.00114 0.53137 0.46682 0.00181
Jul 216.013 286.423 0.55571 0.44313 0.00116 0.53016 0.468 0.00185
Aug 202.931 270.443 0.56742 0.43165 0.00093 0.5416 0.4569 0.0015
Sep 208.627 276.232 0.55397 0.44483 0.0012 0.52779 0.47029 0.00193
Oct 207.66 272.455 0.5425 0.45603 0.00148 0.5151 0.4825 0.0024
Nov 193.375 254.462 0.55048 0.44824 0.00128 0.52243 0.47545 0.00212
Dec 165.396 218.347 0.56608 0.43297 0.00095 0.53613 0.46222 0.00166

Table 6 Seasonal and yearly power density and probability of wind speed at 30 (m) and 50
(m)
P
30
P
50
V
30
< 3 V
30
(3
25)
V
30
> 25 V
50
< 3 V
50
(3
25)
V
50
>25
Winter 218.065 283.698 0.53256 0.46567 0.00177 0.50471 0.49242 0.00287
Spring 422.758 541.08 0.47376 0.52149 0.00475 0.45337 0.54011 0.00652
Summer 213.565 283.692 0.5597 0.43923 0.00108 0.53419 0.46409 0.00172
Autumn 204.587 269.321 0.54688 0.45175 0.00137 0.51971 0.47807 0.00222
Year 187.055 286.175 0.51611 0.48154 0.00236 0.49123 0.50519 0.00358

Elliott and Schwartz [12] illustrated wind power based on wind power density into 7 classes
for three heights of 10 m, 30 m and 50 m (Table 7).

Table 7 Wind power classification by Elliot and Schwartz
Power
class
classification Power density
(W/m
2
) 10 m
Power density
(W/m
2
) 30 m
Power density
(W/m
2
) 50 m
1 Poor P
10
100 P
30
160 P
50
200
2 Marginal P
10
150 P
30
240 P
50
300
3 Moderate P
10
200 P
30
320 P
50
400
4 Good P
10
250 P
30
400 P
50
500
5 Excellent P
10
300 P
30
480 P
50
600
6 Excellent P
10
400 P
30
640 P
50
800
7 Excellent P
10
1000 P
30
1600 P
50
2000
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Based on Table 7 and according to obtained yearly value of mean wind power at 10 m,
Zarrineh is placed in class 3. On the other hand, according to obtained values of mean wind
power at 30 m and 50 m from Table 10, Zarrineh is placed in class 2. This result shows that
with increasing the heights the classification of wind power changes from class 3 to class 2. It
can be concluded that Zarrineh is a marginal location. Furthermore, according to classification
proposed by Elliot and Schwartz (Table 7), regions which are placed in class 4 and above can
be considered as suitable for large-scale wind turbines [13]. However, since Zarrineh is placed
in class 2 and 3 at different heights of 10 m, 30 m and 50 m and with increasing the height
wind power class is decreased, this city is not suitable for installation of large-scale wind
turbines. On the other hand, small-scale wind turbines can be considered as a proper option for
Zarrineh.

5. CONCLUSION

This paper has presented long-term six years (2004-2009) three-hourly period measured wind
speed data at 10 m height around the Zarrineh city in Iran. Weibull factors were used to find
wind speed and wind power at height 30 m and 50 m. It should be mentioned this step
conducted after wind analysis at 10 m and also after finding best method of Weibull
distribution. The site does not show good wind characteristics which are illustrated by low
monthly mean wind speed and power density values for the studied period at different heights.
The mean wind power of the region indicates that the location may not be ideal for grid-
connected electricity production, but has sufficient wind for small wind turbines. Statistical
comparison showed more accuracy of power density method than the standard deviation
method. Clearly, this is a preliminary analysis of the wind resource characteristics of the
Zarrineh region. The calculated monthly wind power resource was low, but it is possible to
harness the wind energy by small wind turbines.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Adaramola, M.S., Paul S.S. and Oyedepo, S.Q. (2011) Assessment of electricity generatio
n and energy cost of wind energy conversion systems in north-central Nigeria, Energy Co
nversion Management, 52, pp. 336368.
[2] Keyhani, A., Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, M., Khanali, M. and Abbaszadeh, R. (2010) An ass
essment of wind energy potential as a power generation source in the capital of Iran, Tehr
an, Energy , 35, pp. 188201.
[3] Sharifi, M., Shirzad-Sibani, A. (2006) Feasibility study for construction of wind power pl
ant for electricity generation in Jarandagh, 21
st
International Power System Conference.
[4] Rajabi, M.R., Modarres, R. (2008) Extreme value frequency analysis of wind data from Is
fahan, Iran, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96, pp. 7882.
[5] Mostafaeipour, A. and Abarghooei, H. (2008) Harnessing wind energy at Manjil area loca
ted in north of Iran. J Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 12, pp. 17581766.
[6] Mirhosseini, M., Sharifi, F. and Sedaghat, A. (2011) Assessing the wind energy potential
locations in province of Semnan in Iran, J Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 15, pp. 449459.
[7] Wikipedia. Available at: http://www.wikipedia.com
[8] Justus, C.G., Hargraves, R., Mikhail, A., Graber, D. (1977) Methods for estimating wind
speed frequency distributions. J Appl Meteorol, 17, pp. 350353.
[9] Manwell, J.F., McGowan, J.G. and Rogers, A.L. (2002) Wind energy explained: theory, d
esign and application. John Wiley & Sons, Amherst, USA.
[10] Akdag, S.A. and Dinler, A. (2009) A new method to estimate Weibull parameters for win
d energy applications, Energy Convers Manage, 50, pp. 176166.
[11] Ahmed, A.S. (2012) Investigation. Potential wind power generation in South Egypt, J Re
new Sustain Energy Rev, 16, pp. 1528 1536.
[12] Elliott, D.L. and Schwartz, M.N. (1993) Wind energy potential in the United States. PNL-
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SA-23109. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory; NTIS no. DE94001667.
[13] Li, M. and Li, X. (2005) Investigation of wind characteristics and assessment of wind en
ergy potential for Waterloo region, Canada, Energy Conversion Management, 46, pp. 30
143033.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Simple Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics Made From Polyethylene, Polypropylene and
Polystyrene to Produce Liquid Fuel

Harwin Saptoadi
1*
, Nosal Nugroho Pratama
1
, Mochamad Syamsiro
2
, Kunio Yoshikawa
2
1
Dept. of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia
2
Dept. of Environmental Science & Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (62) 8122769687, Fax: (62) 274521673, E-mail: harwins@ugm.ac.id

Abstract
Plastics waste becomes substantial problem for environment, especially in large cities where
most inhabitants use plastics extensively. It can be thermally treated by pyrolysis process to
produce useful liquid fuel in considerable amount. However, researches must be carried out in
order to find the best process variables, such as temperatures, duration, initial mass, etc., and
also to obtain the best fuel characteristics, such as kinematic viscosity, specific gravity, flash
point, pour point, etc., which are appropriate to internal combustion engines.
In order to resemble the real plastics waste which is randomly mixed in waste disposal areas,
the research is conducted by varying the proportion of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
Polypropylene (PP) and Polystyrene (PS), which are mostly used plastics types, as raw
materials for pyrolysis. The pyrolysis products are solid, liquid and gas. However, the
research focuses only on liquid (oil) products. Those raw materials are pyrolyzed in a
cylindrical tank with temperatures between 550
o
C and 700
o
C. Higher fraction of PS will
increase production rates, oil fraction, kinematic viscosity and specific gravity. The maximum
oil fraction is 80.72%, while specific gravity is 0.9208. PE as raw material will yield the
highest kinematic viscosity and Reid Vapour Pressure, which are 1.422 mm
2
/s and 27.89 kPa,
respectively. In terms of Flash and Pour points, oils obtained from PP, PS and their mixtures
have the similar values, i.e below 10
o
C and below -33
o
C. On the contrary, oil from PE has
higher pour point (18
o
C), yet similar flash point. GC-MS (Gas Chromatography Mass
Spectroscopy) test results show that all oil are roughly 73% - 95% dominated by atomic range
of between C
6
and C
12
, therefore they are more appropriate as gasoline fuel.

Keywords: Liquid Fuel, Oil Characteristics, Plastics Mixture, Pyrolysis, Waste Plastics.

1. INTRODUCTION

Since decades plastic materials are used intensively for almost all products required by human
beings. However, despite of its obvious superiorities as material, such as durability, corrosion
resistance, lightweight, formability, low cost, etc., people begin to worry about its low
degradation rate after its service life. High production and consumption of plastics leads to a
continuous increase of disposed plastic wastes and consequently shortage of landfill areas,
since plastics require long time to decay.
Statistics for Western Europe estimated an annual consumption of plastics product at almost
100 kg per person for a total of over 39.1 million tons, and unfortunately around 61% of the
generated plastic wastes were simply disposed to landfills [1]. A report from Japan mentioned
that in 2006 the domestic plastic wastes had reached a total of 10.06 million tons. Around 72%
were reutilized as materials, fuels, electricity or heat [2].
Indonesian Ministry of Environment has released data showing that in 1995 urban inhabitants
produced on the average 0.8 kg mixed waste per capita daily. In 2000 the figure increased up
to 1 kg/day/person. It is estimated that in 2020 those inhabitants will throw away 2.1
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287

kg/day/person. Assuming that 15% of those mixed refuses are plastics, the 220 million citizens
of the country in 1995 disposed approximately 26,500 ton of plastic wastes per day [3]. The
figure will look certainly much more terrible in 2012 when both the total inhabitants and the
plastics consumption per capita increased considerably.
Most plastic wastes consist of Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS),
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyurethanes (PU) and
Polyamides (PA), which altogether account for more than 90% of total plastics wastes. There
are several ways for handling them, e.g. landfilling, melting and regranulation, feedstock
recycling, and incineration. Due to some reasons feedstock recycling, such as pyrolysis,
appears to be very promising because the obtained valuable chemicals can be used either for
raw materials in chemical industry or for fuels [4]. It allows the treatment of mixed,
contaminated, or hard to recycle plastic wastes. The production of gasoline, kerosene and
diesel oil from waste plastics pyrolysis is an emerging technological solution to the huge
amount of plastics which can not be recovered economically. Mainly PE, PP and PS are used
as the feedstock since they have no heteroatom content and theoretically liquid products are
free of sulfur [5]. Pyrolytic recycling of plastic wastes has already been achieved successfully
on commercial scale in several plants [2].

2. PYROLYSIS OF PLASTIC WASTES

Basically pyrolysis is a decomposition process of plastics by means of heating in an inert
atmosphere to yield a variety of products (mostly hydrocarbons) in solid, liquid and gaseous
phase. The most significant variables is temperature, because it influences both the polymer
conversion and the product distribution, i.e. oils, gases, waxes, and solid residue. As
temperature rises, the gas fraction will increase and conversely the liquid fraction will decrease
[6,7]. Therefore low and medium temperature pyrolysis, between 400
o
C and 500
o
C, is used if
high fraction of oil is desired.
A variety of reactors have been developed for plastics pyrolysis, such as stirred tanks, shaft
furnaces, rotary kilns, fixed beds, fluidized beds, circulating bed reactors and screw extruders
[1,4]. Certain pyrolysis may require different type of reactor, because it determines mainly the
amount of heat transfer, mixing, residence times and the escape of primary products [5].
Researches must always be carried out in order to find the best process variables, such as
temperatures, duration, initial mass, etc., and also to obtain the best fuel characteristics, such
as kinematic viscosity, specific gravity, flash point, pour point, etc., which are appropriate to
internal combustion engines. Sometimes, if required, plastic wastes are pyrolyzed together
with coal [4], lubrication oil wastes [5] or even biomass [6].

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to resemble the real plastics waste which is randomly mixed in waste disposal areas,
the research is conducted by varying the proportion of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
Polypropylene (PP) and Polystyrene (PS) as raw materials (feedstock) for pyrolysis [8]. There
are 5 samples, i.e. 100% PP, 100% PS, 100% HDPE, 75% PP + 25% PS, and 25% PP + 75%
PS. The pyrolysis are carried out three times for each sample with almost similar initial mass,
as shown in Table 1, while the following Fig. 1 shows the raw materials used in the research.

Table 1 Initial mass of plastic wastes (in gram)
Single Mixed
100% PP 100% PS
100%
HDPE
75% PP + 25%
PS
25% PP + 75%
PS
1 255.4 91.2 155.7 161 122.4
2 255.2 97.1 152.4 160.5 120.1
3 253 96.8 152.7 160.5 122.3
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288

Fig. 1: The raw materials: PP (left), PS (middle) and HDPE (right)

Fig. 2 displays the schematic diagram of the simple pyrolyzer unit. Raw materials are placed
in a tightly sealed cylindrical feedstock container (D 80 mm, H 480 mm) and pyrolyzed in a
cylindrical reactor (stainless steel, D 300 mm, H 500 mm) with temperatures between 550
o
C
and 700
o
C and initial pressure of 1 atm. The high temperature is brought about by a 1200 W
heater, which consists of electric resistance wires and controlled with the help of
thermocouples. The U stainless tube will direct the pyrolytic gases into Container 1 where
some parts condense naturally. The rest which are still in gaseous phase will flow further
through a Condenser (D 25 mm, L 48 mm) where some parts condense in Container 2. The
remaining gas is then flared to avoid emission of combustibles into the atmosphere. The flow
rate of cooling water supplied to the condenser is measured by a flowmeter.
Initially the cylindrical reactor is preheated until roughly 550
o
C before the feedstock tube is
placed inside. The heating continues until a temperature of around 700
o
C. The experiment is
terminated if there is no further oil condensation in both containers. Obviously the pyrolysis
products are solids (left inside the feedstock tank), liquid (in the container 1 and 2) and flared
gas. However, the research focuses only on liquid oil products due to their considerable
potential as fuels. The oils are then sent to laboratories for analysis in terms of physical
parameters, such as Specific Gravity, Kinematic Viscosity, Flash Point, Pour Point, and Reid
Vapour Pressure. Furthermore the oils are analyzed in order to determine their chemical
compositions using GC-MS (Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy).

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the pyrolyzer


4.1 Production rates
The produced oil volume is measured every 10 minutes and the results are shown in Fig. 3.
However, the oil yield is taken from the Container 1 only, because the yield in the Container 2
is negligibly small. The poor performance of the Condensor is responsible for it, since the
cooling water temperature is practically equal to the ambient temperature (around 27
o
C).

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289

Fig. 3 Oil yield from the Container 1

The figure displays that between 30
th
and 50
th
minutes the curves are mostly linear, therefore
very simple calculations can be carried out to determine the instantaneous production rates, as
revealed in Table 2. It is obvious that HDPE is the most difficult plastics to pyrolyze. PS is the
fastest one to pyrolyze although its initial mass is the lowest (see Table 1). PP behaves
between those two other materials. Higher decomposition is observed in PP than in HDPE. It
seems that less crystalline or more branched polymers are less stable in thermal degradation
[9]. Furthermore, it is observed in the mixture of PS and PP, that higher PS content will yield
oil faster than those with lower PS content. If the rates of PP 25% + PS 75% are surprisingly
even higher than those of PS 100%, the reason is probably the higher initial mass of the
former. The results are in accordance with Lee [10], who observes that pyrolysis of PS shows
higher liquid yield than that of polyolefinic polymer, such as PE and PP, because of the
structure of stable benzene rings (in PS) instead of straight hydrocarbon structure (in PE and
PP). PS is less cracked to gas product of 5 carbon numbers or less. In all cases, the production
rates tend to diminish with the elapsed time.

Table 2 Production rates (cm
3
/min)
Time
(min)
PP 100% PS 100%
PP 75% +
PS 25%
PP 25% +
PS 75%
HDPE
100%
t = 30 2.1 2.3 1.2 2.6 0.5
t = 40 1.95 2.25 1.1 2.3 0.475
t = 50 1.8 2.2 1 2 0.45

4.2 Product composition
After pyrolysis processes at 700
o
C of all five samples are fully completed, product
compositions in terms of phase (solid, liquid and gas) are analyzed. The results are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3 Product composition of the pyrolysis at 700
o
C (in gram)
No Feedstocks Initial
mass
(g)
Liquid Gas Solid
Mass % Mass % Mass %
1 PP 255.4 97.3 38.1 151.9 59.47 6.2 2.428
2 PS 97 78.3 80.72 15.8 16.28 2.9 2.98
3 PP75%+PS25% 161 58.4 36.27 100.9 62.67 1.7 1.056
4 PP25%+PS75% 120.5 83.7 69.46 32.9 27.3 3.9 3.237
5 HDPE 155.7 44.6 28.64 107.1 68.78 4 2.569

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290

In all cases, the solid fractions are negligibly small. The gas fractions are mostly the highest
ones, possibly because of too high pyrolyzing temperature and poor condenser performance,
except for the cases where PS is dominant. The maximum liquid yield amounts to 80.72%.
Pyrolysis of PS shows higher liquid yield than that of polyolefinic polymer, such as PE and
PP, since PS has stable benzene rings, while PE and PS have straight hydrocarbon structure.
PS is less cracked to gas product of 5 carbon numbers or less [10]. Higher liquid fraction is
observed in PP than in HDPE. It seems that less crystalline or more branched polymers are
less stable in thermal degradation [9].

4.3 Oil properties based on its feedstock
The obtained oils are then analyzed in order to identify their physical characteristics, i.e.
Specific Gravity, Kinematic Viscosity, Flash Point, Pour Point, and Reid Vapor Pressure. It is
not surprising if the waste types determine the physical properties, as shown in Table 4. In all
those figures and tables, properties of gasoline, kerosene and diesel fuel are also included just
for comparison purposes.

Table 4 Oil properties
Properties PP PS PP25+PS
75
PP75+PS
25
HDPE Diese
l
Kerose
ne
Gasolin
e
Specific
Gravi-ty ( - )

0.884
3

0.920
8

0.9072

0.8992

0.776
8

0.844
5

0.7575

0.75
Kinematic
Vis-cosity
(mm
2
/s)

0.95

0.988

0.952

0.867

1.422

4.012

-

0.88
Reid
Vapour
Pressure
(kPa)

25.85

12.24

11.56

16.33

27.89

4.76

-

53.78
Pour Point (
o
C )

Still liquid at 33
o
C

18

6

-

-
Flash Point
(
o
C )

Already flashed at 10
o
C

66.5
25.55
57.1

- 56.75

Oil from PS has the highest specific gravity (0.9208), followed by PP-oil and HDPE-oil.
Those from their mixture demonstrate their proportionality. HDPE as raw material will yield
the highest kinematic viscosity, Reid Vapour Pressure and pour point, which are 1.422 mm
2
/s,
27.89 kPa, and 18
o
C respectively. On the other hand, its specific gravity is the lowest. In
terms of Flash and Pour points, oils obtained from PP, PS and their mixtures have the similar
values, i.e below 10
o
C and below -33
o
C. However, thorough tests with better equipment are
required to determine the exact values. Oil from HDPE has higher pour point (18
o
C), yet
similar flash point.

4.4 Oil analysis with GC-MS
The conducted analysis shows that the pyrolytic oils contain a lot of chemical substances,
which is indicated clearly by many peaks in the GC spectra. Subsequently, based on the
available data of retention times, all composing substances can be recognized. Afterward, each
substance is examined in a MS instrument in order to determine the relative molecular mass of
each substance. Figures 4 8 display the chromatograms of all oils. The following tables 5
9 show the GC data of the corresponding oils. Finally, tables 10 14 reveal the dominant
substances of each oil.
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291

There are 52 peaks in the PP-oil (Fig. 4), however the five highest percentages are 14.08% of
C
8
H
8
, followed by 11.69% of C
7
H
8
, then 8.12% of C
8
H
10
, next 5.95% of C
9
H
10
and finally
4.03% of C
8
H
10
(Tables 5 and 10).
31 peaks are recorded for the PS-oil (Fig. 5), where the five highest percentages are 38.57% of
C
8
H
8
7
H
8
, then 5.34% of C
10
H
8
, next 4.95% of C
20
H
34
and finally
4.12% of C
15
H
24
(Tables 6 and 11).

Fig. 4 Chromatogram of the PP-oil

Fig. 5 Chromatogram of the PS-oil

Fig. 6 Chromatogram of the oil from PP 75% + PS 25%

Fig. 7 Chromatogram of the oil from PP 25% + PS 75%

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Fig. 8 Chromatogram of the HDPE-oil

Table 5 GC data of the PP-oil

Table 6 GC data of the PS-oil

Table 7 GC data of the oil from PP 75% + PS 25%

Table 8 GC data of the oil from PP 25% + PS 75%

Table 9 GC data of the HDPE-oil

Table 10 Dominant substances in the PP-oil
No Peak % Area Substance Formula
1 13 11.69 Toluene/Methylenzene C
7
H
8

2 14 8.12 Ethylbenzene C
8
H
10

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3 16 4.03 1,4 Dimethylbenzene C
8
H
10

4 22 14.08 Styren/Benzene ethenyl C
8
H
8

5 26 5.95 Isoallyenzene C
9
H
10

Table 11 Dominant substances in the PS-oil
1 2 10.33 Toluene/Benzene-Methyl C
7
H
8

2 8 38.57 Styren/EthenylBenzene C
8
H
8

3 11 5.34 Napthalene/Azulene C
10
H
8

4 16 4.12 Cis-Caryophyllene C
15
H
24

5 19 4.95 Cyclohexane C
20
H
34

Fig. 6 shows 53 peaks in the oil of PP75%+PS25%, while Tables 7 and 12 reveal the five
highest percentages, i.e. 15.17%, 13.22%, 9.4%, 6.14% and 3.92% for C
8
H
8
, C
7
H
8
, C
8
H
10
,
C
9
H
10
and C
6
H
6
, respectively.
There are 24 peaks in the oil of PP25%+PS75% (Fig. 7), however the five highest percentages
are 29.5% of C
8
H
8
7
H
8
, then 16.89% of C
8
H
10
, next 8.09% of C
9
H
10

and finally 3.09% of C
10
H
8
(Tables 8 and 13).
As identified in Fig. 8, HDPE-oil has 32 peaks are identified, but only the five highest
percentages are considered, i.e. 8.26% of C
12
H
26
O, followed by 7.34% of C
8
H
16
, then 7.19% of
C
7
H
16
, next 7.06% of C
11
H
22
and finally 6.44% of C
8
H
18
(Tables 9 and 14).

Table 12 Dominant substances in the oil of PP 75% + PS 25%
1 10 3.92 Benzene C
6
H
6

2 13 13.22 Benzene Methyl C
7
H
8

3 14 9.40 EthylBenzene C
8
H
10

4 22 15.17 Benzene Ethenyl C
8
H
8

5 26 6.14 Alpha MethylStyrene C
9
H
10

Table 13 Dominant substances in the oil of PP 25% + PS 75%
1 7 21.56 Benzene methyl C
7
H
8

2 8 16.89 Ethylbenzene C
8
H
10

3 11 29.50 Styren/BenzeneEthenyl C
8
H
8

4 12 8.09 Alpha Methyl Styrene C
9
H
10

5 16 3.09 Nepthalene C
10
H
8

Table 14 Dominant substances in the HDPE-oil
1 4 7.19 Heptane C
7
H
16

2 7 6.44 Octane C
8
H
18

3 10 7.34 Octane Caprylene C
8
H
16

4 14 8.26 1-Octanol,2-Butyl C
12
H
26
O
5 17 7.06 Undecene C
11
H
22

If most of those hydrocarbon substances are classified into 2 main groups, where the first
contains of C-6 until C-12, while the second between C-13 and C-23, the GC-MS test results
reveal an interesting phenomenon, as seen in Table 15.

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Table 15 Two main groups of carbon fractions in the oils
No Feedstock Group of carbon fractions Most dominant
carbon fraction C
6
- C
12
C
13
- C
23

1 PP 85.65 10.55 C
8
= 31.83%
2 PS 73.83 21.8 C
8
= 47.55%
3
PP 75% + PS
25%
93.47 4.42 C
8
= 34.92%
4
PP 25% + PS
75%
95.63 2.43 C
8
= 49.01%
5 HDPE 84.19 8.18 C
7
= 25.02%

Obviously, all oils are roughly 73% - 95% dominated by the atomic range of between C
6
and
C
12
. The most dominant carbon fraction is C
8
as well, except that in the HDPE oil. Therefore
they are more appropriate as gasoline fuel.

5. CONCLUSION

1. Pyrolysis is technically feasible to convert plastic wastes to useful liquid fuel.
2. PS is the best feedstock in terms of liquid yield rate and percentage. On the other hand
HDPE is the worst one, while PP is in between.
3. In general, mixture of PP and PS wastes can improve the pyrolysis characteristics of pure
PP, but understandably worsen those of pure PS.
4. Specific Gravities of oils from PP, PS and their mixtures are close to (slightly above) diesel
fuel, while oil from HDPE has the lowest value and closer to gasoline.
5. Kinematic Viscosities of oils from PP, PS and their mixtures are almost similar to gasoline,
while HDPE-oil has the highest value, however it is still too low compared to diesel fuel.
6. Those oils are more appropriate if used as gasoline rather than diesel fuel.
7. Higher yield and better quality of the liquid fuel can be achieved by improving and
optimizing the process, e.g. appropriate temperature, addition of catalytic reforming, lower
cooling water temperature, etc.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The paper presents the results of a preliminary research funded by JICA under the
AUN/SEED-Net, in a program called CRI (Collaborative Research Program with Industry).
Another considerable contribution is also obtained from the Dompet Dhuafa Foundation. Their
supports are herewith gratefully acknowledged. Special thank goes to Anjar Kresna Putra,
undergraduate student of the first author, for his excellent performance as a research assistant.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Aguado, J., Serrano, D.P. and San Miguel, G. (2007) European Trends in the Feedstock
Recycling of Plastic Wastes, Global NEST Journal, Vol 9, No 1, pp 12 19.
[2] Fukushima, M., Shioya, M., Wakai, K. and Ibe, H. (2009) Toward Maximizing the
Recycling Rate in a Sapporo Waste Plastics Liquefaction Plant, J. Mater Cycles Waste
Manag., 11, pp. 11-18.
[3] http://green.kompasiana.com/polusi/2012/03/21/mengurangi-sampah-bagian-dari-investasi/
[4] Aguado, J. and Serrano, D. (1999) Feedstock Recycling of Plastic Wastes, RSC Clean
Technology Monograph, Cambridge, UK.
[5] Scheirs, J. and Kaminsky, W. (2006) Feedstock Recycling and Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd., West Sussex, UK.
[6] Paradela, F., Pinto, F., Gulyurtlu, I., Cabrita, I. and Lapa, N. (2009) Study of the Co-
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[7] Syamsiro, M., Prawisudha, P., Hu, W. and Yoshikawa, K. (2011) Co-production of Liquid
and Gas Fuels from Waste Plastics, Proceedings of the 4
th
AUN/SEED-Net Regional Conf. on
New and Renewable Energy, pp 104-107.
[8] Pratama, N.N. (2012) Characteristics of oil derived from pyrolysis of Polyethylene,
Polypropylene and Polystyrene Wastes, Undergraduate thesis, Department of Mechanical and
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[9] Achilias, D.S., Antonakou, E., Roupakias, C., Megalokonomos, P. and Lappas, A. (2008)
Recycling Techniques of Polyolefins from plastic Wastes, Global NEST Journal, Vol 10, No
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[10] Lee, K.H. (2012) Pyrolysis of waste Polystyrene and High Density Polyethylene, Material
Recycling Trends and Perspectives, Korea Institute of Energy Research, pp 175-192.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Energy Analysis of an Anergy Bus System Hydraulic Network to Couple
Decentralised Chillers with Central Cooling Tower(s)

Marcel Bruelisauer
1*
, Raphael Engler
2
, Forrest Meggers
1
, Hansjrg Leibundgut
2

1
Future Cities Laboratory, Singapore-ETH Centre for Global Environmental Sustainability, Singapore
2
Building Systems Group, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: +65 9370 4442, E-mail: bruelisauer@arch.ethz.ch

Abstract
The tropical climate of Singapore is too hot and humid with regard to the standardised,
accepted indoor climate conditions at all times. By air conditioning the indoor space, we
remove heat and humidity from buildings and reject the resulting heat to the environment by
use of a chiller to overcome the natural potential difference. Because of the detrimental
environmental impacts associated with energy use, we aim at minimising the input of energy
for the operation of the chiller. By applying the Low Exergy paradigm to buildings, a concept
derived from the optimisation of thermal power plants, we aim at minimising not only this
heat flow but also the temperature lift the chiller has to perform. The chillers efficiency
increases with lower temperature lifts. Aiming at rejecting heat at the lowest feasible
temperature is thus a consequence of this approach.
Non-saturated air has shown the highest potential if its evaporative potential can be used e.g.
in a wet cooling tower. This is a well-known technology and is used in the tropics in office
buildings or even on a district scale. In this study, we present the analysis of an alternative
system, with a centralised heat rejection unit but decentralised chillers. Instead of distributing
chilled water directly to the end users, this anergy bus moves heat at temperatures close to
environmental conditions. Only at the end users, the heat is transformed according to their
need. We benefit from efficient central heat rejection while we enable the modular setup of air
conditioning systems according to individual needs through a simple infrastructure.
This new system is evaluated by modelling a residential building block in Singapore and by
comparing it to the typical system with dry-air split units, focusing on the energy analysis of
the whole system. We evaluate variations of hydraulic networks and their parameters, and
their interaction with decentralised chillers and central cooling tower(s). The analysis includes
energy used for transforming and transporting heat with auxiliary equipment for overall
system performance. The results show how very small (<1%) the pumping energy for heat
transport is compared to heat transformation. The heat gains during transport are almost
negligible, even for not insulated pipes. The resulting simplicity of the hydraulic network
makes this system a viable option to increase energy efficiency for new and retrofitted
buildings and thus ultimately reduce CO2 emissions from building operation.

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Localization and Savings in Utilization of External Melt Thermal Storage System
for Air-conditioning Application in the Philippines: A Proof of Concept

Ruben Agbayani Bongat
1, 2
2*

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Technological Institute of the
Philippines,
Quezon City, 1101 Philippines
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City, 1101 Philippines
*
Corresponding Author. Telefax: (632) 9208875, E-mail: menandro.berana@upd.edu.ph,
mberana@gmail.com

Abstract
External melt thermal storage (TES) system has a distinct advantage over its conventional
water chiller counterpart since it operates and builds up ice during off-peak period, which
when electricity cost is low, and uses the stored coldness during peak period, which is when
electricity cost is high on the other hand. This study has proven that TES system can take
advantage of this variation in electricity rate, especially when the electricity cost is very high
as in the case of the Philippines, and the lower wet bulb temperature of air during night time
compared with daytime.
The computation in this study had been based on a recently installed external melt TES
utilizing only water and ice, being the first one in the country and installed in a learning
institution in Caloocan City, Metro Manila, Philippines. For an estimate in savings, ice
formation and melting were simulated based on energy analysis conducted every 15 minutes
for a period of 24 hours. The computation also was based on industrial time-of-use rate of
electricity and seasonal temperature variations in the Philippines in a year. On the thermal side
of computation, it assumes steady-state condition and neglects the effect of film coefficient
inside the tubes due to nucleate boiling of the refrigerant. It also takes into consideration the
combined presence of system cooling demand and compressor cooling capacity.
The total instantaneous cooling demand of the system is about 1,147 kW (326.2 tons of
refrigeration). It operates 19-hours a day with compressor resting period from 5 9 PM (5
hours) and from 6 7 AM (1 hour), to ensure continuous chilled water supply even during the
hottest time of the day. A partial TES was selected in the design of the installed system
considering optimization and balance between energy savings and insufficient allocated space
for full TES. The increase in first cost in the amount of 55,000 USD due to adding TES
components as compared to using only components of conventional water chiller, wherein the
increase is 14% of the chiller system, can be recovered in 2.55 years with internal rate of
return (IRR) of about 32%. The TES system can yield an annual saving of 22,000 USD in
electricity, which is about 12% of the chiller power cost. This saving is a combined economic
effect of time-of-use (TOU) power rate and improvement in COP.
Increasing the ice thickness-on-coil from the conventional 6.35 cm (2.5 in) to 7.24 cm (2.85)
by locally fabricating the TES tank reduced the needed additional first cost by about 10% and
the floor area of the tank by 11.64% of the floor area necessary for utilizing the standard tank
for the conventional TES thickness.

Keywords: thermal energy storage, external melt, ice, time-of-use rate

1. INTRODUCTION

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) systems can refer to a number of technologies that stores
energy for later use, a scheme that can reduce operating and maintenance costs in central air-
conditioning systems. In principle, the external-melt TES builds and stores ice on the external
surface of a heat exchanger (normally a coil submerged in a non-pressurized water tank) at
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297

night when electricity costs are low and uses that stored coldness to meet the cooling demand
the next day when the power costs are high.
In tropical locations where one of the biggest shares in operating expense is contributed by air-
conditioning systems [1-3], the choice of cooling equipment is generally dictated by
economics, both on operating and first costs. Capitalizing on the price difference between on-
peak and off-peak electricity costs, TES can be an attractive alternative to conventional water
chiller system [4]. Without a substantial differentiation between the day and night power rates
the operational benefits derived from this alternative air-conditioning system may not be cost-
effective. As such, a detailed study and system analysis must be done on a case-to-case basis
with special attention on the chilled and condenser water pump power consumptions at partial
load and night-time power rates.

2. TES FACILITY USED IN THIS STUDY

The external-melt TES facility, wherein the economic advantage over a conventional chiller
system was justified, is a commissioned library and museum building of a university located at
Caloocan City, Metro Manila, Philippines, with a total floor area of approximately 8,000 m
2
.
Peak, instantaneous cooling demand is 1,147 kW (326.2 TR), with the facility open from 8
AM to 9 PM (13 hours/day). The facility was designed and the TES ice build-up was modeled
[5] on the bases of cost and space optimizations and mass and energy balance. It operates 19
hours a day with compressor resting period from 5 9 PM (5 hours) and from 6 7 AM (1
hour), to ensure continuous chilled water supply even during the hottest time of the day. A
partial TES was selected in the design of the installed system considering optimization and
balance between energy savings and insufficient allocated space for full TES.
The external-melt TES system, with a schematic diagram shown in Figure 1, has direct
refrigerant feed designed for maximum ice thickness of 72.4 mm (2.85 in). The chiller of the
system is direct expansion, single-stage and water-cooled type, and uses semi-hermetic
reciprocating compressors and R-507 refrigerant. Suction temperature used was -10C based
on -6.62C evaporator temperature and 3.38C temperature difference between the coil and
compressor suction. Compressor discharge temperature used was 40C for water-cooled
application. The evaporator is serpentine type, using 19.05 mm, schedule 40, seamless black
iron pipe (ASTM A-53). TES tank material is 6.35 mm-thick mild steel plate with angle bar
reinforcement and 100 mm thick, single-sided panelized polystyrene insulation on the walls
and 75 mm thick polyurethane block insulation at the bottom. Tank cover is a demountable
type, double-sided, 50 mm thick polystyrene panelized insulation.

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Condenser
water pump

Cooling tower
tower
compressor
From cooling loads
TES storage tank

Ice-water
circulating pump
To cooling loads

Shell-and-tube condenser

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the external-melt TES system.

3. ECONOMIC ADVANTAGE OF THE TES FACILITY

For an estimate in savings, ice formation and melting were simulated based on energy analysis
conducted every 15 minutes for a period of 24 hours. The computation also was based on
industrial time-of-use rate of electricity and seasonal temperature variations in the Philippines
in a year. On the thermal side of computation, it assumes steady-state condition and neglects
the effect of film coefficient inside the tubes due to nucleate boiling of the refrigerant. It also
takes into consideration the combined presence of system cooling demand and compressor
cooling capacity.
The economic justification in Table 1 shows the cash flow, internal rate of return (IRR),
difference in investment cost and simple payback computations for TES compared to
conventional system. Incoming cash flow for 5 years is the savings in operating cost due to
savings using TOU power rate. IRR was computed for 5.54%, 5.854% and 6.19% annual
power rate adjustment. Initial increase rate was based on the average inflation rate for the past
8-years (from year 2003 to late September 2009) while the succeeding two years rate were
based on compounded rate of the first year [6]. Adopting at least the 5.54% annual power
increase rate, the payback period will be 2.55 years with the IRR of about 32%., respectively.
This was the basis for annual cash inflow in the IRR table. Tables 2 and 3 show lists of
equipment and operational cost data for water chiller and TES partial storage systems.
Variation in compressor power requirement due to changes in environmental condition due to
season was computed on 24-hour cycle. The difference in initial cost (P, in PhP) from Table
1, which is about 55,000 USD (1 USD is approx. PhP 42), was derived from the worksheets of
power consumptions of different components in the conventional water chiller and TES
systems shown in Tables 4 and 5, respectively.

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Table 1 Economic justification.

Table 6 shows the comparison of power consumption of TES partial storage to conventional
water chiller. The values for the annual projected energy consumption of electric motors of
the two systems include: compressors, cooling towers, chilled water pumps and cooling tower
pumps. These are the equipment most affected by the seasonal and diurnal variation in
environmental condition. The fan coil units are almost similar for the three systems; hence,
they are not included in the computation.
Annual electricity consumption for water chiller option was computed at 1,419,632 kW-hrs
costing PhP 7,898,321, while for TES option, the consumption was 1,661,587 kW-hrs/year
costing PhP 6,986,787.68. The cost difference between the two systems is around PhP
911,533 (about 22,000USD). Based on projected operating time and total power requirement
of the air-conditioning system, the annual average kW/TR consumptions of conventional
water chiller and TES partial storage systems are 0.773 and 0.667, respectively. Annual TES
electricity savings due to COP improvement alone brought by lower ambient conditions is
about 2% of the water chiller annual power cost. The initial cost comparison does not include
the electrical and piping requirements of the two systems. It is expected that electrical works
are cheaper due to smaller compressor as a consequence of compressor-aided scheme. Chilled
water pump motors are also smaller due to lower chilled water flow rates as a result of large
chilled temperature difference. Also, piping and insulation sizes are smaller due to lower flow
rates, which results to cheaper piping, fittings and insulation costs. Total cost savings amounts
to 12% based on projected electricity bill using TOU power rates with breakdown as follows:
14% due to improvement in COP and 86% due to TOU power rates. COP increased because of
lower ambient temperature at night, leading to lower condenser temperature of the
corresponding chiller of the TES system.
made possible by locally fabricating the TES tank in order to minimize the floor area of the
tank for ice making in the TES and reduce the costs was also explored. As a result, the needed
additional first cost was reduced by about 10% and the floor area of the locally fabricated tank
led to reduction of 11.64% of the floor area necessary for utilizing the standard tank for the
conventional thickness.

4. CONCLUSION

Simulation results show that custom-designed, locally fabricated TES cooling coil, with
instantaneous cooling demand of about 1,147 kW (326.2 TR) and maximum ice thickness of
7.24 cm (2.85-in.) will require an increase in initial investment by about 14.26% compared to
5.54% 5.85% 6.19%
P -2,325,040.00 -2,325,040.00 -2,325,040.00
year 1 911,533.10 911,533.10 911,533.10
year 2 962,058.07 964,858.60 967,978.19
year 3 1,015,383.58 1,021,303.69 1,027,918.55
year 4 1,071,664.84 1,081,050.88 1,091,570.61
year 5 1,131,065.69 1,144,293.32 1,159,164.21
IRR 31.88% 32.11% 32.37%
payback, yrs 2.5507 2.5507 2.5507
Assumed Power Rate Increase
(I nfl ati on rate reference: Actual and target i nfl ati on. Downl oaded 29 Dec.
2009, www.bsp.gov.ph/downl oads/Publ i cati ons/FAQs/targeti ng.pdf.
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300

conventional water chiller of the same capacity. However, its annual projected power
consumption will be roughly PhP 911,533 (about 22,000 USD) lower, or about 12% of water
chiller power cost which is a combined economic effect of time-of-use (TOU) power rate and
improvement in COP. This will result in 31.88% internal rate of return (IRR) at 5-year
cashflow or equal to about 2.55-year simple payback period.
by locally fabricating the TES tank reduced the needed additional first cost by about 10% and
the floor area of the tank by 11.64% of the floor area necessary for utilizing the standard tank
for the conventional TES thickness.

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Table 2 Equipment List (Water chiller option).

1
York water chillers connected in parallel (model YLFW 160D), each
with capacity of 160TR at -13
o
C evaporating and 40
o
C condensing
temperatures, R-134a refrigerant, with matching shell-and-tube
evaporator, shell-and-tube condenser, suction accumulator, oil
separator and other standard accessories
2 13 134.89 3,507.20
2
Bottle-type cooling tower, Liang Chi brand, 1,125.11 kW (320 TR) heat
rejection rate at 39
o
C and 32
o
C entering and leaving water
temperatures and 28
o
C wet-bulb ambient temperature, with 1 set
cooling tower fan @ 10hp motor drive, 230v-3P-60hz power supply.
1 13 11.43 148.61
3
cooling tower pumps, TACO brand (non-overloading), direct-coupled
centrifugal type, pump specification:480gpmx80ftTDHx20hpx1750rpm,
230v-3P-60hz power supply
2 13 22.86 594.44
4
chilled water pump, TACO brand (non-overloading), direct-coupled
type, pump specification: 384gpmx140ftTDHx25hp, 230v-3P-60hz
power supply
2 13 28.58 743.05
6
6.35TR fan-coil units, ceiling conceiled type, chilled water temperature
increase across coil of 15
o
F, (including chilled water flow control), fan
specification: 3/4-in wgx1000cfmx3/4-hp, 230v-3P-60hz power supply.
48 13 0.56 349.13
7
o
6 13 0.37 29.09
8
Airconditioning equipment cost, excluding piping, FCU, thermostats
and chilled water controls, ducting, insulation and electrical works
1
Rated motor
power input,
kW
kW-hr/day
16,306,960
ID No. Equipment Qty
System
Operating
time, hr
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Table 3 Equipment List (TES Partial Storage option).

1
FRASCOLD semi-hermetic reciprocating compresors connected in parallel
(3 x W50 168Y), each with capacity of 103.6 kW at -13
o
C evaporating and
40
o
C condensing temperatures, R-507 refrigerant, with matching shell-and-
tube condenser, suction accumulator, oil separator and other standard
accessories for medium temperature refrigeration system
6 19 41.78 4,762.35
2
Bottle-type cooling tower, Liang Chi brand, 1,125.11 kW (320 TR) heat
rejection rate at 39
o
C and 32
o
C entering and leaving water temperatures
and 28
o
C wet-bulb ambient temperature, with 1 set cooling tower fan @
20hp motor drive, 230v-3P-60hz power supply.
1 19 7.46 141.74
3
cooling tower pumps, TACO brand (non-overloading), direct-coupled
centrifugal type, pump specification:301gpmx90ftTDHx15hpx1750rpm,
230v-3P-60hz power supply
2 19 11.19 425.22
4
chilled water pump, TACO brand (non-overloading), direct-coupled type,
pump specification: 312gpmx100ftTDHx15hp, 230v-3P-60hz power supply
2 13 11.32 294.36
5 Air blower, 3hp, 230v-3P-60hz 1 19 2.24 42.52
6
o
48 13 0.56 349.13
7
o
6 13 0.37 29.09
8
Airconditioning equipment cost, excluding piping, FCU, thermostats and
chilled water controls, ducting, insulation and electrical works
1
ID No. Equipment Qty
System
Operating
time, hr
Rated motor
power input,
kW
kW-hr/day
18,632,000
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305

Table 6 Comparison of operating parameters and costs (Conventional chiller versus TES
partial storage).

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are giving sincere appreciation to the Engineering Research and Development for
Technology (ERDT) Program of the Department of Scince and Technology Science
Education Institute (DOST SEI) of the Republic of the Philippines for the research
dissemination fund.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Chaichana C, W.S. Charters and L. Aye. An Ice Thermal Storage Computer Model.
Applied Thermal Engineering, volume 21. New York: Elsevier Science Ltd. 2001.
[2] Dincer, Ibrahim. On Thermal Energy Storage Systems and Applications in Buildings.
Energy and Buildings, volume 34. New York: Elsevier Science Ltd. 2001.
[3] Kiatsiriroat T., et al. Heat Transfer Prediction for Direct Contact Ice Thermal Energy
Storage. Energy Conversion and management, volume 44. New York: Elsevier Science
Ltd. 2001.
[4] Ihm, P., Krarti M. and Henze G. Development of a thermal storage model for
EnergyPlus. Energy and Buildings, vol 36.New York: Elsevier B.V. 2004.
[5] Bongat, R.A., Ice Build-up Rate on Custom-Designed External Melt Thermal Energy
Storage (TES) Evaporator Mathematical Modeling and Validation , Doctoral
Dissertation, University of the Philippines Diliman 2012.
Particulars
Conventional Water Chiller
(1)
TES partial storage
(2)
Annual operating time, hours [A] 3,696 5,016
Total annual power consumption, kW-hrs [B] 1,419,632 1,661,587
Average hourly power consumption, kW [C = B / A] 384 331
Total compressor capacity, TR [D] 497 497
Average annual kW/TR [E = C / D] 0.773 0.667
kW/TR reduction, % [F = (E1 - E2) / E1] Basis of comparison 13.76%
Computation of total savings due to COP improvement and TOU power rate
Particulars
Conventional Water Chiller
(1)
TES partial storage
(2)
Power cost, PhP/yr [G] 7,898,321 6,986,788
Annual power savings, PhP [H = G1 - G2] Basis of comparison 911,533
Annual power cost reduction, % [H / G1] x 100% Basis of comparison 11.54%
Percentage of reduction due to COP improvement [F] 13.76%
Percentage of reduction due to TOU power rate
[100% - F]
86.24%
Basis of comparison
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[6] Central Bank of the Philippines. Targeting inflation rates: actual and targeting inflation.
http://www.bsp.gov.ph/downloads/Publications/FAQs/targeting.pdf.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Synthesis of NiO Powders by Electro Chemical Process

A Jung and P Hing*
Energy and Materials Research Group
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
*email: peter.ng@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
The process of forming nickel oxide powders by electrochemical method is presented and
discussed. XRD confirms that the greenish powders are crystalline nickel oxide with fcc
structure. The surface areas of the nickel oxide powders determined by BET are over 100
m
2
/g confirming that nanocrystalline nickel oxide powders have been synthesized. The study
indicates that there is possibility of forming nanosize Yttria Stabized Zirconia/Nickel Oxide
powders for a wide range of applications, including solid oxide fuel cells.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) Clays as Electrolytes for Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells

Nurulhayah Haji Hamdan
1
, Voo Nyuk Yoong
2
, Piyasari Ekanayake
2*

1
Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam

2
Department of Applied Physics, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
* Corresponding Author. Email: piyasiri.ekanayake@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) has attracted considerable attention in the field of photo-
electrochemistry due to its low fabrication costs, environmentally friendly manufacturing
materials, and high power conversion efficiency. DSSCs have been using ionic liquids and
organic solvents as the electrolyte. However, the potential problems caused by these type of
electrolytes, such as leakage and volatilization of organic solvents, possible desorption and
photo-degradation of the attached dyes, and the corrosion of the Platinum counter electrodes,
are considered as some of the critical factors limiting the long-term performance and practical
use of the DSSCs. This paper reviews the potential of Layered Double Hydroxide compound,
to be used as an electrolyte for DSSC. The layered structure of the LDHs itself give rise to its
unique properties, such as the thermal effect, reconstruct ability, and also intercalation and
anion-exchange, which made them widely applicable in many areas of industry and
technology. In this research, the experimental preparations are carried out and the structures of
the intercalated LDHs are explained. The mechanism of the iodide/tri-iodide redox couple in
the iodine-intercalated Mg-Al LDH is also discussed.

Keywords: layered double hydroxides (LDH), DSSC electrolyte, intercalation, anion-
exchange, iodide/tri-iodide redox couple.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have attracted considerable attention in the field of photo-
electrochemistry due to its low fabrication costs, environmentally friendly manufacturing
materials, and high power conversion efficiency. DSSCs consist of a dye-sensitized nano-
crystalline porous TiO
2
film interpenetrated by electrolyte containing iodide/tri-iodide redox
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couple. It has already been demonstrated that electrolyte containing iodide/tri-iodide redox
system can influence the performance of DSSCs [1, 2]. After photo-injection, the iodide ion
donates electron to the positively charged dye cation to regenerate back the dye (Eqn. 2). At
the counter electrode, the tri-iodide is reduced back to iodide (equation 3).

Oxidation of Dye: 2Dye 2Dye
+
+ 2e
-
(1)
Regeneration: 3I
-
+ 2Dye
+
2Dye + I
3
-
(2)
Reduction: I
3
-
+ 2e
-
3I
-
(3)

To date, iodide/tri-iodide is the most efficient redox couple in regenerating the oxidized dye
[3].
DSSCs have been using ionic liquids (such as methyl-hexyl-imidazolium iodide) and organic
solvents (such as Acetonitrile, ethylene carbonate, etc.) as the electrolyte due to the high ionic
conductivity, good chemical and thermal stability, negligible vapour pressure, and non-
flammability (Fredlake et al., 2004; Pringle et al., 2002) [3]. These are the requisites for high
photovoltaic performance of DSSCs. However, the potential problems caused by liquid
electrolytes, such as leakage and volatilization of organic solvents, possible desorption and
photo-degradation of the attached dyes, and the corrosion of the Platinum counter electrodes,
are considered as some of the critical factors limiting the long-term performance and practical
use of the DSSCs [4]. Thus, some solid-state and quasi-solid-state electrolytes with high long-
term stability have already been investigated and considered in order to improve the
performances of the DSSCs.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Layered Double Hydroxides (LDHs)
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are a family of natural and synthetic mixed-metal
hydroxides. Unlike common metal hydroxides, LDHs consist of a divalent metal cation (MII)
and a trivalent metal cation (MIII), OH
-
groups, and usually an inorganic acid anion. The
divalent metals can be Mg
2+
, Ca
2+
, Zn
2+
, Co
2+
, Cu
2+
, etc., while the trivalent metals can be
Al
3+
, Cr
3+
, Co
3+
, Fe
3+
, Mn
3+
, etc. Many anions can be used, including inorganic acid anion such
as Cl
-
, NO
3
-
, CO
3
2-
, and some other organic anions. Generally, a compound with the
combination of minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter is termed clay. Thus,
LDHs are also referred to as anionic clays (Rives & Ulibarri, 1999; Roy, Forano et al., 1992)
[5].

2.2 Structure of LDHs
The structure of LDHs is derived from the structure of the mineral brucite, Mg(OH)
2
, which
consist of alternate or stacked layers of octahedrons of magnesium hydroxide. The octahedral
sites are occupied by Mg
2+
ions. Each magnesium is bonded to six OH
-
ions, while each
hydroxide ion is then bonded to three magnesiums, and this result in neutral layers with no net
charge. The layers of the composition [Mg(OH)
2
] in the brucite are held together in stacks by
weak van der waals interaction (Fig. 2.1). This is the reason why brucite is a very soft and
easily cleaved mineral.
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Fig. 2.1: A schematic structure of brucite layers (retrieved online from
http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/pmk/pages/know.html)

When a fraction, x, of the Mg
2+
ions in the layers are substituted by trivalent cations, such as
Al
3+
ions, the resultant hydroxide layers acquire a positive charge which dispersed uniformly
across each layer, and now have the composition of [Mg
1-x
Al
x
(OH)
2
]
+
[6]. The value of x is
usually in the range of 0.2 to 0.4. Each of the metal cation is directly bonded to six OH
-
groups, while each hydroxide group is bonded to three metals (ie. two divalent metals and one
trivalent metal). The positively charged layers are vertically stacked on top of one another,
giving rise to rhombohedral stacking. In order to balance the positive charge layers, anions
(for example, CO
3
2-
ions) and water molecules are intercalated in the interlayer regions
(Allman, 1968; Taylor, 1969) [7]. This creates hydrogen bonds in the interlayer regions which
help to hold the layers together in stacks. Thus, an LDH compound is formed (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2: A schematic representation of LDH structure [8]

In other words, LDHs are compounds based on brucite-like layers (which contain MII ions,
MIII ions and OH
-
groups), and interlayers which contain anions (Y
n-
) and water molecules
(Koch, 1998), and they have the general formula [MII
1-x
MIII
x
(OH)
2
](Y
n-
)
x/n
.yH
2
O. LDH can
occur naturally or can be prepared synthetically in the laboratory. The most common naturally
occurring LDH is a mineral, known as hydrotalcite, which has the chemical formula
Mg
6
Al
2
(OH)
16
CO
3
4H
2
O [9]. Other LDHs generally have similar formula and similar structure
as the hydrotalcite, and thus are sometimes referred to as hydrotalcite-like compounds.
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2.3 Synthesis of LDHs
The most common way is usually by the co-precipitation method introduced by Miyata in
1980 [10]. The equations for the formation of Mg-Al-CO
3
LDH precipitate are shown below:

Equation 1: 2Mg
2+
+ Al
3+
+ CO
3
2-
+ 3OH
-
Al(OH)
3
(s) + 2Mg
2+
+ CO
3
2-

Equation 2: 2Mg
2+
+ 2Al(OH)
3
(s) + 6OH
-
+ CO
3
2-
[Mg
2
Al(OH)
6
]
2
CO
3
(s)

The experimental parameters that are important in this method include reactor temperature,
atmosphere of the system, pH, concentration of metallic salt solutions and alkaline solution,
and flow rate of reactant [11]. Using higher concentration of both of the metallic salt solutions
as well as a very concentrated NaOH solution and carbonate solution will produce a higher
yield of precipitate. However, the disadvantage of using higher concentrations is the repeated
washings that have to be carried out to remove unwanted ions and impurities. The most
commonly used conditions are as follows: temperature of 333-353 K, pH between 7-10, low
concentrations of the starting materials, low flow of the streams, nitrogen atmosphere, warm
deionised water for washing or dissolving, and drying temperatures which are lower than 393
K [12]. LDHs have a high sensitivity for moisture and carbon dioxide, and will preferably
form carbonate-intercalated LDH. Therefore, to synthesize other types of LDH with very low
carbonate contamination, the reaction is usually carried out under the flow of nitrogen gas to
eliminate carbon dioxide from the system whenever excess water is present.
Co-precipitation method has two types: low supersaturation and high supersaturation. In the
low supersaturation procedure, the mixed metallic salt solution is added slowly to solution
containing the desired anion. The pH during the reaction is made constant by adding an alkali
solution as much as needed. The precipitate that is formed usually has a high crystallinity due
to higher rate of crystal growth. In the high supersaturation procedure, the mixed metallic salt
solution is added to an alkaline solution containing the desired anion, without controlling the
pH of solution during the reaction. The major disadvantage of this method is the formation of
precipitate with low crystallinity. Regardless of which procedure is favoured, the precipitate
product will generally have a gel-like nature with poorly ordered phase crystallites, which are
difficult to wash and filter. Thus, post-treatment method, such as ageing the precipitate for 12
to 24 hours above room temperature (between 60 to 120C), is necessary to improve the
crystallinity of the LDH compounds for greater stabilization of intercalated anions [13]. Other
methods to synthesize LDHs include salt-oxide method, anion exchange method, as well as
hydrothermal synthesis [14, 15]. There are other ways such as electrochemical synthesis [16],
and sol-gel synthesis [17, 18], but these methods are barely studied up to now.

2.4 Characteristics and Properties of LDHs
2.4.1 Thermal Decomposition
The thermal decomposition of LDHs is generally characterized by two endothermic transitions
using Differential Thermal Analyser (DTA) (Fig. 2.3). The first endothermic transition
corresponds to the loss of water from the surface and from the interlayers, while the second
transition corresponds to the loss of anions from the interlayers and the loss of hydroxyl
groups from the brucite-like layers [19]. The Thermo-Gravimetric (TG) transition (black
curve) can be used to determine the mass of mixed oxides formed after thermal treatment or to
determine the mass of water present in the sample LDH, by percentage weight or milligrams.
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Fig. 2.3: The general representation of TG-DTA transition curves for an LDH [20]

The calcination (or thermal treatment) of LDHs resulted in dehydration, decomposition
reaction, and destruction of the layered structures. At temperatures of approximately between
300C to 500C, LDHs decompose to form catalytically active mixed oxides of MII and MIII
metals [21]. For example, a Mg(Al)O solid is obtained by calcination of the most common
LDH, Mg-Al-CO
3
[22]. The mixed oxides have a strong Lewis basic character and large
specific surface area. They have a unique property known as memory effect, where the
broken layered structures can be reconstructed (Fig. 2.4), the charge can be balanced, and the
interlayer can be rehydrated, under mild conditions of the original structure, by contact with
aqueous solutions containing anionic species [12, 21], such as Cl
-
, OH
-
, CrO
4
2-
, or PO
4
3-
.

Fig. 2.4: Molecular structure of (a) LDH, (b) regeneration process of calcined LDH [23].

2.4.2 I ntercalation and Anion-Exchange Properties
Intercalation can be defined as the insertion or inclusion of a mobile guest species or
molecule(s) into the crystalline parent phase, such that the structural integrity is properly
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conserved with slight changes if they existed [25]. Intercalated LDHs can be directly prepared
from the co-precipitation method, where the desired anion is included in the reaction, followed
by aging.
Some intercalated LDHs exhibit good anion-exchange properties. For the case of monovalent
anions involved, such as in chloride-intercalated LDHs [26, 27] and in nitrate-intercalated
LDHs [28, 29], there exist weak bonding or electrostatic interactions between the interlayer
anions and the hydroxide layers thus the anions can be easily exchanged under suitable
conditions [30]. The selectivity in the exchange increases with increasing anion charge
density. For monovalent anion, the anion-exchange preference is in the order of OH
-
> F
-
> Cl
-

> Br
-
> NO
3
-
> I
-
, where OH
-
ion is the most preferred while I
-
ion is the less preferred
monovalent anion to be exchanged. For multiply charged anions, CO
3
2-
is the most preferred
one than SO
4
2-
ions [31] due to the high sensitivity of LDHs to air. Thus, it is important to note
that carbonate-intercalated LDH cannot be replaced easily by any monovalent or multiply-
charged anions unless further treatment and conditions are being made.
Under most condition, anion exchange in LDHs takes place by the dissolution-reprecipitation
(D-R) mechanism, where the intercalated-LDH dissolves and then reprecipitates with the
incoming anion, rather than the topotactic mechanism [32]. This is supported by previous
work where several authors have reported the loss in mass of LDH during the anion exchange
reaction which can be attributed to bulk dissolution [33, 34], and the formation of unitary salts
as impurities along with the anion exchanged LDH, which can be attributed to the
reprecipitation process. It was reported that topotactic mechanism, which conserves certain
essential aspects of the structure between the parent lattice and the product lattice, is only
favoured when the exchange reactions take place at high pH values, which are above the pH at
which LDH formation takes place. Generally, the only structural change brought about by
anion exchange is the variation in the interlayer distance, which depends on the size of
incoming anion. The interlayer distance in the LDH increases as anion of bigger size is
exchanged, and this in turn increases the basal spacing (d-spacing) in the LDH, which is the
distance between similar faces of adjacent layers (Fig. 2.5). Depending on the type of anions
used to exchange, the change in the basal spacing can improve the interaction between the
layers. This unique anion-exchange property is what makes LDHs compound popular to be
used in many applications.

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Fig. 2.5: A schematic diagram of structure in carbonate-intercalated LDH which illustrates the
difference between basal spacing (d-spacing) and the interlayer spacing [35]

2.5 Uses of LDHs
LDH materials find applications in a broad range of temperatures, from room temperature
adsorption to high temperature processing of selective chemical nano-reactors. LDHs have
been used as catalysts for biodiesel production[36-38], photocatalysts [39], as antacids [40], as
drug delivery systems for pharmaceuticals [41], as fire retardants [42], as adsorbents [43], as
host materials for the storage and triggered release of functional anions [44], as
nanocomposites for use in concrete [45], as modified electrodes [46], as well as nucleating
agent or as filler [47]

in forming nanocomposite electrolytes [48-50]. There is no doubt that
more practical uses of LDHs will be discovered with time.

3. EXPERIMENTAL

3.1 Materials
Mg-Al-CO
3
LDH was prepared using the co-precipitation method. KI
3
solution was used for
the first anion exchange procedure, which makes use of the dissolution-reprecipitation
mechanism. For the intercalation procedure, solid iodine in absolute ethanol was used.
Deionised water was used through the experiments. All chemicals and apparatus used were
supplied by the UBD Physics Department and used as received.

3.2 Tri-iodide ion (I
3
-
) exchange procedure
All of the Mg-Al-CO
3
LDH sample powder obtained was added to all of the KI
3
solution, and
stirred very well at room temperature for at least 24 hours. The mixture was then filtered and
washed several times with deionised water until colourless filtrate was obtained. The residue
was dried in the oven of 100C for 48 hours.

3.3 Iodide ion (I
-
) intercalation procedure
1.8178 g of solid I
2
was dissolved in 20 ml of absolute ethanol. The resultant product from
procedure in 3.2 was added to the I
2
-ethanol solution, and heated at 60-80 C to evaporate the
excess ethanol. After XRD analysis, the raw sample was aged in a closed system for 11 days at
room temperature.

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4. CHARACTERIZATION

4.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
X-Ray powder diffraction patterns were recorded on a Shimadzu XRD-7000 X-ray
Diffractometer using a Cu K target radiation (=1.54060 ) at 40.0 kV with a tube current of
30.0 mA, with scan range between 10- 80 and scan rate of 5/min, 2/min, as well as 1/min.
The diffraction angles are reported in degrees 2 instead of because the angles between the
incident beam and diffraction beam are always in values of 2.

4.2 Thermogravemetric-Differential Thermal Analysis (TG-DTA)
TG-DTA was conducted on a Labsys TGA-DTA 1600 (TGDTA) machine. Powder samples of
4 to 6 mg were placed in 100l alumina open pans. The temperature was scanned at 20C/min
in the range from 30 to 800C under air atmosphere.

4.3 Assembly of DSSC and its analysis
The apparatus used in this test were two 23W starlight as the light source, N73-Resistance box
& voltage divider, and two multimeters for measuring the current and voltage of the system. In
the DSSC setup, the conducting glass was coated with TiO
2
and acted as the anode, while
Platinum metal was used as the counter metal cathode. The TiO
2
electrode was immersed into
the N719 dye (Ru(2,2-bipyridine-4,4-dicarboxylic acid)
2
(NCS)
2
) for about 24 hours. The
electrolyte was applied on the dyed area of the TiO
2
electrode before sandwiching the whole
system together. From the resultant I-V and P-V graphs, the fill factor (FF) of the DSSC was
calculated using the following Eqn. 6 or Eqn. 7 [51]:

And so,

Where I
max
and V
max
referred to maximum photocurrent and photovoltage at maximum power
output, P
max
. While the I
sc
referred to short-circuit photocurrent, V
oc
referred to open-circuit
photovoltage.

Then, the efficiency of the DSSC can be calculated using the following Eqn. 8 [52]:

Where P
in
is the incident power on the surface of the DSSC.


5.1 Analysis of Tri-iodide ion exchange
It is already known that tri-iodide ion is always in equilibrium with iodine and iodide ion as in
Eqn. 9:

(9)

Thus, in the interlayers, there existed I
3
-
ions, I
2
as well as I
-
ions initially. One of the important
experimental procedures in this tri-iodide ion exchange reaction is the multiple washing using
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314

deionised water and filtrations which aimed to remove the excess surface I
2
. However, the
major drawback of this process is the leaching of I
2
. Prasanna et al. reported that prolonged
washing was found to leach I
2
out of the system. The I
3
-
and I
-
ions do not leach out very easily
because they are strongly held by the positively charged layers. From Eqn. 9, less I
2
in the
interlayers will result in the equilibrium to be shifted to the right of the equation to form back
I
2
. Repeated washing caused more I
2
to be leached out, until there were no more I
3
-
ions left
for conversion. Thus, what probably left in the interlayer are only I
-
ions. The white powder
that was formed after aging at high temperature also supports the postulation that no I
3
-
ions
were present in the aged LDH sample. Another possible assumption for the failure of this
direct I
3
-
ion exchange is may be due to the large dimension of the tri-iodide ion which results
in low charge density, which made the process thermodynamically unfavourable [50].
The XRD patterns of carbonate LDH before and after the anion exchange process is shown in
Fig. 5.1. There is a slight decrease in the peak intensity, particularly for peak (003) and (006),
which may likely be contributed by the multiple washing and filtering process.

Fig. 5.1: XRD patterns of (A) Mg-Al-CO
3
LDH sample (B) LDH sample after tri-iodide
exchange reaction

Although this direct I
3
-
ion exchange seems to fail, what is of interest is that the anion-
exchange reaction has occurred. This can be further be supported by the d-spacing values
obtained from the XRD in table 1.

Basal reflections Mg-Al-CO
3
LDH sample
After tri-iodide ion exchange using
KI
3

h k l
d-spacing
(nm)
Angle
2()
d-spacing
(nm)
Angle 2()
0 0 3 7.68974 11.4982 7.64732 11.5622
0 0 6 3.85132 23.0750 3.84270 23.1275
0 0 9 2.58165 34.7200 2.5749 34.7500
Table 1: The d-spacing values of the major basal reflections of carbonate-LDH sample before
and after tri-iodide ion exchange reaction

The bigger the size of the interlayer anions, the higher the values of the d-spacing, and vice
versa. The differences in the d-spacing values of the (003), (006) and (009) major basal
reflections before and after the tri-iodide ion exchange reaction, clearly indicates that there is a
change in the size of the anions in the interlayer, thus a change in the type of anions. These
differences in the d-spacing values can be used to imply that the CO
3
2-
ions are replaced with
different anions, which in this case, initially with tri-iodide ions.

(003)
(006)
A
B
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5.2 Analysis of iodide ion intercalation
The purpose of the second step procedure, which is the intercalation reaction of I
2
into the
exchanged LDH, is to generate back the I
3
-
ions in the interlayers (Fig. 5.2). This step was
pursued by contacting the exchanged LDH sample with I
2
in ethanol solution. The absolute
ethanol (99%) was selected as the solvent because of its ability to dissolve molecular iodine,
compared to water which poorly dissolves it. The dark brown solid obtained indicates the
presence of iodine in the sample.

Fig. 5.2: A schematic illustration of formation of I
3
-
ions from I
-
ions [51]

Figure 5.3 shows the XRD pattern of the raw and aged iodine-intercalated LDH sample. There
is a significant difference between these two patterns, where aged sample shows better
crystallinity than the raw sample. The reason was not deeply investigated, but probably the
longer aging time promotes phase crystallization [53]. There may be a possibility of crystal
perfecting or lamellar thickening [52]. It was reported that LDH can adsorb iodine not only
from polar and non-polar solutions of iodine, but also from iodine vapour as well [53]. Thus,
the excess iodine vapour that was still present together with the intercalated sample during the
long aging period might have caused the increase in the intensity of the XRD peaks. However,
the XRD patterns and the d-spacing values could not be elaborated more in detail in this report
due to the broad and noisy XRD patterns obtained.

Fig. 5.3: XRD pattern of the (A) raw iodine-intercalated LDH sample (B) aged iodine-
intercalated LDH sample

5.3 Analysis of Iodine-intercalated LDH as an electrolyte for DSSC
The iodine-intercalated LDH was tested as the electrolyte in a DSSC. The electrolyte was
prepared by diluting a small amount of the iodine-intercalated LDH sample with propylene,
such that the electrolyte was then in liquid-state. Fig. 5.4 shows the I-V curve (blue) and P-V
curve (red) measurements for iodine-intercalated LDH electrolyte. The fill factor, P
max
and
efficiency of the DSSC using the iodine-intercalated LDH electrolyte were calculated and
estimated to be 0.48, 10.5 mW, and 0.08%. Although, the efficiency of the iodine-intercalated
LDH is quite low, and also the aim to create solid-state electrolyte is not a success, it is proven
that layered double hydroxide or anionic clay is applicable as DSSC electrolyte. Further
researches need to be done in order to investigate and evaluate more on the potential of iodine-
A
B
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intercalated LDH as the electrolyte for a DSSC, particularly in the area of solid-state and
liquid-state iodine-intercalated LDH electrolyte.

Fig. 5.4: I-V curve and P-V curve of iodine-intercalated LDH electrolyte

6. CONCLUSION

The iodine-intercalated LDH was believed to contain the tri-iodide/iodide redox couple from
its dark brown-coloured powder. Ruthenium-based N-719 dye was used due to its high
performance as DSSC dye. Evaluating the performance of the iodine-intercalated LDH as
solid-state electrolyte was not able to be carried out due to lack of significant information,
owing to the low current and low voltage measurements obtained which made analysis
difficult. Thus, it was decided to use the electrolyte in liquid-state, which on contrary, gave
acceptable results. Although the efficiency is very low, the iodine-intercalated LDH shows
potential to be used as green energy generator. Thus, it is suggested that these two areas that
need to be further investigated:
1. How to increase the efficiency of the liquid-state iodine-intercalated LDH, and
2. Whether solid-state iodine-intercalated LDH has the potential to be used as solid
electrolyte in DSSC

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Prof. D.T.B. Tenakoon from Faculty of Science, University
Brunei Darussalam, for his suggestions and guidance.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Thermal Expansion of Cu cermets for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Khan Muhammad Naeem, L.C. Ming and Peter Hing
Energy and Materials Research Laboratories and Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam,
Brunei Darussalam

Abstract
Porous cermet materials are used as anode in solid oxide fuel cells. In this paper, the thermal
expansion of recently developed cermets ranging from 20 to 40 wt% Cu were determined from
40 to 800
C in an inert atmosphere. It is found that the thermal expansion increases with

temperature and copper content. The Kerner, Schapery and Turner models are being explored
to see whether any of these models fit our experimental results. Moreover, the relationship
between the microstructures and thermal expansion of the copper based cermets are being
investigated. These novel cermet materials have potential for the development of low and
intermediate temperatures solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Approach to the Development of Organic Secondary Batteries with High
Performance

Toyonari Sugimoto
Graduate School of Science, Osaka Prefecture University, Japan
Corresponding Author. Tel: +81-072-252-4175, Fax: +81-072-252-4175, E-mail: toyonari@c.s.osakafu-
u.ac.jp

Abstract
Since the discovery of lithium ion secondary battery with preferable battery performance to
the previous secondary batteries in 1990, a lot of efforts continue to be directed to word the
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battery performance up by improving all parts of positive electrode, electrolyte and negative
electrode. Among them, searching new positive electrode active materials is a main target , in
which LiCoO
2
a redox of only loss than 0.5 electron used in the original lithium ion battery is
replaced by new active materials exhibiting completely one-electron or multi-electron redox.
At the present time LiMn
2
O
4
and LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
are expected as most effective active
materials. Nevertheless, their energy capacities (output voltage x capacity) become larger
only two- to three-times than that of LiCoO
2
, and this value gets largely out of a target value
(> five times) expected by a NEDO project starting from 2008 in Japan. As one of ways to
break this wall, the use of organic materials exhibiting multi-electron redox is much noticeable
from the reasons that remarkably large capacities beyond 400 mAh/g, possibly ca. 1,000
mAh/g at the maximum can be obtained by multi-electron redox, if the output voltage was
kept in the range of 2.53.0 V vs. Li/Li
+
. In addition, organic materials have the advantage of
low cost and natural resources in plenty and also of no use of rare metals in limited deposits in
comparison with transition metal oxides used as positive electrode active compounds in the
present lithium ion secondary batteries. In order to endow an organic material with redox of
electrons as many as possible, there are three redox patterns: (1) multi-electron oxidation as
shown in compound A, (2) multi-electron reduction as shown in compound B and (3) both of
multi-electron oxidation and reduction as shown in compound C. Secondary batteries based
on these organic positive electrode active compounds have been fabricated and their battery
properties have been investigated.

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High Strength, High Conductivity in Sn- rich Lead Free Solders

A. O. Olofinjana, K. S. Tan and M. Matahir,
Energy and Materials Research group, Faculty of Science Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tunku
Link, Brunei Darussalam, BE1410

Abstract
Solder joining of electronic components is now an established technology and its use has
become prominent in modern electronic devises using surface mount technology. With
increasing demand for miniaturisation, the high current density that results raised new issues
like electromigration and losses due to high contact resistance. It is now desired to minimise
resistive losses and at the same time improve reliability of joints. This work explored the
resistivity and the strength of near eutectic Sn-Ag-Cu (SAC) lead free solder alloy and
comparison is made with standard leaded solders. It is found that shear strengths of SAC was
about 50MPa and comparable to that of the PbSn solder. However, SAC had lower resistivity.
The effect of substitution of Bi for Sn in SAC was considered and it is found that though
strength increases for small concentration of Bi, the solubility of Bi in the primary | tin phase
lead to substantially increased resistivity. The high strength high conductivity (HSHC) was
discussed in terms of the ratio of shear strength to resistivity. This ratio provides an index for
expressing the combination of properties required to minimise power losses and produce
reliable joints for electronic components in devices.

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Novel Family of Ceramics for Interconnect and Seals for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

P Hing*, Zatie Mei Gui, M Sukleung, A Jung, Tan Kha Sheng and CM Lim
Energy Research group, UBD
Physics, Faculty of Science, UBD
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
*Email: peter.ng@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
Highly efficient solid oxide fuel cell systems are becoming more attractive and have gained
much attention for future energy conversion applications. However, some of the challenges in
improving the performance and cost-effectiveness of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are the
development of suitable interconnect and sealing materials. The interconnect material is in
contact with both the anode and the cathode, and thus must be stable with both electrode
materials in oxidizing and reducing environments. The interconnect material must also
maintain a low electrical resistance during cell operation to avoid decreased efciency due to
ohmic losses. Metallic interconnects are attractive for solid oxide fuel cells because it can
operate at an intermediate temperature of 600 to 800C making it more reliable and cost
effective.
This paper reports the development of novel materials in the CuO - Fe
2
O
3
- REO systems for
solid oxide fuel cells, where REO stand for rare earth oxides. It is found that some selected
compositions in the system behave as magnetic semiconductors. Moreover, these
compositions are found to be oxidation resistant with high electrical conductivity from room
temperature up to 700C in oxidizing environment. Results using XRD, SEM, Impedance
Spectrometer, BET, and the microstructures developed will be presented and discussed. The
potential of the materials as interconnects and possibly sealing materials for low temperature
solid oxide fuel cells operating below 600C is currently being explored.

Key words: solid oxide, fuel cells, interconnect, sealing, magnetic, semiconductors

1. Introduction

A fuel cell consists of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte in between these electrodes. Each
cell can develop a voltage and a current. If a load or an electric light bulb is connected
between the interconnect, the bulb will light up. Depending on the type of fuel cells, the area
of the electrodes and electrolyte, the voltage can be of the order of 1 voltage and the current
can be of the order of 1 ampere. For a 1 square centimeter of the fuel cell, the highest power
reported can be of the order of 2 watt /cm
2
. Clearly, if one is to generate 1000 watt or 1kW,
one needs to connect 500 fuel cell elements in series, each cell generating 2 watt/cm2, Reliable
interconnect materials are needed to connect the fuel cells stack.
For instance, we can fabricate a fuel cell element of 10cmx10cm or 100cm
2
. If the fuel cell
designed is very efficient and gives say 2 watt /cm
2
, we need only 5 such elements to generate
200 watts/element x 5 elements = 1000 watts or 1 kW.
Solid oxide fuel cells are increasingly being considered for dispersed power for domestic and
public buildings in view of its fuel flexibility, and its ability to produce considerably higher
efficiency that other type of fuel cells. [1-10].
A planar solid oxide fuel cell operating at high temperatures of 900C-1000C can generate 1
kW power with 5 such elements.
Current research on solid oxide fuel cell worldwide is to reduce the cost drastically, decrease
the operating temperatures to below about 600C and improve the efficacy. Some of the
research conducted by one of the authors on solid oxide electrolytes have been reported
previously[11-15].
The highest efficiency of solid oxide fuel cells reported using LSGM electrolyte, LSGM Ni
cermet and LSGM SSC cathode to date is just over 2 watt/cm
2
.[16 ] It is important to note that
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in addition to the need to carefully processed the anode, cathode, solid oxide electrolyte, the
interconnect material must withstand temperatures up to at least 600C in air or reducing
environment encountered in the intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells.
Interconnect materials must also be highly electrically conducting from ambient to the
operating temperature. Few metals or metallic alloys have these properties. These include
platinium, gold, osmium, iridium, and nickel based super alloys for aerospace applications.
The nickel base super alloys are very expensive. Special steels are increasingly being used as
interconnect for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells.
Ceramic alloys based on mixed oxides have been developed and used successfully. Materials
such as lanthanum oxide - chromium oxide have been developed for the high temperature
solid oxide fuel cells.
These materials are not very suited for low temperature solid oxide fuel cells operating from
400 - 650C. Platinium and gold are suitable but simply too expensive for use in solid oxide
fuel cells. Steel has also been used for solid oxide fuel cells operating below 650C. An
extensive review on interconnects for SOFCs [17] has over 200 references. This indicates the
importance of interconnect materials for the development of commercial and reliable SOFCs.
In this paper, a preliminary study is reported on the suitability of the ceramic systems
consisting of copper oxide, iron oxide, ytterbium oxide, and chromium oxide. The range of
compositions investigated are summarised in Table 1. Some of these materials have potential
as interconnect and sealing materials for both low and intermediate temperature solid oxide
fuel cells. To the best of the authorss knowledge, such systems are reported for the first time.
We have also not encountered these ternary and quaternary ceramic systems in the updated
ceramic phase diagrams.

2. Materials Investigated

The materials are prepared by conventional and established ceramic processing routes, hence
the manufacturing of the materials is intrinsically very low cost. Moreover, the sintering
temperatures for the ceramic materials are below 1200C in air, thus can be considered as a low
energy intensity process.
Table 1 summarises various ceramic compositions studied. Of these, only 2 systems
designated number 8 and 9 are found to have the required properties for interconnect
materials. It is of commercial interest as the major compositions of the materials consist of
iron oxide and copper oxide, both low cost and commonly available materials, with the minor
phase being the rare earth oxide such as ytterbium oxide,

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Table 1. Summary of various mixed oxide systems and compositions investigated for
interconnect materials for solid oxide fuel cells.
1. Iron Oxide(50%) + Copper Oxide(50%)



4. Iron Oxide(45%) + Copper Oxide(45%) + Y Oxide(10%)

5. Iron Oxide(45%) + Copper Oxide(45%) + La Oxide(10%)

6.Iron Oxide(45%) + Copper Oxide(45%) + Ti Oxide(10%)

7. Iron Oxide(45%) + Copper Oxide(45%) + Gd Oxide(10%)

8. Iron oxide(45%) + Copper oxide(45%) + Ytterbium Oxide 10%

9. Iron Oxide (42.50%) + Copper Oxide (42.50%) + Ytterbium Oxide (10%) and Chromium
Oxide (5%)

10. Iron Oxide (44.40% + Copper Oxide (45.00%) and Chromium Oxide (11.10%)

11. Iron Oxide (50%) + Copper Oxide (33.30%) + Chromium Oxide (16.70%)

12. Iron Oxide (33.30%) + Copper Oxide (33.30) + Chromium Oxide (33.30%)

13. Iron Oxide (33.30%) + Copper Oxide(50.00%) + Chromium Oxide (16.70%)

Of the thirteen compositions investigated, only compositions containing Iron Oxide - Copper
Oxide-Ytterbium Oxide and Iron oxide Copper Oxide- Ytterbium Oxide Chromium Oxide
(designated No 8 and 9 ) have the required properties for applications as interconnect materials
for low temperature and intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells.

2.1 Electrical Resistances of the sintered oxide samples (before reduction in butane
flame)
For the sintered ceramic components, in the mixed oxide state, the resistance of the materials
decreases drastically as the temperature increases as shown in Figure 1 and 2.

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Figure 1. Resistance of composition 9 up to 750C in air. Note the extremely low resistance,
almost zero ohm, as the temperature increases. The material is also magnetic. The samples
were sintered in air, and then subjected to a butane flame prior to electrical measurement.

Figure 2. A magnified view of Figure 1 showing that the materials have resistances of the
order of a few ohms as the temperature increases from 350 C and 600C. The lowest resistance
is around 2 ohm at about 600C.

The resistance approaches about 2 ohm or so at 600C and rises to about 12 ohm at about 700C.
The nature of the drop in the electrical resistivity with increase in temperatures indicates that
the materials behave as high temperature semiconductors up to about 600C. The
semiconducting nature of the materials is further confirmed as the resistance is very high of
the order of several hundred kilo ohms (practically insulating) at liquid nitrogen temperature.
One would expect the electrical conductivity of the mixed sintered ceramic oxide to increase
as the temperature increases. Using the relation between the electrical conductivity o of
materials with temperature for insulators and semiconductors given by
kT
E
o
g
e
2
=o o
, where
o is the electrical conductivity,
o
o a parameter consisting of temperature, density of states,
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mobility etc., E
g
, the band gap between the valence and conduction band, k Boltzmanns
constant, and T the temperature in Kelvin. The energy gap of the semiconducting materials is
obtained from the slopes of lno vs 1/T, where T is the temperature in Kelvin as shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 3. lno

vs
I /T, T the temperature in
o
Kelvin

The energy gap of the materials between two temperatures have been evaluated from the
slopes of the plot in Figure 3. This is depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Low band gap of the semiconducting containing chromium oxide from 100C to
600C.

The results show that the materials have potential for use as interconnect materials for low and
intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells operating in the range of 400 - 600C. The sharp
increase in the conductivity as the temperature increase strongly suggests that the mixed
sintered ceramic oxides of are basically high temperature semiconductors.

Energy Gap (eV) vs Temperature (C)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

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2.2 Electrical Resistances of the sintered oxide samples (during and after subjected to
reduction in butane flame)
The resistances of the sintered mixed oxide ceramics subjected to a reducing butane flame to
simulate the service conditions of the solid oxide fuel cells have also been measured. As the
surface of the materials come in contact with the reducing flame, the reduction of the copper
and iron oxides presumably form some metallic phases as there is some darkening of the
surfaces. This reduced materials become highly electrically conducting. Resistance of the
material particularly on the surface dropped drastically almost to zero ohm as measured by a
normal electrical meter. The surfaces of the reduced samples, moreover, exhibit a distinct
rainbow coloration a shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 5. Rainbow coloration on surface of sample.

It can be seen in Figure 6 that the electrical resistivity of the sintered mixed oxide ceramic,
which has been heated previously up to 750C in air for several hours, increases up to around
350C; thereafter, the resistivity increases very slowly up to 700C. The resistivity is of the
order of 1.0 to 3.0 ohm.m. This increase in the resistivity of the sample is attributed to slight
oxidation of the metallic phase(s) rather than the increase due to the temperature coefficient of
resistivity of the metallic phase like copper and iron, as the resistivity of copper or iron or its
alloys is of the order of 10
-8
Ohm.m, and the temperature coefficient of resistivity o of copper
and iron is of the order of 10
-4
K
-1
, thus the resistivity using the relation
... 1 (
2
T T
o T
A + A + = | o ) even at 700C (973K) is still of the order of 10
-7
ohm.m.
The fact that the resistivity remains relatively constant and of the order of a few ohm.m
between 350 - 700C in air further implies that the materials have potential for use as
interconnect materials in solid oxide fuel cells.

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Figure 6. The low resistivity of composition Fe
0.30
Cu
0.62
Cr
0.08
Yb
2-x
O
3-x
determined in ambient
environment.

Figure 7. XRD of unsintered sample containing copper oxide, iron oxide and ytterbium oxide.
All three phases are present.

Figure 8. XRD of sintered containing copper oxide, iron oxide, ytterbium oxide and chromium
oxide.

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Figure 9. Unsintered sample subjected to insitu XRD at different temperatures ; top 500C,
middle 700C and bottom 1000C showing clearly reactions taking place and forming new
phase(s).

Figure 10. XRD after subjecting sintered sample to butane flame

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Figure 11. Surface morphology of sintered sample at different magnifications.

It is evident that the materials retain low resistivity when evaluated in oxidizing environment.
This indicates that the materials have potential for use as interconnect on the cathode side
where the oxidant is introduced, and also in reducing environment where the fuel such as
hydrogen, methane and or natural gas is introduced.
The results presented in 2.1 show that the materials behave like a semiconductor. Such type of
semiconductors are basically high temperature semiconductors.
In addition, we have shown that the materials, after exposed to a reducing environment, still
retain sufficiently low electrical resistivity of the order of one or two ohm.m up to 700C in air.
This further demonstrates that the material can be used as interconnect materials for devices
such as solid oxide fuel cells operating up to 700C in air, inert and or reducing environment.
We further suggest that the materials can be explored for use as high temperature
semiconductor sensors. Such type of devices are useful to monitor the performance of gas
turbines, high intensity discharge lamps, thermoelectric generators (TEG), Magneto-
Hydrodynamic Generators (MHD) and so on up to 750C and possibly higher temperature
because the materials with the addition of chromium oxide sintered at 1280C without any
distortion or melting.
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2.3 Magnetic Behaviour
The materials are, moreover, found to be magnetic down to liquid nitrogen temperature (77K).
This is rather surprising, as the copper oxide content is very high, around 45% by weight in the
mixed and sintered ceramic oxide. XRD of the mixed sintered ceramic oxide exhibits sharp
diffraction peaks. Preliminary analysis shows that the crystalline phase could be ytterbium iron
cuprate. More detailed studies, however, need to be conducted on the crystal structure and its
magnetic properties for applications in magnetic devices.
If the anode and the cathode are magnetic, the magnetic interconnect is likely to enhance the
electrical contact and improve the reliability and performance of the solid oxide fuel cells. It is
well known in the art that the anode, cathode and electrolyte must have matching thermal
expansion to minimize thermal stresses, and mechanical damage of the ceramic components.
Even slight mismatch in thermal expansion can be detrimental to the performance as the
intimate contact at the interface may be compromised. Under such circumstances, we propose
that the use of solid oxide fuel cell materials with some additional or inherent magnetic
properties that encourage intimate contact with the multilayer components, are desirable, and
could be beneficial.

2.4 Topological Materials Developed
The microstructures developed in the reducing butane flame are found to be unique in the
sense that after a short exposure (2 - 5 minutes) in the reducing butane flame, the surface of
the materials is reduced to a metallic state. The bulk inside the sample is still in the sintered
mixed oxide semiconducting state. We have thus produced a composite material which is
metallic on the outside and semiconducting in the interior. Such type of material can be
considered as a topological semiconductor with interesting quantum mechanical properties.

2.5 The Materials as Sealing Materials for SOFC
It is of interest to mention that the materials without the chromium oxide melts around 1050 C.

Figure 12 shows evidence of materials without the chromium oxide melted below 1100
o
C. The
onset of melting was detected as low as 1050
o
C in air. Note the excellent wetting behavior on
the sintered alumina substrate, indicating that the materials without the chromium oxide can be
used as a low temperature sealing materials for solid oxide fuel cells.

The materials, as can be clearly seen in Figure 12 wets the polycrystalline alumina substrate,
and flowed down the alumina cylinder. The materials without the chromium oxide can
therefore be considered also as a low temperature sealing material in the planar design of the
solid oxide fuel cells.
The materials with the addition of chromium oxide, moreover, does not show any distortion or
melting even at 1280C in air when place on a similar alumina substrate. These materials with
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the chromium oxide are also electrically conducting and as discussed can be potential
interconnect materials up to 750C in oxidizing, inert and reducing environment.
It is of interest to stress that sealing material is absolutely vital in the planar design of SOFCs
to seal the components hermetically to prevent the fuel from the anode chamber mixing with
the oxidant such as air or oxygen in the cathode chamber. The mixing of the fuels and the
oxidant leads to serious deterioration of the anode, and the high likelihood of explosion when
oxygen from the air or pure oxygen combines with hydrogen.
Low temperature sealing materials with thermal expansion closely matching the interconnect
materials, anode and cathode are therefore highly desirable.

3. Discussion

In this paper, we report the synthesis of a family of ceramic materials derived from iron oxide-
copper oxide- ytterbium oxide system, and iron oxide - copper oxide - ytterbium oxide
chromium oxide system. Some of these compositions have potential for use as interconnect
and sealing materials for solid oxide fuel cells. Materials in the Iron Oxide - Copper Oxide and
Ytterbium Oxide without, and with addition of chromium oxide up to 10 % by weight can be
sintered around 1000C in air. The materials have semiconducting and magnetic properties.
To the best of our knowledge, we have not encountered in the technical literature or in patents
any mention of such type of materials or systems. The electrical resistances of the sintered
materials after subjected to a short exposure in butane flame, exhibit rapid drop in the
resistances as the temperature increases indicating that the material is essentially a
semiconductor. The energy gap is found to be in the range of 0.58 eV at 100C to 0.10 eV at
600C.
The as sintered materials after subjected to a butane flame and cooled to ambient in air
exhibits a distinct rainbow coloration, and are also magnetic in nature. The properties are
surprising considering the high copper content.
The coloration from the chromium oxide is of interest for high end designer products,
including jewelries for the fashion industries. The magnetic nature of the interconnect
materials, moreover, is likely to encourage strong attraction to the novel anode and cathodes.
In case where the electrodes are also magnetic the magnetic attraction can enhance the
contacts thereby leading to an improved performance of the solid oxide fuel cells.
The materials also exhibit interesting topographical features. With metallic conduction on the
surface and semiconductor interior, we may have a topological magnetic semiconductor. The
materials with the chromium oxide also have high oxidation resistance useful for solid oxide
fuel cells operating between 400 -750 C. Topographical insulators, semiconductors, and
superconductors have unusual properties with possibly unique applications that have yet to be
exploited.
The thermal properties of the materials are being further characterized. This includes thermal
expansion, thermal diffusivity and thermal analysis.

4. Conclusion

Specific compositions consisting of Iron Oxide (45% wt) + Copper Oxide(45% wt) +
Ytterbium Oxide 10% wt; and Iron Oxide (42.50% wt) + Copper Oxide (42.50%wt) +
Ytterbium Oxide (10%wt) and Chromium Oxide (5%wt ) are found to be electrically
conducting with low resistance of the order of 1 to 3 ohm from 350 to 600C in air, inert and
reducing environment. With addition of up to 10 wt% of chromium oxide, the materials
become more oxidation resistant materials up to 750C in air.
These compositions are potentially useful as interconnect materials for low and intermediate
temperature solid oxide fuel cells ranging from 350C to 750C in oxidizing as well as in
reducing environment.
Composition containing 5% wt chromium oxide develops a distinct rainbow coloration from
red to violet (ROYBIV) on the surface of the materials when it is heated in a butane flame and
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quenched in ethyl alcohol. The minimum exposure in butane flame is about 30 seconds.
Exposure of up to 10 minutes in butane flame gives more intense rainbow coloration. The
distinct rainbow coloration of the materials have potential applications as high end designer
jewelries and thus valuable materials in the leisure and fashion industries.
The rapid drop in the electrical resistance with increasing temperatures up to 750C in air, inert
and reducing atmosphere indicate that sintered materials exhibit semiconducting behavior with
band gap ranging from 0.1 eV to 0.6eV. The materials, moreover, exhibit magnetic behavior
from red hot down to liquid nitrogen temperature. An electrically conducting composite with
metallic and magnetic surface, and insulating or semiconducting oxide in the interior,
signaling the development of a novel topological composite material with magnetic and
semiconducting surface and core that is insulating or semiconducting. Materials without the
addition of chromium oxide have excellent wetting behavior on alumina substrate below about
1150C. The melted materials wet alumina, YSZ- NiO and YSZ-Ni substrates below 1150C.
The materials have thus potential for use as support and sealing materials for planar SOFCs.
The addition of 10% by weight of the chromium oxide enables the fabricated green ceramic
component to be sintered up to 1280C in air without melting or adhering to the alumina
support, and also without any distortion.
The materials we have developed have low energy gap ranging from 0.1 eV at 600C to 0.6 eV
at 100C. The material can be used as high temperature semiconductor sensors up to 750C in
air, inert and reducing environment.

5. References

[1] Dollard, W J, Proceeding of the International Symposium on Solid Oxide Fuel Cell, Nov,
1989, Nagoya, Japan.
[2] B Riley, Process of forming conducting Oxide Layers in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, US
Patent 4,799, 936, 1989.
[3] B C H Steele, Electronic Ceramics, Elsevier, Editor of Book entiled: Electronic Ceramics,
1990.
[4] K Kordech and G Simader, Fuel Cells and their Applications, p133-151, NQ 1996
[5] N Q Minh, Materials for HIgh Temperature Fuel Cells, J Am Ceram .Soc.76, 563 - 588,
1993.
[6] BCH Steele, Materials for High Temperature Fuel Cells, Phil .Trans. Roy. Soc, Lond
A354,1695-1710, 1996.
[7] S C Singhal Advances in Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology, Solid State Ionics, 135, 305-
313
[8] BCH Steele, Materials Science and Engineering: the enabling technology for the
commercialization of fuel cell systems, J Mater.Sci.36, 1053-106, 2001.
[9] BCH Steele, P H Middleton, RA Rudkin, the Materials Science aspect development,
Solid State Ionics, 40/42, 388, 1990.
[10] M F Ion and K Sudarshan Loyolka, Fuel Cells, Handbook of Alternative Fuel
technologies, Vol.2, p 493 - 523 CRC Press, 2007. Editors: Sunggu Lee, J G Speights and
K Sudarshan Loyalka, 2007.
[11] P. Hing, T.S. Zhang, J. Ma, L.B. Kong, Y.J. Leng, S.H. Chan, J.A. Kilner, Preparation
and Electrical Properties of Ddense Submicro-Grained Ce
0.8
Gd
0.2
O
2-
Ceramics, J. Mater.
Sci. Lett., 22 (2003) 1089-1911.
[12] P. Hing, T.S. Zhang, J. Ma, L.B. Kong, S.H. Chan, J.A. Kilner, High Temperature Aging
Behavior of Gd-Doped Ceria, Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 7 (2004) J13-J15.
[13] P. Hing, J. Ma, T.S. Zhang, S.H. Chan, Ce
0.8
Gd
0.2
O
2-
Ceramics Derived from
Commercial Submicron CeO
2
and Gd
2
O
3
Powders for Use as Electrolytes in Solid Fuel
Cells, J. Power Sources, 132 (2004) 71-76.
[14] P. Hing, T.S. Zhang, J. Ma, L.B. Kong, S.H. Chan, J. A. Kilner, Aging Behavior and
Ionic conductivity of ceria-based electrolytes: a comparative study, Solid State Ionics,
170 (2004) 209-217
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[15] P. Hing, T.S. Zhang, J. Ma, S.H. Chan, J.A. Kilner, Improvements in Sintering Behavior
and Grain-Boundary Conductivity of Ceria-Based Electrolytes by Small Addition of
Fe
2
O
3
, J. Electrochem. Soc., 151 (2004) J84-J90.
[16] Da Han, X Liu, F Zeng, J Qian, T Wu and Z Zhan, A micro-nano porous oxide hybrid for
efficient oxygen reduction in reduced - temperature solid oxide fuel cells, Scientific
Reports 2:462, DOI:10.1038/srep00462. Supplementary information for on this reference
at http://www.nature.com/scientific reports. 15 June 2012.
[17] Zhenguo Yang and Jeffrey W Fergus, Chapter 4 of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, Materials
Properties and Performance, Edited by Jeffrey W Fergus, Rob Hui, Xiaguo Li, David P
Wilkinson and Jiujun Zhang. Publisher: by CRC Press, 2009.
[18] P A Lassing, J Hartington and S Elangovan, Chapter 5 of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells:
Materials Properties and Performance, Edited by Jeffrey W Fergus, Rob Hui, Xiaguo Li,
David P Wilkinson and Jiujun Zhang. Publisher: by CRC Press, 2009.

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Enhancement of Conversion Efficiency of Natural Dye Sensitized DSSCs by
Layered Co-sensitization

Louis Liew Yu Chiang, N.T.R.N. Kumara, Andery Lim, Mohammad Iskandar, Lim Chee Ming,
Piyasiri Ekanayake*
Applied Physics Program, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam,
Jalan Tungku Link, BE1410, Negara Brunei Darussalam
*Corresponding Author: Tel: +673 2463001 Ext 1706, Fax: +673 2461502, E-mail:
piyasiri.ekanayake@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
This paper describes a double layered co-sensitization of natural pigments from two different
sources and its performance in dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The natural dyes used for
the co-sensitization were extracted from Ixora flower (Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae)) and outer
dark purple skin of Kembayau (Canarium odontophyllum) fruit. UV-Vis absorption data
revealed that both dyes contain anthocyanins. This co-sensitization was done by adsorbing dye
from Canarium odontophyllum to the TiO
2
electrode by dipping in to the dye solution and then
the adsorbed dye of the top layer of TiO
2
was removed using a de-adsorbant before Ixora
coccinea dye was allowed to adsorb. We characterized the doubled layer co-sensitized TiO
2

working electrode in DSSC. Power conversion efficiency of co-sensitized solar cell was
1.55% with the open-circuit voltage (V
OC
) of 343 mV, short-circuit current density (I
SC
) of
9.80 mA cm
-2
and fill factor (ff) of 46.1. Also we characterized DSSCs for individual dyes and
dye cocktail (1:1 ratio of Canarium odontophyllum: Ixora Coccinea (F: Rubiaceae)). The
conversion efficiencies of DSSCs sensitized with Ixora coccinea (Rubiaceae), Canarium
odontophyllum and the cocktail were 0.96%, 0.59% and 1.13% respectively. The double
layered co-sensitization gave the highest conversion efficiency compared to that of individual
and cocktail sensitized DSSCs.

Keywords: Co-sensitization, Natural dyes, DSSCs, Ixora coccinea, Canarium odontophyllum.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) is a low cost photovoltaic cell [1]. It absorbs and exploits
light energy to induce electron transfer reactions. It can work under low light condition but has
a high price to performance ratio [1]. DSSC is made from two conducting plates sandwiched
together and connected to an external load. In between the two conducting plates is a layer of
TiO
2
attached on one of the conducting plates. Dye is adsorbed on the TiO
2
layer [2]. The
conducting platinum plate sintered with the TiO
2
layer is the anode of the DSSC film while the
other conducting plate acts as the cathode. The TiO
2
layer acts as a large band gap
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semiconductor that increase the 'effective surface area' significantly for the dye to be adsorbed
onto the TiO
2
electrode with efficient contact to the electrolyte thus resulting in increase in
overall efficiency. To date, the most efficient DSSCs are made using ruthenium complexes,
which recorded about 11% power conversion efficiency under AM 1.5 conditions [3].
Much research is geared towards the improvement of the power conversion efficiencies of
DSSCs. Different type of sensitizers both natural and synthetic are being tested for their
efficiencies. However, synthetically produced dyes are very expensive and utilize large
quantities of heavy metals to form complexes for efficient adherence onto the TiO
2
film.
Currently it is an interesting challenge to produce a DSSC which is cost effective and
environmental-friendly using dyes that are easily available. This accounts for interest in the
usage of natural dyes as effective sensitizers in DSSCs. Natural dyes such as chlorophyll,
carotene and anthocyanin can easily be obtained from plants, without going through
complicated and costly procedures as in the preparation of the synthetic dyes. Natural dyes can
be extracted from leaves, flowers and fruits of many promising plants, which are then tested
for their performance in DSSCs. Experimentally, for instance, natural chlorophyll dyes have
exhibited energy conversion efficiencies over 4%.other natural dyes do not yield energy
conversion efficiencies over 2% [4].
In this project, common groups of natural dye abundant in flowers and fruits, namely
anthocyanin, were tested for its perforamance in DSSCs. Both flowers and fruits were
obtained locally from Brunei Darussalam.
Anthocyanins are natural components that give colors to fruits and plants and are mostly
responsible for red-purple colorations [5]. Anthocyanin molecules absorb photons in the range
of 520-550 nm wavelengths

[6]. The colour of anthocyanin depends on its chemical structure
and the pH of the medium it exists. Anthocyanins are usually red in color in acidic medium
but turn blue in a less acidic condition.
Basic structure of Anthocyanin is shown in Figure 1. It consists of seven different side groups
carrying a hydrogen atom, a hydroxide or a methoxy group. Temperature, light and pH are the
main factors that destabilize the anthocyanin molecular structure. With increase in temperature
flavylium ion destabilizes, thus changing the whole structure [7].

Figure 1 The basic structure of anthocyanin.

In this experiment, natural dyes used as sensitizers in the DSSCs are obtained from petals of
red coloured Ixora sp. (coded as 'IX') and Canarium odontophyllum (coded as 'CMB'), both of
which are local plants of Brunei Darussalam.
Ixora sp. is a beautiful flowering plant found in Tropical Asia and it blooms all year round.
The plant has leathery leaves and their flowers are small and grouped in large clusters. It
consists of many species, with different shapes, sizes and colours.
Kembayau (Brunei) also known as Dabai is a local name for Canarium odontophyllum. It is a
fruit with dark purple skin and found only in Borneo. Its flesh is thin and has a sour taste.

It is
a delicacy to the natives and is a nutritious fruit which tastes like avocado. The skin and flesh
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are edible after soaking in warm water for several minutes. The fruit is rich in protein, fat and
carbohydrate. Recent study [8] indicates that much research has been carried out to identify
and quantify the phenolic compounds of the fruit. There are also studies on the differences of
the purple and red varieties of the fruit. Analysis of the Canarium odontophyllum has been
done using reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array
detector, and has revealed the presence of two groups of phenolic acids, five groups of
flavonoids, ethyl gallate, three groups of anthocyanidins and four groups of anthocyanins [8].
This paper describes the use of two natural dyes in a single DSSC for co-sensitization. Co-
sensitization is a recent method employed in DSSCs, with the aim to improve the absorption
of light over a broader wavelength of light. [9-10]. Two different dyes are usually used as
sensitizers by employing co-sensitization technique which make light absorption more
efficient when a shorter wavelength absorbing dye are positioned in series with a longer
wavelength absorbing dye. This avoids unfavorable interactions among the different dye
molecules which happen in the cocktail method a mixture of the two dyes in 1:1 ratio.
It is expected to increase the efficiency of the DSSC using co-sensitization, as compared to
individual dyes and so being exploited in this project. The main objective is to maximize
absorption capacity over the visible solar spectrum to produce maximum energized electrons,
thus obtaining higher efficiency [6]. It is hypothesized that co-sensitization with two different
dyes, would enable the sensitized cell to absorb and utilize more light energy from the sun or
light source thus increasing its efficiency.


2.1 Fabrication of photo-electrode
Photo electrodes were fabricated using TiO
2
paste from Dysol (DSL 18NR-T). The TiO
2
was
coated on pre-cleaned fluorine-doped conducting tin oxide (FTO) glasses (Nippon sheet glass
10
12
sq
1
) by Doctor Blade method. Electrodes were pre-heated (~50C) using a hair-drier
and sintered at 450C for 30 minutes. The thickness of the TiO
2
electrodes used for this
investigation was ~ 15 m (Dektak profilometer; Veeco, Dektack 3) [11].

2.2 Plant materials and pigment extraction
The Canarium odontophyllum (CMB) fruits were obtained from a grown plant found in
Brunei. The dye pigment anthocyanin was extracted from the outer dark skin of CMB by
crushing with a minimum amount of 70% ethanol (diluted from Scharlau 99.9% with distilled
water). The residual solids were filtered off and the extract was then centrifuged to separate
any remaining solid content. The presence of anthocyanin was confirmed by using the UV-
visible absorption spectroscopic techniques (Varian Cary 5E UV-Vis-NIR) [12].
Twenty grams of fresh outer dark purple skin of CMB were used in the extraction to make 100
ml extract of anthocyanins. Same method was followed in extracting pigments from Ixora
flower petals. The extracted pigments CMB and IX were stored in amber glass bottles,
wrapped with aluminium foil (to protect from direct light) and then stored in a dry and cool
place.

2.3 Dye sensitized solar cell preparation
Four equivalent DSSCs were used for the combination of these two extracts. The combination
of the two extracts as sensitizers was shown in the table 1.

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Table 1 Samples used for each DSSCs.
DSSC no. Samples
1 IX Only
2 CMB Only
3 Cocktail
4 Co-sensitization

The DSSCs' TiO
2
electrodes were dipped into desired dye extract for the pigments to be
adsorbed onto the TiO
2
layer. This was carried out for overnight before the DSSC was taken
out and rinsed with absolute ethanol and air dried. DSSCs were assembled by introducing the
redox electrolyte containing tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI; 0.5 M)/I
2
(0.05 M), in a
mixture of acetonitrile and ethylene carbonate (6:4, v/v) between the dyed TiO
2
electrode and
platinum counter electrode [11]. Those DSSCs placed under irradiation of 1000 W/m
2
about 4-
6 hours to obtain the best current, possibly due to slow incorporation of electrolyte into TiO
2
layer.

2.3.1 Individual dye as a sensitizer, IX only or CMB only
The TiO
2
layer was first vacuum dried and then dipped in a cuvette filled with 3 ml of the
Ixora sp. extract (IX) or Canarium odontophyllum extract (CMB). The TiO
2
layer should be
completely immersed in the pigment extracts for efficient adsorption onto the TiO
2
layer. The
opening of the cuvette was covered by a piece of parafilm. A piece of aluminium foil was also
used to cover the sides of the cuvette to prevent the illumination of light onto the DSSC. 20
hours of time was allowed for the adsorption of the dye. Then, TiO
2
electrode was taken out
from the cuvette, washed and dried before testing.

2.3.2 Cocktail
A dried TiO
2
layer was completely immersed in a cuvette filled with a mixture of 1.5 mL of
the IX extract and 1.5 mL of the CMB extracts for 20 hours. The cuvette was covered to
prevent light to pass through.

2.3.3 Co-Sensitization
Two dye layers were introduced onto the TiO
2
layer, one by one consecutively, using co-
sensitization procedures as described below.
A dried TiO
2
layer was fully immersed in a first cuvette containing 3 ml of CMB extract. The
cuvette was then carefully covered with parafilm and aluminium foil. 10 hours was allowed
for adsorption process of the pigment, before taken out and dried without heating. A
desorption solution, which consists of tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide in methanol solution
and ethylene glycol solution was introduced to the upper region of the electrode of the TiO
2

film for 30 seconds, and then immediately washed with ethanol for 20 seconds and then dried.
This process is called de-adsorption and was repeated 3 times. Each repeated de-adsorption
event would affect the desorption depth. Then it was dipped into a second cuvette containing
3ml of Ixora extract, for another stage of adsorption for further period of 10 hours. The cycle
of the sensitization adopted is depicted in Figure 2.
The co-sensitization in brief, the TiO
2
layer was allowed to adsorb one dye followed by partial
de-adsorption, to make room for adsorption of a second dye layer. [10].

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Figure 2 Schematic diagram of the procedure for stacking two natural dyes. (Co-sensitization
cycle)


3.1 UV-vis absorption
The absorbance specta of the samples were measured using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer with
ethanol as the solvent reference. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) was added to increase the
prominence of the absorbance curve of each sample. The absorption spectra were recorded to
verify the presence of anthocyanin pigments in the two dyes. At pH 1.0 the anthcyanin
strongly absorb light between 460 and 550 nm. It is evident from the peak absorption observed
at 520 550 nm, for both dye samples tested and the cocktails of dye pigments that the
anthocyanin is the active pigment (Fig.3).
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350 400 450 500 550 600 650
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

(
A
.
U
.
)

Wavelength (nm)
CMB
acidified CMB
IX
acidified IX
CMB and IX
acidified CBM and IX

Figure 3. UV-Vis absorption spectra of CMB, IX and cocktail (non-acidified and acidified
with conc. HCl). A broad absorption peak was observed around 520-550 nm when the extracts
were acidified with conc HCl.

3.2 Band gap and HOMO-LUMO calculations
The electrochemical behavior of the dyes was studies using cyclic voltammetry (CV) to find
the energy levels of pigments [13]. The evaluation of optical band gaps (see Table 2) of the
CMB, IX and cocktail pigments using UV-Vis absorbance spectra (edge) was performed by
using the Tauc relation [13-16]. The graph plotted according to the Tauc relation and the
reduction onset potential determined from CV were used to calculate the highest occupied
molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest occupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the
anthocyanin pigments of CMB, IX and cocktail [17] and the result are shown in table 2.

Table 2 The HOMO, LUMO energy levels and band gap energies of CMB, IX and the
Cocktail. Energy levels were calculated with respect to the vacuum level.
Compounds HOMO level(eV) LUMO level(eV) Band gap (eV)
IX -7.31 -4.28 3.03
CMB -6.01 -4.11 1.90
Cocktail -5.88 -4.03 1.84

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3.3 I-V Characteristics
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
2
4
6
8
10
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m
A
/
c
m
2
)
Voltage (mV)
CMB
co-sensitization
cocktail
IX

Figure 4 Comparison of I-V characteristics of the co-sensitized DSSC and the DSSCs
sensitized with CMB, IX and the cocktail of IX and CMB.

Fig. 4 shows current density versus its corresponding voltage for DSSCs with CMB, IX,
cocktail and co-sensitization. The current density denotes the current per unit area. The fill
factor and overall maximum power efficiency for the DSSCs were calculated respectively
using their respective current-voltage characteristics. Figure 5 shows the power outputs of
DSSCs sensitized with the individual dyes, cocktail and co-sensitization.
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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
P
o
w
e
r

(
m
W
/
c
m
2
)
Voltage (mV)
CMB
co-sentizition
cocktail
IX

Figure 5 Comparison of power characteristics of the co-sensitization cell and DSSCs
sensitized with CMB, IX and cocktail of IX and CMB.

Maximum power conversion efficiency () was then calculated using following formula,
sc oc
V / ff I P q =
Where,
SC
I = short circuit photo current density (Acm
-2
)

oc
V = open circuit voltage (V)
P = the intensity of the incident light (W cm
2
)
ff = fill factor of DSSC

The fill factor ff was defined as the ratio of the maximum power P
max
obtained with the DSSC
and the its theoretical maximum power.
Hence,
( ) ( ) /
m m SC OC
ff I V I V =
Here, I
m
and V
m
are current and voltage related to maximum power in I-V curve.

Using the information obtained from I-V characterization, the fill factor and overall
conversion efficiency for the DSSCs were calculated and tabulated in Table 3. It was found
that the best performance was observed from the co-sensitized cells, which showed conversion
efficiency () of 1.55 %, with open circuit voltage (V
OC
) of 343 mV, short circuit current
density (I
SC
) of 9.80 mA cm
-2
and fill factor (ff) of 46.1 %, under the irradiance of 1000 W m
-2
.
Table 3 also represents Isc, V
oc
, ff and for the cocktail and individual dyes, under the same
irradiation conditions.

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Table 3 Photovoltaic parameters of co-sensitized, cocktail, CMB and IX DSSCs.
Sample I
SC
/ mAcm
-2

V
OC
/ mV
ff/ % / %
1. IX 6.26 351 43.7 0.96
2. CMB 2.45 385 62.3 0.59
3. Cocktail 6.26 384 46.9 1.13
4. Co-sensitization 9.80 343 46.1 1.55

Absorption of IX was lower when compare to CMB (Fig. 3). However, I-V characteristics of
IX sensitized DSSC, shown in Fig. 4, and table 3 show are better than that of CMB- DSSC.
The reason for that may be due to the better adsorption properties of IX pigments than that of
CMB pigments onto TiO
2
particles [18].
Therefore, adsorption characteristics of a dye pigment can contribute to a higher and better
performance in the I-V characteristics as well as the absorption characteristics in DSSC. The
cocktail DSSC gave better IV performance compare to individuals of both IX and CMB
sensitized DSSCs. Enhancement of I-V performance in cocktail sensitized DSSC may be due
to the mixture of IX and CMB extracts enhancing both adsorption (from IX pigment) and
absorption (from CMB pigment).
It was also found that; co-sensitized DSSC has given the highest IV performance compared to
IX, CMB and cocktail sensitized DSSCs. Such increase in the efficiency in co-sensitized
DSSC compared to cocktail-DSSCs might be due to unfavorable intermolecular interactions
such as a dye aggregation between IX and CMB in cocktail. Furthermore, utilization of
sunlight could be maximized through positioning of the short-wavelength-absorbed dye
towards the bottom layer of TiO
2
cell whilst positioning of the long-wavelength-absorbed dye
at the top layer [10]. This desired positional setup could not be achieved by using the simple
cocktail dye method as well as in individual dye DSSCs.

4. CONCLUSION

Ixora sp. and Canarium odontophyllum were selected as the representative anthocyanin
pigments as natural dye sensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). Using the UV-Vis
data, it was verified that the both these plants contain anthocyanin pigments. In this
experiment, it was found that co-sensitization produced higher performance having a better fill
factor and power efficiency as compared to the cocktail method and sensitization with
individual dyes.
The highest overall maximum power efficiency was obtained from the co-sensitization
technique with = 1.55 % and fill factor of 46.1 %. Power conversion efficiency and the fill
factor of the cocktail method are 1.13% and 46.9 % respectively. IX dye and CMB dye
produced power conversion efficiencies of 0.96% and 0.59% respectively.
Co-sensitization method has proven its efficient performance as it produced output of nearly
doubled the efficiency of the individual dyes. The cocktail method did not have higher
success, which may be caused by some unfavorable interactions among the dye molecules
during the mixing of the two dyes.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial support for this study was provided by the Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)
Research grant UBD/PNC2/2/RG/1(176). This research is under the umbrella of UBD-Energy
Program.

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6. REFFERENCES

[1] O'Regan, B. and Grtzel, M. (1991) A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-
sensitized colloidal TiO2 films, Nature, 353(6346), pp. 737740.
[2] Halme, J. (2002) Dye-sensitized nanostructured and organic photovoltaic cells,
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY.
[3] Nazeeruddin, M.K. Angelis, F.D. Fantacci, S. Selloni, A. Viscardi, G. Liska, P. Ito, S.
Takeru, B. and Gratzel, M.( 2005) Combined Experimental and DFT-TDDFT Computational
Study of Photoelectrochemical Cell Ruthenium Sensitizers, J. Am. Chem. Soc,127, pp. 16835-
16847.
[4] Seigo, I. Tsubasa, S. Hiroshi, I. Hideaki, U. and Naoki, H. (2010) Fabrication of dye-
sensitized solar cells using natural dye for food pigment:Monascus yellow, Energy Environ.
Sci., 3, pp. 905909.
[5] Ho, C. and Yu-Jen, L. (2010) Pomegranate leaves and mulberry fruit as natural sensitizers
for dye-sensitized solar cells, solar energy, 84, pp. 1833-1837.
[6] Wenju, W. Fanshun, M. Jing, L. Xin, T. and Jianli, H. (2009) Co-sensitization with the
near IR cyanine dye to improve photoelectric conversion of dye-sensitized solar cells,
Synthetic Metals, 159, pp. 10281033.
[7] Ion, I. Francois, K. Malgorzata, M. J. Aurelia, M. Alexandrina, T. and Ileana, R. (2012)
Electronic structure and optical properties of some anthocyanins extracted from grapes,Optical
Materials, 34, pp. 16441650.
[8] Lye, Y. C. Hock, E. K. Ismail, A. Azlan, A. and Cheng, Y. L. (2012) Analysis of Phenolic
Compounds of Dabai (Canarium odontophyllum Miq.) Fruits by High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography, Food Anal. Methods , 5, pp. 126137.
[9] Lee, K. M. Hsu, Y.C. Masashi, I. Tsutomu, M. Thomas, K.R. J. Lin, J. T. and Ho, K. C.
(2011) Co-sensitization promoted light harvesting for plastic dye-sensitized solar cells,
Journal of Power Sources, 15, pp. 24162421.
[10] Park, S.W. Lee, K. Lee, D.K. Ko, M.J. Park, N.G. and Kim, K. (2011) Expanding the
spectral response of a dye-sensitized solar cell by applying a selective positioning method,
Nanotechnology, 22, 045201 (6pp).
[11] Fernando, J.M.R.C. and Sendeera, G.K.R. (2008) Natural anthocyanins as
photosensitizers for dye-sensitized solar devices, Res. Comm. Current Sci., 95, pp. 663-666.
[12] Luque, A. and Hegedus, S. (2003) Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd,West, Sussex.
[13] Greg, P. Smestad, Spiekermannb, S. Kowalik, J. Grant, C. D. Schwartzberg, A. M.
Zhang, J. Tolbert, L. M. and Moons, E. (2003) A technique to compare polythiophene solid-
state dye sensitized TiO2 solar cells to liquid junction devices, Solar Energy Materials and
Solar Cells, 76, pp. 85105.
[14] Crespilho, F. N. Zucolotto, V. Siqueira, J. R. Carvalho, A. J. F. Francisco, C.N. and
Oliveira, O. N.(2006) Using electrochemical data to obtain energy diagrams for layer-by-layer
films from metallic phthalocyanines Int. J. electrochem. Sci, 1, pp. 151-159.
[15] Misra, A. Kumar, P. Srivastava, R. Dhawan, S. K. Kamalasanan, M. N. and Chandra, S.
(2005) Electrochemical and optical studies of conjugated polymers for three primary colours,
Indian Journal of Pure & Applied Physics, 43, pp. 921-925.
[16] Tauc, J. Grigorovici, R. and Vancu, A.(1966) Optical properties and electronic structure
of morphous germanium, Phys. Status Solidi, 15, pp. 627-37.
[17] Smestad, G.P. Spiekermann, S. Kowalik, J. Grant, C.D. Schwartzberg, A.M. Zhang, J.
Tolbert, L.M. and Moons, E. (2003) A technique to compare polythiophene solid-state dye
sensitized TiO
2
solar cells to liquid junction devices, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 76, pp. 85
105.
[18] Monishka, R. N. (2012) Review: Dye sensitized solar cells based on natural
photosensitizers, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, pp. 208 215.

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Constituents of Canarium odontophyllum Extract as Potential Sensitizers in Dye
Sensitized Solar Cells.

Andery Lim
1
1*
, N T R N Kumara
1
, Ai Ling Tan
2
, Aminul Huq Mirza
2
,
Mohammad Iskandar
1
,

Lim Chee Ming
1
and Susumu Yoshikawa
3

1
Applied Physics Programme, Faculty of Science, University of Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku
Link, BE1410, Negara Brunei Darussalam
2
Chemistry Programme, Faculty of Science, University of Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link,
BE1410, Negara Brunei Darussalam
3
Institute of Advanced Technology, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011, Japan
*
Corresponding Author: Tel: (673) 2463001 Ext 1706, Fax: (673) 2461502, E-mail:
piyasiri.ekanayake@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
We have extracted pigments from Canarium odontophyllum, a seasonal indigenous fruit in
Borneo, separated their constituents using column chromatography and tested the separated
pigment constituents for conversion efficiency in dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Three
main groups of flavonoid pigments were detected in Canarium odontophyllum extract which
exhibit different UV-Vis absorption properties and hence show different light harvesting
capabilities when applied in DSSCs. The pigment constituents of the extract are namely
Aurones (Maritimein), Anthocyanidin (Pelargonidin) and Cyanidin derivatives. The original
UV-Vis spectrum of Canarium odontophyllum could be reconstructed by UV-Vis spectra of
individual components. When tested in DSSC, the highest conversion efficiency of 1.43% was
shown by Cyanidin derivatives. The conversion efficiencies of Aurones and Anthocyanidins
were 0.51% and 0.79% respectively. Of the three components of the pigments, Cyanidin
derivatives and Pelargonidin exhibited higher conversion efficiency in DSSC compared to that
of original Canarium odontophyllum pigment mixture (efficiency 0.68%) indicating a possible
masking effects when all components are present together. The original Canarium
odontophyllum pigment exhibited a higher efficiency (0.99%) when the pH of the pigment
was lowered using HCl. This is attributed to an increased absorption and adsorption properties
of the pigment. Cyanidin derivatives and Pelargonidin showed an enhanced absorption peak
around 540 nm upon lowering the pH of individual pigments while Maritimein do not have
characteristic absorption around this region.

Keywords: Anthocyanin, Aurone, Canarium odontophyllum, DSSCs, Natural dye

1. INTRODUCTION

Fossil fuel supply as a source of energy has been declining every year as such other sources in
renewable energy technologies have to be considered and exploited. Dye sensitized solar cells
(DSSCs) are photoelectrochemical devices that convert visible light into electricity based on
the photosensitization of wide bad-gap metal oxide semiconductors such as TiO
2
, thus are
considered as alternative energy source devices. The devices have attracted a lot of interest
towards development and improvement of new families of dyes and metal complexes [1].
Most of the efficient DSSCs are sensitized with dyes having heavy transition-metal
complexes. The ruthenium based complex is one of the examples and have been shown to
operate with power conversions stand at a record of 10% to 11% using nanoporous TiO
2

electrodes [2,3]. Due to the high cost of ruthenium complexes and the long-term
unavailability of these noble metals [2-5], there is a need to search for alternative
photosensitizers for the use in TiO
2
-based photovoltaic devices.
The preparation and development of synthetic dyes as sensitizer of DSSC normally require
multistep of procedures, which involve variety of solvents and time consuming purification
processes, making synthetic dye production very expensive [6] and this has led to consequent
study on metal-free sensitizers. Generally, the dye used in DSSCs consists of an electron-
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donating group, -spacer and electron acceptor. Small variations within these different
sections can cause significant differences in photovoltaic character [7]. Several studies have
found possibilities of using natural dyes as DSSCs sensitizer. DSSCs equiped with natural
dyes as sensitisers have many advantages over the rare transition metal complexes and other
synthetic dyes, in that they can easily be extracted from fruits, vegetables, plants and flowers
with minimal chemical procedures, and hence attract a great of interest in producing a low cost
and yet easy to fabricate DSSCs as alternatives to silicon photovoltaics [8].
Natural pigments containing anthocyanins and carotenoids have shown overall solar energy
conversion efficiencies below 1% [1]. Anthocyanins and aurones belong to a large family of
widespread flavonoids in plants and they are responsible for many of the fruit and floral
colours [9]. Abundance of anthocyanins over aurones and carotenoids in nature makes
anthocyanins a convenient choice for natural pigment to be used in DSSCs. The availability in
large quantities, convenient extraction into cheap organic solvents, ability of application
without fine purification, environmentally-friendly and low production cost of the devices are
some of the competitive advantages of these natural dyes.
In the present work, two subclasses of flavonoids (anthocyanins and aurones pigments) were
extracted from the skin of Canarium odontophyllum and were successfully separated by
column chromatography. The skin of the cited fruit is normally discarded after the flesh is
consumed, thus causing resource dissipation. Through this study, the natural pigments
extracted from the skin of the Canarium odontophyllum has been found useful as sensitizers
of DSSCs and thus has potential and value added economic benefits.

Fig. 1 Matured and harvested Canarium odontophyllum.

Since Canarium odontophyllum (see Figure 1) is one of the most popular and appreciated
fruits in Borneo, it would be worthwhile to carry outa study on the identification and
quantification of the nutritional content of this fruit [10]. Despite so, many still think that, the
fruit is considered as underutilized fruit due to its limited usage and solely act as delicacy to
the locals. Recently, awareness on the presence of highly beneficial compounds,
antioxidants, such as anthocyanins and carotenoids extracted from underutilised fruits have
gained much attention in the diet, especially among rural communities, and that more studies
are being carried out to investigate its potential health benefits related to antioxidant capacities
[11-14].
To our knowledge, there has been no study on natural pigments extracted from Canarium
odontophyllum being used in the dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Matured, dark purplish
coloured skin of Canarium odontophyllum, which we coded as 'CMB' is chosen for the
purpose of this study and tested for its potential as sensitizer of DSSCs (see Figure 1).
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2.1 Fabrication of photo-electrode
Photo electrodes were fabricated using a TiO
2
paste Solaronix (nanoxide-T, colloidal anatase
particles size: ~13 nm, ~120 m
2
g
-1
(BET), Switzerland). The TiO
2
is coated on pre-cleaned
fluorine-doped conducting tin oxide (FTO) glasses (Nippon sheet glass 10
12
sq
1
) by Doctor
Blade method. Electrodes are pre-heated (~50C) using a hair-drier and sintered at 450C for
30 minutes. The thickness of the TiO
2
electrodes used for this investigation is ~ 9 m (Dektak
profilometer; Veeco, Dektack 3) [8].

2.2 Plant materials and dye pigment extraction
Canarium odontophyllum fruits were obtained from an orchard grown plant found in Negara
Brunei Darussalam.
The dye pigment was extracted from the skin of Canarium odontophyllum by crushing it with
a minimum amount of 70% ethanol (diluted from Scharlau 99.9% with distilled water) and
heating to further concentrate the extract. The residual solids were filtered off and the extract
was then centrifuged to separate any remaining solid content and hence clear extract was
recovered. Twenty grams of fresh skin of Canarium odontophyllum were used in the
extraction to make 100 mL extract of natural dye.
The presence of anthocyanin and aurone were confirmed by using the UV-visible absorption
spectroscopic techniques, model: Varian Cary 5E (UV-Vis-NIR) [4].

2.3 Pigment separation using column chromatography
Chromatography column was filled with forty grams of silica gel (type 60) using slurry
method and chloroform as the developing solvent. Suspension of silica gel was allowed to
settle, which deposited towards the bottom of the column. Purified sands were introduced
evenly on the top of the column layer. Aliquote of 5mL of sample was introduced carefully
using pasteur pipette to the sides of the column from above, making sure the sample was
evenly distributed above the sand. Any remaining sample sticking to the side wall of the
column will be washed down using chloroform. Precision tap was then open to start running
the chromatographic process.
Separated dye components were collected and concentrated under vacuum in rotary evaporator
below 60
o
C.

2.4 Dye sensitized solar cell preparation
The TiO
2
electrodes were subsequently dipped in the extracted, recovered aurones and
anthocyanins in ethanol for overnight. The electrodes were then removed, rinsed with
absolute ethanol and air dried. DSSCs were assembled by introducing the redox electrolyte
containing tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI; 0.5 M)/I
2
(0.05 M), in a mixture of acetonitrile
and ethylene carbonate (6:4, v/v) between the dyed TiO
2
electrode and platinum counter
electrode [8]. Those DSSCs placed under irradiation of 1000 W/m
2
about 4-6 hours after
applying the electrolyte to obtain the best current, possibly due to slow incorporation of
electrolyte into TiO
2
layer.


3.1 Recovered constituents from column chromatography
From the chromatographic separation of the dye extract, seven portions were recovered and
labeled as CC1, CC2, CC3, CC4, CC5, CC9 and CC10. These portions were further assayed
using UV-Visible spectrophotometer and Thin Layer Chromatography techniques, whereby
three possible groups of flavonoids were detected.
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During the chromatographic separation process, three different bands were observed; yellow
band was being firstly recovered, followed by reddish-blue band and eventually dark blue
band, and hence their R
f
values are as follows: dark blue band < reddish-blue band < yellow
band. Solvent used in the column chromatography process were of combinations of solvent-to-
solvent ratio which include chloroform, acetonitrile and methanol, where 100% methanol was
used for "flushing" the final portion of the separated flavonoids.
CC1 and CC2 (yellow band) contained a flavonoid identified as aurone, CC3 and CC4
(reddish-blue band) contained anthocyanidin (pelargonidin) and the remaining portions that
appeared as dark blue band contained anthocyanidin (cyanidin derivatives). Identification of
flavonoids was carried out by comparing UV-Vis spectral data of specific dye standards from
the literatures [15,16]. In this paper, discussion based on the three groups of flavonoids will be
represented by CC2, CC4 and CC9 according to their best performances recorded.

3.2 UV-Vis absorption spectra
UV-Vis absorption spectra of extracted dye from the skin of Canarium odontophyllum and the
three, recovered flavonoids were recorded using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer and the peak
absorption values are given in Table 1. Illustration of absorption curves for the extracted dye
(CMB) spectra as well as the three recovered flavonoids as represented by CC2, CC4 and CC9
are shown in Figure 2.
Aurone, being one of the flavonoids present in the extract showed different absorption curve to
that of anthocyanins with numerous peaks below 500 nm wavelength. Minor peaks at 654 nm
and 651 nm are also observed in CC1 and CC2 spectra. Broad peak at around 540nm signifies
the presence of anthocyanins as shown by CMB original, CC4 and CC9 absorption curves
respectively. However, minor but considerable differences of peak positions of CC4 and CC9
curves, at positions 530~533 nm and 536~538 nm, indicate the presence of two main
anthocyanins possibly pelargonidin and cyanidin derivatives [15,16].

Table 1 Canarium odontophyllum extract as well as three other recovered flavonoids showing
different positions of peaks.
yes Position of peaks (nm) Possible types of anthocyanins
CMB 280, 348, 541 Mixture of flavonoids
CC1 274, 333, 418, 654 Aurone
CC2 273, 336, 420, 651 Aurone
CC3 274, 325, 533 Anthocyanidin (Pelargonidin)
CC4 273, 320, 530 Anthocyanidin (Pelargonidin)
CC5 280, 337, 538 Anthocyanidin (Cyanidin derivatives)
CC9 280,333, 536 Anthocyanidin (Cyanidin derivatives)
CC10 278, 336, 536 Anthocyanidin (Cyanidin derivatives)

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Fig. 2 UV-Vis absorption spectra of extracted Canarium odontophyllum dye and three
recovered flavonoids as exemplified by CC2, CC4 and CC9.

Figure 3 compares the absorption spectra of non-acidified and acidified anthocyanin extract of
the CMB dye. An intense peak observed at 540 nm wavelength shown in Figure 3 is due to the
conversion of anthocyanins to anthocyanidins when concentrated HCl is added into the extract
[8,17].
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e

(
A
.
U
.
)
Wavelength (nm)
CMB
Acidified CMB

Fig. 3 UV-Vis absorption spectra of extracted Canarium odontophyllum dye. A broad
absorption peak was observed around 540 nm when conc. HCl was added to the dye extract.

The broad and intense absorption peak around 540 nm which emerges at low pH (after adding
concentrated HCl) facilitates DSSC to absorb effectively at low energy solar radiation from
400 500 600 700 800
0.0
0.5
1.0
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e

(
A
.
U
.
)
Wavelength (nm)
CC2
CC4
CC9
CMB
500 600
0.0
0.1
0.2
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e

(
A
.
U
.
)
Wavelength (nm)
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348

the visible spectrum, thus resulting improved overall photovoltaic performance. It is evident
that light absorption properties of the pigment influences the performance of DSSC.

Fig. 4(a) Chemical structure of aurone, Maritimein.

Fig. 4(b) Chemical structure of anthocyanidins; Pelargonidin (when R = -H), and Cyanidin
derivatives (when R = -OH)

The presence of carbonyl and hydroxyl groups in the aurone and hydroxyl groups in
anthocyanins molecules (see Figure 4(a) and Figure 4(b)) respectively, help in the binding of
the dye molecules to TiO
2
, thus affect the photoelectric conversion efficiency.

3.3 Current-Voltage (I-V) characteristics
Figure 5 illustrates the I-V (current densityvoltage) characteristics of the DSSCs sensitized
with extracts (skin pigments) of Canarium odontophyllum. The power conversion efficiency
() was calculated using the following, described relation:

where I
sc
is the short-circuit photocurrent density (A cm
2
), V
oc
is the open-circuit voltage (V),
P is the intensity of the incident light (W cm
2
) and FF is the fill factor defined as FF =
I
m
V
m
/I
sc
V
oc
, in which I
m
and V
m
are the optimum photocurrent and voltage that can be extracted
from the maximum power calculated from the IV data [18-20].

R
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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
0
2
4
6
8
10
Acidified CMB
CMB
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
m
A
/

c
m
2
)
Voltage (mV)

Fig. 5 Comparison of current voltage (I-V) characterisations of DSSCs sensitized with CMB
dye (with and without acidification).

DSSC sensitized with CMB dye has achieved the conversion efficiency () of 0.68%, with
open circuit voltage (V
OC
) of 419 mV and short circuit current density (I
SC
) of 3.54 mA cm
-2
,
and fill factor (ff) of 0.59, under irradiance of 1000 W m
-2
.
It was observed that acidification of the dye extract could improve the photocurrent conversion
efficiency of DSSCs, where the acidification of CMB dye enhanced the conversion efficiency
() to 0.99%, with open circuit voltage (V
OC
SC
)
of 10.33 mA cm
-2
, and fill factor (ff) of 0.38, under the same irradiance conditions.
The photocurrent conversion efficiency sensitized by CMB dye was however less when
compared to the two recovered portions of anthocyanins, that this might indicate a possible
masking effects when all components are present together. In senescing leaves for example,
anthocyanins naturally play a protective role as "sunscreens" by masking the light (protection
from excess irradiance) to prevent heat build up in the leaves, limiting oxidative damange to
the leaf's cells [21].
The investigated characteristics of the DSSCs tested using sensitizers from CMB and
recovered portions of dyes are summarized in Table 2.

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Table 2. Comparison of current-voltage (I-V) of DSSCs sensitized with different portions of
extracted and recovered dyes to that of N719 (ruthenium-based dye).

Dye
V
oc

(V)
I
sc

(mA cm
-2
)
FF q/ %
CMB 0.419 3.54 0.593 0.68
CMB
Acidified
0.331 10.33 0.376 0.99
CC1 0.326 3.48 0.492 0.43
CC2 0.388 3.81 0.529 0.60
CC3 0.334 6.07 0.449 0.70
CC4 0.357 6.57 0.484 0.87
CC5 0.322 10.39 0.528 1.36
CC9 0.350 9.74 0.546 1.43
CC10 0.360 5.02 0.534 0.74
N719 0.564 22.91 0.603 5.98

The best performance among the natural extracts was observed from the DSSCs sensitized
with the CC9 portion, which showed a conversion efficiency () of 1.43%, with open circuit
voltage (V
OC
SC
) of 9.74 mA cm
-2
, and fill factor
(FF) of 0.55, under the same irradiation conditions.
The lowest conversion efficiency was obtained when CC1 and CC2 were used as the
sensitizers in DSSCs. These portions, thought to contain aurone, produced poor performance
as compared to other tested sensitizers despite showing absorption characters between 350nm
to 500nm region. This could thus suggest that aurone extracts did not adsorb efficiently onto
TiO
2
or the excited electrons were not efficiently transferred to the electrode from the aurone
pigment.

4. CONCLUSION

DSSCs fabricated using natural dye extracted and recovered flavonoid groups from the skin of
Canarium odontophyllum as photosensitizer and the performance of the dye are reported. One
group of aurone and two groups of anthocyaninins were detected in the recovered flavonoid
groups after separation by column chromatography.
Best overall energy conversion efficiency of 1.43% was obtained from the recovered cyanidin
derivatives group, CC9. The pigments at low pH have demonstrated an improved overall
conversion efficiency due to a possible improvement of both absorption and adsorption
properties of the pigments.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial support for this study was provided by the Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)
Research grant UBD/PNC2/2/RG/1(176). This research is under the umbrella of UBD-Energy
Programme. We thank Dr. J. Santos for the assistance extended for cyclic voltammetry
measurements.

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6. REFERENCES

[1] Calogero, G., Di Marco, G., Cazzanti, S., Caramori, S., Argazzi, R., Di Carlo, A. (2010)
Efficient dye-sensitized solar cells using red turnip and purple wild Sicilian prickly pear
fruits, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 11, pp 254-267.
[2] Gratzel, M. (2003) Dye-sensitized solar cells, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C: Photochem.
Rev., pp 4, 145-153.
[3] (2009) Progress in ruthenium complexes for dye-sensitised solar cells, Platinum Metals
Rev., 53(4), pp 216-218.
[4] Hara, K. and Arakawa, H.(2003) Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering, In
Luque, A. and Hegedus, S. (Eds). Dye-sensitized Solar Cells. John Wiley & Sons
Ltd,West, Sussex, pp.663-700.
[5] Ryan, M. (2009) Progress in ruthenium complexes for dye sensitized solarcells, Platinum
Met. Rev., 53, pp 216-218.
[6] Polo, S.A, Iha, M..N.Y., and Itokazu, M.Z. (2004) Metal complex sensitizers in dye-
sensitized solar cells, Coord. Chem. Rev., 248, pp 1343-1361.
[7] Tian, H., Yang, X., Chen, R., Zhang, R., Hagfeldt, A. & Sun, L. (2008) Effect of different
dye baths and dye structures on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells based on
triphenylamine dyes, Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 112(29), pp 11023-11033.
[8] Fernando, J.M.R.C. & Sendeera, G.K.R. (2008) Natural anthocyanins as photosensitizers
for dye-sensitized solar devices, Res. Comm. Current Sci., 95, pp 663-666.
[9] Heidari, R., Khalafi, J. and Dolatabadzadeh, N. (2004) Anthocyanin pigments of siahe
sardasht grapes, Journal of Science Republic of Iran, 15(2), pp 113-117.
[10] Chew, L.Y., Khoo, H.E., Amin, I., Azrina, A. & Lau, C.Y. (2012) Analysis of phenolic
compounds of Dabai (Canarium odontophyllum Miq.) fruits by high-performance liquid
chromatography, Food Anal. Methods, 5, 126-137.
[11] Ding, P. & Tee, Y.K. (2011) Physiochemical characteristics of dabai (Canarium
odontophyllum Miq.) fruit, Fruits: Cirad/EDP Sciences, Cambridge University Press,
66(1), pp 47-52.
[12] Khoo, H.K., Ismail, A., Mohd-Esa, N. & Idris, S. (2008) Carotenoid content of
underutilized tropical fruits, Plant Food for Human Nutrition, 63, pp 170-175.
[13] Lau, C.Y. (2009) Development of indegenous fruit crops in Sarawak: a case study on
dabai fruit, In proceedings of the National Conference on New Crops and Bioresources,
Malaysia, Negeri Sembilan, pp. 15-20.
[14] Voon, B.H. & Kueh, H.S. (1999) The nutritional value of indigenous fruits and
vegetables in Sarawak. Asia, Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 8, pp 24-31.
[15] Geissman, T.A. & Harbone, J.B. (1956) Anthochlor pigments XII: Maritimein and
Marein, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 78(4),pp 829832
[16] Harbone, J.B. (1957) Spectral methods of characterizing anthocyanins, Journal of
Biochemistry, 70(1), pp 2228.
[17] Cherepy, N. J., Smestad, G. P., Grtzel, M. and Zhang, J. Z., (1997) Ultrafast electron
injection: implications for a photoelectrochemical cell utilizing an anthocyanin dye-
sensitized TiO
2
Nanocrystalline electrode, J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, pp 9342-9351.
[18] Ekanayake, P., Mohammad Iskandar, Tennakoon, K., Lim, C.M., Voo, N.Y., Rina Z.,
Sanadeera, R. and Yoshikawa, S. (2012) Fabrication of Eco-friendly Dye Sensitized Solar
Cells Using Pigments from Melastoma malabathricum L., a Native Plant in Borneo,
Ceylon Journal of Science (Physical Sciences), 12, pp 65-70.
[19] Kumara, N.T.R.N., Andery Lim, Mohammad Iskandar, Lim Chee Ming and Piyasiri
Ekanayake. (2012) Tea waste extract as a sensitizer of dye sensitized solar cells,
Accepted to Scientia Bruneiana.
[20] Kumara, N.T.R.N., Andery Lim, Mohammad Iskandar, Lim Chee Ming, Piyasiri
Ekanayake. (2012) Study of the enhancement of cell performance of DSSCs sensitized
with Nephelium lappaceum (F: Sapindaceae), Submitted for publication.
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[21] Feild, T.S., Lee, D.W. and Holbrook, N.M. (2001) Why leaves turn red in autumn: The
role of anthocyanins in senescing leaves of red-osier dogwood, Plant physiology, 127, pp
566-574.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
An Overview of DFT and TD-DFT Studies for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

May Win Han*, Piyasiri Ekanayake and N.Y.Voo*
Energy Research Group, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 249001(ext1766), E-mail: nyukyoong.voo@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
This paper presents the recent development of the density function theory (DFT) / time-
dependent DFT (TD-DFT) studies for optimizing the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells
(DSSCS). DFT and TD-DFT are standard tools for theoretical calculation on the electronic
and optical properties of dyes used in DSSCs. The performance of DSSCs mainly depends on
the absorption efficiency of the sensitizing dye, the efficiency of the charge separation process
and the probability of electronic structure of the ground and excited state of the sensitizing
dye. The theoretical investigations of the physical properties of dye sensitizers are important in
order to understand the sensitized mechanism, the geometries and electronic structure of the
dye. The researchers were trying to achieve the optimized geometries, electronic structures and
related photo-physical properties of dyes by using the DFT and the electronic and optical
properties of dyes with TD-DFT. The result of the theoretical investigation will help to design
and develop more efficient dyes for the DSSCs.

Keywords: DFT, TD-DFT, Dye sensitized solar cells, Electronic structures

1. INTRODUCTION

Due to the depletion of fossil fuels, growing demand of energy, global warming and other
environmental problems, the development of environmental friendly renewable energy
technologies is an urgent task for our human being [1]. Among the renewable energies, solar
energy has proven capacity to match the worlds increasing energy needs. In order to take
advantages of the solar energy, we learned to convert solar energy into forms of energy by
using new and emerging technology. As a result, dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have
become widespread interest for conversion of sunlight into electricity, because of their high
efficiency and low cost. The dye sensitizers play an important role in DSSCs that have a
significant influence on the photoelectric conversion and transport performance of electrode
[2].
In recent years, density functional theory (DFT) has been extensively used to study the
structures and absorption spectra of sensitizers for DSSCs. DFT has emerged as a reliable
standard tool for the theoretical of molecular structures and electronic absorption spectra.
Time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) is the most successful and most
commonly used method for simulations of dyes electronic and optical properties. In practice,
geometry optimization is performed using DFT, and then TD-DFT is used to describe the
excited states and optical properties of the optimized molecules [3]. As mentioned in [4], the
performance of DSSCs mainly depends upon the following factors: (1) the absorption
efficiency of the sensitizing dye for the solar light spectrum; (2) the probability of electron
transfer from the excited state of the dye sensitizer to TiO
2
(efficiency of the charge
separation); (3) the probability of electron from the electrode to the oxidized dye. All these
factors are closely associated with the ground and excited electronic state of the dye sensitizer.
From this point of view, it is imperative to investigate the electronic structures of the dye
molecules for understanding the mechanism of the charge separation and transfer, which are
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the key processes in this type of solar cell. In order to design and synthesize more efficient
dyes, it is also necessary to understand the electronic structures of the existing efficient
sensitizers. This has been studied with DFT/TD-DFT, by many researchers for some particular
dyes [3, 4, 10-21]. In here, the researchers are addressing the materials of DSSCs such as
structure, electronic and absorption properties of the dyes, adsorption of the dyes on
semiconductor crystals, the effect of additives on the position of the semiconductors
conduction band.

2. Theory of DFT and TD-DFT

2.1 Density Functional Theory(DFT)
Density-functional theory is one of the most popular and successful quantum mechanical
approaches to compute the electronic structure of matter. DFT can predict on the molecular
structures, vibrational frequencies, atomization energies, ionization energies, electric and
magnetic properties, reaction path, etc. Density functional-theory-based method ultimately
derives from quantum mechanics research from 1920s and from Salters fundamental work in
quantum chemistry in the 1950s. In 1964 Hohenberg-Khon demonstrated the existence of a
unique functional which determines the ground state energy and density exactly [5].
Following on the work of Kohn and Sham, the approximate functional employed by current
DFT methods partition the electronic energy into several terms:

E = E
T
+E
V
+E
J
+E
XC
(1)

Where E
T
is the kinetic energy term (arising from the motion of the electron), E
V
includes
terms describing the potential energy of the nuclear-electron attraction and of the repulsion
between pairs of nuclei, E
J
is the electron electron repulsion term (it also described as a
Coulomb self-interaction of the electron density), and E
XC
is the exchange-correlation term and
includes the remaining part of the electron electron interactions [5].
Density functional theory is based on the notion that for a many- electron system there is a
one-to-one mapping between the external potential and the electron density: v(r) (r). All
properties are therefore a functional of the density, because the density determines the
potential, which determines the Hamiltonian, which determines the energy (E []) and the
wave function ([]), from which all properties can be determined. Hohenberg and Kohn also
showed that for a given potential v(r), which corresponds with a ground-state
0
[] and
ground -state energy E
0
[], the energy functional E
v
[] has its minimum equal to E
0
[] at the
ground-state density (second Hohenberg-Khon theorem)[22]
For ground state properties, density functional theory (DFT) is clearly the method of choice:
ground state properties are accurately described and the scaling of the computational cost with
the number of atom is very favorable compared to high-level quantum chemistry approaches
[10]. Moreover, the introduction of DFTbased molecular dynamics simulation methods and
other advanced optimization techniques has given the possibility not only to investigate the
geometry and electronic structure of relatively complex system, but also to include the effect
of thermal motion on the investigated properties [10]. In most DFT implementations, the
calculations provide occupied and virtual (unoccupied) one-electron states (orbitals). Although
optical transitions and charge transfer reactions occur between all-electron wave function,
many characteristics can be understood simply by considering single-electron transitions
between orbitals. Concerning the calculation of excited properties, the time-dependent
extension of DFT (TD-DFT) has widely used in recent applications. The researchers
investigate that the optical properties of DSSCs by using the theoretical methods outlined
above as implemented in different solid state physics and quantum chemistry DFT and TD-
DFT based code [6].

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2.2 Time-Dependent Density Functional Theory(TD-DFT)
Time- dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) extends the basic ideas of ground
state density functional theory (DFT) to the treatment of excitations or more general time-
dependent phenomena. TD-DFT can be viewed as an alternative formulation of time-
dependent quantum mechanics but, in contrast to the normal approach that relies on wave-
functions [23].
The Schrodinger equation describes the wave-function of a particle:

{

} (, t) =
()
(2)

In this equation (3), is the wave function, m is the mass of the particle, h is Plancks
constant and V is the potential field in which the particle is moving.
The wave function as the product of a spatial function and a time function:

( t) = () () (3)

The lowest energy eigenvalue, E
0
is the ground state energy and the probability density of
finding an electron with any particular set of coordinates () is
We focus entirely on the familiar time-independent Schrodinger equation

H () = E () (4)

Where, E is the energy of the particle and H is the Hamiltonian operator.
H =

(5)

The development of the time dependent density functional approaches (TD-DFT) allows for
the extension of the ground- state DFT efficiency to excited state. Excited states are the
solutions of the time- independent stationary
Schrodinger equation; time-dependent response theory is used as a trick to reduce electronic
excitations to ground state properties. Excited state total energies are accessible by adding the
corresponding ground state energy to the excitation energy [5, 7].

3. How can DFT/TD-DFT be applied to DSSCs

Most of the researchers have to investigate the optical properties of the DSSCs, the theoretical
methods outlined above were used as implemented in different solid state physics and
quantum chemistry DFT and TDDFT. The main quantity in DSSCs technology is the excited
state oxidation potential of the dye sensitizer. This is important both in absolute value and
relative to the position of the TiO
2
conduction band. A major difficulty in the theoretical and
computational investigation of DSSC devices is the complexity of the systems under
investigation. While accurate computational techniques are needed to reliably describe the
interatomic interactions in these devices. DFT/TD-DFT can determine not only to describe
ground state properties, such as geometries and charge distributions, but also properties related
to the excited states, as is the case in DSSCs [10].

3.1 The geometric structures
Ground-state geometry is one of the major optimization factors in the design of dye
sensitizersfor solar cells. It can determine the molecular structures favoring the absorption in
the visible /near IR region and possessing appropriate excited state able to directly inject into
CB of the semiconductor electrode. For the calculation of the geometric structures, DFT was
treated according to Beckes three parameter gradient-corrected exchange potential and Lee-
Yang-Parr gradient-corrected potential (B3LYP) [11]. Most of the researchers applied this
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method to investigate the geometries optimization of the dye sensitizers because the B3LYP
functional was found to well reproduce the TiO
2
bandgap. Some researchers chose to use the
hybrid B3LYP functional, which containing a function of Hartree Fock exchange. This is due
to its good description of the absorption spectra [2, 4, 10-13] of the dye. In [16], DFT was
utilized with the M05-2X hybrid metaGGA functional and the 6-31+G (d, p) and it optimized
a selection of geometric parameters that was made to clearly visualize.
Xu, J. et al found to theoretically understand the donor effects and the sensitized mechanism at
a molecular level, the geometries and electronic structures of dyes were studied in detail using
DFT, and the absorption spectra were investigated according to TD-DFT calculation. So, they
reported the bond lengths, bond angles and dihedral angles of selected dyes can be calculated
and the calculated geometries indicate that the strong conjugated effects are formed in the
dyes, which is beneficial to the intermolecular charge transfer [4].
Angelis, F. D.et al applied a computational approach which combines DFT and TD-DFT
techniques to study the alignment of the excited states of dye sensitizers with the TiO
2

conduction band. They determined that the excited state oxidation potential (ESOP) for the
isolated dyes and TiO
2
nanoparticle in solution by expressing the ESOP as the difference
between the ground state oxidation potential (GSOP) and the lowest vertical excitation energy
and different approximate forms for the two latter quantities [10].Their results agreement with
the experimental data and it could be used as an efficient predictive tool to help the
optimization of DSSCs.
Berlin, A. et al illustrated that the geometries optimizations of the dyes were carried out with
B3LYP and Hartree-Fock(HF) levels which are used to evaluate geometric potential energy
surfaces. HF coupled with configuration interaction singles (HF-CIS) is used to investigate the
first excited state of the dye. They found that the DFT methodology predicts a sharp rise in
energy as the molecule moves toward the fully twisted conformation, whereas the HF energies
rise as the geometry shifts towards the planar structure [11]. Anbarasan, P. M. et al can find
that the most optimized bond lengths, bond angles and dihedral angles from the theoretical
values well matched with the using of DFT/TD-DFT. They found that the choice of
appropriate conjugate bridge in dyes sensitizer is very important to improve the performance
of DSSCs [12].

3.2 Electronic structures and electrochemical properties
In order to design and synthesize more efficient sensitizing dyes, it is also necessary to
understand the electronic structures of the existing efficient sensitizing dyes [13]. According to
the inter-molecular electron-transfer mechanism of dyes in the DSSCs, the HOMO and LUMO
energy levels of the dye in the DSSCs should be lower and higher, respectively, than that of
the electrolyte and conduction band of the semiconductor(TiO
2
)[19].
In developing to find the new and more efficient sensitizers, researchers have focused on an
effective and accurate modeling of the electronic and optical properties of TiO
2
nanoparticles
together with a similarly reliable description of the dye excited states. Filippo et al used
Density Functional Theory (DFT) for efficient optimization of the dye nanoparticle system
and time dependent DFT (TD-DFT) determination of the lowest vertical excitation energies.
It was reported that the computational method of DFT and TD-DFT provided the alignment of
the excited states of the dye sensitizers with TiO
2
conduction band which could be used as an
efficient predictive factor to help the optimization of the dye sensitized solar cells [10].
Anbarasan, P.M et al pointed that the transitions are photo-induced charged transfer processes,
thus the excitations generate charge separated states, which should favor the electron injection
from the excited dyes to semiconductor surface. They found the relationship between
electronic structure of the dyes and photovoltaic performance by experiment and theoretical
calculation and reported that the photo current density (J
sc
) is determined by two processes,
one is the rate of electron injection from the excited dyes of the conduction band of
semiconductor, and the other is the rate of the redox between the excited dyes and electrolyte
[12]. Relatively large energy gaps between the LUMO energies of dyes and the semiconductor
conduction band would be beneficial to the beneficial to the photoelectric conversion
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properties. Xu, J. et al used the DFT calculation to investigate the ground state geometries
and electronic structures of dyes. They reported that the high absorption coefficient of dyes in
visible region make very suitable for efficient light harvesting [13]. Fan, W. et al focused for a
better understanding of the electronic coupling strength between the dyes LUMO and the
semiconductor conduction band and the electron transfer during light excitation. They found
that the HOMO of dye (C217) is almost unaffected by interacting with TiO
2
band gap and the
alignment of the energy level as in the non-interaction case as shown in Fig.1. The most
noticeable difference between the isolated and interacting systems is the position and character
of the LUMOs [14].

Fig.1 Schematic energy diagram of the non interacting C217 dye and the (TiO
2
)
46
species.
(Reference [14])

The electron distribution of HOMO is mainly located in the electro-donor to the conjugated
linker while subjecting to sun light irradiation, and the electron transfer proceeds from the
electron-donor to the electron-acceptor through the conjugated linker. The electron
distribution of LUMO is delocalized in electron-acceptor to the conjugated linker and it
could inject the electron from the excited dye to the conduction band of semiconductor.
Molecular orbital overlaps of HOMO and LUMO are highly coupled to the conjugated
linker of the dye. Theoretically, the dye should absorb photon from the sunlight and result in a
broad band absorption extended from visible to IR region [19].
The HOMO and LUMO levels of a dye used in a DSSC must match with the conduction
band edge energy level of the TiO
2
and the redox potential of electrolyte for an efficient
charge separation and dye regeneration. For efficient electron injection, the LUMO or excited
state oxidation potential of the dye should be above the conduction band edge of TiO
2
and for
efficient dye regeneration the HOMO of the dye should lie below the energy level of redox
system [20]. So, to gain a better understanding of the role of the sensitizer, particularly of
electronic structure and excited state properties can determine by using of the DFT and TD-
DFT.

3.3 Absorption Structure
Absorption spectra of dye should be a good match with solar radiation spectrum, in order to
effectively capture solar radiation photons. To gain higher light harvesting efficiency, dye
molecule must possess higher molar absorption coefficient in the wide solar spectra [18]. The
absorption spectra of the dye molecules can be easily tuned by changing the length of the
bridge which indicates that there are some electrons transferred from the electron donor group
to the electron acceptor group through the chemical bond. Gasiorski, P. et al applied the
DFT/TD-DFT calculation that have been performed within the quantumchemical package of
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programs Gaussian-09 using B3LYP exchange correction potential with the standard 6-31+G(
d , p) basic set. To account the solvation, the DFT/TD-DFT methods were combined with
polarizable continuum model (PCM) using linear-response (PCM-LR) or state-specific (PCM-
SS) approaches available in Gaussian-09. The PCM provide a reliable description of solvent
effects on both ground and excited state properties [5, 21]. They found that DFT/TD-
DFT/PCM calculations quite well reproduce the basic features of the measured absorption
spectra, particularly the strongest absorption band in the UV-region and the first absorption
band in the visible region [15]. Loez, J. B. et al stated that the calculated value of wavelength
(
max
) is an important parameter, which indicates that the molecules systems should be
considered for use as a functional material in DSSCs [16]. Jacquemin, D. et al investigated
using TD-DFT procedure relying on large atomic basic sets and systematic modeling of
solvent effects. They stated that the statistical treatments can be designed for given sets of
dyes, a simple and rapid theoretical procedure allows both a chemically sound and a
numerically accurate description of the absorption wavelength and the use of long-range TD-
DFT(TD-LR-DFT) should lead to the sufficient accuracy for the design of a new dye
structure[17]. In 2011, Zhan, W.et al applied DFT/TD-DFT to simulate non-metallic organic
dye molecules for DSSCs. They reported that the absorption spectrum and position of LUMO
energy of dye are crucial factors to determine the photoelectric conversion efficiency of DSSC
[18].

4. Summary and Perspective

In this paper, the theoretical study using DFT/TD-DFT for optimization of geometries,
electronic structures and related photo-physical properties of dyes have been reviewed. The
HOMO- LOMO transition characterizes the lowest singlet excited states with transition
energies. The electron-donation ability of the electron donor in dyes can affect the HOMO
value. The dye with stronger electron donation ability has been shown to give a significant
increase in HOMO energy. The calculated HOMO, LUMO and E
g
are all within the energy
gap of semiconductor, indicating that the sensitized mechanism of dyes belongs to electron
injection process from the excited dye to the conduction band of the semiconductor. The
theoretical investigation using DFT/TD-DFT of the geometric structures, the electronics
structures and absorption structures of dye sensitizers are essential in order to disclose the
relationship among the performance, structures, and the properties. So, the results of this
theoretical investigation will help to design and develop a more efficient dye for the DSSCs.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful acknowledge the contribution of the Science and Technology research
funds (S&T 17 Energy Research Grant)

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Functional Theory (DFT)Study of Triphenylamine-Based Dyes for Their Use as
Sensitizers in Molecular Photovoltaics, Int.J.Mol.Sci.,13, pp. 4418-4432.
[17] Jacquemin, D., Perpete, E.A.,Scuseria, G. E., Ciofini, I and Adamo, C. (2008), TD-DFT
Performance for the Visible Absorption Specrta of Organic
Dyes:J.Chem.TheoryComput,4,pp.123-135.
[18] Zhan, W., Pan, S., Li, Y., Chen,M.andGuo, Y.(2012) DFT/TD-DFT study on organic dyes
containing furan moiety for DSSCs, J.Spectrosc.Dyn.,2:10,pp.1-10.
[19] Tai, C. K., Chen,Y.J., Chang, H.W., Yeh, P.L., Wang, B.C. (2011) DFT and TD-DFT
investigations of metal-free dye sensitizers for solar cells: Effects of electron donors and
- conjugated linker, Computational and Theoretical Chemistry, 971, pp. 42-50.
[20] Srinivas, K., Kumar, C. R., Reddy, M. A., Bhanuprakash, K.,Rao,V.J., Giribabu, L. (2010)
D--A organic dyes with carbazole as donor for DSSCs, Synthetic Metals 161, pp. 96-105.
[21] Improta, R.,Barone, V., Scalmani, G. and Frisch, J. (2006) A state-specific polarizable
continuum model time dependent density functional theory method for excited state
calculations in solution, J. Chemical Physics 125(5), pp. 054103-1-054103-9
[22] http://molsim.chem.uva.nl/users/ensing/thesis/node11.html
[23] Migual A. L. Marques and E. K. U. Gross, Time-dependent Density Theory,
users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~ag-gross/articles/pdf/MG03.pdf

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359

Understanding the Polymer Structure/Device Function Relationship for Organic
Solar Cells

Ying Woan Soon
*
, James R Durrant
Centre for Plastic Electronics, Departments of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road,
London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+44) 7894348418, Tel: (673) 2236118, E-mail:
ying.soon08@imperial.ac.uk

Abstract
Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) using semiconducting polymers have several advantages over
conventional silicon-based photovoltaics; they are low cost, compatible with flexible
substrates and cheap roll-to roll processing techniques that allow large area fabrication.
Conjugated polymers with alternating donor-acceptor moieties are of interest in this study.
Flexibility in the synthesis of donor-acceptor polymers allows tuning of energy levels for
enhanced harvesting of the solar spectrum as well as optimised device performance. Currently,
relationship between polymers structures and device performance are not yet well understood.
One aspect of the materials structure/ device function relationship that we focus on is the
efficiency of charge generation, which is a key challenge in the field of OPV. As such, various
polymer characterization and photophysical studies are performed in order to come up with a
predictive tool to aid rational materials design for enhanced device performance. An important
finding that we observed is a correlation between energy levels and charge photogeneration
yield. With power conversion efficiency now approaching 10% which is perceived as the
benchmark for commercialisation, stability is another pressing issue that needs to be addressed
for the development of polymer-based OPVs.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Relaxation Rietveld Analysis of LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
for Secondary Lithium Ion
Battery

Im Sul Seo
1
, Seungwon Park
1
and Takeshi Yao
1,
*
1
Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: +81-75-753-4865, Fax: +81-75-753-4865, E-mail: yao@energy.kyoto-
u.ac.jp

Abstract
Li-ion secondary batteries (LIBs) have been expected to apply for energy storage system and
power sources of electric vehicle due to the performance of high energy density and high
power. Electrode materials in LIBs are considerably crucial to improve its battery performance
and it is very important to know behavior of the materials in terms of Li insertion and Li
extraction.
Recently, LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
cathode has been expected to be a favorable candidate for
cathode material in LIBs due to its low cost, low toxicity, improved cycle performance and
high electric capacity. Yao et al found that various electrode material such as -Fe
2
O
3
,

LiFePO
4
, LiMn
2
O
4
, Li
4/3
Ti
5/3
O
4
, etc. changed its crystal structure or phase at relaxation process
after termination of Li insertion.[1-4] In this study, we inserted Li into Li
x
Ni
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
,
then made the circuit open, measured X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns at the relaxation
process after termination of Li insertion, and analyzed the relaxation structure by the Rietveld
method.
Commercial LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
(Nippon Chemical Industrial Co., Japan) was used for
cathode material. We partly extracted Li from LiNi
1/3
Mn
1/3
Co
1/3
O
2
electrochemically and then
inserted Li electrochemically at a rate of 1C. After the Li insertion, the circuit was opened
immediately, and we repeatedly measured XRD (Ultima, Rigaku corp. Japan) of a sample
for various relaxation times. CuK
o
radiation was used. The tube voltage and current were set
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360

to 40 kV and 40 mA, respectively. XRD patterns were measured from 15
o
to 90
o
in 2u at a
scanning speed of 2
o
min
-1
. The XRD patterns were analyzed by the Rietveld method using
RIEVEC program.[5, 6] The crystal structure was represented by the space group R
m. XRD
profiles for each relaxation time were well-fitted with the patterns obtained by the Rietveld
method.
From the Rietveld analysis result, we obtained the lattice constant a, c and the coordinate z of
oxygen at the relaxation process. It was found that the lattice constant a was almost constant,
and the lattice constant c and the coordinate z of oxygen decreased during the relaxation time
after Li insertion. Li diffusion process was investigated.
[1] S. park, M. Oda, T. Yao, Solid State Ionics, 203, 29(2011)
[2] S. park, K. Kameyama, T. Yao, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 15 (4) A1 (2012)
[3] I. S. Seo, S. Park, T. Yao, Zero-Carbon Energy Kyoto 2011, Springer, Accepted. (2012)
[4] S. Uraki, S. Park, T. Yao, The 79th Symp. on The Electrochemical Society of Japan, Abst.
#1C37 (2012)
[5] T. Yao, T. Ito and T. Kokubo, J. Mater. Res., 10, 1079-1082 (1995)
[6] T. Yao, N. Ozawa, T. Aikawa and S. Yoshinaga, Solid State Ionics, 175, 199-202 (2004)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Relaxation Crystal Phase Analysis of Olivine-Type LiFePO
4
Cathode for Li-ion
Secondary Battery

Seungwon Park
1
, Kyohei Kameyama
1
, Takeshi Yao
1*

1
Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (81) 075-753-4865, Fax: (81) 075-753-4734, E-mail: yao@energy.kyoto-
u.ac.jp

Abstract
Recently, we have been conducting the relaxation analysis on electrode materials such as -
Fe
2
O
3
1
, LiFePO
4
2
, and LiMn
2
O
4
3
after Li insertion and/or extraction, and made clear both state
of kinetic and equilibrium of them. Lithium iron phosphate, Li
X
FePO
4
(0 x 1) has good
thermal stability, excellent reversibility, low cost and environmental benignity, and thus it has
been attracting much attention as a cathode material in the secondary Li-ion batteries. In the
process of charging or discharging, Li
X
FePO
4
(0 x 1) electrode is characterized by the two
phases reaction between compositionally very close to LiFePO
4
and FePO
4
belonging to the
same space group of Pnma, and the amount ratio of each phase changes. In this study, we
inserted Li into Li
X
FePO
4
(x0) electrochemically with various current density and
investigated the change of two phases with various relaxation time after termination of Li
insertion by using X-ray Rietveld analysis. Experimental results found that the amount of
LiFePO
4
phase decreased and that of FePO
4
phase increased gradually at the relaxation
process. During Li insertion process, it is considered that LiFePO
4
phase having lithium
defects was formed to promote Li diffusion, and that, after the Li insertion, the defective
LiFePO
4
phase separated to LiFePO
4
phase without defects and FePO
4
phase.
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361

20 30 40 50 60 70
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
-1000
0
1000
R
WP
= 4.03 % GOF = 1.70

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

c
o
u
n
t
s
2u / degree(CuKo)
observed
calculated
- LiFePO
4
:
R
F
=3.74%
R
B
=6.58%
-FePO
4
:
R
F
=5.34%
R
B
=8.22%
A
Y
(a)
LiFePO
4
FePO
4
Figure 1 Results of X-ray Rietveld analysis of the sample x=0.50 in Li
X
FePO
4
at 5C: (a)
Rietveld profile of 2.5h after lithium insertion, (b) Relative mol fraction changes of LiFePO
4

after Li insertion.
1. S. Park, M. Oda, and T. Yao, Solid State Ionics, 203, 29 (2011).
2. S. Park, K. Kameyama, and T. Yao, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 15, (4), A49 (2012).
3. I. S. Seo, S. Park, and T. Yao, Zero-Carbon Energy Kyoto 2011 (Ed. T. Yao), pp. 165-170,
Green Energy and Technology, Springer (2012).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Click Chemistry Immobilization of Phthalocyanine Dyes on TiO
2
Dye-
Sensitized Solar Cells

Yee Jan Chin, Chuan Ching Foo, Norzianah Binti Hj Shamsudin, Ai Ling Tan, Franz L.
Wimmer, Aminul Huq Mirza, David J. Young*
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001, Fax: (673) 2453502, E-mail: Prof.d.young@gmail.com

Abstract
Dye-molecules in dye-sensitized solar cells are usually anchored to nanocrystalline TiO
2
and
ZnO by non-specific physical absorption. There are a number of applications of these
materials that would benefit from covalent attachment to ensure a reproducible, uniform
coating and avoid dye desorption from the metal-oxide surface. This paper describes the
synthesis and properties of new phthalocyanine dyes to be covalently attached to DSSC
electrodes by click chemistry.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

m
o
l

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

L
i
F
e
P
O
4
Relaxation time/ hour
(b)
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362

[1] Chin, Y. J.; Tan, A.-L.; Wimmer, F. L; Mirza, A. H.; Young, D. J.; Ng, S. W.; Tiekink, E.
R. T. Acta Crystallographica 2012, E68, o2293o2294.
[2] Foo, C. C.; Tan, A.-L.; Wimmer, F. L; Mirza, A. H.; Young, D. J.; Ng, S. W.; Tiekink, E.
R. T. Acta Crystallographica 2012, E68, o601.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
New Luminescent Materials for Energy-Efficient Lighting

Ai Ling Tan,

Muhd. Hidayat bin Najib, David J. Young*
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001, Fax: (673) 2453502, E-mail: ailing.tan@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
This paper describes the synthesis, structure and properties of new zinc [1], [2] and iridium
[3], [4] coordination complexes for use in Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) materials.
These compounds are made from readily available quinoline starting materials including from
the naturally occurring Cinchona alkaloids.

[1] Najib, M. H.; Tan, A.-L.; Young, D. J.; Ng, S. W.; Tiekink, E. R. T. Acta
Crystallographica 2012, E68, m897m898.
[2] Najib, M. H.; Tan, A.-L.; Young, D. J.; Ng, S. W.; Tiekink, E. R. T. Acta
Crystallographica 2012, E68, m571m572.
[3] W. H. Zhang, X. H. Zhang, A.-L. Tan, M. A. Yong, D. J. Young, T. S. A. Hor,
Organometallics, 2012, 31, 553-559.
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[4] W. H. Zhang, J. J. Hu, Y. Chi, D. J. Young, T. S. A. Hor, Organometallics, 2012, 31,
553-559.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effects of Pressure on the Performance of CNTs-supported Nanocatalyst in a
Fischer-Tropsch Reaction

Noor Asmawati Mohd Zabidi
1*
, Sardar Ali
2
,

Duvvuri Subbarao
2

1
Department of Fundamental and Applied of Sciences, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri
Iskandar, 31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar ,
31750 Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (605) 3688210, Fax: (605) 3688214,
E-mail: noorasmawati_mzabidi@petronas.com.my

Abstract
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction involves conversion of syngas (a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen) into higher hydrocarbons in the presence of an active catalyst. The syngas can
be derived from non-petroleum feedstocks such as coal, biomass and natural gas, thus the FT
reaction provides an alternative route for production of clean fuels. The FT process has
received growing interest in recent years due to uncertainty in the Middle East, fast depletion
of fossil fuel and environmental concern.
This paper reports the synthesis, physicochemical properties and catalytic performance of
cobalt-based nanocatalyst in the FT reaction. The nanocatalysts comprised metal nanoparticles
supported on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) which were synthesized via a wet impregnation
method. The nanocatalysts were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM),
temperature-programmed reduction/dispersion (TPR/TPD), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-
ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The performance of the cobalt-based nanocatalyts in a
FT reaction was evaluated in a fixed bed microreactor equipped with an on-line gas
chromatograph for analyses of hydrocarbon products.
The nanocatalysts investigated were Co/CNTs, 70Co30Mn/CNTs, 0.06%K/70Co30Fe/CNTs
and 0.04%Nb/70Co30Fe/CNTs. TEM analyses revealed the average sizes of the metal
nanoparticles were 4 5 nm. Based on TPD analyses, the dispersion of these nanoparticles on
CNTs were greater than 90%. The presence of both Co
2+
and Co
3+
ions were confirmed by
XPS analysis whereas XRD detected the presence of a new phase in the CoFe and CoMn
systems. The 0.04%Nb/70Co30Fe/CNTs nanocatalyst performed better than other catalysts in
the FT reaction where it resulted in CO conversion of 35% and 16% C
5+
selectivity at pressure
of 1 bar, 220
o
C and H
2
:CO of 2:1. Using the same nanocatalyst, the CO conversion and C
5+

selectivity increased to 60% and 57%, respectively when the pressure was increased to 20 bar.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Iron supported C@Fe
3
O
4
Nanotube Array: A New Type of 3D Anode with Low-
Cost for High Performance Lithium-ion Batteries

Keyu Xie,
1
Zhouguang Lu,
2
Haitao Huang,
1*
Wei Lu,
1
Yanqing Lai,
3
Jie Li,
3
Limin Zhou,
2
and
Yexiang Liu
3

1
Department of Applied Physics and Materials Research Centre, The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hong Kong, China.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China.
3
School of Metallurgical Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
410083, China.

*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (852) 27665694, Fax: (852) 23337629, E-mail: aphhuang@polyu.edu.hk;

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364

Abstract
Rational design and engineering of materials and/or structures for novel electrodes leading to
next-generation lithium-ion batteries with high energy and power densities is a major
challenge to the ever-growing needs of the electronic and automobile industries. To tackle this
issue, we have designed a new type of 3D anode by anodization of iron foil to form highly
ordered Fe
3
O
4
nanotube array directly on a low-cost current collector (Fe foil) followed by
carbonization of pre-adsorbed glucose on nanotube array at 500 C. In such an electrode, each
part plays its desired role, with the Fe foil being a low cost and stable current collector, Fe
3
O
4

working as a high-capacity active material, and the carbon coating forming an electron
conducting network and stable solid electrolyte interface. High capacity (1020 Ah cm
-2
at 20
A cm
-2
) and high rate capability (176 Ah cm
-2
at 1000 A cm
-2
) were achieved in this
newly designed electrode. Overall, the results described in this work provide a promising route
to facile and large-scale production of low-cost 3D composite electrode with enhanced
electrochemical performance.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling of Bubble Behavior with Different
Particle Diameter in Fluidization Systems

Samrand Saeidi
1*
, Nor Aishah saidina Amin
2
,Mohammad Reza Farahmand
,3

1,2.Chemical reaction engineering group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of
Technology Malaysia, UTM Skudai, 81310 Johor Bahru
3.Faculty of science , Azad university of Abarkouh Branch,Yazd, Iran
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (607)553 35588, Fax: (673) 2453502, E-mail:
samrandsaidi@gmail.com

Abstract

In this research the ability of computational fluid dynamics to predict bubble diameter and
bubble rise velocity with different particle diameters in a gas-solid fluidized bed reactor has
been investigated. A multi fluid Eulerian model incorporating with the KTGF has been applied
to simulate the unsteady-state behavior of this reactor. Results have been compared with some
correlations. Pressure drop distributions predicated by CFD at different particle diameter were
in a good agreement with correlations. The CFD results reveal that smaller bubbles are
produced at the bottom of the bed. It has been found that the bubble diameter and bubble rise
velocity which is sensitive to particle diameter.

Keywords: Fluidized-bed reactor, CFD model, bubble behavior, Different particle size

1. Introduction

Fluidized bed reactors are used in a wide range of application in various large scale operation
e.g. polyethylene, petroleum, mineral and granulation industries. In recent years, there has
been an increasing interest in hydrodynamic modeling in fluidized bed reactors. One of the
most significant current discussions in gas-solid fluidized bed reactors is bubble behavior.
Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in bubbling diameter and bubble
velocity in the fluidized bed reactors. The bubble diameter is considered as a parameter of the
model and the effective size of the bubbles in the bed is determined by experimental data.
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD) is one of the most widely used techniques of modeling
and has been extensively used for gas-solid fluidized bed reactors modeling.
In this paper, the effect of different particle diameters on bubble diameter and bubble rise
velocity with bed height in the gas-solid fluidized bed reactors has been investigated. The
operation conditions have been chosen to match those of the experiments by Hamzehei et
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365

al.[1], so that gas-solid fluidization has been studies in a pyrex cylinder of 28 cm diameter and
100 cm height. Spherical particles having diameters of 175,275,375 m and density of 2500
kg/m3 have been fluidized with air at pressure of 1 KPa. The system has been operated at
superficial velocity of 0.38 m/s and in each case for 5 s has been taken to achieve dynamic
equilibrium. The initial bed height was 44 cm, with solids volume fraction of 0.5. Inlet
boundary condition is velocity inlet and pressure outlet boundary condition is pressure. The
two-dimensional computational domain has been discretized by 6700 rectangular cells.

2. CFD mathematical model

For the proposed system, a laminar flow model has been adopted. Each solid species has been
treated as a separate phase. A two-dimensional, rectangular fluidized bed has been modeled
based on an unsteady state, and Eulerian-Eulerian multiphase model which incorporates the
kinetic theory of granular flow with a time step of 0.001 s.
Eulerian-Eulerian two-fluid equations:
The continuity equations for gas and solid phases are:
) (
) (
)
The momentum balance equations for gas and solid phases are:
) (
) (
)
Several drag models are considered for the gas-solid interphase exchange coefficient
. In
this research, the Gidaspow drag model has been utilized. The Gidaspow model is a
combination of Wen and Yu model and Ergun equation. This model is recommended for dense
fluidized beds.
If
> 0.8, the following relation is for the mentioned coefficient:

Where
[ (
]
If
, then

Bubble diameter and rise velocity equations in gas-solid fluidized bed reactor
The following parameters are included in this model:

Bubble diameter(
):
Various correlation to predict bubble diameters through coalescence as a function of apparent
gas velocity, design of distributer, and bed height in fluidized beds might be found in the
literature and they are summarized in this article. These equations have been proposed by
Yasui et al.[2], Rowe et al.[3], Mori and Wen[4] , Werther[5] and Darton[6].
The equation of Yasui et al. (1958) is [2]:

The equation of Rowe et al.(1976) is [3]:
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366

Where
for porous plate and
for perforated plate

The equation of Mori and Wen(1975) is [4]:
) (
)
The equation of Werther(1976) is [5]:
[ (
)]
]
For porous plate, where

Darton et al. (1977) has been suggested [6]:
( )

Bubble velocity:
In this research the correlation of Werther and Krishna have been used to show the bubble rise
velocity in gas-solid fluidized bed:
The equation ofKrishna and Baten is [7]:
()()
(
)

{

The equation of Werther is [8]:

3. Results and Discussion

CFD results have been compared with the theoretical pressure drop to validate the model (Fig
2). The pressure drop has been measured theoretically (Formisani, 1991, [9]) and through
using CFD modeling for three sizes of solid particle.The contour plots of the solids hold up
shown in Figure1indicate similarities between the experimental data and simulation results for
three particle sizes at five different times. The CFD results indicated that the presence of small
bubbles is near the bottom of the bed and the bubble sizes grow as they rise to thetop surface
with coalescence.

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367

d=175e-6(m),d=275e-6(m),d=375e-6(m) t=0.5 s

d=175e-6(m), d=275e-6(m),d=375e-6(m) t=1.5 s

d=175e-6(m) ,d=275e-6(m), d=375e-6(m) t=3 s

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368

d=175e-6(m),d=275e-6(m),d=375e-6(m) t=4 s

d=175e-6(m), d=275e-6(m),d=375e-6(m) t=5 s

d=175e-6(m), d=275e-6(m), d=375e-6(m) experimental at t=1.5 s
Fig 1.Comparison of the experimental data and simulation results void fraction and bubbles
for three particle sizes and five different times.

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369

Fig 2. Comparison of CFD results and theoretical bed pressure drop data at different solid
particle sizes.

Fig 3. Comparison of bubble diameter pressure correlations for particle sizes of 175e-6Bubble
diameter

The results of two-phase model for different equations of bubble diameter have been
compared with each other. The minimum fluidization velocity based on pressure drop and
superficial gas velocity is 0.0254 (m/s), 0.062 (m/s), and 0.1122 (m/s) for particle diameter
with 175e-6(m), 275e-6(m) and 375e-6(m), respectively. Fig 3, 4 and 5 compares the CFD
results on bubble diameter obtained by different bubble diameter equations.
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
0 2 4
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
P
a
)

Time (sec)
175e-6(theorical)
275e-6 (theorical)
375e-6 (theorical)
175e-6 (CFD)
275e-6 (CFD)
375e-6 (CFD)
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
B
u
b
b
l
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
m
)

Column height (m)
Yasui
Rowe
mori and
Wen
Werther
Darton
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370

Fig 4. Comparison of bubble diameter calculated for particles of 275e-6

Fig 5, comparison of bubble diameter calculated for particle sizes of 375e-6

Fig 6, Comparison of bubble rise velocity computed by Krishna [7] and Werther[8]
correlations

Fig. 3, 4, 5 show that the average bubble diameter increases with the height above the
distributor. In addition, coarse particles have small bubble distribution. Clearly, the
phenomenon of bubble growth is important for laboratories study and the value of calculated
average diameter varies with particle size distribution. In all equations, the average bubble
diameter increases with the height above the distributor.
Fig 6 ,Compares the bubble rise velocity obtained from the Werther [7] and Krishna[8]
equations with Mori and Wen[4] , and Darton [6] bubble diameter correlations for particle size
of 175e-6. The graphsindicate thatWerther correlation results more bubble rise velocity than
the Krishna correlation. In addition, as shown in Fig 6. , based on Krishna correlation, above
the initial growth zone, the coalescence and break-up processes result in equilibrium state due
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 0.5
B
u
b
b
l
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
m
)

Column height (m)
Yasui
Rowe
mori and Wen
Werther
Darton
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 0.5
B
u
b
b
l
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

(
m
)

Bed height (m)
Yasui
Rowe
mori and Wen
Werther
Darton
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 0.5
B
u
b
b
l
e

r
i
s
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)

Bed height (m)
mori and Wen(werther)
Darton(Werther)
mori and Wen(Krishna)
Darton(Krishna)
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to wake acceleration factor and scale factor correction. As a consequence, Krishna correlation
is more accurate to predict the described parameters.

4. Conclusion

CFD predications of bubble diameter and bubble rise velocity of gas-solid fluidized bed of
differing in particle diameter have been investigated. This study implies that predications are
dependent on particle diameter due to influence of particle diameter in flow field of the reactor
and minimum fluidization velocity. The results demonstrate that, particles with coarse
diameter have smaller bubble diameter. The average bubble diameter increases with the height
above the distributor.in addition, correlation of Krishna are able to predict bubble rise velocity
more precise than the similar correlations.

5. References

[1] Hamzehei, M. (2009).Experimental and numerical study of hydrodynamics with heat
transfer in a gas-solid fluidized-bed reactor at different particle sizes. Ind. Eng. Chem.48,
3177-3186.
[2] Yasui, G. and L.N. Johanson, (1958), Characteristics of gas pockets in fluidized beds,
AICHE, 4, 445
[3] Rowe, P.N., (1976), Prediction of bubble size in a gas fluidized bed, Chem. Eng. Sci..
[4] Mori, S. and Wen, C.Y., (1975), Estimation of bubble diameter in gaseous fluidized
beds, AICHE
J., Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 109-115
[5] Werther, J., (1992), Scale-up modeling for fluidized bed reactors, Chem. Eng. Sci., Vol.
47, No. 9-
11, pp. 2457-2462.
[6] Darton, R.C., R.D. Lanauze, J.F. Davidson and D. Harrison, (1977), Bubble growth due
to Coalescence in fluidized beds, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., 55, 274.
[7] Krishna, R. (2001), using CFD for scaling up gas-solid bubbling fluidized bed reactors
with Geldart A powders, Chem, Eng, Journal, 82, 247-257.
[8] J. Werther, (1992). Fluidized-bed reactors, in: B. Elvers, S. Hawkins, G. Schulz (Eds.),
Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Vol. B4, Principles of Chemical Reaction
Engineering and Plant Design, 5th Edition, VCH VerlagsgesellschaftmbH, Weinheim.
[9] Formisani, B. (1991). Packing and fluidization properties of binary mixtures of spherical
particles. Powder Technology, 66, 259-264.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Self-detached TiO
2
Nanotube Array Membranes for Application in Dye-
sensitized Solar Cells

Jia Lin
1,2*
, Xianfeng Chen
1
and Haitao Huang
2

1
Department of Physics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai
2
Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail: hgmgbmjgj@sjtu.edu.cn

Abstract
High-quality free-standing TiO
2
nanotube array (TNA) membranes were obtained by a self-
detaching electrochemical anodization in ethylene glycol, a facile but reliable method. The
synthesized TNA membranes can be easily transferred to fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)
substrates and glued by TiO
2
nanoparticle paste without any cracks. The membranes are
optically transparent after subsequent annealing to induce crystallization. Compared with the
front-side illuminated DSSCs using the bottom-closed TNA membranes attached to FTO
substrates, DSSCs consisting of TNA membranes with both ends open showed enhanced solar
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energy conversion efficiency without further treatments. The improved crystallinity and thus
superior electron transport can also be obtained by elevated temperature crystallization of
high-quality TNA membranes. The TNAs kept their structure integrity and crystalline phase
stability as a result of the absence of the nucleation sites, which leads to a significantly
improved DSSC efficiency. These results reveal that the high-quality membrane synthesis will
bring about a fascinating future for this kind of DSSCs assembled with optimized tube
configuration.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Spectroscopic and Electrochemical properties of polyaniline films prepared by
electro-deposition method

N. U.S. Yapa
1,2
,P.Ekanayake
1,*
1

1
Energy Program, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam
JalanTunku Link, Brunei Darussalam, BE1410
2
Department of Physics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Open University of Sri Lanka.
Nawala, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001 ext 1322, E-mail: piyasiri.ekanayake@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
Polyaniline films were synthesized on ITO conducting glass by electrodeposition method at
different deposition potentials (1.0V, 1.2V and 1.3V) in a 0.15M aniline /0.5M sulphuric acid
solution. Electrochemical and spectroscopic properties of these films were investigated by
cyclic voltammetry, UV-Visible absorption spectroscopy and FTIR spectroscopy.
The preliminary results of these characterizations indicate that the lowest deposition potential
(1.0V) is the optimum for the formation of polyaniline films. These films showed multiple
color changes (blue-green-yellow) during the cyclic voltammetry in 0.5M sulphuric acid
aqueous solution in the potential range of -0.2 to 1.0V vs SCE at 100mV/S. The color change
from blue to green is due to the change of emaraldine base to emaraldine salt, and the color
change from green to yellow is due to the formation of fully oxidized pernigraniline. This was
further confirmed by the two anodic peaks (at 0.25V and 0.85V observed in cyclic
voltammogram.
The UV-Visible absorption spectra of all the films were dominated by two absorption peaks.
The excitation formation of quinoid ring illustrates by a broad peak at 650nm. The second
absorption peak was observed at 400nm.It is due to the * transition in polaron/bipolaron.
The formation of polyaniline was confirmed by FTIR spectra. The peaks observed at
1560cm
-1
and 1492cm
-1
correspond to stretching at N=Q=N of quinoid ring and vibrations of
benzenoid rings(N-B-N) of polyaniline.

Keywords: polyaniline, cyclic voliammogram, electrochemical deposition

1. INTRODUCTION

Conducting polymers have been observed as an important branch of material science with
many applications in electronics and photonics, because of their excellent conductivity and
electrochromic properties. Polymers can be synthesized by electrodeposition method. It is very
low cost and simple preparation method. One of the most important applications of conducting
polymer is in Dye sensitized solar cells.
Among the other conducting polymers such as polypyrrol, poly (2,5dimetheylaniline),
polythiophene,polyaniline (PANI) is one of the extensively studied polymers because of its
oxidative properties, stability, easy preparation and high electrical conductivity.Polyaniline
exists in severaloxidation states, in a fully reducedform (leucoemeraldine-pale yellow),
partially reduced form (emeraldine), and fully oxidized form (pernigraniline -violet)
depending on the electrolyte with electrical conductivity varying progressively from 1-
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10S/cm. However, only one form, called emerlaldine salt(blue) is electrically conducting. In
figure 1 shows the general formula of polyaniline and figure 2 shows the oxidation and
reduction states of polyaniline.

NH
N H NH NH
n

Fig.1 General formula of polyaniline.

Fig.2 Oxidation and reduction states of polyaniline.

Polyaniline thin films have been applied as the counter electrode for DSSC. The efficiency of
DSSC with electrodeposited polyaniline counter electrode is 5.68%,it is 4.51% for the Pt
electrode. PANI can be used also for the smart window applications because of their
electrochromic properties. The method and condition in which PANI has been synthesized
may affect their properties [1-10].
The main aim of this work is to synthesize polyaniline by electrodeposition method under
various conditions (doped acid and voltage), characterization and modify polyaniline thin
films for solar control applications, specially in DSSC. Initially we prepared H
2
S0
4
doped
polyaniline films with various deposition potential, to recognize the suitable conditions for
stable oxidation state of polyaniline. In this paper optical, structural and electrochromic
properties of electrodeposited films are discussed.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Preparation of PANI films
Electrolyte solution with 0.15M purified aniline monomer concentration was prepared by
adding 0.5M Sulphuric (H
2
SO
4
) acid in doubly distilled water. Before PANI
N
N
N
N
n
Pernigraniline
N
N
N
NH
n
Emaraldine
N
NH
NH
NH
n
Leucoemaraldine
oxidation reduction
oxidation reduction
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electropolymerization ITO glasses were cleaned with deionized water and ethanol
respectively. ITO glass was used as the working electrode. Depositions were carried out in a
single compartment cell with Pt counter electrode and saturated calomel as the reference
electrode.
The polianiline films were synthesized on the surface of ITO glass at different potentials
(1.0V, 1.2V and 1.3V)for a constant deposition time (10min) at the room temperature. After
deposition the polyaniline films were washed with deionized water and ethanol respectively to
remove the excess aniline monomer and oligomer PANI from the films. Finally, films were
dried in a vacuum at 60
0
C for 24 hours. Second electrolyte solution with 0.3M aniline
monomer concentration was prepared by adding 0.5M Sulphuric acid in doubly distilled water.
The polyaniline films were deposited at different potentials (1V, 1.2V and 1.3V) by following
the same procedure.

2.2 Measurements
Cyclic voltammograms were obtained for all the films with a potentiosat for two cycles in the
0.5M sulphuric acid (H
2
SO
4
) electrolyte solution. The potential range was between -0.2V and
0.8V versus SCE at a scan rate of 100mV/s.The working electrode was the deposited
poyaniline film. Pt and SCE were counter and reference electrodes respectively.
The UV-Visible absorption spectra of polyaniline films were recorded in the range of 400-
900nm and FTIR spectra was obtained between 400cm
-1
and 4000cm
-1
.


The color of the Polyaniline films (deposited from 0.15M aniline and 0.3M aniline)become
darker with the rising electrodeposition potential, indicating that the thickness of the film and
the formation of PANI are influenced by the applied potential of electrodeposition.
Cyclic voltammograms for two cycles of the polyaniline film which was electrodeposted at
1.0V is shown in figure 3(a). Two sharp oxidation peaks at 0.25V and 0.85V together with
large capacitive background current can be seen in this figure. During the cyclic voltammetry,
the color of the polyaniline film changed from blue to green at 0.25V and from green to
yellow at 0.85V. These color changes were reversed with potential decreasing. The oxidation
peak corresponds to the changes in the oxidation state of the PANI films. So the first peak
corresponds to the change of emaraldine base to emaraldine salt and the second peak
corresponds to the formation of fully oxidized pernigraniline.

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Fig.3(a) Cyclic voltammograms of the PANIat 1.0V

Cyclic voltammograms of the polyaniline films deposited at 1.2V and 1.3V are shown in the
figures 3(b) and 3(c) respectively.

Fig.3(b) Cyclic voltammograms of the PANI film at 1.2V

-0.001
-0.001
0.000
0.001
0.001
-0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
I
/
A

E/V(SCE)
-0.0004
-0.0002
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
-0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
I
/
A

E/V(SCE)
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376

Fig.3(C) Cyclic voltammograms of the PANI film deposited at 1.3V

The colors of the films were become lighter during the cyclic voltammetry. One oxidation
peak can be seen at 0.2V and another one at 0.4V in figure 3(b). The second peak (at 0.4V) is
very broad with comparing the first (0.2V) peak. This indicates the charge transfer is more
difficult for the second step of oxidation of PANI than the first step of oxidation[4].Figure 3(c)
shows CVs of PANI deposited at 1.3V which behaves the same way as the latter. No loss of
electroactivity during CV cycles was confirmed by obtaining almost the same shapes of cyclic
voltamograms. A weak anodic peak at 0.5V can be seen in all cyclic voltammograms. It has
been reported that this peak indicates a formation of quinone hydroquinone [1]. From the
cyclic voltammogramms of the films we can observe that the oxidation and reduction
potentials are different for each deposited voltage indicating that the formation of polyaniline
depends upon the deposition voltage.
Cyclic voltammograms of the polyaniline films which were deposited using a higher
concentration of aniline (0.3M) are shown in the figure 4.
-0.0006
-0.0004
-0.0002
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
-0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
I
/
A

E/V(SCE)
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377

Fig.4 Cyclic voltammograms of PANI films from 0.3M aniline electrodeposited at (a) 1.0V,
(b) 1.2V, (c) 1.3V

These CVs are not showing clear oxidation and reduction peaks. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the high concentration of aniline is not suitable for the formation of
polyaniline.
UV-visible absorption spectra of polyaniline films with 0.15M aniline concentration which
were deposited at 1V,1.2V and 1.3V are shown in the figures 5(a),5(b) and 5(c) respectively.
Two absorption peaks can be seen in all figures. One of them is a broad peak at 650nm. The
broad peak at 650nm corresponds to an excitation formation of quinoid ring [4-6]. The
relatively narrow absorption peak is at 400nm which is due to the * transition in
polaron/bipolaron [5, 6]. But the absorption peak at 400nm is not well defined in figure 5(a).
The well defined peak can be seen at 350nm in the figure 5(a) which is due to the
*
[4]

(a) (b)

(c)
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-1.5x10
-5
-1.0x10
-5
-5.0x10
-6
0.0
5.0x10
-6
1.0x10
-5
1.5x10
-5
I
/
A
E/V(SCE)
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-6.0x10
-6
-4.0x10
-6
-2.0x10
-6
0.0
2.0x10
-6
4.0x10
-6
6.0x10
-6
I
/
A
E/V(SCE)
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2.0x10
-6
4.0x10
-6
6.0x10
-6
8.0x10
-6
1.0x10
-5
1.2x10
-5
1.4x10
-5
I
/
A
E/V(SCE)
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378

Fig.5 (a) UV-Vis absorption spectra of PANI film deposited at 1.0V

Fig.5 (b) UV-Vis absorption spectra of PANI film deposited at 1.2V

300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e
/
(
a
.
u
.
)
wavelength/nm
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e
(
a
.
u
.
)
wavelength/nm
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379

Fig.5(c) UV-Vis absorption spectra of PANI film deposited at 1.3V

The molecular structure of the PANI was investigated using FTIR spectra (see figure 6) of the
polyaniline films. The two peaks obtained at 1560 cm
-1
and at 1492cm
-1
correspond to the
stretching at N=Q=N of quinoid ring and the vibrations of benzenoid rings (N-B-N) of
polyaniline, here (Q denotes quinoid units and B denotes Benzenoid units of polyaniline) [7-
9].

Fig.6 FTIR spectra of PANI film

4. CONCLUSION

Polyaniline films were successfully deposited on ITO glass by electro-deposition method.
According to the results, the lowest potential and lowest aniline concentration used in this
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e
/
(
a
.
u
.
)
wavelength/nm
500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
1/cm
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
%T
1
8
7
8
.
7
5
1
8
0
3
.
5
2
1
7
4
4
.
6
9
1
5
9
9
.
0
6
1
5
6
0
.
4
8
1
5
1
5
.
1
5
1
4
9
2
.
9
7
1
4
6
3
.
0
7
1
4
4
7
.
6
4
1
3
2
8
.
0
5
1
2
9
1
.
4
0
1
1
9
4
.
9
5
1
1
1
6
.
8
3
1
0
2
9
.
0
7
9
7
9
.
8
8 9
0
4
.
6
5
8
5
4
.
5
0
7
9
3
.
7
4
7
4
3
.
5
9
6
8
2
.
8
3
6
1
8
.
2
1
5
2
5
.
6
2
4
7
5
.
4
7
4
1
7
.
6
1
Polyanilline.2
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380

study (1Vand 0.3M respectively) are the optimum conditions for the polyaniline formation.
The oxidation and reduction potentials vary with deposition voltage.
As an extended study we will investigate the optimum conditions to form polyaniline thin
films in low voltage and low aniline concentration ranges. Further we will investigate different
types of polymer films including Polyaniline, polypyrrol and poly (2.5 dimethyl aniline) by
introducing different doped acids at various voltages to investigate the best conditions for the
applications of solar controlling.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Akira Watanabe, Kunio Mori, Yasunori Iwasaki, and Yoshiro Nakamura (1987)
Electrochromism of Polyaniline Film Prepared by Electrochemical Polymerization,
Macromolecules,20, pp1793-1796
[2] MiroslavaTrchova, IvanaS,edenkova, Eva Tobolkova and Jaroslav Stejskal(2004) FTIR
spectroscopic and conductivity study of thethermal degradation of polyaniline films,Polymer
Degradation and Stability,86,pp 179- 185
[3] Dong fang Qiu, yan xiang cheng and li xiang wang (2009) Oligoaniline-
Functionalized terpyridine ligands and their ruthenium(II)complexes: synthesis, spectroscopic
property and redox behaviour, Dalton Trans, Dol: 10.1039/B8203925
[4] Pruneanu, S., Verss, E.,Marian,I. and Oniciu,L.(1999) characterization of polyaniline by
cyclic voltammetry and UV-Vis absorption spectrocopy, Journal of materials
science,34,pp2733-2739.
[5] Svelko N.K., Reynaud S. and Francois J.(2005)Synth. Met.150, pp107-114
[6] Iulina,D., Cristain,A., Ana Maria, N.,Raluca Augusta,G.,Margareta,G.andMona,M.(2009)
Synthesis and characterization of conductive polymers with enhanced solubility,U.P.B. Sci.
Bull., 71(4),p1223
[7] Qi Qin and YunxiaGuo,(2011),Preparation and Characterization of Nano-Polyaniline Film
onITO Conductive Glass by Electrochemical Polymerization, International Journal of
Photoenergy , 2012, Article ID 519674,6 p
[8] PrakashSomani,R. and Radhakrishnan,S.(2002) Electrochemical materials and
devices:present and future, Materials chemistry and physics, 77, pp117-133
[9] MiroslavaTrchova, Ivana S,edenkova, Eva Tobolkova and Jaroslav Stejskal (2004) FTIR
spectroscopic and conductivity study of thethermal degradation of polyaniline films,Polymer
Degradation and Stability, 86, pp 179-185
[10] MisoonOha, Soo-Jin Parkb, YongjuJungc and Seok Kim (2012) Electrochemical
properties of polyaniline composite electrodes prepared byin-situ polymerization in titanium
dioxide dispersed aqueous solution, Synthetic Metals,162, pp695 701

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Novel blended PVdF-PEO nanocomposite polymer electrolyte with mixed cations
and its application in dye sensitized solar cells.

Rohan Senadeera
1,2,*
, Shasheeka Jayarathne
1
, Samodha Gunathilake
1
, Chathuranga
Thotawatthage
1
3
and Lakshman Dissanayake
1

1
Institute of Fundamental Studies, Hantana Road, Kandy, Sri Lanka
2
Department of Physics, The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
3
Applied Physics Program, Faculty of Science, University of Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link,
BE1410, Negara Brunei Darussalam.
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (94) 81 2232002, Fax: (94) 81 2232131, E-mail: rsena@ifs.ac.lk

Abstract
In order to obtain the best, solidified polymeric electrolyte

to be used in dye sensitized solar
cell (DSSC) applications, the effect of solidification, crystallinty, redox couple
concentration, choice of cations, additives in the polymer electrolytes and the effect of using
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the binary iodide salt mixture consisting with of tetrapropylammonium iodide (Pr
4
N
+
I
-
) and
potassium iodide (KI) were investigated with the blend of poly(vinyldiene-fluoride) (PVdF)
and polyethelne oxide (PEO). The best polymer blended mixed cationic polymer electrolyte
with maximum solidification suitable for DSSCs showed high ionic conductivity in the order
of ~ 5.9x 10
3
S cm
-1
at room temperature. The addition of ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-
methylimidazolium-bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide (EMITFSI) and nano size filler TiO
2

to the electrolyte reduced the crystallinity and enhanced the conductivity of the electrolyte.
Out of various compositions studied, the best solidified polymeric electrolyte had the
composition PVdF (5.62 %): PEO (5.62%): PC (39.39 %): EC (39.39%): ACN (1.35 %): KI
(1.12 % ) I
2
(0.05 %): Pr
4
N
+
I
-
(4.5 %): EMITFSI (1.80%): TiO
2
(1.12%): by weight ratio,
and showed the lowest crystallinity, highest conductivity and the best photo-conversion
efficiency in DSSCs fabricated using TiO
2
electrodes sensitized with Ruthenium polypyridyl
(N719) dye. The cells delivered ~ 13.34 mA cm
-2
photo current density with an open circuit
voltage of ~ 643 mV, yielding efficiencies ~ 5.5% under the irradiation of simulated sunlight
100 mW cm
-2
(AM 1.5).

Keywords: Dye sensitized solar cells, polymer blends, double salts, TiO2

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, much attention has been focused on Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) due to
their attractive features of high energy-conversion efficiency and low production cost [1,2].
DSSCs typically consist of a dye-adsorbed nanoporous TiO
2
film prepared on a transparent
Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass substrates. The film is wetted with an electrolyte
containing a redox couple and sandwiched with a platinum counter electrode. Highly efficient
DSSCs employ I
/I
3
redox couple and organic liquid solvents. However, the long-term

durability of the cells is low due to the difficulty of the sealing of such volatile liquid
electrolytes and sublimable I
3
. This problem must be solved for long-term reliability in

commercialization of these DSSCs. Thus, large efforts have been made to replace the liquid
solvents and the redox couple with solidified or gelled electrolytes [3-7]. Replacement of
liquid electrolytes with solid or quasi-solid polymer electrolytes based on polyethylene oxide
(PEO), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and poly(vinyldiene-
fluoride) (PVdF) etc, circumvent practical limitations of conventional liquid electrolytes such
as leakage of corrosive flammable and toxic liquids or gases in various electrochemical
devices. Although many efforts have been made through using above polymers, at present,
DSSCs employing polymer-based electrolytes exhibit low cell efficiencies [8-11]. This is
mainly attributed to the inferior mass-transfer rates of the redox couples (I
/I
3
) in the highly
viscous medium and also to high electron-transfer resistance at the electrolyte/electrode
interfaces. Therefore, to improve the efficiency of these DSSCs, it is necessary to increase the
ion mobility in the polymer medium while maintaining the highest viscosity in the electrolyte
for the applications. In this context, one of the approaches towards producing polymer
electrolytes with high conductivity and good mechanical strength would be to use polymers in
modified forms like polymer blends. Several authors have reported the use of these blended
polymer electrolytes with reasonable efficiencies but still their effectiveness in practical
applications are limited. Since fluorine present in PVdF has the smallest ionic radius and
largest electronegativity, which shows a dramatic effect on the rate of interfacial electron
transfer when it is applied in DSSCs [12]. More over, PVdF , which has a high dielectric
constant exhibits strong effects on the ionic conductivity and morphology by weakening the
association of PEO with the salt, hindering the formation of PEO-salt complex, and reducing
the crystalline phase in polymer electrolyte. Therefore, with the previous experiences, in this
study, we have chosen PEO and PVdF blend polymer electrolyte in our investigations as the
polymer metrix. On the other hand, in recent studies of our group, we have already observed
the beneficial effect of using binary iodide salt mixture on the efficiency enhancement in
quasi-solid state DSSCs, where we have used the binary iodide mixtures MgI
2
+ Pr
4
NI in PAN
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in the first system, MgI
2
+ Hex
4
NI in PAN in the second system and KI+ Pr
4
NI in PAN in the
third system [13,14,15]. As far as we are aware, this is the first report of a DSSC employing a
blended PEO with PVdF based gel electrolyte with a mixed cation, binary iodide system
incorporating an alkali salt with a small cation (K
+
) and a quaternary ammonium iodide with a
bulky cation (Pr
4
N
+
), observing enhancement in the DSSC applications. Therefore, in order to
obtain an electrolyte with highest conductivity with maximum possible solidity to be used in
DSSC applications, the effect of solidification, crystallinty, redox couple concentration,
choice of cations, uses of mixed cations and additives in the polymer electrolytes were
investigated with the blend of poly(vinyldiene-fluoride) (PVdF) and polyethelne oxide (PEO)
in this study.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Preparation of TiO
2
films
Initially the TiO
2
films were prepared as follows and DSSCs were tested with the polymer
electrolytes comprising with different cations. A paste of TiO
2
was produced by grinding
2.000 mg of TiO
2
(Degussa P-25) with 11 drops of Glacial acetic acid, one drop (0.1 g) of
Triton X-100 and about 2.00 ml of Ethanol. This paste was spread on free pre-cleaned,
fluorine-doped conducting tin oxide (FTO) glasses (Nippon sheet glass, 1012 Ohm sq
1
,
active area 0.25 cm
2
) by spreading a solution by using doctor blade technique. In the later part
of the investigations, the thickness of the TiO
2
layer was increased as follows. At first, TiO
2

paste purchased from Solrronix Switzerland (TiO
2
- D) was spread over pre-cleaned, FTO
glasses (active area 0.25 cm
2
) by doctor blade technique, allowed to dry under normal
atmosphere and sintered at 450 C for 45 minutes. After that the paste prepared with Degussa
P-25 was applied on the above TiO
2
films prepared with TiO
2
-D, using the same technique and
then sintered again at 450 C for 45 minutes and allowed to cool down to room temperature.
The average film thicknesses of these films were ~16 m. The thickness of the films on FTO
substrates were estimated with the help of home made calibrated profilometer. Dye adsorption
was carried out by soaking the above films in ethanolic dye solutions containing Ruthenium
dye N719 [RuL
2
(NCS)
2
:2TBA where, L= 2,2-bipyridyl-4,4-dicarboxylic acid;
TBA=tetrabutylammonium] for 12 hours. DSSCs were then fabricated by sandwiching the
above dye adsorbed TiO
2
electrodes with a Pt coated FTO glass incorporating the polymer
blend electrolytes, mentioned below.

2.2 Preparation of poly(vinylidene fluoride)/poly(ethylene oxide) redox gel polymer
electrolytes
The PVdF/PEO blend redox gel polymer electrolyte was prepared by dissolving 0.2500 g of
KI in a mixture of 1.75g of propylene carbonate (PC), 1.75 g of the plasticizer ethylene
carbonate (EC), and 5 drops (0.25g) of Acetonitrile (CH
3
CN) by continuous stirring at 140 C
for 5 min. Then the mixture was cooled to 80 C and 0.2500 g of PVdF and 0.25 g of PEO
were added and stirred at 80 C for about 30 minutes until all the polymers were dissolved.
Then the mixture was cooled to room temperature and 0.0038 g of I
2
was added and stirred
for about 30 min at room temperature for complete dissolvement of I
2
. In order to see the
effect of cation in the electrolyte, on the solar cell performances, size of the cation was varied
by using different alkali metal iodides XI (X= Li, Na, K, Cs). For all electrolytes the
concentration ratio of the iodine and the iodide salt [ I
2
]/ [XI] was controlled as 0.01. It was
observed that the solar cells fabricated with polymer electrolyte consists with KI
(EL1=PVdF/PEO/KI/I
2
/EC/PC/CH
3
CN) gives the best cell performance among the others. The
cell performances were then observed with the TiO
2
films having higher thickness (~16 m).
After that different compositions were prepared with different amounts of ceramic filler TiO
2

(EL2= EL1+TiO
2
and tested the performances of DSSCs and found that addition of 0.05 g of
the ceramic filler TiO
2
(Degusa P 25) in the electrolyte gives the maximum performances in
the DSSCs. Further investigation on the EL 2 electrolyte was carried out by replacing the
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ceramic filler TiO
2
with 0.05 g of Al
2
O
3
, 0.05 g of C60 dissolved in 15 drops of Toluene
(0.207g) and 0.05 g of PCMB (Phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester) dissolved in 10 drops
(0.171g) of Chlorobenzene. Since the best performances were obtained with the TiO
2
filler ,
then the electrolyte with TiO
2
filler (EL2) was modified by adding different amounts of iodide
free ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-bis(trifluorosulfonyl) imide, [EMITFSI] and
tested the performances of the DSSCs. It was found that addition of EMITFSI up to 5 drops (
0.08g) could be used to maintain good solidity of the electrolyte (EL 3= EL2 + EMITFSI)
with higher cell performances. Finally in order to see the effect of binary mixture of cationic
salts as in our previous works in single polymeric metrixs in the electrolyte with the DSSC
performances, the final composition (EL 3) was modified by changing the amount of KI with
0.05g KI and 0.20g Pr
4
NI but without changing the other components of the electrolyte.
Therefore, the final composition of the electrolyte is PVdF/PEO/KI/I
2
/ Pr
4
NI /EC/PC/CH
3
CN/
TiO
2
/EMITFSI =E4.

2.3 Characterization of polymer electrolyte and dye sensitized solar cells.
The I-V characteristics of the DSSCs at 100 mW cm
-2
, (1.5 AM) simulated sunlight were
recorded using a setup coupled with Keithy 2000 multimeter into Potentiostat/Galvanostat
(HA-301) via computer controlled software. Xenon 500 lamp was used with AM 1.5 filters to
obtain the simulated sunlight with the intensity of 100 mW cm
-2
. Temperature dependence of
the bulk electrical conductivity of the polymer electrolytes were determined by a.c.
impedance spectroscopy by sandwiching the electrolytes between two stainless steel (SS)
blocking electrodes at a frequency range from 20 Hz to 10 MHz , using a Schlumberger 2460
impedance gain phase analyzer. In order to check the crystalinity and the uniformity of the
electrolytes , the electrolytes with different compositions were spread onto glass sheets and
observed by a microscope with the polarized light (Euronex D.C. 1300). X-ray diffraction
studies were carried out using D5000 SIEMENS X-ray diffractometer.


While figure 1 shows the currentvoltage (I-V) characteristics of the DSSCs assembled with
different polymer electrolytes, table 1 shows the estimated cell performances of above DSSCs.
According to figure and the table, the best cell performance was observed with KI. The short
circuit current density (J
sc
) and the open circuit voltage (V
oc
) were 9.32 mA cm
-2
,

and 700
mV respectively. The corresponding fill factor (FF) and the overall efficiency of the cell were
60 and 3.9 % rspecivey. The thickness of the TiO
2
film on FTO glass is ~ 8.5 m.

Figure 1. Current Voltage (I-V) characteristics of the DSSCs with polymeric electrolytes
comprising with different alkali metal iodides (a) = LiI, (b) = NaI, (c) = KI, (d) = CsI

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Table 1. Cell performance of the PVdF/PEO/I
2
/PC/CH
3
CN blend redox gel polymer
electrolytes with different alkali metal iodides.

An important factor in the preparation of an electrolyte suitable for DSSC application is the
enhancement of the anion mobility. This task can be accomplished by the immobilization of
the cations. At polymer gel electrolytes the situation is different from that of liquid ones,
where the smallest ion is less mobile in polymer gel electrolytes. The reason is that in
composite systems like polymer gel electrolytes, larger cations of similar electronic
configuration interact more strongly with the polymer due to viscous forces and reduce ion-ion
interactions thus enhance anion mobility [12]. In liquid electrolytes solvent is transported with
the ion therefore the smallest ion has the highest mobility [16]. But in this case the optimum
cell performance was obtained with K
+
rather than Cs
+
. One of the reasons for this could be
due to the hydroscopic nature of the electrolyte with the CsI. With regards to conductivity of
iodide/iodine electrolyte systems, both physical ion diffusion mechanism and charge (electron)
exchange diffusion mechanism exist [1, 2, 3]. In addition, PEO derivatives interacts
potassium ions through ion-dipole interaction, and is known to give crystalline solid, [4]. and
the combination of nano particle with the electrolytes may contribute to ion exchange
mechanism [5]. As mentioned in the experimental section, since the polymeric system with KI
gives the best performances in the DSSCs we have chosen it for further improvement.
Therefore, the thickness of the dye coated TiO
2
film was increased using the method 2
described in the experimental section and achieved much higher photoresponses from the
DSSCs employing the same electrolyte. The short circuit current density increased to 11.46
mA cm
-2
giving overall efficiency of 4.32%. Corresponding values of the V
oc
and FF were
672 mV and 57 respectively (figure 2 curve (i)). It is generally accepted that the conductivity
of certain polymer electrolytes, specially comprising with PEO can be increased by
introducing nano size inert fillers in to the host polymer which creates certain degree of
disorder in the polymer electrolyte [17]. In order to further enhance the cell performances of
these DSSCs, various substances like inert ceramic filler TiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
, C
60
and PCBM were
added to the electrolyte and tested their cell performances. Photoresponses of these DSSCs are
shown in table 2. As depicted in the table and the figure 2 (ii), the addition of TiO
2
(0.05g) to
the above polymer electrolyte gives the best performance in the DSSCs. The addition of TiO
2

might reduces the crystallinity of the polymer and enhance the mobility of I
-
/I
3
-
redox couple
resulting an enhanced cell performance. On the other hand due to the large surface area of
filler particles it might prevents recrystallization of PEO. Generally, this effect can be
attributed to structure modification of the polymer electrolyte produced by a combination of
steric hindrance effects and/or of acid-base interactions between the lewis acid character filler
polar surface groups and the oxygen of the PEO [16].

Alkali metal
iodide
J/ mA cm
-2
V
oc
/ mV FF% Eff%
LiI 7.55 680 57 2.94
NaI 10.22 685 54 3.80
KI 9.31 700 60 3.91
CsI 8.25 736 60 3.64
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Table 2 Cell performance of PVdF/PEO/KI/I
2
/PC/CH
3
CN electrolyte system with different
Ceramic fillers in the electrolyte.
Ceramic Filler J/ mA cm
-2
V
oc
/mV FF% Eff%
TiO
2
12.0 632 57 4.29
Al
2
O
3
9.712 667.5 57.83 3.749
C
60
in Toluene 8.352 643.0 61.89 3.323
PCBM in
Chlorobenzene
5.528 657.5 60.01 2.181

In order to see the effect of non iodide ionic liquid in the polymer electrolytes towards the
DSSC performances, the addition of EMITFSI was carried out as mentioned in the
experimental section and it was observed that, addition of EMITFSI improve the cell
performance but reduces the solidity of the electrolyte. Therefore, to keep the solidity of the
electrolyte as much as possible, the addition of EMITFSI was limited to 5 drops (0.08g). As
illustrated in figure 2(iii), the addition of EMITFSI , (EL3) enhanced the J
sc
to 12.8 mA cm
-2

giving an overall efficiency of 5.1 %. The corresponding V
oc
and the FF were 679 mV and 59.
Figure 2 curve (iv) shows the I-V characteristics of the DSSC comprising with blended
polymer electrolyte with cationic salts KI and Pr
4
NI (E4). The average short circuit current
density of 13.35 mA cm
-2
with an efficiency of 5.7% were observed. The corresponding values
for V
oc
and FF were 643 mV and 64 respectively. Therefore, it can be seen that the use of
blended polymer electrolyte containing mixed cations together with EMITFSI and TiO
2
could
be used to achieve more than 40% enhancement in the efficiency from the DSSCs comprising
with single cation with no additives.

Figure 2A. I-V characteristic of the DSSC comprising with (i) PVdF/PEO/KI/I
2
/PC/CH
3
CN
(~16 m) (EL 2). (ii) EL 2+ TiO2 , (iii) EL2 +TiO2+ EMTFSI (EL3) and (iv) EL4 with
double salts. 2B. Photograph of an inverted sample bottle.

Here the addition of ionic liquid EMITFSI can act as a plasticizer thus increase the segmental
motion of the polymer backbone and assist the transport of ions along the polymer chain
enhancing cell performance. Further it is also known that EMITFSI enhance the conductivity
of the TiO
2
layers through adsorption of EMI
+
ions on TiO
2
particles [18]. On the other hand
the very bulky anionic part of EMTFSI (EMI
+
) can interact with K
+
, immobilizing it and in
turn enhance the anion mobility . The thickness of the TiO
2
film is one of the other important
factors on the performance of DSSC. The efficiency of the DSSC fabricated with the
PVdF/PEO blend redox gel polymer electrolyte showed a dramatic enhancement in cell
efficiency as the TiO
2
film thickness increased from 8.5 m to 16.8 m. As it is evident
thicker film absorbs more dye molecules and delivers more photocurrent of the DSSC. Also
A
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the increase of TiO
2
film thickness resulting in the decrease of V
oc
and fill factor. This is
apparently due to the increase in series resistance [16]. As we observed previously in the
systems with single polymer double cations, [14,15], here again the crucial factor on the
efficiency enhancement is the increment in the short circuit current density which is governed
by the I
-
ion conductivity. Similar arguments can be used as we observed in the previous
system with single polymer metrix for the open circuit voltage drop [14,15]. Briefly the
adsorption of cations, K
+
and Pr
4
N
+
ions, on the surface of nano titania grains if the dye
sensitized TO2 , would cause the conduction band edge to move to the positive side
(downward shift) independent of the cation charge density, thereby decreasing the V
oc
values
[14,15].
The ionic conductivities of the composite polymer blend gel electrolytes have been extracted
from complex impedance plots. The bulk electrolyte resistance was obtained from the
intersection of the straight line part with the real axis. The ionic conductivity () of the
electrolyte was calculated using = L/(AR
b
), where L is the thickness of the electrolyte and A
is the area of the sample covered by SS electrodes. The calculated room temperature ionic
conductivity of the above four systems were EL1= 4.65 x 10
-3
S cm
-1
, EL2=5.34 x 10
-3
S
cm
-1
, EL3=5.52x 10
-3
S cm
-1
and EL4= 5.9 x 10
-3
S cm
-1
respectively. Therefore the maximum
conductivity of 5.9 x10
-3
S cm
-1
at room temperature has been observed for the best solidified
polymeric electrolyte PVdF/PEO/EC/PC/CH
3
CN/EMTFSI /TiO
2
/KI/ Pr
4
N
+
/ I
2
(EL4) having
the composition PVDF (5.62 wt%): PEO (5.62 wt%): PC (39.38 wt%): EC (39.38 wt%):
ACN (1.35 wt%): KI ( wt% ). Pr
4
N
+
( %) I
2
(0.09 wt%): EMITFSI (1.80 wt%): TiO
2
(1.12
wt%). As this gel electrolyte system has a high percentage of plasticizers (EC and PC), it can
be assumed that the system is essentially a solution electrolyte incorporated into a pseudo-
solid polymer blend matrix host. The high conductivity values and low activation energies,
along with Arrhenius behaviour (not shown here) are in agreement with this possibility. As the
conductivity of this polymer electrolyte at temperatures around 60-70
0
C is in the order of 10
-2

S cm
-1
, it could be used in dye sensitized solar cells operating at these temperatures more
effectively.
Since PEO derivatives interact potassium ions through ion-dipole interactions and also giving
crystalline solids [16,19,20] existence of the crystalline phases in the EL4 electrolyte was
tested in a polarizing microscope. Figure 3 shows the polarized microscopic images obtained
for different electrolyte compositions as indicated in the figure. As can be seen from the figure
4(a) and 4(b) while crystalline phases can be observed with pure PEO (4a), no crystalline
regions can be identified with the pure PVdF (4b). Even when the blend of PVdF-PEO/KI/I/
EMITFSI composite is formed, pure crystalline phases can still be observed (4c). This must be
due to the presence of a relatively small fraction of PEO in the polymer blend electrolyte.
However, as depicted in figure 4(d), the addition of filler TiO
2
to the electrolyte, diminishes
the fraction of the crystalline phase and no crystalline phases can be seen in the EL 3.

Figure 4. Polarizing microscopic pictures of (a) PEO, (b) PVdF (c) PEO/PVdF/KI/I
2
/
EMITFSI (d) PEO/PVdF/KI/I
2
/ EMITFSI / TiO
2
(EL3)

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4. CONCLUSSION

The study of electrical and mechanical properties of gel polymer electrolytes based on PVdF-
PEO blend indicates that the mixing of these two different polymers results in a significant
improvement in some properties which are useful in the applications in dye solar cells with
efficiencies grater than 5%. The addition of TiO
2
and ionic liquid significantly enhanced both
the cell performance and the bulk conductivity of the electrolyte. The temperature dependence
of conductivity of these electrolytes follows Arrhenius equation in the measured temperature
range. The activation energy is found to decrease with the addition of TiO
2
and EMITFSI,
which indicates the existence of liquid like, free conducting pathways for the ionic migration.
The addition of TiO
2
diminishes the crystalline phases and improves the ionic conductivity
further. The efficiency enhancement of about 40% (from 3.6 to 5.5) achieved by employing
the binary iodide mixture in the gel electrolyte instead of a single iodide salt, additive TiO2
and ionic liquid EMTFSI could be utilized for achieving efficiency enhancement in many dye
sensitized solar cell systems based on blended polymeric, gel or solvent electrolytes, which we
believe is a novel finding in the field of DSSCs.

5. REFERENCES

[1]. Regan, B.O and Gratzel . M, (1991) A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-
sensitized colloidal TiO
2
films, Nature 353, 737-740
[2]. Gratzel , M, (2004) Conversion of sunlight to electric power by nanocrystalline dye-
sensitized solar cells, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A Chemistry 164 3-14.
[3]. Kubo, W.; Kambe, S.; Nakade, S.; Kitamura, T.; Hanabusa, K.; Wada, Y.; Yanagida, S.
(2003) Photocurrent-Determining Processes in Quasi-Solid-State Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Using Ionic Gel Electrolytes, , J. Phys. Chem. B., May 8, 107, Issue 18, 4374-4381.
[4].Senadeera, R., Fukuri, N., Saito,Y., Yanagida,S.,Volatile solvent-free solid-state polymer-
sensitized TiO
2
solar cells with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) as a hole-transporting
medium Chem.Commun, 9, 2259-2261 (2005).
[5]. O'Regan, B.; Lenzmann, F.; Muis, R.; Wienke, J., (2002) A Solid-State Dye-Sensitized
Solar Cell Fabricated with Pressure-Treated P25-TiO2 and CuSCN: Analysis of Pore Filling, ,
Chem. Mater., 16, 200, 14, , p.5023-5029.
[6].Tennakone,K., Senadeera, G.K.R., De Silva, I. and Kottegoda, I.R.M., (2000) Highly
stable dye-sensitized solid-state solar cell with the semiconductor 4CuBr 3S(C
4
H
9
)
2
as the hole
collector, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77 , 2367-2369
[7]. Jayathilaka , P.A.R.D., Dissanayake, M.A.K.L. , Albinsson , I., Mellander, B-E, (2003)
Dielectric relaxation, ionic conductivity and thermal studies of the gel polymer electrolyte
system PAN/EC/PC/LiTFSI Solid State Ionics 156, 179 -195.
[8]. Ramesh, S., Hang Leen,K., Kumutha, K., Arof, A.K. (2007) FTIR studies of
PVC/PMMA blend based polymer electrolytes, Spectrochimica Acta Part A 66, 1237 -1242.
[9]. Han, H., Liu,W., Zhang,J., .Zhong.X., (2005) A Hybrid Poly(ethylene oxide)/
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)/TiO2 Nanoparticle Solid-State Redox Electrolyte for Dye-Sensitized
Nanocrystalline Solar Cells Adv.Funct.Mater,15,1940-1944.
[10]. Edman, L., Ferry , A., and Jacobsson, P.,Macromolecule 32, 4130 (1999)
[11]. Nogueira, A.F., and De Paoli, M., (2000) A dye sensitized TiO
2
photovoltaic cell
constructed with an elastomeric electrolyte, Sol. Energ Mat. and Sol. Cells. 61, 1, 135-141
[12]. Singh, P. K., Bhattacharya,B., Nagarale,R.K., Pandey,S.P., Kim, K.W., and Rhee,
H.W. , Ionic liquid doped poly(N-methyl 4-vinylpyridine iodide) solid polymer electrolyte for
dye-sensitized solar cell (2010) Synth. Metals 160 . 9, 950-954.
[13] Thotawatthage, C.A. Senadeera,G.K.R. . Bandara, T.M.W.J., Dissanayake, M.A.K.L.
(2011) proceedings of Solar Asia 2011 Int. Conf., Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy,
Sri Lanka 175-179.
[14] Bandara, T.M.W.J. Dissanayake, M.A.K.L., Jayasundara, W.J.M.J.S.R., Albinsson

.

I.
and Mellander, B.-E. (2012) Efficiency enhancement in dye sensitized solar cells using gel
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polymer electrolytes based on a tetrahexylammonium iodide and MgI
2
binary iodide system,
Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 14, 86208627.
[15] Dissanayake, M.A.K.L., Thotawatthage, C.A., Senadeera, G.K.R., T. Bandara, .M.W.J.,.
Jayasundera W.J.M.J.S.R and . Mellander, B.-E., (2012) Efficiency enhancement by mixed
cation effect in dye-sensitized solar cells with
PAN based gel polymer electrolyte, J of Photochemistry & Photobiology: A Chemistry, 246,
29 35
[16]. Manoratne,C.H., Rajapakse,R.M.G., Dissanayake,M.A.K.L. (2006) Ionic Conductivity
of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-montmorillonite(MMT) Nanocomposites Prepared by
Intercalation from Aqueous Medium, Int.J.Electrochem.Sci. 1 , 32-46.
[17]. Chatzivasiloglous, E., Stergiopoulos,T., Kontos,G., Alexis,N., Prodromidis,M.,
Falaras,P., (2007) The influence of the metal cation and the filler on the performance of dye-
sensitized solar cells using polymer-gel redox electrolytes, J. Photochem. and Photobiol. A:
Chemistry 192 , 49-55.
[18]. Hiroki Usui,H., Matsui,H., Tanabe,N., Yanagida, S., (2004) Improved dye-sensitized
solar cells using ionic nanocomposite gel electrolytes J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 164
97-101.
[19]. Kambe,S., Nakade, S., Kitamura,T., Wada, Y., and Yanagida,S.,(2002) Influence of the
Electrolytes on Electron Transport in Mesoporous TiO
2
Electrolyte Systems, J. Phys. Chem.,
B, 106, 2967-2972.
[20]. Kiefer, J., Fries, J., Leipertz,A., (2007) Experimental Vibrational Study of
Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids: Raman and Infrared Spectra of 1-Ethyl-3-
methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide and 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium
Ethylsulfate, Appl. Spectroscopy, 61, 12, 1306-1311.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Modeling of AC Impedance Behavior of Cathode/Electrolyte in SOFC

M. Suklueng
*
, N. Y. Voo, P. Hing
Energy Research Group, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 7102268, E-mail: montri_su@hotmail.com

Abstract
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) can operate between 600
0
C-1000
0
C with flexibility of fuel
use and high efficiency in electrical power generator including hot water and heat. SOFC is
basically a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) generation system. Literature on experiment
studies on SOFCs is extensive, but limited theoretical and modeling studies on SOFCs have
been conducted to date in view of the complexity of the system. This paper presents an
impedance modeling study of the cathode and electrolyte in SOFC based on investigations of
half cells with various solid oxide electrolytes. AC impedance modeling and validation in
SOFC are first reviewed. Different models base on experimental AC impedance data and
Pspice 9.1 student version software are constructed using equivalent electrical circuit. In this
study, the nature of the interface between the cathode and the electrolyte has also been taken
into account as the electrical resistance at the interface plays a major role in determining the
overall efficiency of the solid oxide fuel cells. The result are presented and discussed. Plan to
extend the modeling studies to include the anode, interconnect and fuel flow is outlined.

Keywords: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) simulation, Electrochemical Impedance
Spectroscopy (EIS), Equivalent circuit model.

1. INTRODUCTION

The electrical behavior of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFCs) has been investigated and explained
in term of electrical impedance network. The electrolyte/interface and associated
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electrochemical processes can be treated as an electric circuit consisting of resistance,
capacitance, inductance, constant phase elements, and so on [1].The simulation of SOFCs with
integrated circuit using Pspice software takes into account the parameter variations and charge
transfer. This can be useful in developing system for prediction of impedance in SOFCs. This
paper focuses on the electrical impedance behavior of cathode and electrolyte. There are many
factors which contribute to the impedance such as electrochemical reaction between cathode
and electrolyte layer, resistivity of cathode and electrolyte, the oxygen reduction reaction,
temperature and so on. Therefore, the study of the equivalent impedance of SOFCs must be
understood in order to exploit the relation between electrochemical processes and electrical
impedance network that occurred inside the SOFCs. The relationship in SOFCs involves
Resistance and Capacitance in parallel for cathode and electrolyte joined or compacted
together. Surface roughness, varying thickness, composition, diffusion and porous electrode
generates the capacitance from Constant Phase Element (CPE) parameter [2][3].
CPE is a circuit element that was discovered in the course of investigations into real systems.
In general, a Nyquist plot (also called a Cole-Cole plot or complex impedance plane plot)
should be a semicircle with the centre on the x-axis. However, as observed in [1] some real
systems indeed have an arc of a circle but with the centre located somewhere below the x-axis.

-Z
-Z
-Q-
R
nx90
(1-n)x90
R
Q

Figure 1. Nyquist plot exhibiting the impedance spectra of an R/CPE electric circuit model [1].

Figure 1 shows the impedance spectrum of a parallel circuit consisting a resistor and a
constant phase element. The centre of the semicircle is located at (1-n)x90
0
below the real
axis. A CPEs impedance is given by [1].

Z
CPE
()=q
-1
(i)
-n
(1)

where q is a factor of proportionality having numerical values, and n is the CPE exponent that
characterizes the phase shift. For integral values of n (n=1, 0, -1), the CPE represents C
(capacitance), R (resistance) and L (inductance), respectively. For n=0.5, it gives the Warburg
impedance. The physical meaning of the coefficient q for n= 1, 0, -1, and 0.5 are listed in
Table 1.

Table 1. Physical meaning of the coefficient Q
n CPE designation q (meaning) units
1 Capacitance C F=
-1
s
0 Resistance R
-1

-1

-1 Inductance L
-1
H
-1
=
-1
s
-1

0.5 Warburg element
-1
s
-1/2

For n=1-, where 0< 0.2, the CPE corresponds to distortion of capacitor due to electrode
surface roughness or distribution/accumulation of charge carriers. For n=0.5, where 0<
0.1, the CPE is related to diffusion, with deviation from Ficks second law. For n=0, where
0< 0.2, the CPE represents distorted resistance. For n<0, the CPE describes inductive
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energy accumulation. Therefore, the CPE is a generalized element. Several factors can
contribute to the CPE: surface roughness, varying thickness or composition, non-uniform
current distribution, and a distribution of reaction rates (non-homogeneous reaction rates on
the electrode surface) [3]. For example, the cross-sections of the SG-LSCF (stands for So-Gel
Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite) cathodes on SDC (Samarium-Doped Ceria) electrolyte
sintered at 900 C for 4 hours are shown in the Figure 2(A), (B) respectively. The SG-LSCF
cathodes on SDC electrolyte layers were about 30m thick, with porosity and roughness of
interface with the SDC electrolyte [4].

Figure 2.(A) SEM cross-sectional image of SG-LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte heated at
900
0
C for 4 hours after running electrochemical experiment. (B) SEM top-view image of SG-
LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte heated at 900
0
C for 4 hours after running electrochemical
experiment [4].

In this paper, porous electrodes modeled using the impedance circuit from literature with a
constant phase element (CPE), and the mathematical modeling used for simulation are
explained. Method for the transformation of impedance network to three R-C parallel circuits
is proposed for the simulation with Pspice software. The simulation and experimental results
were compared to prove the validity of the model. Subsequent experimental impedances can
be compared with current simulation.

2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

The impedance of porous electrode with a CPE can accurately describe the characteristics of
capacitor in SOFCs. However, it is not easy to apply with simulation tools like Pspice
software. The impedance of porous electrode can be explained as a CPE connected in series
with parallel of R
n
-CPE
pore
as shown in Figure 3. The parameters of circuit can be presented
follows [3]:

()
()
(2)

When n=1, 2, 3

When the unit current step is applied to Z
SOFCs
element, its voltage response in the time domain
can be expressed on equation (3).

()
[ ()
()
] (3)

However, the expression is complicated and difficult to interpret, but simplified ones are not
available in commercially available software like Pspice, Psim, and Matlab. Therefore,
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mathematical approximation of Z
SOFC
element is essential for the integrated simulation of a
capacitor in SOFCs and a power electronic system [3].

pore
Z CPE
pore
CPE
pore
CPE
n
R
n
R
n=1 n=2
SOFCs
Z
SOFCs
Z

Figure 3.Equivalent impedance model of porous element [3].

pore
CPE
n
R
n=1
SOFC
Z
A
C
SOFC
R
n=1
B
C
n=1
C
C
n=1
SOFC
R SOFC
R

Figure 4.Equivalent impedance model of Z
SOFC
element [3].

0
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
-0.12
A SOFC
C R ||
0
B SOFC
C R ||
0
C SOFC
C R ||
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
-0.35
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
X
X:Characteristic frequency
SOFC ch
z
_
e
)
(
I
m
O
m
Z
) ( Re O m Z
SOFC
Z
3RC Transformation
SOFC ch
z
_
e

Figure 5.Transformation of Z
SOFC
element to three RC parallel circuits.

The three R-C parallel circuits were used in the approximation, since it has been already
demonstrated that this number provides sufficient accuracy of approximation as well as
reasonable computation time as shown in Figure 4 [3][6]. The Z
SOFC
element can be
approximated by three R-C parallel circuits connected together in series. Result of the three
curves follows the three R-C parallel in series. Then three curves are combined which
exhibited in Figure 5. The approximation can be achieved by determining the real and
imaginary components of the three R-C parallel circuits. The summation of the real and
imaginary components of each R-C circuit having the same values as the real and imaginary
components of the impedance of SOFC element is carried out at the characteristic frequency
(
ch
_Z
SOFC
) for which the imaginary component is smallest. The characteristic frequency of
the Z
SOFC
element (
ch
_Z
SOFC
) can be calculated by equating the real component of the Z
SOFC

element in (4) to R
n
/2, as is expressed in equation (5). In addition, the imaginary value of the
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Z
SOFC
element [Im(Z
SOFC
)
ch
] at the characteristic frequency can be calculated according to
equation (6) [3].

()
()}
()
(4)
(5)

(
()
{ ()}
(6)

The resistance of each R-C parallel circuit is equally given as 1/3 of R
n
, the resistance of the
Z
SOFC
element, so that the summation of the real components of the three R-C parallel circuits
is the same as the real component of the Z
SOFC
element. Using this resistance value and the
characteristic frequency obtained from equation (5), the capacitance C
A
can be calculated as
equation (7). However, if the same capacitance value is applied to other two R-C circuits, the
resulting impedance plot of the three RC circuits cannot from a depressed semicircle on the
complex plane. So, the capacitance C
B
and C
C
have to be adjusted using f(d), a function of the
d parameter of the CPE element, as shown in equation (8)[3]. While the function f(d) shown in
equation (9) and table 2 gives the calculated values of f(d) for difference values of d.

(7)
()
;
() (8)
()

()
()
(9)

Table 2. Function f(d) for the transform of the three RC parallel circuit [3].
Parameter d f(d)
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
1.000
1.697
2.181
2.714
3.354
4.160
5.218

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Figure 6 (a). Comparison of the RC transformation circuit simulated by Pspice software
calculated with the equation (5), (6), (7), (8) and (9). Figure 6 (b) with equivalent circuit
model D4 [1].

Figure 7.Nyquist plots of RC transformation in this work and Impedance model [1].

Figure 8 (a). The RC transformation circuit simulated by Pspice software using equation (5),
(6), (7), (8) and (9) in case of SG-LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte at 600
0
C. Figure 8(b).
Equivalent circuit SG-LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte [4] SDC is Scandium Doped Ceria.

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(a)

(b)
Figure 9 (a) AC impedance of the ORR (stands for Oxygen Reduction Reaction) of SG-LSCF
(stands for Sol-Gel Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite) cathodes on SDC electrolyte, from
50mHz to 100kHz [4] with AC impedance of 3 RC transformations, from 1mHz to 1MHz.
Equivalent circuit used for model is shown in the Figure 8.

Figure 6 Shows the R-C transformation circuit of simulation calculated with the equations (5),
(6), (7), (8) and (9). Figure 6 (b) is the equivalent circuit model D4 in reference [1]. When
R=Rp=12, CPE=Q=10
-1
S
0.8
, and n=0.8, 3 R-C parallel circuits transformed into its
equivalent AC impedance model D4 as in reference [1]. The two Nyquist plots show almost
same characteristics in Figure 7.

Table 3. Charge transfer resistance, double layer capacitance of the ORR at single phase SG-
LSCF cathodes on SDC electrolyte [4].

T(
0
C) R1=Rs
(cm
2
)
R2=Rs
(cm
2
)
CPE
1

(Fcm
2
)
n
600
700
0.3
0.2
1.5
0.3
1.6x10
-3

3.6x10
-3

0.68
0.67

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LOG(1/Frequency)
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
LOG(R(V(V1:+)/-I(V1))) LOG(-IMG(V(V1:+)/-I(V1)))
-15
-10
-5
0
5
LOG(1/Frequency)
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
LOG(R(V(V1:+)/-I(V1))) LOG(-IMG(V(V1:+)/-I(V1)))
-15
-10
-5
0
5
Real(SG-LSCF/SDC)700 C
0
Real(SG-LSCF/SDC)600 C
0
IMG(SG-LSCF/SDC)700 C
0
IMG(SG-LSCF/SDC)600 C
0
I II
III
LOG(-IMG(V(V1:1+)/-I(V1))) LOG(R(V(V1:+)/-I(V1)))
Figure 10. Impedance (Real and Imaginary elements) temporal plots simulated by 3 R-C
transformers for SG-LSCF cathodes on SDC electrolyte at 600
0
C and 700
0
C [7].

Figure 8(a) shows the RC transformation circuit simulated by Pspice software using equation
(5), (6), (7), (8) and (9). The results of the simulation are shown in Table 3. Figure 8(b) shows
the equivalent circuit of SG-LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte from reference [1]. Table 3
summaries the characteristics of SG-LSCF cathodes on SDC electrolyte. Figure 9 shows
Nyquist plots of the 3 R-C parallel circuit transformed equivalent and equivalent circuit of SG-
LSCF cathode on SDC electrolyte. The results at 600
0
C and 700
0
C in Figure 9 suggest that
both the Nyquist plots match well at low frequency but were out of phase at high frequency.
This may be caused by the ions transfer at electrode/electrolyte and electron transfer processed
accompanying the oxygen reduction reaction [8].
The differential impedance analysis (DIA) of the data obtained on SG-LSCF/SDC for
determining the number of steps involved in cathode reaction was reported [7]. The impedance
temporal plot, as seen in Figure 10, indicates that segment II of real elements is frequency
dependent, i.e. the impedance increased at the high frequency. While segments I and III are
frequency independent as exhibited by a straight line at the low frequency and at the high
frequency. The imaginary elements in segment I is high frequency dependent with almost the
same curve at different temperature. Segment III is low frequency characteristics for 700
0
C
and 600
0
C. It can be seen that this differs by almost one decade. Segment II is frequency
independent as indicated by a straight line. So, segment II exhibits the constant impedance.

3. CONCLUSION

In this study, the simulation of porous electrode structure, with a Constant Phase Element
(CPE) has been used as model and method for dynamic simulation. The proposed method of
modeling and simulation help to simulate equivalent circuit from literature and makes it
possible to predict more accurately the reaction of cathode on electrolyte of SOFC.
Comparisons of the results for cathode reaction on electrolyte at the different temperatures
indicate that the oxygen reduction mechanism differs for the two systems. The results suggest
that the simulation of Nyquist plot is almost same as the original curve but it is out of line at
high frequency. This may be affected by ions and electron transfer to cathode/electrolyte [8] in
the real experiments. Impedance (Real and Imaginary elements) plots indicate that impedance
at different temperatures are affected at different frequencies.

4. REFERENCES

[1] Xiao-Zi Yuan,Chaojie Song, Haijiang Wang, Jiujun Zhang, Electrochemical Impedance
Spectroscopy in PEM Fuel Cells@Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010.
[2] Bryan Hirschorna, Mark E.Orazema, Bernard Tribollet, Vincent Vivier, IsabelleFrateurc,
Marco Musianid, ElectrochimicaActa 55 (2010) 62186227.
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[3] Sang-Hyun Kim, Woojin Choi,Kyo-Bum Lee, and Sewan Choi, IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, Vol.26, No.11, November 2011.
[4] Jingbo Liu, Anne C. Co, Scott Paulson, Viola I. Birss, Solid State Ionics 177 (2006), 377
387.
[5] R. De Levie, Electrochemical Response of Porous and Rough Electrodes, Advances in
Electrochemistry and Electrochemical Engineering. vol.6,New York: Wiley Interscience,
1967.
[6] S. Buller, Impedance-based simulation models for energy storage devices in advanced
automotive power systems, Ph.D. dissertation, Inst. for Power Electron. andElectr.
DrivesISEA, RWTH Aachen Univ., 2002.
[7] D.E. Vladikovaa, Z.B. Stoynov, A. Barbucci, M. Viviani, P. Carpanese, J.A. Kilner,
S.J.Skinner, R. Rudkin, ElectrochimicaActa 53 (2008) 74917499.
[8] Wei Zhou, Ran Ran, Zongping Shao, Wei Zhuang, Jing Jia, Hongxia Gu,Wanqin
Jin,Nanping Xu, Acta Materialia 56 (2008) 26872698.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Load Forecasting of DEI 33KV Substation Using Artificial Neural Network
Approach

Vikas Pratap Singh
1*
, Prof.D.K.Chaturvedi
2
, D.K. Chaturvedi
3

1
Center of Excellence in Energy, Indian institute of technology,Rajsathan
2,3
Faculty of Engineering, Electrical department,DEI deemed University,Agra
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+91) 8946872794, E-mail: vikasforsmile@iitj.ac.in

Abstract
In these days we are more focused on good planning for load demand thats why we all are
highly interested in the load forecasting techniques. Precise load forecasting clutches an
excellent saving strength for electric utility in the organization, industries and institutes [1].
In this paper I show a comparative study of two soft computing models namely artificial
neural network and generalized neural network for the hourly electricity demand forecast
of DEI 33 KV substation. The soft computing models were trained and tested using the
actual hourly weather and load data which is obtained from DEI 33 KV substation and
DRDO, Agra .these models comparisons of the proposed schemes is presented for 3 month
demands for electricity. My work result shows the generalized neural network is much
better to artificial neural network.

Keywords: Artificial neural network (ANN), generalized neural network (GNN)

1. INTRODUCTION

Electrical load forecasting is a very important issue for planning of perfect electricity
demand and power system operation. It is a factor which tells what may happen to a
system in next coming period. Load forecasting is useful for supply side and demand side
(consumption of electricity).this whole technique is directly or indirectly helps in balancing
of electricity supply and demand. And it is also very important for the perfect system
which is economical, reliable, stable and balanced. This 21
st
century is totally depends on
the balancing of electricity requirement which is also must because balancing of electricity
supply demand is one of the most important factors for any industry, institutes and
organizational development. Its electricity balancing is a sensitive issue for our developing
country like India. In the past of electrical load forecasting there are some popular
techniques for load forecasting such as time series based model, similar day approach, and
intelligent system based model, some regular forecasting techniques have major issue
regarding to their inability to map the non-linear characteristic of the electricity load.
Artificial Intelligence techniques, such as adept systems and neural networks have shown
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Hopeful results in many systems. in the present time applications of Artificial
Neural Networks (ANN) technology help to power systems in the areas of forecasting
has make it possible to use this techniques to overcome the sensitive problem of the other
method which is very useful for electrical load forecasting [2]. So in this paper we are
discussing the comparison in between actual load and forecasted load by soft
computing technique. My work is organized in following steps: 2-factor affecting
load forecasting 3-Data collection 4-data processing 5-development of artificial
neural network model 6-Data manipulation, 7-Results 8-conclusion

2. FACTOR AFFECTING LOAD FORECASTING

For the load forecasting some important factor should be considered such as weather data.
This load forecasting is dependent on weather based so following factors is generally
considered: 1-Temeperature 2-Day light intensity 3-Season 4-Rain 5-Wind velocity 6-
Humidity [4]. So these are the important factors for the load forecasting one is also very
important factor which is the load .it helps in the past trend of the load pattern. And
temperature and humidity are the most valuable factors for load forecasting so in this paper
four factors are consider which are affect the electrical load: 1-Temeprature, 2-Humidity,
3-Wind velocity, 4-Load.

3. DATA COLLECTION

Data taken from DEI deemed university dayalbagh, Agra 33 KVA Substation daily
consumption for 3 month and historical weather data were collected for
DAYALBAGH, Agra from Defense Research and development organization, Agra as
an input variable are temperature, humidity and wind velocity and electrical load. The
inputs were fed into our artificial neural network (ANN) and their sufficient training
was used to predict the load forecasting for January, February and march2011.
The inputs given are: 1-temperature, 2-humidity, 3-wind velocity, 4-electrical load.

Fig.1 Temperature

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Fig.2 Humidity

Fig.3 Wind velocity

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Fig.4 Electrical load

4. DATA PROCESSING

The data employed for training and testing the neural network were obtained from DEI
deemed university, substation and DRDO research laboratory, Agra for the period Jan,
Feb and March2010. The raw or pre-processed weather and load data as shown in graphs
figure [1-4]. However, the data should be normalized prior to presenting them to a model for
training or any forecasting attempt. Data scaling is essential due to the fact that neural
networks are often vulnerable to raw data, its extremely important that data are scaled (typically
values between 0 and 1, or -1 and 1) to avoid convergence problems.

5. DEVELOPMENT AND MODELLING OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORK MODEL

Artificial intelligence methods are more flexible as far as complexity and non-linearity
are concerned. In this paper proposes a great approach for load forecasting based on
the ANN modeling architecture. It has capability to approximate non-linear function,
different training sets of historical load and weather data can be used as input. Load
forecasting is affected by metrological, climate, etc. A perfect load forecasting always
include these factor which is provide reliable forecast in the entire critical situation.
According to the literature I found that all the conventional techniques are not much
power full for the perfect load forecasting because of weather independent load
situation [5]. So nature for weather independent load is always represented as a
function of time. The application of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) in power system
planning and operation has been growing in acceptance. Because artificial neural network able
to collect process information in a black box and given sufficient input-output data.
A neuron is an information processing unit that is fundamental to the operation of a neural
network. Three basic elements of the neuron model are:[3]

1- A set of weight, each of which is characterizing by a strength of its own. A signal xj
connected to neuron K is multiplied by the weight
wkj .
the weight of an artificial

neuron may
lie in a range that includes negative as well as positive values.
2- An adder for summing the input signals, weighted by the respective weight of the neuron.
3- An activation function for limiting the amplitude of the output of a neuron .it is also
referred to as squashing function which squashes the amplitude range of the output single to
some finite value
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ANNs basically work as the learning process of the human brain and able to process problems
involving non-linear and complex data even if the data are imprecise and noisy. It has much
appropriate for the modeling of load forecasting data which are known to be complex and
often non-linear. Multilayer feed forward back propagation neural network is used for
modeling of load forecasting. The neural network is trained based on examples. The ANN
model of load forecasting problem is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig.5 Simple neuron model

Different steps followed for developing the of Neural Network LOAD FORECASTING model
are given below:

Fig.6 ANN model for load forecasting

Different steps followed for developing the of Neural Network load forecasting model are
given below:
Step-1 Preparation of participation Data
The selection of appropriate number of input variable in ANN modeling is most important[6].
There is no general rule that can be followed in the selection of input variables. It largely
depends on common factors those are directly effects on load. The choice of input variables
changes if load prediction is short term or medium term.
Step-2 Selection of ANN structure
Number of input variable = 4
Number of output = 1
Number of input layer neurons = 4
Number of output layer neuron = 1
Number of Hidden layer neurons = 10
Number of Hidden layer =1
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Neural Network load forecasting model

Step-3 Selection of training algorithm
Generally, gradient descent back-propagation training algorithm is used with or without
adaptive learning and momentum factors. In this the sum squared error is fed back to modify
the weight during training.
Step-4 Selection of training parameters Training parameters such as learning rate,
momentum factor, termination of training, and error tolerance of back propagation training
algorithm has great impact on learning of ANN model.
a. Number of epochs = 500 (number of iterations required to reach to the desired goal)
b. Error tolerance = 0.001 (depends on the accuracy required)
c. Learning rate = 0.9 (near 1)
d. Momentum factor = 0.1 (smaller)

Training performance of ANN model
The training results of ANN Model of load forecasting have been shown in Fig.7.

Fig.7 Training performance of ANN model

6. RESULTS

In this work, neural network models (ANN) for prediction of electrical load have been
developed. the fact that an electric load is a non-linear function, traditional forecasting
methods are simply not suitable for the application due to the lack of nonlinear mapping
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ability. Intelligent techniques on the other hand, require optimal network structure and unified
training algorithms in order to improve the accuracy of the forecast as well as the performance
of the network. With the help of ANN model we see the performance curve of the neural
network and mean square error and graph in between actual load and forecasted load. And
we find the .003 root mean square error in between actual load and forecasted load.
Table 1 ANN model actual and forecasted load error
Sr.
No
Model
Name
Max
Error
Min
Error
RMSE
Error
2 ANN 0.11 -.10 0.003

The results have been compared with actual load and forecasted load as shown in fig.8.

Fig.8 comparison between actual load and forecasted load

Fig.9 ANN training tools

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Fig.10 Regression plot

7. CONCLUSION

The main objective of this research paper is to provide power system planners with an
accurate and reliable load forecasting (LF) system which may assist to economically optimize
power system operations. In the deregulated electricity market, the key power system
operational activities such as priced-based unit commitment (PBUC), energy interchange,
and adequate power reserves rely heavily on a forecasting result with reasonable accuracy.
Equally, STLF is also essential, especially for large power users (LPUs), to duly manage
their notified maximum demands (NMD) and perhaps even better their expansion plans.
These requirements are the main impetus of this work.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Engle, R.F., Mustafa, C., Rice, J. (1992) Modeling Peak Electricity Demand , Journal
of Forecasting, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 241251.
[2] Chaturvedi, D. K. (2010) Short-Term Load Forecasting Using Soft Computing
Techniques, International Journal of Communications, Network and System
Sciences 3.1 : 270-279.
[3] Kumar, S. and Chaturvedi, D.K. (2011) prediction of interest rate using generalized
neural network (GNN) approach, International Journal of Computer Information
Systems and Industrial Management Application.
[4] Fan, S.; Methaprayoon, K.; Lee, W.J. (Sept. 30 2007-Oct.2 2007) Short-term Multi-
Region Load Forecasting Based on Weather and Load Diversity Analysis, Power
Symposium, 2007. NAPS '07. 39th North American, vol., no., pp.562-567,
[5] Gross, G., and Galiana, F. D. (1987) Short term load fore-casting, Proceedings of the
IEEE, Vol. 75, No. 1212, pp. 15581573.
[6] Rui, Y., and Jin, P. (1994) The Modelling Method for ANN-Based Forecaster,
CDC' 94, China.
[7] Devendra K. Chaturvedi. (2008) Soft Computing Techniques and its Applications in
Electrical Engineering, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
[8] Rojas, R. (1996) Neural Networks, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

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Study of Non-Fourier Effects in Non-Homogeneous Materials

M. Hanief
1*
, G.A. Harmain
1

1
Department of Mechanical Enguneering, National Institute of Technology, Srinagar Kashmir 190006,
India
* Tel: 09906763424, Email: hanief123@rediffmail.com, hanief123@gmail.com

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Impedance Modeling Behaviours with Different Parameters and Its Validation
for SOFC

M. Suklueng
*
, Dinah Diyanah Abd.Lamit, K.M.Naeem, Andrew Jung, N. Y. Voo, P. Hing
Energy and Materials Research Group, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 7102268, E-mail: montri_su@hotmail.com

Abstract
AC impedance modeling is based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
measurements. It is also known as AC impedance technique. Electrochemical information on
an operating fuel cell system can be obtained from measured EIS data and interpreted by
fitting this data to an impedance model. Impedance values at different frequencies are
collected which are supposed to exhibit the SOFC characteristics and should give information
on physical behaviors inside the operating fuel cells. Modeling approaches for SOFC will be
introduced by comparing various available in literature. The main objective of this paper is to
summarize the present status of the SOFC modeling efforts so that unresolved problems can
be identified by the researchers as well as proposing a state-of-art of existing models.
Secondly, to collect available up-to-date data (values) and equivalent circuit models studies of
composites (cathode, anode and electrolyte) from different journals in order to make
comparisons and trends. Thirdly, to compile result for further investigation of the
characteristics and behaviors of composites with different parameters i.e. temperature,
frequency, thickness and composition of composites and oxygen gas using Orcad Family
Release 9.2 Lite Edition simulation.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Optimisation of Low Exergy Architectural Design in the Tropics

Chen Kian Wee
1*
, Patrick Janssen
2
, Arno Schlueter
3
1
Singapore ETH Centre (SEC), Future Cities Laboratory (FCL)
2
3
Institute of Technology in Architecture, Department of Architecture, ETH Zrich, Switzerland
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (65)91596012, Fax: Nil, E-mail: kian.chen@arch.ethz.ch

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Eco-driving model for Reducing the Energy Consumption Intensity in the Urban
Driving Cycle

Hooman Farzaneh
1,2*
, Saber Miri
2
, Mehrnoosh Dashti
3
1
Graduate school of energy science, Kyoto University, Japan
2
Graduate school of the environment and energy, Science and research branch of Islamic Azad
University, Iran
3
Department of mechanical engineering, Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University, Iran
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (090) 9697-1354, Fax: (75) 7534750, E-mail:
hooman.farzaneh.2v@kyoto-u.ac.jp

Abstract
Nowadays transport sector has a great part of energy consumption and consequently
greenhouse gases and environmental pollutant emission. Fuel consumption rate and
greenhouse gas emission as a result of transport section activities and is depended on vehicle
technology and traffic flow. The subject of eco-driving is efficient utilization of energy in
vehicles.. Extra consumption of fuel in an intense traffic condition is inevitable. Excess fuel
consumption may be avoided, if an optimal driving strategy is implemented. Development of
an optimal driving strategy witch result in reduction of fuel consumption has been the subject
of the present work. Approaching this purpose an Eco-driving model has been developed in
order to specify an optimal driving strategy considering traffic limitations. Introduced model
can be considered as an optimal control model with an objective function minimizes fuel
consumption in a defined traffic path. By applying regression analysis and an appropriate
model describing traffic flow, we would define traffic velocity as a function of traffic
parameters. The relation between speed and gear ratio is modeled by fuzzy logic technique.
Vehicle speed and gear ratio are considered as model variables and fuel consumption of the
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vehicle is considered as an optimization objective function which should be minimized. In this
case, the energy flow diagram from tank to wheel has been considered through developing the
model. Then the implementation of the model is inspected by a case study and an optimal
driving strategy is introduced finally.

Keywords: Eco-driving, passenger vehicle, vehicle specific fuel consumption, vehicle optimal
energy flow.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fuel consumption in the urban transport plays a significant role in the greenhouse gas
especially carbon dioxide emissions. Vehicle emissions in the transportation system have been
identified as major and growing source of carbon dioxide emissions caused by human activity.
The carbon dioxide emissions from auto trips increase annually [1,2,3]. Rapid economic
growth in developing countries and increasing welfare in the industrialized countries has led to
the development of the automobile industry worldwide. Environmental impacts entail highly
fuel effective and less polluting vehicles; and also dependence on oil and higher fuel costs
directs car factories towards more fuel-efficient vehicles . Use of fossil fuels is increasing
every year and it is one of the causes of the crisis in fossil fuels. Following the oil crisis in
1973 and the Kyoto Protocol, many countries should have significant reductions in fossil fuel
consumption [4]. If new policies are not implemented in many countries, carbon emissions
will increase. For such reasons, many countries have established different fuel economy
regulations. For example, Japan has specified fuel economy regulations for optimizing fuel
consumption. The Taiwan government has specific rules stating that all gasoline vehicles
should meet fuel economy regulations; otherwise they would not be available. USA has
designed fuel economy regulations for gasoline cars as well; if the vehicle does not comply
with standards, the government levies a tax for car manufacturers. The USA also is
establishing a new regulatory regime to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Fuel consumption and GHG emissions from the urban transport is a function of vehicle
technology and traffic flow. The number of vehicles has increased in pathways and congestion
is seen in large cities. Undoubtedly traffic is one the pressing problems in large cities and if
current trends continued, in near future small and average cities would encounter similar
conditions. The increasing development of cities, transportation of people and goods has
created a problem which becomes sophisticated more and more. Urban growth has led to
higher demand for transportation facilities and large cities largely rely on streets for
transportation services. Transportation facilities are essential for the growth and development
of a community.
Reduction in fuel usage was the subject of vehicle performance upgrading over the last three
decades and fuel economy and aerodynamics of the vehicles has consistently improved.
Despite, higher fuel economy and reduced emissions has been attained through advanced
design of vehicle technology, heavy traffic and changing driving behaviors causes higher fuel
consumption. To assess the vehicle performance in traffic, driving projects like the NEDC
(New Europe Driving Cycle) have been used, but the real conditions may vary [5].
The fuel consumption of a vehicle in specific traffic condition is a function of driving
behavior. Most drivers tend to use the higher engine torque in the changing traffic system.
This behavior leads to excessive fuel consumption than expected in a certain distance traveled.
Driving behavior in high congestion traffic systems has a major impact on fuel usage in the
passenger transportation sector. Aggressive driving as sudden acceleration and deceleration
causes 33% loss in fuel at high speeds (highway) and 5% at low speeds (city streets) [6].
Maintaining optimal speed is an efficient method for travelling more distance with constant
fuel consumption. In addition, in non-stop trips, in the minimal throttle angle and power
transmission in the highest gear, optimal efficiency is expected.
Driving behavior with minimal fuel consumption, less pollution and reduced greenhouse gas
emissions is the subject matter of Eco-driving. Eco-driving is a term used to describe the
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efficient use of vehicles energy. Initiators of Eco-driving believe that it is an excellent, easy
and economic way to reduce fuel consumption in ground transportation as less fuel is used in a
certain distance. Due to rising fuel prices and public willingness to reduction in CO2
emissions, Eco-driving has become a major research topic recently. In the past years in
Europe, Eco-driving has been developed as a method to reduce dependence on oil and GHG
emissions which influence climate change and it is spread and promoted through mass media,
driving education programs and with manufacturers sponsors.
Although several factors, such as physical form, maintenance and planning can influence
efficient eco-driving, driving strategies is the major factor. Speed and gear ratio are the main
factors that provide needed power for driving maneuvers. Too high fuel efficiency in vehicles
today is a very important and crucial issue for designers. Hence, determining gear shift points
in modern gearboxes is far more complicated and subtle than older generations .
This paper presents an urban Eco-driving model to create an optimal driving strategy to attain
reduced energy consumption in the urban transportation system. Vehicle fuel consumption
depends on optimization objectives and speed and gear ratio are considered as the optimization
variables. Relationship between vehicle speed and gear ratio has been modeled using fuzzy
Logic. Motion barriers because of traffic flow and road conditions, mechanical and technical
automotive limitations are the other constraints.

2. THEORETICAL CONCEPT

revious version of Eco-driving model has been an optimal control problem based on Mixed
Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP) and DIscrete and Continuous OPTimizer
(DICOPT)[7-9]. Gear ratio and speed relationship was modeled in a way that reverse gears
were not included sufficiently and it could not be used in automatic gearboxes. Model
incorporated traffic limitations in a complex way and it made the study of Eco-driving in
different directions more difficult. In current Eco-driving model, the relationship between
vehicle speed and gear ratio is considered as fuzzy. So, reverse gear ratio is covered easily,
model can be used in automatic transmission systems, and also use of the model and
modifications for use in different vehicles is simply possible. In order to incorporate traffic
conditions in the model, using regression analysis method, vehicle speed in traffic flow is
defined as a function of traffic variables, so traffic is considered as a vehicle movement
barrier. Doing this, the study of the impact of traffic variables on the vehicle fuel consumption
becomes possible.

2.1. Speed and Traffic Variables Relationship
Development of Eco-driving model aims at optimal driving behavior in different traffic
conditions; so the traffic variables indicating the status of traffic flow should be incorporated
as the model constraints. To do so; a reasonable macroscopic traffic model based on
measurable microscopic parameters is needed. In this case, the speed of vehicles in traffic flow
is defined as a function of traffic variables. This speed represents the interactions between
vehicles in traffic and traffic mode, and will be considered as a constraint in Eco-driving
model.
Density, k, time interval in the cluster traffic ko and the time interval in heavy traffic go, will
be variables of the function, because traffic conditions can alter only by these parameters.
Based on Wu model, traffic speed is calculated according to the following equation[10] :

(1)
(2)
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(3)
(4)
(5)

(6)

(7)

Where v fluid is the average speed of free flow traffic, pfree and pgo are respectively the
probabilities of vehicles in free flow traffic and heavy traffic, v
0
is the legal speed on the road,
vko is cluster traffic speed, vjam is average speed in heavy traffic, vgo is speed of vehicles
moving in heavy traffic, kgo density of heavy traffic, kko cluster traffic density, kgo,min is the
minimum density causing heavy traffic and pu is the probability of change from heavy to free
flow traffic.
vko is the average speed of traffic in cluster traffic which with the equation below relates to the
traffic capacity Cmax :
(8)

vko and variation ranges of go and ko is determined by the on-site measuring. Cmax can also
be specified by measurement .So, traffic speed of vehicles in terms of time interval in cluster
traffic, the time interval in heavy traffic and congestion parameters can be estimated in the
pathway. The speed variation diagram versus congestion in various time intervals on a sample
path is shown in Figure 1.

Fig 1. Speed variation VS congestion, Tehran, Hemmat Highway, Chamran-Sheikh Fazlollah
intersection (ko = 1.5 sec)

In order to apply traffic restrictions as a function of the traffic variables as a constraint in Eco-
driving model, using the regression technique an equation is proposed to relate speed directly
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to k, go and ko. For regression a series of data sets are required. By changing k, go and ko
in the given range and speed calculation for each point using equations 1 to 8, the required
data are obtained. Proposed function for regression is an exponential function in the form of
Equation 9:
(9)

Coefficients C (1), C (2), C (3) and C (4) associated with the pathways are unique and are
obtained by regression analysis for a given route. Regression results for the sample route done
in Eviews software is displayed in Figure 2.

Fig 2. Regression results for Hemmat Highway, Chamran-Sheikh Fazlollah intersection

Regarding regression results and R2, R-squared, Std.Error and T-Statistic indices seen in the
regression results, the correction of coefficients and the suitability of the exponential function
is ensured.

2.2. Energy flow and its relationship with vehicle dynamics
The required traction force to move the passenger vehicle is calculated through following
equation:
(10)
Required force is converted to torque which should be generated by upstream components
and also the linear speed of the vehicle is changed to needed the rotational speed and engine
generated power is calculated:

(11)
Where
t
is the transmission system efficiency (gearbox and differential), the torque
produced by the engine, i
axle
is the transmission ratio of axle, i
speed
is the gearbox transmission
ratio and R
Dyn
is the wheel dynamic radius. The engine torque is defined as a function of
engine speed, according to equation (12) :
(12)
Where a, b, and c are constant coefficients determined by the analysis of the engine
performance diagram (torque-rpm).
Part of the energy generated by fuel combustion in the engine is dedicated to vehicle electrical
equipments and accessories and some part is wasted through the cylinder and the exhaust. The
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rest is transmitted to the wheels through the transmission system and provides the traction
force required for vehicle movement.
(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

2.3. Modeling the relationship between speed and vehicle gear using fuzzy logic
In order to fuzzy modeling of the relationship between vehicle speed and gear, gear selection
should be defined in terms of speed. In other words, the membership functions of speed in
each of the gear ratios should be determined. Linear functions are used for this purpose. In this
case, vehicle speed is the model input and gear is the model output. Gearbox transmission
ratios of the vehicle used (Samand) are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Transmission System Specifications of selected vehicle
Gear Transmission ratio
1 3.75
2 1.85
3 1.25
4 1.0
5 0.9
Axel 4.14

Membership functions are obtained based on maximum and minimum speed possible in each
gear, determined by the mechanical limitations and engine performance. The maximum speed
possible in a certain gear, in the vehicle studied, is equivalent to 6000 rpm. But in practice, no
driver is willing to drive at such a high RPM. Also earlier gear shifting is one of the eco-
driving rules confirmed in the model developed by Saboohi and Farzaneh. The membership
functions have been derived bearing this matter in mind. . Fig 3 indicates the input
membership functions .
The rules can be expressed as follows :
If velocity is V
1
then gear-ratio is I
1st
,
If velocity is V
2
2nd
,
If velocity is V
3
3rd
,
If velocity is V
4
4th
,
If velocity is V
5
5th
.
Where I, is the given gear ratio. (See Table 1). So the relationship between speed and gears is
modeled using fuzzy logic and considering the speed as input appropriate gear is selected.

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Fig 3. Input membership functions (speed)

2.4. Eco-driving Model
Fuel consumption of a vehicle in certain traffic conditions depends on driver behavior. Driving
behavior that leads to minimize energy consumption is the subject of Eco-driving. The
parameters affecting the fuel consumption of a vehicle with given efficiency and performance
in specific traffic conditions, are vehicle speed and gear ratio. Choosing vehicle speed and gear
ratio are identified as driving behavior. Selecting optimal gear ratio is done with the fuzzy
model, developed from the results of a previous version of the Eco-driving model. Hence
speed is considered as optimization variables here. The purpose of developing the model is to
find best vehicle speed in different traffic conditions to minimize fuel consumption. The
objective function is fuel consumption expressed by equation. Constraints are mechanical and
traffic constraints. Traffic constraint is incorporated as maximum speed in the model which is
related to traffic conditions using relationship obtained from regression in given route.
To solve the model above, fmincon interior point method in the optimization toolbox
(optimtool) of MATLAB software is used. The effectiveness of the model has been examined
with a case study on the selected routes of Tehran city, capital of Iran. The data have been
taken from the traffic control department of Tehran municipality and from the site
measurement. Case study is conducted according to the vehicle moving in different traffic
conditions.


Traffic density and extracted speed equation for selected different traffic routes is represented
in table 2. Results of the model are shown in table 3. It can be observed that, reducing speed
and gear ratio leads to decrease in fuel consumption but the gear ratio compared to speed has a
significant impact on fuel consumption. Thus to achieve eco-driving objectives quick gear
shift is recommended. Based on the model results, the five fixed points are reported as the
optimal driving mode which these points indicate the moderate speed in the lower gear ratio.
Optimal results in the table 3 indicate the changing of the gear in the following situations :
-Speed of 90 km/h in fifth gear
-Speed of 65 km/h in fourth gear
-Speed of 45 km/h in third gear
-Speed of 22 km/h in second gear
If the optimal driving state is selected, reduction in fuel consumption will be expected as
follows:

2.5% reducing speed from 85 kilometers per hour to 65 kilometers per hour (Eco-driving
with fourth gear(
3% reducing speed from 60 kilometers per hour to 45 kilometers per hour (Eco-driving
with third gear)
0.7% reducing speed from 40 kilometers per hour to 22 kilometers per hour (Eco-driving
with second gear)
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426

2.7 % reducing speed from 110 kilometers per hour to 90 kilometers per hour (Eco-driving
with fifth gear)
11.2 % selecting fifth gear instead of fourth gear at a speed of 90 kilometers per hour
21% selecting fourth gear instead of third gear at a speed of 65 kilometers per hour
31.4% selecting third gear instead of second gear at a speed of 45 kilometers per hour

Figure 4 shows the optimal selected gear ratio in different speed through the different traffic
conditions for the route no:1.

4. CONCLUSION

Driving style is one of the factors influencing the fuel economy of the vehicle. Finding an
optimal driving behavior leading to lower fuel cost, air polluting agents and GHG emissions,
has been turned to an important research subject over the world and many empirical studies
have been conducted to identify such driving strategy. However, few theoretical studies have
been carried out for this purpose. In current work, an Eco-driving model considering traffic
and technical constraints has been developed to attain optimal driving behavior. The
relationship between vehicle speed and gear ratio is modeled using fuzzy logic. So, reverse
gear selection has been covered easily. The model results show that the best driving mode base
on the eco-driving strategy is obtained by using steady speed without unnecessary acceleration
and deceleration. But achieving this speed is not always possible, as traffic conditions restrict
vehicle movement. Accordingly, the eco-driving can be achieved by selecting the optimum
gear ratio and speed through the different traffic conditions. The optimal results indicate that
moving with optimal speed in free flow traffic can lead to a reduction in fuel consumption up
to 3% and using improper gear can result in a fuel consumption increase about 31.4% and in
some conditions more than 40%.

Table 2. Selected different traffic routes in Tehran (Case study)
Speed Equation
Traffic Density
(pc/hr)
Route
No:

4718 1

9243 2

9207 3

5512 4

Table 3. Optimal results of the model
Measurement (24 hr Averagely) Model Results (Eco-
driving)
Rout No: Speed
(km/h)
Fuel
Consumption
(l/100 km)
Speed
(km/h)
Fuel Consumption
(l/100 km)
1

90
88
65
28
7.1
8
9.9
14
90
65
45
22
7.1
7.8
9.6
13.9
2

62
96
40
51
9.9
7.2
14.4
9.7
45
90
22
45
9.6
7.1
13.9
9.6
3

40
60
46
110
14.4
9.8
9.6
7.4
22
45
45
90
13.9
9.6
9.6
7.1
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4

80
63
100
43
7.9
9.9
7.2
14.4
65
45
90
22
7.8
9.6
7.1
13.9

Fig 4. Optimal selected gear and speed in rout no:1

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank the GCOE program in Graduate School of Energy Science,
Kyoto University for the great support and helpful comments.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Asche, F., Gjolberg, O., Volker, T., 2003, Price relationships in the petroleum market:
An analysis of crude oil and refined product prices, Energy Economics, 25, 289-301
[2] Kwon, T-H., 2005, Decomposition of factors determining the trend of CO
2
emission from
car travel in Great Britain (1970-2000), Ecological Economics, 53, 261-275
[3] Papagiannaki, K., Diakoulaki, D., 2009, Decomposition analysis of CO
2
emissions from
passenger cars: The cases of Greece and Denmark, Energy Policy, 37, 3259-3267
[4] Holtsmarka, B., Maestad, O., 2002, Emission trading under the Kyoto ProtocolFeffects
on fossil fuel markets under alternative regimes, Energy Policy, 30, 207-218
[5] Peter Mock, John German, Anup Bandivadekar, Iddo Riemersma (April
2012). "Discrepancies between type approval and "real-world" fuel consumption and
CO
2
values
[6] Paravantis, J. A., Geogakellos, D. A., 2007, Trends in Energy consumption and carbon
dioxide emissions of passenger cars and buses, Technological Forecasting & Social
Change, 74, 682-707
[7] Saboohi, Y, Farzaneh, H, 2008, Model for optimizing energy efficiency through
controlling speed and gear ratio, Energy Efficiency
[8] Saboohi, Y, Farzaneh, H, 2009, Model for developing an eco-driving strategy of a
passenger vehicle based on the least fuel consumption, Applied Energy, 86 : 1925-1932
[9] Farzaneh, H, Saboohi, Y, 2005, Model for analysis of energy flow from tank-to-wheel in
a passenger vehicle, IEEE, 150-153
[10] Wu, Ning 2002, A new approach for modeling of Fundamental Diagrams, Transportation
Research Part A, 36 : 867- 884

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Modeling the performance of Solar Photovoltaic Systems Under Tropical
Environment

Hamidah Ismail, Sathyajith Mathew*, SaifulA Husain, LalitDagar
UBD | IBM Center,Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (673) 2463001, Fax: (673) 2453502,
E-mail: sathyajith.mathew@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
Performance models for six different types of solar cells under tropical environment are
developed under this study. The models are based on four weather parameters Viz. solar
insolation, ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind speed. One month of performance
data of these cells were used to develop the model which is then validated with field
observations. The developed models could predict the performances of the cells with an
acceptable level of accuracy. The performance ratio of each type of PV cells under the
Bruneian condition was also computed and presented.

Keywords: Solar PV, Single Crystalline Silicon, Poly - Crystalline Silicon, Microcrystalline
Si Tandem, Amorphous Silicon, Copper-Indium-Selenium , Hetero-junction
with Intrinsic Thin Layer.

1. INTRODUCTION

As the issues of the fast depletion of fossil fuels and environmental implications of energy
conversion and consumption began to surface, Nations around the globe are forced to take
measures to supplement their energybase with new and renewable energy resources. With its
global installation of around 67.4 GW by the end of 2011 [1], solar photovoltaic (PV)
technology has emerged as a major player in the clean energy scenarios. With the increased
share of solar PV based electricity in the power sector, effective and efficient integration of
this stochastic resource with the power grids has become a major concern.
For the successful PV-grid integration and efficient power dispatch and management, an
estimate on the output expected from the PV system over shorter timescales is essential. These
short term forecasts are more vital under the recent approach of time based tariff structures.
Performance of solar PV system is significantly influenced by the local weather conditions
such as insolation intensity, cloud cover, ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind
speed. Developing models which correlate these parameters with the performance of the solar
PV modules is the first step in developing such short term forecasting system. Such models
can then be coupled with Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models to buildup the solar
PV power prediction system. Several research attempts, adopting various techniques, are
going on in this direction - for example using Time Series Analysis [2] Neural Network
Models[3]. These models are further fine-tuned using Model Output Statistics (MOS) [4].
However, the accuracy of these models is to be improved to come up with a robust power
forecast system.
In this study, a simple approach based on multiple regression method is proposed to develop
the relationship between the energy output from six different types of solar panels. The data
from the 1.2 MW solar power plant in Brunei the TenagaSuria Brunei (TSB) - has been used
for the performance modelling. Performances of these panels under Bruneian environment are
also compared under the study.

2. PERFORMANCE MODELS

The weather parameters considered are the solar insolation, ambient temperature, wind speed
and relative humidity. Six different types of solar panels at the TSB plant are considered for
the study. They are (1) Single Crystalline Silicon, (2) Poly - Crystalline Silicon, (3)
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Microcrystalline Si Tandem,(4) Amorphous Silicon (5) Copper-Indium-Selenium and (6)
Hetero-junction with Intrinsic Thin Layer (HIT). Each type feed 200 kW of rated power into
the Brunei National grid. The hourly weather parameters and the output power from the panels
were recorded for a month using automatic data acquisition systems integrated with the power
plant. Based on these data, regression models in the form of

p q r s
DC
E I T W H o | o = + + +
(1)

were developed, where E
DC
is the DC solar energy output of the panels, and I, T, W and Hare
the solar insolation, ambient temperature, wind speed and relative humidity respectively. In
the above expression, the proportionality coefficients are represented by , , and whereas
p, q, r, s are the constants. The observed data from the power plant was first converted into
unit energy output (Wh/m
2
) before performing the regression analysis. The models are hence
valid for the energy delivered by 1 m
2
of a given solar panel.
The performance models obtained for different solar PV panels are given in Eq. 2 through Eq.
7 and corresponding coefficient of determination (R
2
) values are given at the bottom.

Single Crystalline Silicon:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1.17 0.39 0.37 4.01
111.16 4.50 80.79 0.058
DC
E I T H W
= + + +
(2)
(R
2
= 0.994)

Poly Crystalline Silicon:
1.17 0.10 0.96 4.20
(110.46) (3.72) ( 0.048) ( 0.054)
DC
E I T W W
= + + +
(3)
(R
2
= 0.994)

Microcrystalline Si Tandem:
1.048 1.08 0.40 0.018
(66.72) ( 0.132) (67.71) ( 7.75)
DC
E I T H W
= + + +
(4)
(R
2
= 0.994)

Amorphous Silicon:
1.034 0.621 0.605 4.42
(55.37) ( 0.623) (63.14) ( 0.028)
DC
E I T H W
= + + +
(5)
(R
2
= 0.996)

CopperIndiumSelenium (CIS):
1.097 0.173 0.18 4.74
(89.09) ( 8.82) (33.28) ( 0.017)
DC
E I T H W
= + + +
(6)
(R
2
= 0.994)

Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer (HIT):
1.12 0.42 0.40 4.13
(139.52) (113.16) ( 5.024)H ( 0.15)
DC
E I T W
= + + +
(7)
(R
2
= 0.990)

The high coefficients of determination indicate the capability of the models to closely
represent the field observations.

3. MODEL TESTING AND VLIDATION

The models developed under the study were further validated using five days field
observations from the PV power plant. The observed and predicted performances are
compared in Fig. 1 to Fig. 6. Further, the models accuracy werealso tested by computing the
correlation between the actual and theoretical output under different weather conditions. The
coefficient of determination (R
2
) is computed as
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0
20
40
60
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120
140
1
/
2
6
/
2
0
1
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0
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0
0
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/
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e
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o
u
t
p
u
t
,

W
h
/
m
2
Hours
Monocrystalline Silicon
Observed output Predicted output
0
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40
60
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100
120
140
1
/
2
6
/
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0
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2

0
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/
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/
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0
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/
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0
1
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0
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/
3
0
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0
1
2

0
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0
0
1
/
3
1
/
2
0
1
2

0
:
0
0
2
/
1
/
2
0
1
2

0
:
0
0
2
/
2
/
2
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1
2

0
:
0
0
E
n
e
r
g
y

o
u
t
p
u
t
,

W
h
/
m
2
Hours
Polycrystalline Silicon

(8)
Where x and y are the actual and theroticial observations and and are the sample means
respectively.

Fig. 1.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Monocrystalline Silicon solar
PV cells.

Fig. 2.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Polycrystalline Silicon solar PV
cells.

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20
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60
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1
/
2
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/
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Microcrystalline Silicon
0
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o
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Observed Output Predicted Output
0
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,

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h
/
m
2
Hours
CIS

Fig. 3.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Microcrystalline Silicon solar
PV cells.

Fig. 4.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Amorphous Silicon solar PV
cells.

Fig. 5.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Copper Indium Selenium
(CIS)solar PV cells.

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0
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0
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1
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0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

r
a
t
i
o
Solar insolation, kWh/m2
Single - Crystalline Silicon
Poly - Crystalline Silicon
Microcrystalline - Si Tandem
Amorphous Silicon
Copper - Indium - Selenium
Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer

Fig. 6.Comparison of predicted and observed performance of Heterojunction with Intrinsic
Thin Layer (HIT)solar PV cells.

Fig. 7.Performance comparison of different solar cells under tropical environment.

From the figures, it is evident that the performance predicted by the models fairly agrees with
the field observations for all the cell types. The R
2
values between the predicted and observed
performances are 0.994 for Single Crystalline Silicon, 0.992 for Poly Crystalline Silicon,
0.994 for Microcrystalline Si Tandem 0.994 for Amorphous Silicon, 0.994 for Copper-Indium-
Selenium and 0.990 for Hetero-junction with Intrinsic Thin Layer (HIT). From the figures, it
could be observed that the models slightly over predicted the cell performances during the
mid-day. This is because during this period, the temperature of the cells increases, resulting in
a decline in the cell efficiency, which was not taken into consideration by the models.

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4. COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

To identify the solar panel which performs most efficiently under Bruneian environment, the
performance ratio of different types of PV panels were also calculated under the study. The
performance ratio is basically the ratio between the performance of the panel under the field
conditions (E
DC-A
) to its rated performance under ideal conditions (E
DC-R
). Thus, the
performance ratio is given by:

DC A
DC R
E
PR
E

=
(9)

The comparisons between the performance ratios of each of the six solar panels are shown in
Fig. 7. From the figure, it can be seen that the Copper Indium Selenium (CIS) cellsshowed
better performance compared to other panels underthe Bruneian environment. However, other
techno-economic parameters are also to be considered for making a final choice of the solar
cells best suited for Brunei.

5. CONCLUSION

Models to define the performance of six different types of PV systems under the tropical
weather conditions are developed under this study. All models could predict the cell
performance with an acceptable level of accuracy. Due to the increase in cell temperature, the
predicted outputs from the cells are slightly higher than the observed values during the mid-
days.The performance of the models can further be improved if the effects of cell temperature
and cloud cover are incorporated in the models. The developed models could be coupled with
Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models and used for forecasting the short performance
of solar power plants under tropical regions.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors thankfully acknowledge the support from the Energy Department, the Prime
Ministers office, Brunei Darussalam, for the support extended during the course of this study.

8. REFERENCES

[1]. IRENA (2012) Solar photovoltaics, Renewable Energy Technologies: Cost Analysis
Series, Power Sector, 1(4/5), International Renewable Energy Agency.
[2]. Mathiesen, P. and Kleissl, J. (2011) Evaluation of numerical weather prediction for intra-
day solar forecasting in the continental United States, Solar Energy, 85(5): p. 967-977.
[3]. Chen, C., Duan, S., Cai, T. and Liu, B (2011), Online 24-h solar power forecasting base
d on weather type classification using artificial neural network, Solar Energy, 2011. 85(1
1): p. 2856-2870.
[4]. Bacher, P., Madsen, H. and Nielsen, H.A. (2009) Online short-term solar power forecasti
ng, Solar Energy, 83(10): p. 1772-1783.
[5]. EDPMO (2012) TenagaSuria Brunei, Energy Department, The Prime Ministers Office, B
runei Darussalam.

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Feasibility analysis of renewable energy supply option for a stand-alone hybrid-
photovoltaic-hydro-battery-diesel power system

1,2
Wong Tech Sion,
1,2
1,2
Iskandar Petra
1
2
UBD IBM Centre, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
Email: tecksion@gmail.com, liyanage.silva@ubd.edu.bn, iskandar.petra@ubd.edu.bn

Abstract
The aim of this research is to analyze solar radiation, wind velocity and rainfall data at Kuala
Belalong Field Studies Centre in Brunei Darussalam to assess its techno-economic feasibility
of utilizing hybrid PV-hydro-diesel-battery power systems to meet the load of a typical
working day for the centre. In this paper, different sources of renewable energy are being
assessed to calculate the total amount of electricity to be produced for the centre to reduce
usage of diesel generator and also carbon dioxide gas emission. The average monthly solar
radiation ranges from 263W/m2/day to 427W/m2/day while average monthly rainfall ranges
from 165mm/hr to 672mm/hr and wind velocity ranges from 0.17m/s to 0.22m/s. There are
three scenarios to test the feasibility of using renewable energy for the centre: a) using
renewable energy supply with battery system into the existing diesel generator supply
network, b) applying renewable energy with battery system on primary load c) including
energy management for deferrable load. Using a HOMER software, an energy optimization
program developed by U.S National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), energy
production, life-cycle costs and greenhouse gas emissions can be studied to analyze its
feasibility and economic impact for each scenario.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Energy Modelling of Residential Buildings: The Development of Benchmark
Models for Brunei

Veronika Shabunko
*1
, Chee M. Lim
1
, Sathyajith Mathew
1
1
Energy Research Group, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
*
Corresponding Author. E-mail: veronikashabunko@yahoo.com

Abstract
In the context of energy modelling, benchmark models are prototype reference standards.
They provide the basis for rapid prototyping, allowing the variations in design to be easily
achieved, and hence simulation results can be produced rapidly. This paper presents the
development of benchmark models for the residential sector in Brunei. These models are
useful for the design, retro-fitting and operations of buildings, and can be extended for use by
policymakers to test different energy efficiency measures. The practice of energy modelling
allows building energy performance to be verified prior to building construction and operation,
and before energy efficiency measures are implemented. The outcome of this work can
significantly contribute to the development of green building codes for Brunei, and for green
building code compliance verifications of existing buildings. The development of the models
take into considerations the building envelopes, orientation, and shapes. These benchmark
models are, therefore, unique to Brunei and regions with similar residential building
specifications and designs. Energy analysis tools, like EnergyPlus, are deployed to simulate
the energy performance of the models, and the results are compared to detailed models of large
scale housing (> 5000 units) in Brunei. It is shown that the use of generic geometry, or shape,
is sufficient for modelling purposes, and minor modifications to the orientation, and building
envelope specifications can produce significant energy saving.

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Modelling and Simulation of Power Flow and Loss Minimization in Power
Systems

1,2
Mohamad Fauzi Bin Zaini,
1,2
2,3
Jagabondu Hazra
1
2UBD
IBM Centre, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
3
IBM Research India, Bangalore, India
Tel: (673) 8809334, E-mail: kujizaini@gmail.com.

Abstract:
This paper reviews on the importance of modelling of an electric grid or power grid of a power
system, where it is essential to model existing or new power systems so that analysis could be
done and system could be more reliable, robust and secure in providing electricity to the
consumers. This paper discusses the methods to solve power flow model in a power system
using Newton-Raphson method, as well as the relationship of power losses and the power
being generated to the system along with some discussions on ways to minimize the power
loss in the system.

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Energy Access of the Urban Poor, Bangkok, Thailand

S. Kumar
*
, Pujan Shrestha

and Abdul Salam
Energy field of study, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
*Corresponding Author. Tel: (66) 25245410, Fax: (66) 25162124, E-mail: kumar@ait.ac.th

Abstract
The access to modern forms of energy (Electricity and LPG) and its services are crucial for
socio-economic development and poverty reduction. This paper aims to present the energy
access status of the urban poor in Bangkok, and to provide recommendations to overcome the
barriers to energy access.
The study was based on literature review, policy studies, field survey and discussion with
stakeholders (energy suppliers, policy makers, etc). The study results show that the availability
of modern energy access to the urban poor in Bangkok is not the main issue due to high level
of electrification and convenient LPG distribution, unlike many other cities of developing
countries. However, many poor households were not able to obtain legal and affordable
sources of energy and its services particularly due to their illegal status and low affordability.
Therefore, the issue of energy access to urban poor in Bangkok is mainly about how to make
improvements to their access in terms of affordability, efficiency and services.
The barriers and best practices on energy access were identified, which when considered for
implementation provide an opportunity of sustainable urban plan, enabling improved and
efficient access of energy to the urban poor.

Keywords: energy access; urban poor; barriers to energy access; best practices

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The access of modern forms of energy (electricity and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) and its
services (lighting, communication, cooking, heating and cooling) are prerequisites for
economic and social development, and poverty reduction. Enhanced access to modern forms
of energy also lead to the achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Research
on energy and poverty has mainly focused on rural and remote areas, where most of the poor
live. However, there are also a non negligible number of poor who live in urban areas. This
study aims to address the energy access issues of the urban poor. It provides information on
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the energy situation of the urban poor (in Thailand) so as to offer recommendations to policy
makers to improve clean energy access of the urban poor.

1.2 Objectives
The objectives are to assess the current levels of access to modern forms of energy in the poor
urban and peri-urban areas, identify the supply-side and the demand-side barriers to energy
access for the urban poor, identify barrier specific best practices i.e. successful policies that
have supported energy access for the urban poor, and provide specific recommendations to
overcome the barriers.

1.3 Methodology
The research framework consisted of four main tasks, namely:
i. Urban peri urban energy status: This involved elaborating the background of the study
area in terms of location, urban poor facts, the sources of energy used and their access
issues, as well as the plans, policies and programmes for the energy access of urban poor
obtained from literature, government agencies and relevant agencies.

ii. Identifying barriers to energy access: This involved identifying and categorizing energy
access for the urban poor in terms of supply side and demand side barriers. Supply side
barriers were identified through interviews with energy suppliers and consultative meeting
held with stakeholders influencing the provision of energy access. The demand side
barriers were identified through surveys conducted in the urban poor areas. In 2007, 100
households from five slum communities in Bangkok namely Pom Mahakarn in
Phranakorn District; Soi Daeng Bunga in Phrayathai District; New Development 7-12 in
Klong Toei District; Mahadthai 1 in Pravet district and Bangkroi in Nonthaburi were
surveyed. To revalidate the earlier survey results, 40 households were surveyed in two of
the same slum areas of Bangkok i.e. Soi Deang Bunga and New Development 7-12.

iii. Best Practice: Barriers specific best practices i.e. successful policies/ initiatives that have
supported or enabled improved energy access, both inside and outside Thailand, were
identified based on literature review and discussions with stakeholders.

iv. Recommendation: Based on the discussions with the relevant stakeholders, policy
dialogue, analysis and the compilation of best practices; specific policy recommendations
to overcome the barriers have been proposed.

2. URBAN PERI URBAN ENERGY STATUS

2.1 Profile of the urban poor
Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand, is the cultural, commercial, economic and
administrative center of Thailand covering an area of 1,568.7 km
2
[1]. The population of
Bangkok Metropolis in 2010 was 5,701,394, and 26% of the total urban population of
Thailand lived in Bangkok Metropolis [1].Urban areas of Thailand have been the center of
attraction for labor migration because of comparatively better facilities, transportation, public
health and other infrastructure. About 81% of the dwellers in Bangkok region have migrated
from other regions or slums and 78% are permanently settled in the region anticipating the
higher prospect of employment and better chance of rented housing availability [2].
The poverty line of municipal area in Thailand in 2010 was 1,863 Baht/person/month and
2.57% of total municipal population was considered poor [3]. Another measure on the extent
of poverty in municipal areas is to report the number of slums and squatters. Slums are mostly
on rented land; while, squatter slums or squatter settlements are on illegally-occupied land and
there are few slums where the land and houses are owned by the dwellers themselves [4]. In
Bangkok Metropolis, the total slum population in 2010 accounted for 34.6% of its total
population. Table 1 shows the magnitude of slums in Bangkok metropolis.
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Table 1: Slum housing in Bangkok [1]
Location Bangkok Metropolis
Total no. of slums 2007
Slum population (persons) 1,971,624
Slum household 425,425
Total population of Bangkok Metropolis 5,701,394
Share of slum population in Bangkok
Metropolis
34.6%

2.2 Socio-economic characteristics
The survey by National Statistics Office (NSO) in 2006 also showed that, in general, the
average income of low income population who were employed in Bangkok was Baht 12,000-
18,000 per month in 2006 [5]. The survey of slum households in the Bangkok during 2007 and
2012 showed that the average monthly income was Baht 12,103/household and Baht
19,592/household respectively and the level of poverty was higher in the surveyed slums.
These numbers, however, confirm that not all slum dwellers are poor and that a number of the
poor in Bangkok do not live in slums. Table 2 shows the average monthly income of the
surveyed households.

2.3 Housing tenureship
According to the national survey [5], the low income households in Bangkok owned their
houses either in their own lands (31.6%) or in rented lands (34.4%). About 29% of them
rented houses or units and the rest were dwellers without payment as shown in Fig. 2. The
survey conducted in 2012 in the slum areas showed that many households do not have land
ownership as their houses are built on rented land owned by private or government companies.
As shown in Fig. 3, majority of the surveyed households (40%) lived in the houses owned by
them in rented areas (government or private land holders rented on a contract basis).

Table 2: Monthly income of surveyed slum communities
NA not surveyed in 2012

Field Survey,
2007
Field Survey,
2012
S.
N
Name Community Type Avg. Monthly
Income
(Baht/HH)
Avg. Monthly
Income
(Baht/HH)
1 New
Development
Block 7-12
Rented Area 9,026 23,785
2 Dang BhuNgha Squat on Government & Private
Land
13,667 15,400
3 Baan Kroi Rented Area 10,815 NA
4 Ma Had Thai 1 Squat on Government Land 12,663 NA
5 Pom Mahakarn Squat on Government Land 14,342 NA
Average for the surveyed communities 12,103 19,592
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Fig. 2: Housing tenureship of low income households [5]

Fig. 3: Housing tenureship of surveyed household

2.4 Energy sources
2.4.1 Electricity
Consistent with the national statistics which shows electricity access rate of 100% in urban
Thailand [6], both the surveys in 2007 and 2012 confirm 100% electricity access in slum
households of Bangkok. A proxy that can also be used to estimate the level of electricity
access is the ownership of common electrical appliances. Table 3 presents ownership rates of
various appliances in slum households, implying the use of electricity for the purpose of
activities, such as, food preservation or laundering or entertainment.

2.4.2 Energy for cooking
The survey showed that low income households usually use several fuels to cook- LPG for the
main dish, electricity for rice (rice cooker) or boiling water (electric kettle), charcoal and wood
to grill food as presented in Fig. 4. Even the households with limited space and without
kitchen had a LPG cylinder with a stove attached on top to cook food. 87.5% of households
used LPG to cook either with separate stove or a small stove just attached on top of the
cylinder. No household was found to rely only on biomass for cooking but many houses relied
on charcoal as their secondary fuel. The main reason to use charcoal as a secondary fuel was to
cook special food (e.g. barbeque meat) or to boil water and other broth that would take longer
time.

Table 3: Ownership of electrical appliances in the slums of Bangkok
Appliance type
2002 Survey [4]

2007 Survey

2012 Survey
% of total households owning
the appliance

% of total
households
owning the
% of total
households
owning the
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Fig. 4: Cooking fuels used by the surveyed households

3. BARRIERS TO ENERGY ACCESS

3.1 Supply side barriers
Though there is a high level of electricity access in urban and peri-urban areas of Thailand, the
issue in urban areas is more towards improving energy efficiency. The barriers to be addressed
are as follows:

3.1.1 I nstitutional barrier
There is no specific institution responsible for energy issues (including energy efficiency) for
the urban poor. Local or city authorities in Thailand do not have any specific departments or
divisions looking at energy policies. Similarly, there appears to be lack of effective
collaboration among agencies related to providing energy services or to improving energy
efficiency in the poor households. National Housing Agency (NHA) and CODI are the two
main organizations related to housing of the poor. However, they lack technical knowledge,
availability of technologies, and financial resources to help low income households become
more energy efficient.

3.1.2 Policy barrier
There exist no policies in providing cleaner energy or improving energy efficiency targeting
the poor. Some of the existing initiatives are mostly reactive (e.g. changing of bulbs with more
energy efficient Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)) and proactive approaches that consider
energy efficiency from the project design phase (e.g. consideration of aspects like building
orientation, building materials, use of space etc) are not much of a priority. The energy
efficiency programmes and campaigns of the government focus mainly on public buildings,
schools, hospital, but not the slum areas or low income households.
appliance appliance
Television
100
96
65
15
12
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
100 100
Refrigerator 99 90
Washing machine N.A. 57.5
Air-conditioning
unit
N.A. 25
Electric water
heater
N.A. 45
Rice cooker 90 87.5
Fans 90 100
Computer N.A. 32.5
Microwave oven N.A. 20
Video player N.A. 57.5
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3.1.3 Financial barrier
The upfront cost to invest in energy efficient appliances affordable to poor household was one
of the significant barriers. The Demand Side Management (DSM) efforts of the suppliers are
mostly focused on industry and commercial sectors.

3.1.4 Physical barrier
Temporary condition of the poors houses is one of the main barriers preventing local
authority such as Bangkok Metropolitan Authority (BMA) to provide the housing
identification to the slum dwellers. Without a household registration, the utility companies are
not allowed to provide electricity services. Another important issue is the physical constraint
of the poor communities which are usually very crowded with narrow walkways which causes
difficulty in the installation of the power line and the regular check of the electricity meters.

3.2 Demand side barriers
3.2.1 Affordability
The high upfront cost of electricity prevents some of the poor families to legally connect to the
grid. Fig.5 shows that the slum households getting electricity connection from neighbors were
32% and 25% respectively in 2007 and 2012 surveys. According to the survey, connection
cost from the neighbor is cheaper. A connection to Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA)
with low voltage grid costs a minimum of 2,380 Baht for one phase to upto 13,000 Baht [7],
whereas from neighbors it could be free or up to 500-800 Baht. Therefore, some poor connect
to electricity through their neighbors even though they have to pay monthly higher price per
unit later.

Fig. 5: Electricity Connection

In case of cooking energy, the wholesale price of LPG is fixed by government but the retail
price is deregulated with higher price per unit of small cylinder compared to bigger cylinder.
The surveys in the slum areas revealed that the poor households preferred having small
cylinders (4 kg) as it would fit easily in their small rooms and also would also be cheaper to
purchase initially. This however, puts the poorest households at a disadvantage, as they cannot
afford to buy LPG in a standard (15 kg) cylinder and eventually pay higher price per unit than
the average retail price of LPG.

3.2.2 Lack of awareness
About 30% in 2007 and 25% in 2012 of the surveyed slum households did not have housing
registration number, and so were ineligible to obtain legal electricity connection. There were
about over 20% of poor households that are able to apply for temporary housing registration.
The main reason for their reluctance was their lack of awareness as they believed that they are
not allowed to ask for a temporary housing id and were reluctant to approach the district office
on their own to apply. Therefore, there is general lack of awareness regarding temporary id
even among different households living in the same slum community.

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3.2.3 Productive use of energy
Many low income households reported generating income using energy resources. The main
activities quoted were workshops with electrical appliances, refrigerator and icebox for small
stores and food stalls. Fig. 6 shows that share of urban poor who use energy to generate
income through small-scale enterprises. However, the amount spent to power the different
productive activities could not be assessed. This lead to increased total consumption of the
HHs thereby deterring them to benefit from the lifeline tariff (90 units) set by the government
to support the low income households

Fig. 6: Use of energy for income generation

3.2.4 Use of energy inefficient appliances
It is likely that the poor households are unable to afford energy efficient appliances owing to
the high upfront cost. The survey revealed that the even though there is a fair amount of
awareness regarding the use of electric efficient appliance (especially the CFL bulbs), the
households were reluctant to resort to it as they believed they would need to change the entire
wiring and connections system to change from fluorescent light bulbs to CFLs. It was also
noted during the consultative meeting with energy suppliers that a number of low income
dwellers living in pilot public housing developed under energy efficiency programmes of the
government replaced CFLs with cheaper lamps once the CFLs expired.

4. BEST PRACTICES

Thailand has been a unique case in the study of energy access in the urban poor region as
unlike many other developing countries, the provision of clean and modern energy services in
the slum areas is relatively better. These have been the result of socio-economic development
plans and poverty alleviation strategies of the government that have had both direct and
indirect impact to the livelihoods of the urban poor including their access to basic services like
energy. Some of the initiatives for energy access that have been introduced in Thailand can be
taken as best practices which other developing countries can learn from are as follows.

4.1 Quasi-household registration
Thailand introduced compulsory household registration in 1956. A household registration
(document) is a prerequisite for obtaining a connection to the electricity distribution utility.
This means that households without an official registration are not able to apply for a legal
electricity connection with the distribution utility. Providing public services, including
electricity, to urban poor households that do not have a legal household identification had been
a problem. Such households have had to make illegal connections to the lines serving their
legally resident neighbors, often paying those neighbors more than the electricity would cost if
they had a service of their own [8].
To help the poor population of the cities to have better access to infrastructure, the Housing
Registration Act of 1992 was formulated and housing registration was classified into two
types: permanent and temporary. The latter is defined as the housing registration that a
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register issues for a house built on public lands or encroached on protected forests or a house
constructed without complying with the Building Code of 1979 (the Housing Registration
Act of 1992). This policy was one of the outcomes of a campaign for better recognition of and
living conditions for the urban poor. These quasi-household registrations allow their owners to
apply for a legal electricity connection with the relevant utility, besides other benefits.

4.2 Slum upgrading and public housing projects
The Thai government has been implementing several programs for slum upgrading, e.g., re-
blocking (re-design), reconstruction, land-sharing and relocation in slum areas [2]. With the
assistance of two major organizations like CODI and NHA, the living conditions of urban poor
have been upgraded either by improving the existing conditions or by relocating. Similarly, the
government has encouraged private investors to provide low-cost housing for the targeted
dwellers currently living in some squatter settlement on land owned by temples or by the
Crown Property Bureau [2]. The policies for low-cost housing and infrastructure development
in slums make access to electricity and other modern forms of energy easier. For housings
built under this program, an electricity connection comes in the package of the housing before
the houses are handed over [2]. This means that people who buy these houses do not need to
make separate arrangements for an electricity connection which contributes to easy access to
electricity by the slum-dwellers.

4.3 Electricity and LPG pricing policies
Electricity pricing policies in Thailand have been continually developed to fit the actual
demand of low income households. Currently, residential units who use less than 90 units per
month are exempt for electricity charge. Moreover, the monthly service charge for users
consuming not more than 150 kWh per month is Baht 8.19, which is significantly lower than
that for households with monthly electricity consumption exceeding 150 kWh (Baht 38.22
under reduced tariff) [9]. The charge per unit of electricity is also significantly less for a
household having monthly consumption not exceeding 150 kWh and the tariff is progressive
which increases with the quantity of electricity consumed. These measures have greatly helped
to reduce the electricity expenses of the low income households. About 25% of households in
Greater Bangkok reported reduced energy expense from governments free electricity measure
with a saving of Baht 210-214 per month per household [10].
Similar policies for LPG have been in place in Thailand. The government has fixed the
wholesale price of LPG; although the retail price is deregulated. Local LPG prices have been
capped for twenty years based on a wholesale price of $333 per ton well short of the global
price, which was $920 per ton in January 2011[11, 12]. Apart from the authorized LPG
distributors, the local grocery shops are also allowed to sell LPG cylinders. The services
provided such as doorstep delivery, allowing swapping of different brand of cylinders and
assistance for first time uses to install LPG cylinder, have been crucial for high rate of access
of LPG in Thailand.

5. BARRIERS SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the status of energy access in Bangkok, discussions with relevant stakeholders,
and analysis, the barrier specific recommendations proposed are presented in Table 4. These
specifically describe the type of barriers, the efforts made to address the barriers, and the
recommendations to address/overcome the barriers.

Table 4: Barriers specific recommendations for improved energy access in urban peri urban
areas of Bangkok
Barriers Recommendations/suggestions to overcome the barrier
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Policy Barrier
No specific policy, plans and
programmes that considers
energy efficiency aspect of urban
poor exist. Existing initiatives
developed for addressing energy
efficiency for low income
households are more reactive than
proactive.
The existing programmes for addressing energy
efficiency in low income households are limited to few
new housing units and demonstrations projects only. It
is recommended that the energy policy and planning
process to also give importance to energy efficiency in
urban poor areas and in existing infrastructure, set
realistic targets and put in place plans and enabling
environment to deliver them in coordination with local
communities and community organizations.

Financial Barrier
The upfront cost and the extra
cost associated with energy
efficient appliances and systems
deter poors access to energy
efficient appliances.
Since the initiatives related to energy efficiency are
usually expensive in the beginning with benefits
accruing only over the time, it is recommended that
flexible and combination of financing structure
including subsidies on capital equipment, project loans,
end user micro- credit is provided particularly for
projects dealing with energy efficiency in low income
communities.

Physical Barrier
The physical location of the slum
areas, which are narrow,
congested and unsafe causes
difficulty in the installation,
delivery and monitoring of energy
services
Urban development and slum upgradation can be
complimentary as both targets towards sustainable city
development. The government should work with the
local community in a participatory approach and
involve them in the revitalization of their
owncommunity. Existing successful slum programmes
(e.g. The Baan Mankong Project) should be replicated
in wider areas.

Awareness Barrier
There is lack of awareness among
the slum dwellers in applying for
a temporary household id, which
can be used to get a legal
connection of electricity from
MEA. Similarly urban slum
dwellers have insufficient
awareness on household energy
efficiency improvements

Involve NGOs and community organizations to raise
awareness in each slum communities informing and
helping them for the application of temporary
household id so that they can legally acquire the
electricity services. Existing awareness programmes
which are limited to public schools, buildings, hospitals
etc should be extended to slum areas as well.

Institutional Barrier
There is lack of dedicated
institutional structure for
addressing energy efficiency for
urban poor and the coordination
between existing agencies
involved in the provision of
energy efficiency improvements
in the urban poor is not effective.
A dedicated institutional structure responsible for
looking at urban energy issues particularly in poor area
is necessary. This will ensure better channelization of
funds and opportunities for addressing energy
efficiency in urban poor region. Since, the urban poor
of Bangkok are within the jurisdiction of Bangkok
Metropolitan Authority (BMA), a dedicated
section/department within BMA to oversee the energy
service need of the urban poor could be a first step. A
common platform (agency, network, etc) could be
envisaged where Department of Alternative Energy
Development and Efficiency (DEDE), Energy Policy
and Planning Office (EPPO), NHA, CODI, BMA and
the 17 different departments within BMA could interact
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and work together to deal with the energy access and
efficiency issue of the urban poor. Furthermore,
capacity development of local authorities, service
providers, community development organizations to
improve their energy access and energy efficiency
services to the urban poor is necessary

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge Global Network on Energy for Sustainable Development (GNESD)
for its support, and The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) for providing the
methodological framework for conducting this study under the Urban and Peri urban energy
access theme (UPEA III). The authors are grateful to all the interviewees and participants who
attended the consultative meeting and policy dialogue for their time and input and also to the
community leaders and the people residing in the urban poor areas of Bangkok who
participated in the survey.

7. REFERENCES

[1] BMA (2010). Statistical Profile of BMA. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Retrieved
from http://office.bangkok.go.th/pipd/05_Stat/08Stat(En)/Stat(En)53/stat_eng2010.pdf
accessed January 2012
[2] Guerra, G.A.V., and Guerra, G.A.V., (2004). Urban Development Issues in Thailand; an
Insight into Bangkok. Thesis submitted to fulfill Master of Science. Thesis No. 259. Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm. Available at
http://www.infra.kth.se/BYFA/publikationer/examensarbeten/2004/259.pdf.
[3] NESDB (2011). Poverty and income distribution. Economic and Social Survey of
Households. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. Available
at http://social.nesdb.go.th/SocialStat/StatSubDefault_Final.aspx?catid=7 accessed
February 2012
[4] Pornchokchai, S., (2003). Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. City Report:
Bangkok. UN-Habitat. Nairobi.
[5] NSO (2006). The Characteristics Of Population And Social In Poor Communities Survey
2006 In Bangkok Metropolis. National Statistical Office. Ministry of Information and
Communication Technology. Bangkok 2008.
[6] UNDP and WHO (2009). The energy access situation in developing countries. A review
focusing on the Least Developed Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa. United Nations
[7] MEA, http://www.mea.or.th/content/view.php?l=th&mid=288&did=180&tid=4&pid=116
accessed February 2012.
[8] ADB (2005). Assessing the impact of Transport and Energy Infrastructure on Poverty
Reduction. Asian Development Bank, DFID, JBIC, and World Bank.
[9] MEA (2011). Electricity Tariffs for Residential Service. Available online
http://www.mea.or.th/profile/index.php?l=en&tid=3&mid=111&pid=109 accessed March
2011.
[10] NSO (2008). A Survey of Public Opinion about 6 Measures in 6 Months to Reduce Crisis
for Everyone. National Statistical Office. Retrieved from
http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/servopin/files/rep6method.pdf
[11] Bangkok Post (2011a). Firms Applaud Scheme Some Bemoan LPG Price will hurt SMES.
Retrieved from http://www.bdo-thaitax.com/bdo/in-the-news/2877 accessed January 2012
[12] Department of Energy Business (2011). Statistics of the Sale of LPG. Retrieved from
http://www.doeb.go.th/info/data/datadistribution/dispose_lpg.xls accessed March 2012.

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Urban Heat-balling: A Review of Measures on Reducing Heat in Tropical and
Subtropical Cities

Matthias Berger
1
1
Future Cities Laboratory, Department of Architecture, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
Tel: (65) 9384 9813, E-mail: mberger@arch.ethz.ch

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Feed-in Tariff in Malaysia: Six Months After

Firdaus Muhammad-Sukki
1,2,*
, Abu Bakar Munir
3
, Siti Hajar Mohd Yasin
4
, Roberto Ramirez-
Iniguez
1
, Siti Hawa Abu-Bakar
1,5
, Scott G McMeekin
1
, Brian G Stewart
1
,
1
School of Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, United Kingdom
2
Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Law, University of Malaya, Malaysia
4
Faculty of Law, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
5
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
* Corresponding Author. Tel: +44(0)141 331 8938, Fax: +44(0)141 331 3690,
E-mail: firdaus.muhammadsukki@gcu.ac.uk

Abstract

Malaysia passed the Renewable Energy Act, in which a feed-in tariff (FiT) scheme is
included, in April 2011. The FiT scheme basically pays renewable energy producers a set rate
(tariff) for each unit of electricity generated and fed into the grid, and generally obliges the
power companies to purchase all the electricity from eligible producers in their service area
over a long period of time, usually 15 to 20 years. The FiT scheme was launched in December
2011 and is administered and managed by the Sustainable Energy Development Authority
(SEDA) of Malaysia. This paper analyses the impact of the FiT mechanism in Malaysia after
six month of its implementation; particularly on the installation and economical aspects. Some
of the interesting findings from the analysis include: (i) the uptake for renewable energy
installations has been extremely high, particularly for solar photovoltaic installation, (ii) the
foreign direct investment and domestic direct investment related to renewable sectors has
increased dramatically, (iii) more green jobs have been created, particularly in the
manufacturing and installation sectors, and (iv) there are plans to include wind and thermal
energy in the FiT scheme. It can be concluded that the FiT scheme in Malaysia has produced
significant results during the first six months of its implementation. With a proper monitoring
process from SEDA and an awareness scheme to the general public, renewable energy will
most likely prosper in Malaysia.

Keywords: Feed-in tariff, renewable energy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is a fundamental aspect to peoples life, and is essential not only for individuals but
also for various sectors, including agricultural, transportation as well as for industrial activities
that are vital to the social and economic growth of every country. Malaysia is one of the
countries that are experiencing a strong economic growth with a steady increase in energy
demand. The country is heavily dependent on fossil fuels to support its energy need. To ensure
the countrys economy is resilient and sustainable in the long run, the Government of Malaysia
(GoM) has started to elevate the usage of renewable in delivering its energy need.
The journey towards renewable energy usage in Malaysia has been discussed in detail in a
number of literatures [1]-[7]. For the past 30 years, the GoM has introduced a number of
policies which help to accelerate the renewable energy penetration in Malaysia. Before 1980,
Malaysia relied greatly on oil as the primary source of electricity. In 1981, Malaysia
introduced the Four Fuel Diversification Policy, in which hydro was listed as one of the
contributors to the nations energy mix [1]. This policy helped to reduce the dependency on oil
greatly from about 90% in 1980 to only 4.2% in 2000. Although hydro managed to supply
around 10% of the electricity requirement in Malaysia, another 90% of the supply was still
dominated by other non-renewable sources, i.e. coal and natural gas [6]. In 2001, the GoM
started to consider non-hydro renewable energy as one of the key sources of energy by
implementing the Fifth Fuel Policy. This policy identified the potential in biomass, biogas,
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municipal waste, solar and mini hydro as sources of electricity generation. Unfortunately, this
policy only managed to reach 0.3% of electricity being generated by renewable energy by the
year 2005 [1]. In April 2011, the GoM passed the Renewable Energy Act (REA), in which
introduces the Feed-in Tariff (FiT) scheme in Malaysia [8]. It is aimed at achieving 5.5% of
the electricity generated from renewable energy sources by the end of 2015 [9].

2. FEED-IN TARIFF IN MALAYSIA

The FiT schemes, basically means renewable energy producers will be paid a set rate (tariff)
for each unit of electricity fed into the grid, and generally obliges the power companies to
purchase all the electricity from eligible producers in their service area over a long period of
time - usually 15 to 20 years [10]. From a study conducted by the Malaysias Ministry of
Energy, Green Technology and Water, it is concluded that FiT is the most effective
renewable energy policy mechanism in promoting and sustaining renewable energy growth
[10].
The FiT scheme in Malaysia started on the 1
st
December 2011 and is administered and
implemented by a new entity called the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA)
of Malaysia. There are four renewable energy sources that are listed under the FiT scheme: (i)
biogas, (ii) biomass (including municipal solid waste), (iii) small hydropower, and (iv) solar
photovoltaic (PV) [12]. These four are chosen based on proven technologies and technical
potential under the local environment in Malaysia [12]. The FiT rate for each unit of generated
electricity varies according to the source of energy, as illustrated in Table 1. To finance this
FiT scheme, a renewable energy fund is created and the money is coming from the consumers
themselves. This is achieved by increasing the current electricity tariff by 1% (only applicable
to consumers with monthly electricity consumptions of more than 300kWh per month), and
that amount is pooled into the fund [14].

Table 1 The FiT rate for applicable renewable energy source. Adapted from [12].

Type
FiT rate
(MYR/kWh)
Effective
period
(year)
Degression rate
(%)
Biogas 0.28 - 0.43 16 0.5 1.8
Biomass 0.27 - 0.45 16 0.5 1.8
Small Hydropower 0.23 - 0.24 21 0.0
Solar Photovoltaic 0.85 - 1.78 21 8.0

In order to benefit from the FiT scheme, i.e. to sell the electricity generated from renewable
energy to the distribution licensee, an application to become a Feed-in Approval (FiA) must to
be submitted and granted by SEDA Malaysia. This can be done manually or online via SEDA
Malaysias official website. The online application system, known as the e-FiT Online system
is used widely as compared to the manual application. Currently, the FiT scheme is only
applicable to installations carried out in West Malaysia. As for the East Malaysia, applications
from Sabah could reap the benefit of FiT only if they have previously participated in the Small
Renewable Energy Power Programme (SREP) [15].
Catalyzed by the FiT scheme, renewable energy sources are expected to play a significant role
in Malaysia, with a projected cumulative capacity of 11.5GW by 2050. From this, close to
9GW is expected to come from solar PV, as illustrated in Fig. 1 [13]. This could potentially
avoid an emission of 17,649,620 tonnes of CO
2
a year by 2050 [13].

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Fig. 1 Cumulative value of the renewable energies in Malaysia (2011-2050). Adapted from
[13].

3. IMPACT OF THE FIT SCHEME

3.1 Progress of Renewable Energy Installation
The e-FiT online application system which was launched on 2
nd
December 2011 received
immense response from the public. SEDA imposes a quota for the renewable applications
mainly to ensure the availability of the fund. The quota is different depending on the
technology and is set for every 6-month window for the next three years. Two hours after it
was launched, the three-year quota for small scale non-residential solar PV was taken
up. Within 24 hours, there were a total of 229 applications submitted, of which 201 are for
solar photovoltaic (PV) corresponding to 143.78MW. As of 24 May 2012, there were
377applications received under the FIT scheme, 348 of them were for solar PV. Table 2 shows
the statistic for renewable energy capacity in Malaysia by 30 June 2012. Based on this data,
the total cumulative capacity for all renewable energy by 2014 is approximately 379.23MW.

Table 2 Renewable energy capacities granted with Feed-in Approval under the FiT scheme.
Adapted from [12].

Renewable Energy Type
In
Operation
(MW)
In Progress
(MW) Total
(MW)
2012 2012 2013 2014
Biogas 0.00 2.13 0.00 0.00 2.13
Biogas (Landfill /Sewage) 0.00 8.36 4.00 0.00 12.36
Biomass 24.90 45.00 41.50 6.00 117.40
Biomass (Solid Waste) 0.00 8.90 0.00 0.00 8.90
Small Hydro 0.00 15.70 28.30 28.25 72.25
Solar PV (Individual) 0.18 6.69 2.67 0.00 9.54
Solar PV (Non-individual ( 500
KW))
0.01 7.48 6.77 4.30 18.56
Solar PV (Non-individual (> 1MW
5MM))
0.00 56.05 55.02 27.02 138.09
Total 25.09 150.31 138.26 65.57 379.23

It is evident that the uptake for the FiT applications is dominated by the solar PV. A study
conducted by Green Prospect Asia lists out the possible reasons of fewer applications from
other types of renewable energies, which include [15]: (i) significantly low tariffs of between
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MYR0.23 and MYR0.45 per kWh resulting in very low return on investment; (ii) high capital
cost for biomass and biogas plant, e.g. a one 10MW biomass plant can costs about
MYR120million; (iii) lack of interest and expertise in power generation among existing
players; (iv) limited cost savings potential from rationalization of maturing (biogas and
biomass) and mature (hydro) technologies; (v) higher demand for feedstock for other non-
renewable usage creating less supply for biomass segment; (vi) limitations in transmission
infrastructure in rural areas where existing feedstock operators are located, and (vii) monopoly
in ownership of oil plantation in Peninsular Malaysia creating uneven bargaining position for
potential power generators.
SEDA has announced a new plan to address the uneven renewable energy mix. Among the
proposed plans are:
To reduce the tariff for solar PV installation, this is in line with the downward trend of solar
PV cost. Current cost per kWp of a solar PV is MYR15,000 and is projected to reduce by
MYR2200 per year [10].
To re-allocate the quota of each renewable energy category, reducing the imbalance in
renewable energy mixture,
To introduce the FiT payment for thermal and wind. Recently, SEDA has already advertised a
plan for wind study to investigate the wind energy potential and justify the inclusion of wind
energy in the FiT scheme [12]. A study on a geothermal site in Tawau, Sabah indicates that it
could potentially produce up to 67MW, enough to satisfy the electricity requirement of
Tawaus resident [16].

3.2 Investment in the Economy
It has been proven that the introduction of FiT contributed to the positive economic
development in many countries, for example Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom.
This is also the case for Malaysia. The Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water
states that the FiT in Malaysia could: (i) create minimum about 52,000 jobs which relates to
the renewable energy technologies and power plants; (ii) generates more than MYR70 billion
of business revenue from renewable energy power plants operation, and (iii) creation of a
minimum of MYR19 billion worth of loan to fund the renewable energy project which will
be provided by the banks [11].
It is not possible to obtain the exact figure pertaining to the domestic and foreign direct
investment. However, based on the report of the Malaysia Investment Development Authority
(MIDA) published in February 2012 [16], Malaysia gained a total of MYR 9.6 billion worth of
investment in the electrical sector, where solar industry contributes to approximately MYR7
billion
1
. Table 3 shows some of the significant projects approved in Malaysia.

Table 3 Significant projects approved in Malaysia which relates to renewable technologies.
Adapted from [16].

Company
Investment Value
(MYR)
Job
creations
Description
Wholly foreign-
owned company
4.5 billion 3,400
Design, develop and manufacture
photovoltaic wafer, cells and
modules
Wholly Malaysian-
owned company
101.5 million 95
Produce super capacitors for solar
energy applications
Wholly foreign-
owned company
4.4 million N/A
Manufacture components for
smart energy solutions

1
In April 2012, First Solar, one of the biggest investors in solar technology in Malaysia has ceased operation in
Malaysia. It is reported that the company is cutting down its workforce by 30% worldwide mainly due to global
recession, competition from China market and also reduction of solar subsidies in Europe [19].
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The FiT has also created a number of business opportunities for the local renewable energy
industry. These includes in the areas of consultancy, manufacturing, providing of services, ,
financing and supplying of equipments. . This information is made available on SEDAs
website to help consumers in installing their renewable energy projects. To date, SEDA has
recorded more than 150 companies. [12].
Interestingly, in April 2012, SEDA presented a statistic indicating the total number of job
creations, the installed capacity of renewable energy technology as well as the carbon dioxide
reduction, illustrated in Table 4. This data was based on the information from the e-FiT system
as of 29 February 2012, where it shows that about 8,853 jobs have been created after 3 months
of the e-FiT system launched. The two highest contributions come from the solar PV and the
biomass sectors - about 3,978 and 3,429 jobs respectively.

Table 4 Statistic of green job creation in Malaysia, as of 29 February 2012. Adapted from [18].

Renewable Energy Technology
Number
of Job
Creation
Renewable
Energy
Generation
(MWh)
Installe
d
Capacit
y
(MW)
CO2
reduction
(tones)
Biogas (palm oil waste, agro based,
farming)
362 113,641 14.48 60,494
Biogas (palm oil waste, agro based) 3,429 419,004 114.30 1,209,399
Small Hydro 1,083 1,789,141 72.25 568,662
Solar PV 3,978 182,773 159.14 332,623
Total 8,853 2,504,564 311.56 2,171,179

3.3 Awareness Activity
The Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water has been actively in promoting
awareness on renewable energy in Malaysia. One of the campaigns is the Green Community
Carnival, which was first introduced in March 2011 and has been an on-going activity
conducted in various cities in Malaysia. With the theme 1 Hijau 1 Komuniti, the carnival is
aimed to encourage the community to adopt a greener way of life, protect and preserve the
environment, introduce green products and to highlight green initiatives advocated by the
government to promote green living [20]. The local mass media also play a vital role in the
awareness campaign, i.e. by actively airing and publishing the latest progress of renewable
energy to Malaysians [21]-[25].
Also, the Ministry has organized a number of green technology conferences that bring together
the academia and the industry [20]. Besides this, a number of scal incentives are introduced
to help promote the usage of renewable technology, such as the Green Technology Financing
Scheme (GTFS), Pioneer Status(PS), Investment Tax Allowance (ITA), and exemption from
payment of Import Duty and/or Sales Tax on machinery, equipment, materials, spare parts and
consumables as well as a soft loan scheme for residential consumers [7],[10],[26].
Besides the FiT scheme, the Ministry continues with a programme known as Sustainability
Achieved via Energy Efficiency (SAVE), to improve energy efficiency in Malaysia [20]. This
initiative is implemented in order to stimulate sales of energy-efficient appliances - by
providing rebates for refrigerators, air-conditioners and chillers to qualified consumers.
Specifically for a five-star rated refrigerator, a household could obtain a rebate vouchers worth
MYR200 while for a five-star rated air conditioners, the vouchers is worth MYR100. The
Ministry has approved an allocation of 100,000 rebate vouchers for five-star rated refrigerators
and 65,000 vouchers for five-star rated air conditioners to all the states across Malaysia.

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4. ISSUE ON THE E-FIT SYSTEM

Although there are a lot of positive developments in Malaysia, a negative report [27] has been
exposed recently regarding the e-FiT system. It was reported that 32.4% of the solar energy
quota was awarded to 12 companies linked to Suzi Suliana, the daughter of the Chairman of
Malaysias oil and gas company, PETRONAS. The report states that all the 12 companies
were set up weeks before the launched of the e-FiT system, and these companies could
potentially get more than MYR70 million annually from the FiT scheme. In response to the
allegation, SEDA announced that the e-FiT system is transparent, which does not allow any
human interference. SEDA also states that the applications are based on the first come first
served basis, and the online system will only accept application that has fulfilled all criteria
needed [12]. SEDA further states that that the e-FiT system is undergoing maintenance to
further improve its online system [12].

5. CONCLUSION

Malaysia is seriously pushing the renewable energy by providing great stimulus. The FiT
scheme has proven to help accelerate the renewable energy penetration in the country. Only
after six months of its implementation, significant installation of renewable technology is
recorded. The FiT scheme has attracted significant amount of investment from local and
foreign investors, hence creating new job opportunities for the Malaysians. The Government
of Malaysia also has been actively involved in creating awareness among the general public.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Glasgow Caledonian University, Scottish Funding Council
and Yayasan TM for funding this research activity.

7. REFERENCES

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[11]. Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (2011). Handbook on the Malaysian
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Malaysia.

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Energy Use and Intensity in a Cross-section of Countries: The Role of Energy
Subsidy

Gairuzazmi Mat Ghani
Department of Economics, Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences, International Islamic
University Malaysia, P.O. Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel: (60-3)6196 4056, Fax: (60-3)6196 4156, E-mail: gairuzazm@iium.edu.my

Abstract
Energy use across countries varies widely. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of
energy price in explaining the variation of energy use across countries using EKC model
augmented with energy price, as models base on EKC that do not include energy price are
biased. The results show that energy demand is not sensitive to changes in price. However,
given the big magnitude of energy subsidy in some countries with large population such as
India and Indonesia, reduction in subsidy may affect global energy use. The inverted U-shape
relationship between energy use and economic development hold even with the addition of
energy price, however the turning point for income is outside the range of the data.
Meanwhile, the log quadratic equation does not support the EKC hypothesis, suggesting the
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sensitivity of EKC turning point to different econometric specifications. This means that
economic growth will not be able to decrease energy use and/or pollution, which is further
supported by the cross sectional regressions. Even though cross sectional regression of
different years support EKC turning points but the turning point increases every year.

Keywords: Energy Consumption, EKC, Energy Price

1. INTRODCUTION

Energy use is the main cause of most pollutants that harm the environment [1-4]. Hence
understanding factors affecting the level of energy use across countries is important in
designing and implementing sustainable energy and environmental policy. Energy use across
countries varies widely, but high income countries consume a large share of global energy use.
In 2008 the average energy use per capita for high income countries was 5702.9 kg of oil
equivalent,
2
while for low income countries the average was only 408.1 kg of oil equivalent.
The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis that postulates an inverted U-shape
relationship between environmental quality/resource use and economic development has been
used to explain the wide variation of energy use across countries [5-7]. One weakness of the
EKC model used in explaining energy use is the omission of energy price [8-10]. Changes in
energy price may induce substitution of energy for capital and/or labor as the factor of
production. It may also induce adoption of more energy efficient technology, for example,
Bresnahan and Ramey [11] showed that the 1974 and 1980 oil shocks shift the mix of demand
for different size classes of automobiles, and Crandall [12] indicated that when the second oil
shock occurred in 1978-79, fuel-efficient foreign cars became more popular in the U.S. The
importance of price in the EKC equation is further emphasized by Richmond and Kaufmann
[10] who showed the EKC turning point was not supported when prices are augmented to the
standard EKC equation, and concluded that the relationship between income and energy use is
better represented by diminishing returns, thus economic development per se will not reduce
energy use, and models base on EKC that do not include energy price are biased.
The aim of this paper is to examine the role of energy price in explaining the variation of
energy use across countries using EKC model augmented with energy price. The present study
adds upon Richmond and Kaufmann [10] by including developing countries as examination of
the EKC hypothesis requires countries at different level of economic development. The calls
to rationalize energy prices reverberating in many countries [13-14] also indicate the need to
undertand the sensitivity of energy use to changes in price. The changes in energy price may
also affect economic growth and political stability especially in countries that have been
subsidizing their energy use. Mass protests over the announcement of energy subsidy
reduction in countries such as Nigeria, India and Indonesia point to the need to understand the
sensitivity of energy use to changes in the price level. When Nigerian Petroleum Products
Pricing Regulatory Agency (PPPRA) announced plan to scrap fuel subsidy effective on
January 1st 2012, protests that turned deadly forced the government to back down from the
plan,
3
which indicates governments need to tread through this sensitive issues delicately and
the calculation of the sensitivity of energy consumption to changes in price levels are
imperative.

2. BACKGROUND

2.1 Energy Price
The price of diesel is used to proxy energy price because of unavailability, inconsistency and
non-comparability of energy price index for many countries especially developing countries.
As pointed by GTZ [15] debates on fuel pricing and taxation as well as approaches and

2
Source: World Development Indicators. Unweighted average is used.
3
The Guardian 18
th
January, 2012. BBC News Africa 1
st
January 2012.
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policies on energy efficiency are hampered by the lack of data on fuel prices and subsidies
. The data for the diesel prices are from the GTZ International Fuel Prices survey,
4
which is
comissioned by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ). Diesel price is the proxy used because it is one of the main fuels used by industrial
and transportation sectors beside coal, hence constribute highly to the share of energy use. The
price of diesel also correlates highly with gasoline price (correlation of 0.86 in 2008), and as a
share of energy use globally gasoline and diesel made up about 35% of total energy use [16].
Furthermore, there is also integration among oil, coal and gas prices, albeit weakly [17-18].
One important characteristic of energy markets across countries is the wide variation in fuel
prices. For example, in 2008 the average price for a liter of diesel in Iran was USD 0.03, the
price was USD 0.78 in the U.S, and in Switzerland the price was USD 1.65 [15]. The variation
is due to changes in global oil prices and individual country legal and policy frameworks such
as subsidy and tax structures. Table 1 summarizes the distribution of diesel prices per liter
across countries over time. The prices (in nominal term) range from a minimum of USD 0.01
to a maximum of 1.71 USD. Over the years the minimum price level does not change,
meaning that in real terms minimum price has decreased, but maximum price increased from
1.22 USD in 2000 to 1.78 USD in 2006. The yearly average price also increase from 0.45
USD in 2000 to 0.99 USD in 2008. Table 2 shows the average prices for a liter of diesel by
region, where the European countries have the highest average while the OPEC countries have
the lowest. Table 3 shows average prices by countrys income level, similar with Table 2, high
income countries average diesel price is the highest, which is followed by low income, upper
middle and lower middle income countries. The variation in energy prices across region and
income suggest that it may be an important factor in explaining the variation in energy use.

Table 1: Distribution of Diesel Price by Year (U.S. Cent)
Year Mean Standard
Deviation
Minimum Maximum Observation
2000
45.2 22.5 2
122
148
2002 44.7
23.4
1 120 149
2004 66.1 34.1 1 160 159
2006 83.5 36.4 1 178 157
2008 98.8 39.6 1 170 153

Table 2: Average Diesel Price by Region (in U.S. Cent)
Year Region
N. & S.
America
Africa Asia Pacific Europe OPEC
2000 42.18 46.49 32.47 63.88 13.50
2002 35.93 45.30 31.40 70.05 13.50
2004 54.45 69.31 44.36 106.07 17.31
2006 69.03 85.02 65.41 125.65 26.83
2008 85.50 102.06 80.18 135.14 32.10

Table 3: Average Diesel Price by Income Level (in U.S. Cent)
Income Level

4
http://www.giz.de (the survey also include gasoline prices)
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Year High Upper Middle Lower Middle Low
2000 64.1 40.2 36.0 50.6
2002 65.6 39.1 37.3 46.8
2004 95.4 57.8 56.7 72.6
2006 109.1 76.5 76.3 90.8
2008 126.5 89.8 91.6 108.0

GTZ divides the diesel prices into four categories: (i) prices with very high subsidies, (ii)
prices with subsidies, (iii) prices with taxation, and (iv) prices with very high taxation. In
2008, diesel price with very high subsdies is defined as retail price of diesel that is below the
price of crude oil in the world market; price with subsidy is retail price that is above the price
of crude oil in the world market, but below the U.S. price level. GTZ consider the fuel price
without specific fuel taxes as the minimum benchmark for a non-subsidised road transport
policy. U.S. diesel price with average cost-covering retail price that include industry margin,
value added tax (VAT) and approximately 10 U.S. cents for the federal and state road funds is
used as the benchmark. Price with taxation is retail price that is above the price level of the
U.S. but below the price level for Spain. Spain is used as the reference point for 2008 because
fuel price in Spain was the lowest in EU-15 in 2008. Price with very high taxation is retail
price of diesel that is above the price level of Spain. EU countries are the benchmark for high
taxation as prices in EU countries are subjected to VAT, specific fuel taxes and country
specific duties and taxes. The taxes are also used to generate revenues and encourage energy
efficiency.
The sources of data used by the GTZ International Fuel Prices Survey vary. Diesel price data
for developed countries are mainly from the German automobile club Allgemeiner Deutscher
Automobile Club (ADAC) in Munich. Most of the data for developing countries, especially
those in Africa and Asia, are based on surveys conducted by GTZs local offices. In some
cases, the German embassies/consulates collect the relevant data. Diesel price within a country
may also differ. In order to take into account the differences; for European countries,
nationwide average fuel price was used, for non-European countries fuel prices in the
respective capital cities were used. If several fuel prices for major cities were available, the
unweighted average was used. The U.S. Dollar was the reference currency and in countries
with different or double exchange rates, the parallel/black market rate was given preference
over the official exchange rate.

Figure 1: Distribution of Diesel Subsidy and Taxation (2004, 2006 and 2008)
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In 2008, there are 12 countries with diesel price classified as Very High Subsidy, 29 countries
are with diesel price classified as with Subsidy, 76 countries are with diesel price classified as
with Taxation, and 41 countries classified as with Very High Taxation. Figure 1 shows the
distribution of countries with subsidy and taxation. In 2008, 74.05% (25.95% and 48.10% of
countries with high taxation and taxation respectively) of the countries taxed the consumption
of diesel (energy) while 25.95% subsidize energy consumption. The amount of subsidy is as
high as 0.77 USD per liter in Venezuela. The percentage of countries with subsidy (very high
subsidy and subsidy) has been decreasing from 38.37% in 2004, 33.12% in 2006 and 25.94%
in 2008.

2.2 Environmental Kuznets Curve
Price distortion due to energy subsidy may lead to wastage of energy use; consequently
increase local and global pollution level. In fact, the resources channelled for the energy
subsidy may be better utilized if earmarked for education and/or research and development of
renewable energy resources. Cross country studies which include energy price in the analysis
are sparse, and when prices are included proxies such as consumer price index (CPI) [19],
GDP deflator [20] or U.S. gasoline price are used. In studying 34 developing and developed
countries Agras and Chapman [9] used U.S. real gasoline price to study the affect of energy
price on the EKC hypothesis. It shows that a rise in U.S. gasoline price from 1978 to 1980
corresponds to a significant decrease in the value of the time coefficient in the panel
regression. This means that as energy price increases less energy per capita are used.
Similarly, a price decrease in 1981 is followed by an increase in the time coefficient as
countries re-adjust to lower prices and become less concerned about energy conservation. The
weakness of this method is that energy prices across countries are different; the U.S. gasoline
price will only capture changes in price if a country price level is integrated with U.S.s price.
In fact for some countries changes in energy price may not be related with the U.S. because of
the imposition of subsidy or taxation.
Richmond and Kaufmann [10] examined the relationship between economic activity and both
energy use and carbon emissions based on a panel that includes sixteen OECD countries with
observations for the period 1978 to 1997. The panel is restricted to the availability of energy
prices data. To test whether there is a turning point in the relationship between income and
energy use and/or carbon emissions, fourteen models that include income, fuel shares, and real
oil prices were estimated. The study showed that real oil prices have a statistically measurable
effect on per-capita energy use and carbon emissions, thus studies examining EKC for energy
use suffer from omitted variable bias and affects conclusions about turning point. Holtz-Eakin
and Selden [21] and Schmalensee et al. [22], for example, supported turning point in the
relationship between income and carbon emissions when energy prices are not included.
The EKC assumes that economic development causes energy consumption, and that
improvement in economic development will change the structure of the economy which
results in the use of energy efficient technology and reduction in energy use. Reasons for the
relationship have included income driven changes in: (1) the composition of production and
consumption; (2) the preference for environmental quality; (3) institutions that are needed to
internalize externalities; and/or (4) increasing returns to scale associated with pollution
abatement [23]. Yet a related literature that studies the causality of energy consumption and
economic growth has been mixed on the cause and effect of economic growth and energy use,
the time spans, subject selections and econometric models used significantly affect the
outcomes [24]. Studies on the EKC have also augmented other variables to the EKC equation,
such as climate and geographical factors [25, 26], institutional structure that include religion,
law, social, and historical [26] and political freedom [27].

2.3 Income and Energy Use
Table 4 summarizes the distribution of energy use per capita across countries. The maximum
energy use is about 150 times greater than the minimum, almost similar to the magnitude of
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different between minimum and maximum energy prices (Table 1). The average energy use
for countries at different levels of economic development differs (Table 5). For 2008, the
average for high income countries is more than 10 times greater than low income countries.
The average for lower middle income is twice of that low income, and the average of upper
middle is about twice of the lower middle income, and the different between upper middle and
high income is about three times. The lack of and unequal distribution of access to energy use
has been associated with poverty and unequal distribution of income globally (28). Yet,
universal access to electricity by 2030 will only increase global energy use by 2.5% [29].

Table 4: Summary Statistics of Energy Use per capita (kg of Oil Equivalent)
Year Mean Standard
Deviation
Minimum Maximum Observation
2000 2347.8 2693.0 132.2 18585.7 135
2002 2380.6 2730.4 142.4 19160.8 135
2004 2526.2 3020.1 149.5 22336.5 135
2006 2614.8 3101.8 150.9 19817.0 135
2008 2671.9 3193.0 138.2 18829.5 135

Table 5: Average Energy Use per Capita by Income Level (kg of Oil Equivalent)
Income Level OPEC
Year High Upper Middle Lower Middle Low
2000 4480.8 1475.2 665.1 382.9 4532.7
2002 4551.0 1507.1 673.4 385.6 4547.5
2004 4765.3 1612.9 698.2 394.6 5066.0
2006 5037.2 1695.4 712.1 402.9 4845.6
2008 5072.9 1780.7 731.3 408.1 5034.3

3. EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

Following the EKC literature [23, 30], the following augmented EKC models are used:

(1)
(2)

where E is energy consumption in kg of oil equivalent per capita, GDP is GDP per capita,
GDP
2
is the square of GDP per capita, Pr is energy price, ln indicates natural log,
i
and
t
are
the country-fixed and time-fixed effects respectively and
it
is the error term. Stern [23]
advocated the use of quadratic log specification (2) instead of quadratic function at level (1) as
the log dependent variable will limit the dependent variable from having negative or zero
values. Economic activities imply consumption of resources, hence equation (1) that allows
dependent variable to become zero or negative are inappropriate. This study uses both models
as the choice of quadratic versus log quadratic depends on the anticipated shape of the
relationship. The quadratic model assumes a symmetrical curve while a log quadratic model
assumes a quicker increase as a country industrializes, with a more gradual decrease on the
downward slope as a country becomes less energy intensive [30].
The periods included in the study: 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008 are
based on the availability of the diesel price data (The number of observations differs especially
in the early year). Annual data for energy consumption in kg of oil equivalent per capita and
GDP in constant 2000 USD are from the World Bank World Development Indicators. Energy
price data are from GTZ as discussed in section 2. The diesel prices are deflated using U.S.
CPI sourced from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Table 6 reports the regression results estimated with ordinary least squares, country and year
fixed effects, with robust (clustered) standard errors over the full sample. Column one and two
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report the results for the quadratic equation, column three for the log quadratic equation and
column four for the log-log specification.With regards to energy price, there is a negative
relationship between price and energy consumption in all of the specifications. In the quadratic
specification (column two) a one cent increase in energy price reduces energy use by 2.2 kg of
oil equivalent per capita. The average energy use per capita in 2008 is 2671.9 kg of oil
equivalent, while average real diesel price is 98.8, this means that at the average a one cent
increase in price is an increase of energy price by about 1%, while a 2.2 kg decrease in energy
use is a decrease of energy use by only 0.08%. The log-log and quadratic log specification
indicates that the price elasticity of energy consumption is about 0.04. This means that energy
consumption is not price elastic; an increase in price will not reduce energy use significantly.
If the result is used to predict India and Indonesia which accounted for 19.8% of world
population in 2008 with a population of 1.3 billion; a one cent reduction in energy price may
reduce energy use in Indonesia and India by about 2.9 billion kg (2,900kt) of oil equivalent,
similar with Senegals energy use of 2,858 kt. In 2008, Eritrea energy use of 677 kt of oil
equivalent is the minimum while world energy use amounted to 11,902,343 kt of oil
equivalent (1kt = 1,000,000 kg).
Result from the quadratic regression does not support Richmond and Kaufmann [10] as EKC
turning point is statistically significant even after the introduction of energy price. The turning
point is reached when GDP/capita is 54,210; however, only one country has reached the
turning point during the period of study, which is Luxembourg with a GDP/Capita of
56,187.56 in 2008. The United States and Japan GDP/capita in 2008 of 38,341.629 and
40,253.68 respectively are far from the turning point.
As a robustness check, results for cross sectional regression using the quadratic specification
for the year 2008, 2004, 2000 and 1998 are reported in table 7. The sign for the coefficients is
similar with the panel regressions but the magnitude of the coefficients differs; the price
coefficients are much smaller relative to the panel regression. An important observation for the
cross-sectional regression is that the turning point consistently increases from 34,671 in 1998
to 49,357 in 2008. Similar with the panel regression the turning points are at the end of the
sample. More importantly, the increasing turning point suggests that the EKC is shifting,
which means that economic growth may not be able to decrease enery use and/or pollution.
Unlike quadratic equation, the turning point is not suppoted by the log quadratic equation over
the whole sample (Column 3, Table 6) and cross sectional yearly sample (Table 8).

Table 6: Panel Regression
Column 1
a
Column 2
a
Column 3
b
Column 4
b

(ln)GDP/Capita 0.309

(0.027)
0.206

(0.029)
0.062
(0.103)
0.292

(0.027)
(ln)GDP/Capita
2
-3.60 x10
-6

(4.20 x10
-7
)
-1.90 x10
-6

(4.37 x10
-7
)

0.0166

(0.007)

(ln)Price -2.215

(0.977)
-0.037

(0.010)
-0.040

(0.010)
Observation 1169 865 865 865
Notes: Clustered standard error in parentthesis.

Notes:
significant at 5%,

significant at 1%.

a
Quadratic specification
b
log-log specification. Country, year dummy and constant are not
reported.

Table 7: Cross Section Regression by Year (Quadratic specification at level)
2008 2004 2000 1998
GDP/Capita 0.307

(0.048)
0.413

(0.063)
0.375

(0.049)
0.432

(0.053)
GDP/Capita
2
-3.11x10
-6

(1.08 x10
-6
)
-4.74 x10
-6
(1.27 x10
-6
)
-4.87 x10
-6
(1.27 x10
-6
)
-6.23 x10
-6
(1.44 x10
-6
)
Price -20.548
-31.209
-30.720
-34.954

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(5.502) (9.347) (6.623) (6.662)
Constant 2175.973

(411.701)
2119.447

(437.517)
1771.813

(268.012)
1605.265

(209.800)
R
2
0.61 0.64 0.71 0.75
Observation 117 121 116 118
Turning Point 49356.9 43565.4 38501.0 34670.9
Notes:
significant at 5%,

significant at 1%.

Table 8: Cross Section Regression by Year (Log quadratic specification)
2008 2004 2000 1998
lnGDP/Capita 0.100
(0.317)
-0.126
(0.296)
-0.136
(0.292)
-0.181
(0.276)
lnGDP/Capita
2
0.030
(0.020)
0.046

(0.019)
0.047

(0.019)
0.050

(0.018)
lnPrice -0.192

(0.071)
-0.246

(0.050)
-0.290

(0.079)
-0.296

(0.078)
Constant 4.378

(1.204)
5.035

(1.098)
4.986

(1.063)
5.099

(0.985)
R
2
0.76 0.78 0.77 0.75
Observation 117 121 116 118
Notes:
significant at 5%,

significant at 1%.

4. CONCLUSION

Increase in the price of energy reduces use however very minimally. The inelasticity of energy
demand to price suggests small reduction in subsidy may not reduce pollution by much.
However, given the big magnitude of energy subsidy in some countries with large population
such as India and Indonesia reduction in subsidy may affect global energy use significantly.
The inverted U-shape relationship between energy use and economic development hold even
with the addition of energy price to the quadratic EKC equation, however, similar with other
studies in the EKC literature, the turning point for income is outside the range of the data.
Meanwhile, the log quadratic equation does not support the EKC hypothesis, suggesting the
sensitivity of EKC turning point to specification. This means that economic growth will not be
able to decrease enery use and/or pollution, which further supported by the cross sectional
regressions. Even though turning points are supported based on the cross sectional regression,
the turning point increases every year.

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Promoting Efficient Use of Energy by Procurement of Green ICT Devices:
Malaysian Government Approaches

Khairul Naim Adham
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1

1
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (6017) 3177207, Fax: (603) 89255104, E-mail: naimadham@gmail.com

Abstract
The use of environmentally friendly Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
devices have been recognized as an effective means of reducing environmental impacts. In this
view, ICT could play an important role in promoting environmental sustainability as ICT
industry is responsible for 2-3 percent of global carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emission. For this
reason, the use of green ICT appliances potentially enhances environmental performance. In
the context of Malaysia, Green ICT refers to the practice of manufacturing, using and
disposing of computers, servers, and related accessories efficiently and effectively with
minimal or no impact on the environment. Green ICT benefits the environment by reducing
the use of hazardous materials, improving energy efficiency, lowering green house gas (GHG)
emissions, and encouraging reuse and recycling. As a major consumer of ICT products, the
Malaysian Government can take a leading role by setting environmental requirements in its
ICT products procurement. The study provides an overview of Malaysian Government
approaches in greening its ICT by analyzing relevant Government documents. The study
reveals that the Malaysian Government has shown its commitment towards the use of Green
ICT products as Malaysian Government has embarked on a number of initiatives such as
issuing of the Guidelines for Green ICT in the Public Sector and the implementation of
Green Data Centre.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Micro-Generation Renewable Energy Program for Developing Countries

Dr. M. Asif,
School of Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK,
Muhammad.asif@gc.ac.uk

Abstract
Lack of access to sufficient and affordable energy is one of the major challenges facing the
developing countries. While grid connectivity remains to be an issue for a significant
proportion of population in these countries, renewable energy offers an appropriate solution to
meet energy requirements. In this respect, many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America
have initiated micro-generation renewable energy programs. The article looks into some of
these programs with a particular focus on Grameen Shakti. It reflects upon the salient features
of Grameen Shakti which have helped it become the worlds most successful micro-generation
energy program.

Keywords: Micro-generation, renewable energy, fossil fuels, global warming, sustainable
development

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy drives human life and is extremely crucial for continued human development.
Throughout the course of history, with the evolution of civilizations, the human demand for
energy has continuously risen. Energy has a pivotal role to play in the existence of modern
societies. Provision of affordable and sufficient energy is essential for eradicating poverty,
improving human welfare, and raising living standards across the world. The per capita energy
consumption is regarded as an index to gauge the socio-economic prosperity in any society.
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The Human Development Index (HDI) of a country thus has a strong relationship with its
energy prosperity [1].
Poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, and environmental degradation are amongst the most
important challenges facing the world. Poor and inadequate access to secure and affordable
energy is one of the crucial factors behind these issues. Electricity, for example, is vital for
providing basic social services such as education and health, water supply and purification,
sanitation and refrigeration of essential medicines. Electricity can also be helpful in supporting
a wide range of income-generating opportunities. With the growing world population and
peoples innate aspirations for improved life, a central and collective global issue in the new
century is to sustain socio-economic growth within the constraints of the Earths limited
natural resources.
There is a global consensus that the provision of secure, affordable and socially acceptable
energy services is a prerequisite for eradicating poverty in order to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). The United Nations acknowledges that without increased
investment in the energy sector, the MDGs will not be achieved in the poorest countries. It is
estimated that almost 1.2 billion additional people will need access to electricity and 1.9
billion people will need access to modern fuels by 2015 if the goal of halving the proportion of
people living in poverty is to be met [2].
The article discusses the energy and environmental challenges facing the developing countries.
It explores the prospects of the micro-generation renewable energy as a potential solution to
addressing these challenges. Finally, the article reflects upon the Grameen Sahkti micro-
generation program as a role model for developing countries.

2. ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES FOR DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES

The global demand for energy is rapidly increasing with increasing human population,
urbanization and modernization. The growth in global energy demand is projected to rise
sharply over the coming years. The enormous amount of energy being consumed across the
world is having adverse implications on the ecosystem of the planet. Fossil fuels, contributing
to over 80% of worlds total energy requirements [3], are inflicting enormous impacts on the
environment. Climatic changes driven by human activities, in particular the production of
greenhouse gas emissions, directly impact the environment.
The global energy scenario faces stringent challenges in terms of depletion of fossil fuels,
surging energy prices and global warming. Fossil fuels, through their production and
consumption, are closely linked to environmental degradation that threatens human health and
quality of life, and affects ecological balance and biological diversity. In order to meet the
rapidly increasing global energy needs without irreparable environmental damage, it is
essential to have a worldwide drive to exploit energy systems that do not endanger the life of
current and future generations and do not exceed the carrying capacity of ecosystems.
Renewable energy that use indigenous resources have the potential to provide energy services
with almost nil emissions of both air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Access to sufficient and affordable energy is a much greater challenge for the developing
countries. Statistics suggest that the average value of the per capita energy consumption in
industrialized and developed countries is almost six times greater than that in the developing
countries. Substantial proportions of population in the latter countries are without access to
electricity and other modern fuels like natural gas, kerosene or propane, relying instead on
biomass as principal source of energy. Although, during the last twenty-five years, over 1.3
billion people living in developing countries have been provided access to electricity, around
1.5 billion peopleover 22% of the worlds population still dont have access to it [2, 4].
Statistics suggest that more than 99 per cent of people without electricity live in developing
regions, and four out of five live in rural areas of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [5].
Furthermore, around 3 billion people rely on traditional biomass, including wood, agricultural
residues and dung, for cooking and heating. About 715 million people in the least developed
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countries (LDCs) rely on solid fuels while in the Sub-Sahara African countries nearly 620
million people accounting for 82% of the population live on solid fuels [4]. The energy
deprivation in these parts of world is so intense that at least in 11 African countries over 90
percent of the population lack access to electricity. Similarly, in 14 countries worldwide, over
90% of people do not have access to modern cooking fuels [6]. The solid fuels are not only
extremely inefficient but are also dangerous of human health. Statistics suggest that around the
world almost two million deaths per annum are caused by the solid cooking fuels. Around
29% and 28% of the premature deaths in the least developed countries and the Sub-Sahara
countries respectively are also associated with these fuels.

2. RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy, as the name implies, is the energy obtained from natural sources such as
wind power, solar energy, hydropower, biomass energy and geothermal energy. Renewable
energy is considered to be one of the most prominent solutions to future energy challenges. It
offers several benefits over conventional forms of energy. Renewable resources, for example,
are widely distributed, inexhaustible and environmentally friendly. Renewable energy is
presently meeting almost 13.5 per cent of the global primary energy demands and is
acknowledged as a vital and plentiful form of energy that can greatly help meet the future
energy demand. Renewable energy sources can enhance diversity in energy supply markets,
secure long-term sustainable energy supplies, and reduce local and global atmospheric
emissions. They can also provide commercially attractive options to meet specific needs for
energy services (particularly in developing countries and rural areas), create new employment
opportunities, and offer possibilities for local manufacturing of equipment.

4. GRAMEEN SHAKTI AS A ROLE MODEL FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Since 1970s attempts have been made to employ renewable technologies, like solar
photovoltaic and biogas systems, for the benefit of rural communities in the developing
countries. Over the last couple of decades, a number of developing countries around the world
have initiated micro-generation renewable-energy programs. Examples of such programs can
be seen in Asian, African and Latin American countries. However, in many cases, owing to
various technical and socioeconomic constraints, these initiatives have fallen short of
achieving the desired purpose. In four South Asian countries - Bangladesh, India, Nepal and
Sri Lanka - micro-generation programs dealing with technologies like solar home systems
(SHS) and biogas systems have experienced considerable success. Owing to its innovative and
distinctive business-model, Grameen Shakti (GS), however, is far more successful than similar
programs elsewhere in the world.
Grameen Shakti (GS) is a micro-generation renewable energy program in Bangladesh. It is a
non-profit-based organization with the aim of providing environmentally friendly and
affordable energy to the people of Bangladesh. The main emphasis of GS is upon
addressing the needs of people living in rural and remote areas without access to national
electricity and gas networks. The electricity grid has a weak penetration in the country
especially in rural areas where only 10% of the population has access to it. Grameen Shakti
started to serve the people of Bangladesh through solar home system (SHS) program in 1996.
It started to deliver biogas systems and improved cooking stoves (ICSs) in 2005 and 2006
respectively. Having installed over 520,000 solar home systems (as shown in Figure 1), 14,000
biogas systems and 170,000 improved cooking stoves, Grameen Shakti is serving around 3.5
million people and is regarded as the worlds largest program of its type [7]. Some of the
most important infrastructural features of the Grameen shakti program that have contributed to
its success are as followings.

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228 598 1838 3583 6753
11413
19213
33004
51638
79629
127968
203855
297856
520524
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years
S
H
S

Fig. 1 Growth of Grameen Shaktis solar home systems program

4.1 Micro-credit based financial model
One of the key drivers behind the success of Grameen Shakti is its supportive financial
model. The vast majority of its targeted customers-base - households and businesses in
rural areas - cannot afford to purchase renewable SHS or biogas at their own. Through its
micro-credit program, Grameen Shakti offers a range of financial and technical support
packages to make renewable energy affordable for its customers. Grameen Shakti offers four
options to its customers as shown in Table 1 [7].

Table 1: Financial options available to Grameen Shakti Customers

Package Down Payment Monthly Instalments Service Charge (Flat
Rate)
1 15% 36 6%
2 25% 24 4%
3 (for micro-utility) 10% 42 None
4 100% cash payment with 4% discount

4.2 Cost-effective production
In order to develop its renewable energy systems at a lower cost, Grameen Shakti aims to
develop as much of the constituent components locally as possible. In this respect, it has set-up
a strong base of manufacturing and assembling facilities. In case of solar home systems, for
example, it locally develops a number of auxiliary components including charge controllers,
lights and mobile chargers. Ultimately, the benefit of this strategy helps the customer in terms
of reduced system cost. It has also helped GS develop a large pool of renewable technicians in
the country. Grameen Shakti has also established a wide network of technology centers called
Grameen Technology Centers (GTCs). The key objectives of GTCs include development of
trained human resource, training of customers, improved after sales services. The
establishment of GTCs has been a very successful initiative and there are now 46 GTCs across
the country. These centers have greatly contributed to the rapid growth and expansion of
Grameen Shakti in recent years. GTCs have already trained over 3000 female technicians who
are either working at these centers or are working as renewable entrepreneurs [7].

4.3 Vast operational network
In order to support its typical business model and growth strategies Grameen Shakti has
ensured its expansion in terms of not only human resource but also infrastructure. Its employee
base has grown from around 50 in 2001 to over 8500 in 2010 [7]. Since 2001, a great
emphasis has also been placed on the extension of operational/field network across the
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country. Having operated from its headquarter in Dhaka for the first 5 years, in 2001 GS
decided to expand its network, setting up 49 branch offices across the country by the following
year. The primary aim of branch offices was to improve the sales and after sales services.
Regional offices were also established to coordinate the newly created branch offices.
Presently there are 972 branch offices across the country, which are coordinated by 128
regional offices [7].

4.4 Micro-utility systems
In order to adopt the customers that cannot afford a solar home system or a biogas system of
their own, Grameen Shakti has introduced micro-utility models of these technologies. In this
case, the system is owned by an individual customer who becomes a micro-utility by selling
the generated electricity/gas to neighbours. There are now more than 10,000 micro-utility
systems which are mostly used within the commercial sector [7].

5. CONCLUSION

To achieve sustainable development it is imperative to take specific and far-reaching measures
to substantially upscale initiatives to expand access to modern energy services for the un-
served people in developing countries. Greater broad-based efforts are needed to expand
access to electricity and efficient cooking fuels. Micro-generation renewable energy systems
can provide a cost effective and sustainable alternative to modern conventional energy
services. The micro-credit based Grameen Shakti renewable energy program can be adopted as
a role model in developing countries. The credit of its accomplishments goes to its
innovative business model. The key drivers of its success include micro-credit based
financial model, vast operational network, cost-effective production, Grameen
Technology Centres (GTCs) and micro-utility systems.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Asif, M. (2011) Energy Crisis in Pakistan: Origins, Challenges and Sustainable
Solutions, Oxford University Press, Karachi
[2] UNDP (2006) Energy Services for the Millennium Development Goals
[3] EIA (2010) Energy Information Administration Statistics
[4] WHO/UNDP (2009) The Energy Access Situation in Developing Countries: A Review
Focusing on the Least Developed Countries and sub-Saharan Africa
[5] RU (2010) Poverty, Energy and Society, Energy Forum, The Baker Institute, Rice
University
[6] Gronwold, N (2009), One-Quarter of World's Population Lacks Electricity, Scientific
American
[7] GS (2011) Organisational profile, Grameen Shakti

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Northeast Arctic Passage: The worlds Future Oil Transportation Route

Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli (Ph. D), Muhamad Azim bin Mazlan
Faculty of Syariah and Law
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia
hazmirusli@usim.edu.my

Abstract
Shipping plays an important role in transporting oil to various parts of the world. The Straits of
Malacca and Singapore are two of the most important oil transportation route particularly in
the Asia Pacific region. Yearly, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore accommodate more than
74, 000 vessel transits. They are the worlds second busiest straits used for international
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navigation after the Dover Strait. The discovery of oil in the Arctic, coupled with the melting
of ice in the polar region (due to global warming) has raised the possibility that the Arctic may
become an important sea route for oil transportation in the future. This article discusses the
potential of the Northeast Arctic Passage as the worlds future oil transportation route and
comparison is made with the current route through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. This
article concludes whether or not this route could be made viable in the near future particularly
for oil transportation.

Keywords: Energy Security, Oil Transportation, Marine Environment, Northeast Arctic
Passage, Straits of Malacca and Singapore

1. INTRODUCTION

The shipping industry began to play a dominant role in the global economy as early as the
1960s. In 1966, the container vessel, Fairland, sailed from Port Elizabeth in the US to
Rotterdam in the Netherlands with 236 containers.
5
This was the worlds first international
voyage of a container ship. Soon after that, the container shipping industry grew steadily.
6
In
1973, the US, European and Asian containership operators were carrying 4 million Twenty-
foot Equivalent Units (TEUs) globally and this grew to 12 million TEUs in 1983.
7
In 2008, the
container transport volume around the world stood at 514 million TEUs.
8
These facts show
that the shipping industry is now indispensible in facilitating world trade.
In the eyes of the international shipping community, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore are
seen as strategic sea lines of communication that facilitate global trade as they form the
shortest route connecting both the Middle-Eastern oil suppliers with the economies of East
Asia namely China, Japan and South Korea.
9
In 1987, the number of transiting traffic stood at
30, 377 per annum,
10
and it increased gradually up to approximately 77,000 vessel movements
in 2008.
11

5
About the Industry: Industry Globalization (2009) World Shipping Council
<http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/history-of-containerization/industry-
globalization>.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid; In addition, since the end of World War II, between the years of 1950 to 1995, the volume
of seaborne trade grew from 0.55 billion tons to 4.3 billion tons, manifesting the rapid growth of
seaborne trade. See Andrew Forbes, 'The Economic Impact of Disruptions to Seaborne Energy
Flows' in Andrew Forbes (ed), Asia Energy Security: Regional Co-operation in the Malacca Strait
(Sea Power Centre- Australia, 2008) vol 23, 61.
8
'ISL Shipping Statistics and Market Review (SSMR)' (Institute of Shipping Economics and
Logistics (ISL), 2009), 8.
9
About two thirds of Middle-Eastern or Gulf oil exports go to Asian countries namely Japan,
China and South Korea. See Michael Richardson, 'The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline
between the Persian Gulf and Asia' in Andrew Forbes (ed), Asian Energy Security: Regional
Cooperation in the Malacca Strait (Sea Power Centre-Australia, 2008), 118-119.
10
Abdul Rani Abdullah et al, 'The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demostration Project:
Sources of Pollution' (1999) 39 Marine Pollution Bulletin, 232.
11
See Table 2-13 below.
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In 1998, it was said that an average of 600 vessels sail the Straits of Malacca and Singapore
everyday.
12
According to statistics for 2000, a daily average of 399 vessels passed through the
Straits of Malacca and Singapore which translates to one every 3.6 minutes.
13
In 2004, it was
reported that more than 900 ships sail the Strait of Singapore everyday, which means that one
ship would pass the Strait of Singapore in every 1.6 minutes.
14
The British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) News reported in 2010 that yearly, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore
accommodate about 74, 000 vessel transits which equals to almost six times the volume of
navigational traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.
15
In terms of navigational traffic, the
Straits of Malacca and Singapore came second only to the Dover Strait, a crucial European
chokepoint bordered by the United Kingdom, France and Belgium.
16
An estimated 11 million
barrels of oil pass the Straits of Malacca and Singapore daily.
17
Tankers and bulk carriers
ferry vast quantities of oil, coal, iron ore and minerals to the economic centres of Southeast
and Northeast Asia while on the other direction, millions of containers flow to feed consumer
markets from all over the globe.
18
Congestion in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore has
raised concerns and alternative routes are being discovered for oil transportation in the future,
and one of them is the Northeast Arctic Passage (NAP).

2. THE NORTHEAST ARCTIC PASSAGE (NAP)

The Eurasian continental landmass sprawls from Europe in the west to Asia in the east. For
centuries, trade has flowed from Europe to India and the East Asian nations. After the opening
of the Suez Canal in 1869, ships from Europe travelled to the Indian Ocean through the Strait
of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal and linked with the East Asian ports via the Straits of Malacca
and Singapore as well as through the Indonesian archipelagic straits.
19
Like the SuezMalacca
route, the NAP, or as it is popularly known in Russia, the Northern Sea Route, is also a

12
Raja Malik Kamaruzaman, 'Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca' (1998) 2(2) Singapore
Journal of International & Comparative Laws, 468-469.
13
Shigeki Sakamoto, 'Non-State Actors' Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore- Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43' (Paper presented at the
International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, 2008), 2.
14
'Case Concerning Sovereingty Over Pedra Branca/ Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South
Ledge (Malaysia/ Singapore): Memorial of Singapore' (Government of Singapore, 2004)
<http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/130/14133.pdf>, 10-11.
15
Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait (2010) BBC News
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm>.
16
Euan Graham, Japan's Sea Lane Security, 1940-2004: A matter of life and death (Nissan
Institute, Routledge Japanese Studies Series, 2006), 26-27.
17
'Energy and Maritime Security' (Paper presented at the The 3rd IISS Regional Security Summit:
The Manama Dialogue, Manama, Bahrain, 2006), 46.
18
Joshua H Ho, 'Enhancing Safety, Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore: The Co-operative Mechanism' (2009) 40(2) Ocean Development and
International Law, 233-234.
19
Rakish Suppiah, The Northeast Arctic Passage: Possibilities and Economic Considerations
(2006) 151 Maritime Studies, 12-13.
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passage that connects Europe and East Asia using the route on the Arctic coast of Russia.
20

From as early as the 18
th
century, ships plying this route would travel from St. Petersburg in
Russia through the Barents, Kara, Laptev, Chukchi and East Siberian Seas, ultimately making
their way to the Bering Strait on the eastern side of the Eurasian mainland, connecting Europe
to the ports of East Asia.
21
Map 10-2 shows the seas within the NAP.

Map 1: The Seas within the NAP (Modified from Google Maps)

The NAP is not thought of as a clearly defined linear route, but is instead perceived as the
whole sea area north of Russia.
22
The environmental condition of waters in the NAP is
invariably hostile, with extreme winters, icy waters and unpredictable weather.
23
The English
and Dutch explorers also contributed towards the discovery of the NAP
24
in their attempts to
find alternative routes to the east to escape the Spanish and Portuguese dominion over the
southern seas.
25
Russian vessels have used this route for hundreds of years, establishing a
shipping route from Vladivostok on the Asian side of the country to the counterpart port of
Leningrad on the European side of Russia.
26
For a considerable period of time, Russia has

20
Claes Lykke Ragner, The Northern Sea Route (2008) Norden Associations Yearbook, 114.
21
William E. Butler, Northeast Arctic Passage in Gerard J. Mangone (ed), International Straits of
the World (Sitjhoff & Noordhoff, 1978), 1-4.
22
23
William E. Butler, Northeast Arctic Passage in Gerard J. Mangone (ed), International Straits of
the World (Sitjhoff & Noordhoff, 1978), 5-8.
24
Ibid., 42-45.
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid., 42-43.
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used its northern coast for shipping oil and gas, ores, processed materials, building materials,
foodstuffs and other goods to its remote Arctic settlements,
27
though funding for such
shipments dwindled after the collapse of the Soviet regime.
28
As Ragner comments:
At its peak in 1987, almost 7 million tonnes of cargo was moved along the northern sea route,
most of it goods transported to or from Russian Arctic ports. After the Soviet Unions
disintegration, volumes gradually fell, before having come to a relatively stable level of 1.5
2.0 million tonnes per year since 1996.
29

The Arctic region is managed and governed by a high level intergovernmental forum called
the Arctic Council (the Council), established by the Declaration on the Establishment of the
Council, otherwise known as the Ottawa Declaration of 1996.
30
The member States of the
Council are Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland,
Norway, Russian Federation, Sweden and the US
31
There are six Working Groups that are
attached to the Council. Each of these has a specific mandate with that related to shipping
being the Working Group on the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME).
32

Established in 1991 and incorporated into the Arctic Council in 1996, the focal point of PAME
is on the protection and sustainable use of the Arctic marine environment.
33
Under the
patronage of the Council, PAME has conducted an assessment to evaluate the future of
shipping in the Arctic region.
34
The focal points of the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment
2009 (AMSA 2009) are the potential effect of shipping on humans and the Arctic marine
environment, and marine infrastructure requirements for shipping in the Arctic region.
35
As
reported in the 2009 AMSA Report, the volume of shipping traffic going through the NAP in
2004 was as shown in Table 1:

Sea Average Shipping Traffic (per day)
Barents Sea 2150
Kara Sea 51100
Laptev Sea 1120
East Siberian Sea 110

27
28
MSNBC News, Ships Cross Arctic Passage in Milestone: Scientists Say Global Warming Opens
Ice-choked Passages (2009) MSNBC News
<http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32800658/ns/us_news-environment/>.
29
30
The Arctic Council, About Arctic Council (2007) The Arctic Council <http://arctic-
council.org/article/about>.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
The Arctic Council, The Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (2010) The Arctic
Council <http://www.pame.is/>.
34
The Protection of Arctic Marine Environment Working Group of the Arctic Council, Scenarios
on the Future of Arctic Marine Navigation in 2050 (The Arctic Council, Arctic Maritime Shipping
Assessment, Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, Institute of the North, 2004), 1-4.
35
The Arctic Council, Arctic Council: Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (The Arctic Council,
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, 2009), 4-5.
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Bering Strait 1120

Table 1: Average Shipping Traffic in Sea Areas within the NAP in 2004 (Source: AMSA
2009)
36

In 1991, the Russian government (then the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics [USSR])
formally opened the passage for international shipping to vessels of all nationalities without
discrimination when it issued the 1991 Regulations for Navigation on the Seaways of the
Northern Sea Route (1991 Regulations),
37
based on the provisions of Article 234 of the LOSC
on navigation through ice-covered areas. Article 234 of the LOSC provides:
Coastal States have the right to adopt and enforce non-discriminatory laws and regulations for
the prevention, reduction and control of marine pollution from vessels in ice-covered areas
within the limits of the EEZSuch laws and regulations shall have due regard to navigation
and the protection and preservation of the marine environment based on the best available
scientific evidence.
The 1991 Regulations established certain requirements for vessels seeking passage through the
NAP, including:
(a) A vessel navigating the NAP shall satisfy special technical and operational
requirements, while the Master or the person that performs his duties shall be
experienced in operating the vessel in ice-stricken waters. In cases where those
persons have no such experience, a pilot must be engaged to assist in manoeuvring the
vessel;
38

(b) A vessel intending to navigate the NAP must produce a certificate of due financial
security with respect to the civil liability of the owner for damage inflicted by
polluting the marine environment;
39

(c) Shipping traffic through the Passage is monitored by the Marine Operations
Headquarters (MOHs) and all vessels are subject to its constant control;
40

(d) Vessels wishing to sail the NAP must notify their intention to MOHs and apply for an
icebreaker escort.
41

36
There are differences in the average volume of shipping traffic in different areas of seas within the
NAP. This is because not all vessels that sail the NAP from European ports are bound for Asia-Pacific
destinations. Some are bound for destinations within Russia and/or Scandinavia. This explains the
higher shipping traffic in the Kara and Barents Seas as compared with the Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea
and the Bering Strait. See Ibid., 189.
37
Sergey O. Frank, Opening Speech: International Shipping on the northern Sea Route - Russias
Perspective in Claes Lykke Ragner (ed), The 21st Century- Turning Point for the Northern Sea
Route (Kluwer, 1999), 11. For further information on the 1991 Regulations for Navigation on the
Seaways of the Northern Sea Route, see The Russian Government, Rules of Navigation:
Regulations for Navigation on the Seaways of the Northern Sea Route (Decision No 565 of 1 June
1990, The Russian Ministry of Merchant Marine, 1990), 1-8.
38
Article 4 of the 1991 Regulations. See The Russian Government, Rules of Navigation:
Regulations for Navigation on the Seaways of the Northern Sea Route (Decision No 565 of 1 June
1990, The Russian Ministry of Merchant Marine, 1990), 1-8.
39
Article 5 of the 1991 Regulations. See Ibid.
40
Article 8.1 of the 1991 Regulations. See Ibid.
41
This is mentioned in Regulations 2.1, 2.6 and 2.7 of the Regulation for Icebreaker and Pilot
Guiding of Vessels Through the Northern Sea Route. See Ibid.
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In view of the increasing importance of the NAP to the international shipping industry, Russia,
or the then USSR, took affirmative measures to improve the environmental protection of its
marine Arctic areas through the promulgation of the 1990 Decree of the Council of Ministers
of the USSR.
42
This Decree proclaimed Russias initiative to protect the sensitive marine
environment of its waters within the NAP route.
43
Following this, Article 9 of the 1991
Regulations allowed MOHs to suspend the navigation of vessels that either caused damage or
that posed a threat to the marine environment of the NAP and its surrounding areas. Article 9
of the 1991 Regulations stipulates:
In cases where an obvious necessity of environment protection r safe navigation dictates so,
the Administration, or Marine Operations Headquarters, can suspend navigation of vessels on
specific parts of the Northern Sea Route for the period during which there exist the
circumstances that have caused such measure.
44

On this issue, the IMO has recently adopted Resolution A.1024 (26) on Guidelines for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters (IMO Polar Waters Guidelines) on 2 December 2009.
45
The IMO
Polar Water Guidelines are recommendatory and their wording should be interpreted as
providing recommendations rather than mandatory directions for ensuring safety of navigation
and preventing pollution from shipping operations in polar waters.
46
Due to the increasing
importance of the polar regions to international shipping activity, there have been calls to
make the IMO Polar Waters Guidelines mandatory for all ships and mariners plying these
waters.
47

Despite being the shortest route connecting Europe and the East Asia, the NAP is a perilous
route as the waters within the passage are ice-stricken.
48
Global warming may be seen as a
threat by many, but, as far as the shipping industry is concerned, it is viewed as an advantage.
The rapid melting of the Arctic ice cap due to global warming means that within the next 15
years, the NAP, which is now open only two months of the year may eventually be accessible

42
Donald R. Rothwell, The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law (Press
Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1996), 370-374.
43
Ibid.
44
The Russian Government, Rules of Navigation: Regulations for Navigation on the Seaways of the
Northern Sea Route (Decision No 565 of 1 June 1990, The Russian Ministry of Merchant Marine,
1990), 1-8.
45
International Maritime Organization (IMO), Resolution A.1024(26): Guidelines for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters (A 26/Res. 1024, IMO, 2010), 1-33.
46
Section P-1.3 of the Preamble of Resolution A.1024(26) states that The Guidelines for ships
operating in polar watersare intended to address those additional provisions deemed necessary
for consideration beyond existing requirements of the SOLAS and MARPOL Conventions, in
order to take into account the climatic conditions of polar waters and to meet appropriate standards
of maritime safety and pollution prevention. See International Maritime Organization (IMO),
Resolution A.1024(26): Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (A 26/Res. 1024, IMO,
2010), 4.
47
ystein Jensen, The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters: From
Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection (FNI Report
2/2007, Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 2007), 19-24.
48
Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli, Attempts to Seek Alternative Routes to the Straits of Malacca
and Singapore (2010) 1(1) Journal of Maritime Geopolitics and Culture, 3-5.
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for navigation throughout the year.
49
In other words, international shipping traffic in the NAP
will increase as the floating icebergs in these waters begin to disintegrate.
50
In September
2009, German ships transited the NAP from the South Korean port of Ulsan to Yamburg in
Siberia.
51
A year later, in July 2010, two Russian oil tankers, the Varzuga and Indiga, plied the
NAP sailing from Murmansk to Chukotka in Russias far eastern corner.
52
In August 2010,
Russias largest independent gas producer, Novatek, completed its tanker delivery to the Asia-
Pacific region via the NAP.
53
These navigational successes reveal that navigation through this
passage is far from impossible. Utilising the NAP would cut the navigational distance from
Europe to East Asia significantly as compared to a similar voyage via the Suez Canal and the
Straits of Malacca and Singapore.
54

Ports
SuezMalacca
(nautical miles)
NAP
(nautical miles)
Distance saved
(per cent)
RotterdamYokohama 11,205 7,345 34.45
RotterdamShanghai 10,521 8,079 23.2
Table 2: The Length of a Voyage to Rotterdam from Different Ports by the Routes of
MalaccaSingapore and the NAP
55

Based on Table 2, the voyage from Rotterdam to Yokohama via the SuezMalacca route is
around 11,205 nautical miles. By travelling northward and using the NAP, the distance
between these two ports would be approximately 3,345 nautical miles, cutting approximately

49
Rakish Suppiah, North East Arctic Passage: Its Viability for Shipping Transit (2009) 16(4)
MIMA Bulletin, 8-9; Svend Aage Christensen, Are the Northern Sea Routes Really the Shortest:
Maybe a too Rose-coloured Picture of the Blue Arctic Ocean (DIIS Brief March 2009, Danish
Institute of International Studies, 2009), 1-7.
50
Rob Huebert, in Alex G. Oude Elferink and Donald R. Rothwell (eds), The Law of the Sea and
Polar Maritime Delimitation and Jurisdiction (Kluwer, 2001), 266-267; Svend Aage Christensen,
Are the Northern Sea Routes Really the Shortest: Maybe a too Rose-coloured Picture of the Blue
Arctic Ocean (DIIS Brief March 2009, Danish Institute of International Studies, 2009), 1-7.
51
Matt Moore and Seth Borenstein, Two German Merchant Ships Conquer Famed Arctic
Passage:
Climate Change is Blamed for Opening of Path (2009) Globe Newspaper Company
<http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2009/09/12/two_german_merchant_ships_co
nquer_famed_arctic_passage/>.
52
Barents Observer, Oil tankers through North East Passage (2010) Barents Observer
<http://www.barentsobserver.com/oil-tankers-through-north-east-passage.4800813.html>.
53
Dmitriy Korobeinikov, Novatek Sends First Fuel Consignment to Asia via Northern Sea Route
(2010) RIANOVOSTI <http://en.rian.ru/business/20100817/160232307.html>.
54
Passage: Climate Change is Blamed for Opening of Path (2009) Globe Newspaper Company
55
Svetlana Chernova and Anton Volkov, Economic Feasibility of the Northern Sea Route
Container Shipping Development (Master of Science in Business Thesis, Bod Graduate School of
Business, 2010), 14.
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479

34.45 per cent the distance off the conventional SuezMalacca route, which would translate
into lower fuel costs.
56

Research has discovered that the Arctic is rich in oil and gas reserves, with the US Geological
Survey estimating that up to 25 per cent of the worlds remaining oil and gas lie beneath the
icy seabed of the Arctic Ocean.
57
This survey also reported that the Arctic may contain as
much as one-fifth of the worlds unexplored oil and natural gas, potentially containing 90
billion barrels of undiscovered oil and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of undiscovered gas.
58
These
resources are primarily located in three areas within the Arctic; namely, the West Siberian
Basin, the East Barents Basin and the Alaska Arctic,
59
also believed to contain significant
mineral resources.
60
With the depletion of oil reserves in the Middle East, the developed
economies of East Asia, including Japan, China and South Korea, may seek to import oil from
the Arctic region if this research by the US Geological Survey is validated.
61
Japan has been
looking for alternatives for its sources of oil supply in view of the ongoing turmoil in the
Middle East.
62
It fears that its industries will be affected if there are changes in production
policies by Middle East oil producers, or embargoes and unpredictable events such as wars,
coups and revolutions.
63

All these factors show that the NAP and the Arctic Region may in the future become maritime
superhighways as well as being the location of significant global oil and gas reserves. As
shipping activity in the Arctic region is expected to grow, the Arctic is likely to experience an
extraordinary transformation; natural resource development, governance challenges, climate
change and marine infrastructure issues will continue to influence the future marine uses of the
Arctic.
64
The increasing shipping volume that plies the NAP will have a significant impact on

56
57
Richard A. Lovett, Arctic Oil Rush Sparks Battles Over Seafloor (2007) National Geographic
<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070823-arctic-oil.html>.
58
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, 2009), 97-98.
59
Ibid.
60
<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070823-arctic-oil.html>; ystein Jensen, The
IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters: From Voluntary to Mandatory
Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection (FNI Report 2/2007, Fridtjof Nansen
Institute, 2007), 1-3.
61
MIMA Bulletin, 12-13; Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd Rusli, Attempts to Seek Alternative Routes to the
Straits of Malacca and Singapore (2010) 1(1) Journal of Maritime Geopolitics and Culture, 3-5.
62
Valerie Yorke, Oil, the Middle East and Japans Search for Security (1981) 57(3) International
Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 428-429.
63
Ibid.
64
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, 2009), 8.
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the marine environment of that region of the Arctic.
65
AMSA 2009 also reported that there is a
lack of Arctic marine infrastructure, such as adequate aids to navigation, limitations to radio
and satellite communications and proper vessel traffic systems in the Arctic.
66
Therefore, there
is much to be done to improve navigational facilities along the NAP in order to make it safer
and more viable for future shipping activity.
67

3. THE NAP VERSUS THE STRAITS OF MALACCA AND SINGAPORE

There are a variety of advantages and disadvantages for ships travelling via the NAP and the
Straits of Malacca and Singapore. The Straits of Malacca and Singapore are considered as
important Asia-Pacific maritime shipping highways. They are equipped with numerous aids to
navigation and considerable marine infrastructure and are reasonably safe for international
shipping.
68
There are many ports along the Straits for vessels to call at, such as Dumai, Port
Klang, Penang, Tanjung Pelepas and the Port of Singapore. Piracy and other maritime crimes
have posed a threat in the past, but these incidents have been dramatically reduced in recent
years due to the improved security measures introduced by the littoral States to safeguard the
Straits.
69
The shortcomings of navigation through the Straits of Malacca and Singapore include
that they are constricted and shallow, forcing ships to slow down, especially in the TSS areas
and the eastern exit of the Strait of Singapore to the South China Sea.
70
The Straits are also
exposed to harsh weather during the monsoon season
71
and voyages from Europe to East Asia
take a longer time using the Straits of Malacca and Singapore route than compared to the
NAP,
72
and longer journeys mean more expensive shipping costs, as shown in Map 2.

65
The noise from the icebreakers will cause disturbance to both wildlife and the local community
that live along that area of the Arctic. Furthermore, vessel collisions, resulting in death or serious
injury of marine mammals and other marine organisms pose threats to the marine environment of
that area. See Ibid., 146.
66
Ibid., 97.
67
Ibid., 186.
68
David Tharp, Nippon Maritime Center: Keeping the Malacca Straits Safe (2010) The Nippon
Foundation <http://www.nippon-
foundation.or.jp/eng/current/20100204NipponMaritimeCenter.html>.
69
Ramli Hj Nik and Sumathy Permal, Security Threats in the Straits of Malacca in H.M. Ibrahim
and Hairil Anuar Husin (eds), Profile of the Straits of Malacca: Malaysias Perspective (Maritime
Institute of Malaysia, 2008), 195-198; See Section 5.2.2.1.2 of Chapter 5 of this Thesis.
70
Naoya Okuwaki, Improving Navigational Safety Governance in Straits of Malacca and
Singapore (Paper presented at the International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the
Marine Environment of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, 2007), 21-22.
71
H. M. Ibrahim, Hairil Anuar Husin and Deneswari Sivaguru, The Straits of Malacca: Setting
The Scene in H.M. Ibrahim and Hairil Anuar Husin (eds), Profile of the Straits of Malacca:
Malaysias Perspective (Maritime Institute of Malaysia, 2008), 40.
72
MIMA Bulletin, 14.
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Map 2: Routes via the SuezMalacca and NAP (Aden-Yokohama)
(Modified from Google Maps)

Voyages through the NAP has also have advantages and disadvantages to be considered by
shipping companies. Ships may save on operational costs if they choose to use this route.
73

Another advantage is that the Russian government consistently monitors the passage of ships
and provides adequate navigational aids such as pilotage and icebreakers for transiting
vessels.
74
Due to its harsh conditions and sparse population, especially in the Siberian region,
piracy is not a threat for ships traversing the NAP.
75
Despite the shorter duration of passage
through the NAP, ships are likely to incur additional costs such as dues payable to MOHs and
payments for services such as pilotage and escort icebreakers.
76
Sea ice and water depths are
the two main impediments to navigation in the NAP,
77
and voyages through the NAP may be
frustrated should the route be closed due to ice accumulation during winter.
78
Even though the
NAP has calmer waters, ships using this route would have to reduce speed to ensure their
propellers are not damaged by the layers of ice.
79
In addition, there are serious limitations to
radio and satellite communications in certain areas of the NAP, making it difficult to mount an

73
Ibid.
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid.
76
Ibid.
77
Jan Drent, Commercial Shipping On The Northern Sea Route (1993) III(2) The Northern
Mariner/Le Marin du nord, 1-3.
78
Ibid.
79
MIMA Bulletin, 14; International Maritime Organization (IMO), Resolution A.1024(26):
Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (A 26/Res. 1024, IMO, 2010), 4-5.
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effective emergency response should a maritime casualty or other emergency occur on this
route.
80

4. CONCLUSION

The NAP is seen as a potential new global maritime highway of the future. Some
commentators anticipate that the importance of NAP as an important shipping route will
continue to grow when oil and gas industries begin to develop extensively in the Russian
Arctic region.
81
In fact, research has revealed that by the year 2020, 70 per cent of the overall
cargo transported via the NAP will be oil and gas.
Nevertheless, so long as the East Asian nations continue to turn to the Middle East for their
supplies of oil and gas, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore will remain as busy as they are
today. Maritime voyages from the Middle East to East Asian nations would obviously take
longer via the NAP route. In the long term, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore may
ultimately be preferred and the NAP may only ever be a secondary, but less navigationally
convenient, alternative route to the more important Straits of Malacca and Singapore.

5. REFERENCES

About the Industry: Industry Globalization (2009) World Shipping Council
<http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/history-of-containerization/industry-
globalization>.
Butler, William E., 'Northeast Arctic Passage' in Gerard J. Mangone (ed), Northeast Arctic
Passage (Sitjhoff & Noordhoff 1978, 1978)
Chernova, Svetlana and Anton Volkov, Economic feasibility of the Northern Sea Route
container shipping development (Master of Science in Business Thesis, Bod Graduate School
of Business, 2010)
Christensen, Svend Aage, 'Are the northern sea routes really the shortest: Maybe a too rose-
coloured picture of the blue Arctic Ocean' (DIIS Brief March 2009, Danish Institute of
International Studies, 2009)
Frank, Sergey O., 'Opening Speech: International Shipping on the northern Sea Route -
Russia's Perspective' in Claes Lykke Ragner (ed), The 21st Century- Turning Point for the
Northern Sea Route (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999)
Ho, Joshua H, 'Enhancing Safety, Security and Environmental Protection of the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore: The Co-operative Mechanism' (2009) 40(2) Ocean Development and
International Law
Huebert, Rob, in Alex G. Oude Elferink and Donald R. Rothwell (eds), The Law of the Sea
and Polar Maritime Delimitation and Jurisdiction (Kluwer Law International, 2001)
International Maritime Organization (IMO), 'Resolution A.1024(26): Guidelines for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters' (A 26/Res. 1024, IMO, 2010)
Jensen, ystein, 'The IMO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-covered Waters: From
Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation Safety and Environmental Protection' (FNI
Report 2/2007, Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 2007)

80
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, 2009), 187; International Maritime Organization
(IMO), Resolution A.1024(26): Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (A 26/Res. 1024,
IMO, 2010), 4-5.
81
<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070823-arctic-oil.html>; Rakish Suppiah,
North East Arctic Passage: Its Viability for Shipping Transit (2009) 16(4) MIMA Bulletin, 8-15;
Claes Lykke Ragner, The Northern Sea Route (2008) Norden Associations Yearbook, 114-117.
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Kamaruzaman, Raja Malik 'Navigational Safety in the Strait of Malacca' (1998) 2(2)
Singapore Journal of International & Comparative Laws
Korobeinikov, Dmitriy, Novatek Sends First Fuel Consignment to Asia via Northern Sea
Route (2010) RIANOVOSTI <http://en.rian.ru/business/20100817/160232307.html>
Lovett, Richard A., Arctic Oil Rush Sparks Battles Over Seafloor (2007) National Geographic
<http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/08/070823-arctic-oil.html>
Moore, Matt and Seth Borenstein, Two German Merchant Ships Conquer Famed Arctic
<http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2009/09/12/two_german_merchant_ships
_conquer_famed_arctic_passage/>
MSNBC News, Ships Cross Arctic Passage in Milestone: Scientists say global warming opens
ice-choked passages (2009) MSNBC News
<http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32800658/ns/us_news-environment/>
Observer, Barents, Oil tankers through North East Passage (2010) Barents Observer
<http://www.barentsobserver.com/oil-tankers-through-north-east-passage.4800813.html>
Ragner, Claes Lykke, 'The Northern Sea Route' (2008) Norden Association's Yearbook
Richardson, Michael, 'The Sea Lane and Energy Security Lifeline between the Persian Gulf
and Asia' in Andrew Forbes (ed), Asian Energy Security: Regional Cooperation in the
Malacca Strait (Sea Power Centre-Australia, 2008)
Rothwell, Donald R., The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law (Press
Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1996)
Rusli, Mohd Hazmi bin Mohd, 'Attempts to Seek Alternative Routes to the Straits of Malacca
and Singapore' (2010) 1(1) Journal of Maritime Geopolitics and Culture
Sakamoto, Shigeki, 'Non-State Actors' Role in the Co-operative Mechanism for the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore- Seeking to Substantiate UNCLOS Article 43' (Paper presented at the
International Symposium on Safety and Protection of the Marine Environment in the Straits of
Malacca and Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, 2008)
Singapore Warns of Threat to Tankers in Malacca Strait (2010) BBC News
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8549053.stm>.
Suppiah, Rakish, 'North East Arctic Passage: It's Viability for Shipping Transit' (2009) 16(4)
MIMA Bulletin
Suppiah, Rakish, 'The Northeast Arctic Passage: Possibilities and Economic Considerations'
(2006) 151(Nov/Dec 2006) Maritime Studies
The Arctic Council, About Arctic Council (2007) The Arctic Council <http://arctic-
council.org/article/about>
The Arctic Council, 'Arctic Council: Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment' (The Arctic
Council, Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, 2009)
The Arctic Council, The Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (2010) The Arctic
Council <http://www.pame.is/>
The Protection of Arctic Marine Environment Working Group of the Arctic Council,
'Scenarios on the Future of Arctic Marine Navigation in 2050' (The Arctic Council, Arctic
Maritime Shipping Assessment, Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, Institute of the
North, 2004)
The Russian Government, 'Rules of Navigation : Regulations for Navigation on the Seaways
of the Northern Sea Route' (Decision No 565 of 1 June 1990, The Russian Ministry of
Merchant Marine, 1990)
Yorke, Valerie, 'Oil, the Middle East and Japan's Search for Security' (1981) 57(3)
International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-)

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The Pattern of Electrical Energy in Electric Car Indonesia Management for
Vehicle Fuel Using the Concept of POET (Population, Organization,
Environment, Technology) to Support the Sustainability of Energy

Hermin Rahayu Pertiwi
1*
, Meziriati Hendri
2
, Widhoratna Jiwa Adlia
3
1
Faculty of Human Ecology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Human Ecology, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
3
Faculty of Agriculture , Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia

Tel: (62) 85697907317, E-mail: herminpertiwi@yahoo.co.id

Abstract
The most crucial issue facing the nation of Indonesia is a threat of fuel crisis and
environmental pollution by fossil fuels. Electric car that is initiated by Dahlan Iskan proposed
as a solution that ensures fuel environmentally friendly vehicles. Management of the electric
car still has its own advantages and disadvantages, this can be further understood through the
concept of POET induced by Micklin and Poston (1998), the four aspects in POET ,according
to the results of ecology analysis theory is able to overcome the problem of using the electrical
energy in electric car Indonesia. The first aspect is the population correlates with the number
of private vehicle ownership also contributes to air pollution, improvement of the problem is
answered by an electric car that uses electrical energy technology in management of vehicles
that are environmentally friendly and can saving fuel, technology is supported by
organizations greatly affect the state of ministry. The last, is the environment as a starting
point for the improvement of environmental changes will be saved with the electric car. So
when the four aspects are modeled by the results of the analysis above, the propagation of the
electric car will maintain environmental and energy sustainability.

Keywords: electric cars, POET, sustainability of energy

1 . INTRODUCTION

Let's Green and Go Electric is a phrase contained in the electric cars door by Ahmadi work
and Mr. Dahlan Iskans idea, from the second sentence we have been able to make sense of
purpose made electric cars in Indonesia. Let's Green, is a call that can be invite all the people
of Indonesia to jointly care for and re-greening of the earth by saying no to the pollution that
poisons the environment. Go electric is a persuasive word that prompts the user to use the
vehicle and make it more environmentally friendly fuels, after that we can save energy for the
future. Therefore Electric Cars is an object that can be used as a symbol to concerns of
environmental pollution and inequality energy supply of fuel at the moment, but electric cars
have not been able to fully accepted by the people in Indonesia because of variety reasons,
and this case can be solved by the management pattern of an electric car that uses the concept
of POET. Based on the analysis with theory in the science of human ecology, Electric Cars is
suitable for mass production in Indonesia 2013.

2. ELECTRIC CARS

The latest news can be shooked the Indonesian people lately include national car production.
ESEMKA car made by vocational students in Solo, they turn helped propel Enterprises
Minister Dahlan Iskan, to contribute the Indonesia tangible creations. Unfortunately, it has not
escaped Esemka car emission test is a series of activities to be performed and be able to be
mass produced. Thus was born the son of thunder initiation to awaken the designation for the
three figures who contributed in making electric cars. Dahlan Iskan is very concerned with the
poverty of this country to take the initiative and work together to alleviate the crucial issues in
Indonesia to build a project that aims resolving the issue. In the end, with the approval of the
President and agreements institutions such as educational institutions, went electric car
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manufacturing project. Electric cars are expected to help save fuel and energy sustainability. It
needs to be underlined is the electric car has its own advantages, such as: do not use fossil
fuels and instead uses electrical energy, is relatively cheap and affordable, and most
importantly does not cause air pollution as an environmentally friendly fuel. The question is
whether the electricity used energy that sustainable form of energy savings, while in fact the
electrical energy use of household energy use is also highly vulnerable to the risk of deficiency
amount. These issues were subsequently resolved by adjusting the electric cars to the habits of
Indonesian society. Nearly 80% of people who use vehicles in Indonesia spend time doing
activities during the day and inversely proportional to the activity of the night, this is a chance
to recharge the electric cars at night.

Picture 1. Electric Cars

The next issue is the cost that charged to the user in the process of rechargeable electric cars
will certainly drain the cost is quite expensive. Dahlan Iskan said in an event that is the biggest
load electricity use during the day, while the evenings there is little use of electricity, therefore
the Company of State Electricity (PLN) to lose a considerable amount of costs. This
phenomenon which is then circumvented by Dahlan Iskan to recharge electric cars that
consumers do not pay for expensive and PLN are not losers. Some of the activities carried out
trials of Minister of State after manufacture electric cars invite some issues are fairly simple
but confusing. Target marketing of electric cars is middle income people who live in urban
areas for better fuel economy and do not pollute the environment, unexpectedly experiments
performed in the streets of the capital Jakarta controversy turns, the car is stuck or broke down
so it is not considered appropriate to the climate or the Jakarta traffic metropolitan areas prone
to congestion. The core problem is then completed by the concept of POET.

3. POET

The concept was first introduced by Mcklin and Poston (1998) contained in the science of
human ecology. The results of the analysis based on the science of human ecology, POET
concept behind the four aspects can be inverted to produce a pattern appropriate management
of electric cars. The fourth aspect contained in the POET are: Population, Organization,
Environment, and Technology.

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3.1 Population
The results of our analysis starts from the problems associated with population density in
Indonesia, the population explosion is a major effect on the starting point of innovation
management system electric cars in Indonesia. In accordance with the data obtained at the
National Bureau of Statistics, Population Indonesia ranks fifth largest with a population of
Indonesia in 2010 was 237,641,326 as many people, including those living on the island of
Java, which covers 6.8 percent inhabited by 57.5 percent population, inequality is caused by
various factors. Correlation between population density and the number of private vehicle
ownership is positively related. More and more people in big cities, it can not be denied that
the increase of the volume of vehicles has increased, which in turn greatly affect the state of
the environment. These data are obtained from the Central Bureau of Statistics (2012) about
the increased traffic volume and statistical improvement of air pollution due to pollution
caused by fossil fuels.

Tabel 1. Growth of Motor Vehicles by Type in 1987-2010

Years
Passenger
cars Bus Truck Motor bike Amount
1987 1 170 103 303 378 953 694 5 554 305 7 981 480
1988 1 073 106 385 731 892 651 5 419 531 7 771 019
1989 1 182 253 434 903 952 391 5 722 291 8 291 838
1990 1 313 210 468 550 1 024 296 6 082 966 8 889 022
1991 1 494 607 504 720 1 087 940 6 494 871 9 582 138
1992 1 590 750 539 943 1 126 262 6 941 000 10 197 955
1993 1 700 454 568 490 1 160 539 7 355 114 10 784 597
1994 1 890 340 651 608 1 251 986 8 134 903 11 928 837
1995 2 107 299 688 525 1 336 177 9 076 831 13 208 832
1996 2 409 088 595 419 1 434 783 10 090 805 14 530 095
1997 2 639 523 611 402 1 548 397 11 735 797 16 535 119
1998 2 769 375 626 680 1 586 721 12 628 991 17 611 767
1999*) 2 897 803 644 667 1 628 531 13 053 148 18 224 149
2000 3 038 913 666 280 1 707 134 13 563 017 18 975 344
2001 3 189 319 680 550 1 777 293 15 275 073 20 922 235
2002 3 403 433 714 222 1 865 398 17 002 130 22 985 183
Population
(Starting
Point)
Environment
Organization
Technology
Figure 1. Diagram of POET
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2003 3 792 510 798 079 2 047 022 19 976 376 26 613 987
2004 4 231 901 933 251 2 315 781 23 061 021 30 541 954
2005 5 076 230 1 110 255 2 875 116 28 561 831 37 623 432
2006 6 035 291 1 350 047 3 398 956 32 528 758 43 313 052
2007 6 877 229 1 736 087 4 234 236 41 955 128 54 802 680
2008 7 489 852 2 059 187 4 452 343 47 683 681 61 685 063
2009 7 910 407 2 160 973 4 498 171 52 767 093 67 336 644
2010 8 891 041 2 250 109 4 687 789 61 078 188 76 907 127
Source : Police Office of the Republic of
Indonesia

*)
since 1999 not include
Timor Timur

Electric cars come with the hope to minimize the impact that occurs in urban areas, the
situation is increasingly soiled then a second starting point to continue to support and promote
environmentally friendly vehicles.
Tabel 1.3. Sources Pollutant Gas CO
No Source of Pollutant Presentase (%)
1
2
3
4
5
Transportation
Stasioner Burned
Industry
Waste
Other source
63,8
1,9
9,6
7,8
16,9
Source: Wardhana, 2004

3.2 Environment
On the other hand in the process of supplying human necessities will also be generated waste
will be a burden for the environment to degrade that. The greater amount of waste that is not
degraded will cause new problems, namely pollution for the environment (Paryadi, 2008).

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Figure 2. Diagram of relationship of human and the environment

The condition happens now to the environment is very sad. Humans are supposed to preserve,
maintain, and preserve the environment even more and create tremendous pressure on the
environment. Exploitation of the natural resources, increasing population growth,
technological developments, economic and social activities without regard to the carrying
capacity of the environment has led to environmental degradation and pollution. Related to
environmental issues is increasingly increased and pollution is greatest in urban areas
generated by the motor vehicle fumes, while electric cars with management deliberately set to
cover all the possible presence of pollution that cause damage to the environment, no doubt re-
use by all Indonesian people wherever he is especially in urban areas. (Paryadi,2008)
In addition, the export-import activities that occurred in Indonesia is not balanced, so many
vehicles are imported from different countries, but only as a determinant of social class is not
supported to maintain, preserve, and store energy for the future especially fuel. General picture
up on this aspect is when the population grew and the volume of vehicles has increased the use
of fuel will be more and more so as an attempt to preserve the non-renewable energy that can
not be achieved. Therefore the use of electric cars creation 'son of thunder' to answer all of this
dependence with the management of fuel derived from household electricity.

3.3 Organization
The next aspect is the Organization, an amazing innovation that will not be able to survive if
there are no parties that support sustainability. Is like when you use a wick stove fire has
become a habit handed down by the basic fuel is kerosene then the latest program from the
government that the use of gas stoves that everything is efficient, quite difficult to be accepted
as the first factor which has been used wick stove hereditary with kerosene is quite cheap and
easily available, while gas stove is new, less socially acceptable because their use is difficult
and the process of buying gas cylinders that are difficult to obtain. Directly overview describes
the oil burner can we equate with oil-fueled vehicles and gas stove can we see in electric cars.
It becomes its own strategies when an electric car powered by a variety of institutions have a
major role in society. Of course, before the formation process, agreements have been made by
the president, the minister of state enterprises, and academic institutions produce dazzling
results. This latter organization is sufficient to parties entrusted to lead their communities
toward change that could save their future from the threat of endless energy to sustain life. It
was this organization that inform, introduce, and influence people to join the commercial
success of the car has been designed in such a way it could also proposed a national car that
was first produced and used by the nation itself, a matter of great pride continuous use and
environmen disturbing the wasteful use of energy.

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3.4 Technology
The four aspects of POET, in order, with specific analysis of the composition of the starting of
Population, Environment and proceed to the Organization, eventually stopping in one aspects,
namely, technology. Previous elaboration of the electric car has been introduced in detail to us
how important this electric car to be used directly by the people of Indonesia. Another
explanation after the brainchild of several institutions with the approval of the president,
formed a team headed by a technician who is very experienced in the field of industrial
vehicles, so after being given an application to create a fuel-efficient cars and eco-friendly at
an affordable price, then electric car became very sophisticated. In it has no less luxurious
facilities with production cars from abroad and then coupled with the convenience no need to
refuel at nearby filling station, where the car is pretty electric filled with household electricity
for five hours that would provide comfort for car users . This technology is sufficient to seed,
because users do not have to bother to fill petrol. In addition indirectly contribute to the
preservation of the environment and sustainable energy with electric car technology that does
not produce air pollution because fuel is household electricity.

4. SUSTAINABILITY OF ENERGY

Concern for the reduction of fuel oil produced by private cars surely produce a positive impact
on the sustainability of energy in Indonesia, especially in urban areas. Being the attention of
the entire community to life in the future starting from the current time and the nearest second.
The program is not a mere holding of electric cars without a goal, it helped us revive the state
of the environment and natural resources that have been ravaged. Sustainable energy is needed
to provide for the survival of humans and other living things on earth. If this fails to do starting
from a trivial matter that pollutes environment then no doubt.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are gratefully acknowledge the contribution of the PT Bukit Asam (Batu Bara), PT
Pertamina and Bogor Agricultural University

6. REFERENCES

[1] Atmaja HE. (2011) Pengaruh sikap dan promosi terhadap peningkatan jumlah
penumpang bus rapid trans (BRT) trans semarang, [Thesis],Diponegoro University.
[2] Central Bureau of Statistic [BPS]. (2012) Growth of Motor Vehicles by Type in 1987-
2010, Dowload from
http://www.bps.go.id/eng/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=17&notab=12
[3] Marten GG.(2009) Human ecology basic concepts for sustainable development, London ,
Earthscan.
[4] Borden, R, Jacobs, J and Young, G (eds) .(1988) Human Ecology: Research and
Applications, Society for Human Ecology, Maryland , College Park.

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Policy Study on the Use of Government Procurement as a Tool in Achieving
Sustainable Energy in Malaysia

Khairul Naim Adham
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1
and Md.Anowar Hossain Bhuiyan
1
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (6017) 3177207, Fax: (603) 89255104, E-mail: naimadham@gmail.com

Abstract
The energy sector plays an important role in Malaysias socioeconomic development as
energy production is the largest contributor to air pollution. Moreover, Malaysias emission
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intensity levels of green gas house (GHG) in the energy sector are above the global average. In
this respect, Government procurement could play a vital role as an economic instrument to
encourage sustainable use of energy. This would ensure continuous supply of energy for future
generation, and reduce the negative impact to human and environment. For this reason,
Malaysian Government could potentially use its huge purchasing power of 24-33 percent of
Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The Study assesses related Government documents namely
10
th
Malaysia Plan (10MP; 2011-2015), New Economic Model (NEM), National Renewable
Energy Policy and Action Plan (NREPAP), National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) and
National Green Technology Policy (NGTP) to identify the Malaysian Government efforts in
utilizing its Government procurement towards achieving energy sustainability in Malaysia.
The study reveals that Malaysian Government has realized the potential of Government
procurement in particular, promoting energy efficiency and stimulating renewable energy
generation. Apart from that, a number of measures in promoting sustainable use of energy
have been in place such as promoting the use of energy rating labels, implementing value-
management analysis (VM) and life-cycle cost (LCC) evaluation for Government projects,
establishing low carbon cities framework and assessment system (LCCF) and supporting green
building certification.

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Algae Biofuel/Wastewater Projects in Asia: Challenges in Empirical
Implementation

William I.Y. Byun
Managing Director, Greenpower Fuels (Asia Renewables Group), Singapore
Tel: (65) 91591497, E-mail: william@gpfasia.org

Abstract
The strong growth Asian emerging economies in Asia has also resulted in strains on the both
energy and wastewater sectors. Such strains also reflect policy priorities trading off
environmental degradation against the need for societal wealth and employment creation.
Thus far, utilizing renewable energy sources has been problematic. How can policymakers
frame a sustainable renewables policy in a business-oriented developing economy framework?
Utilizing algae for generating biofuels and wastewater phytoremediation provides an elegant
solution to positioning a renewables policy in the context of a business-oriented developing
economy framework. Currently, algal R&D in the West is focused on seeking scale-up
commercial viability and due to high factor input costs such as for land and labor, etc., more
technological innovation has been the focus of policy support. However, emerging economies
in Asia may be structurally favorable for algae biofuels projects to be financially viable even
under current technology levels and policy conditions through addressing both the energy and
wastewater issues, while consuming exactly the problematic inputs of wastewater and excess
CO2. In terms of financial sustainability and practical deployment, unlike Western policy
frameworks for algae, the current frameworks and actual conditions on the ground in Asia,
favor different emphasis on deployment size, resource utilization rather than on efficiency, and
on energy security and wastewater treatment rather than revenue maximization.

Keywords: Algae, Biofuels, Policy, Energy, Wastewater

1. Policy Pressures on Sustainable Development in Asia

Many of the emerging market economies in Asia have experienced strong and sustained
parallel growth trends in population and economics. Accordingly, there have been increased
strains and shortages for both energy and potable water. In turn, the consumption of such
resources has resulted in additional challenges from the treatment and disposal of emissions
such as CO2 from the energy use and of wastewater.
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From a policy perspective, much of such growth in Asian emerging economies has been
within broader national industrial policy frameworks which have emphasized physical
infrastructure and plant such as through industrialization, and more defensive oriented
measures to increase domestic employment and overall societal wealth creation. Overlaying
such policies have been domestic preferences highlighting the preservation of foreign
exchange reserves and increasing domestic energy production for energy security
considerations. Finally, as perhaps a reflection of the historical backgrounds of many of these
countries in a top-down authoritarian or military past, the implementation has been in the
context of the bigger the better in terms of scale, thereby favoring mammoth development
projects.
Asian emerging economies now face evolving challenges maintaining such policy targets,
while addressing too the trending confluences of rising environmental and small group social
activism. A focus on renewable energy support may seem to be the pathway along which
these goals could all be followed. Renewable energy as a policy construct is socially popular,
and due to its localized nature, also provides a distributive solution as well as employment.
For a variety of such reasons, many countries in Asia are promoting a renewable energy
focused policy framework. Countries such as Thailand and China have a strong renewables
platform due to its need for more electricity overall. Korean policy champions clean energy as
a basis for another export industrial sector. Japan is urgently focused on renewables now for
energy security reasons post-nuclear Fukushima. Countries such as Indonesia and Brunei may
increasingly orient forwards renewables as a part of evolving their post-oil economic order.
Thus far, the direct means of utilizing renewable energy sources have been problematic due to
their smaller generating/production capacities and subsidized capex profiles. For example,
whereas traditional baseload fossil electricity plants are typically of the magnitude of
thousands of MW per plant or more, a typical solar or biomass facility would be of the order o
tens of MW per plant or less. Similarly, just a single traditional oil well pump produces the
equivalent of 30 or 200 times the hectarage from biofuel sources. Given the massive scale of
the demand for energy in Asia, a purely renewables based approach is as yet, not feasible in
terms of sheer scale. Aggravating such a challenge is that on an implemented project-by-
project basis, transactions costs are generally fixed, thereby making renewables projects much
more expensive on an output basis building a 20MW biomass plant or a 1000MW coal plant
has roughly similar processes and transactions costs. Financing then becomes more
unfavorable against renewables. Of course, this metric even ignores that at present, many of
the underlying science and technology for such renewables is still developing and either
commercially unproven or as yet, too expensive vis--vis traditional fossil equivalents. The
final exacerbating factor too for Asia is that given the bigger is better policy mindset, the
policies for supporting renewables are not scaled for commercially/financially sustainability.
For example, while amongst potential renewables in Asia biomass/biofuels would seem to
logically have the broadest contextual affinity given Asias substantial agricultural links, in
terms of electricity, only very large-scaled dam hydro, wind or geothermal plants may be
sufficiently scaled to receive most existing policy support. On the other end of the scale, sub-
1MW approaches while perhaps attractive in terms of public policy, are simply too small to be
commercially viable and then remain simply, aid (and hence not prioritized in economies
with a business-growth orientation). As for approaches still emerging from the laboratories,
their deployment profile in terms of sufficient scale may therefore be more relevant to the next
generation phase of economic and social policy rather than todays challenges.
Simply, how can policymakers practically implement sustainable renewable energy in the
context of Asian developing economies?

2. Wastewater: An Illustration

A clear example of the intersection of interests among sustainable development in renewable
energy, social objectives, and waste management, comes from the municipal wastewater
sector.
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Rising population pressures mean that the volumes of wastewater (primarily municipal but
also industrial) has increased significantly in almost all Asian economies and water itself has
become one of the main geopolitical issues in the world today. [1] The lack of wastewater
treatment is not only an issue for poorer countries. For example, even newly industrialized
countries with higher income levels such as Thailand have capacity to treat only 20% of the
countrys wastewater (only 3.2 million of 14.8 m3 of daily wastewater) and of that capacity,
there are operational problems. [2] Affluent but rapidly growing countries have development
bottlenecks due to wastewater treatment. Even Qatar, now the worlds richest country on a per
capita GDP basis but one experiencing significant economic growth, suffers from a shortfall of
wastewater treatment with additional capacity now being built for over 440,000 m3 per day.
While Qatar has the financial capacity to have in construction such new tertiary wastewater
treatment plant, the significant lead-time to build such plant (in such case, at over 2 years
delay already) means that for long periods, even with investment and construction, there is an
ongoing shortfall. Finally, in addition to such budgetary constraints, for most countries,
wastewater treatment has taken a relative backseat to other infrastructure. Exacerbating this
demotion in priority is the commonly shares societal prejudice which has also hindered the
development of a privatized clean water sector, perceiving it as paying for clean water when
it should be a social right rather than an economic good.
Compounding these constraints on wastewater treatment development, has been the top
down cost approach as well towards large headline mega projects. Qatar can afford to
construct its new capacity for US$ 1 billion for such 440,000 m3 per day capacity, and even in
Thailand almost US$3 billion has been constructed for its current system, but for smaller
developing economies focused on wealth creation, investment has been prioritized towards
sectors such as for electric power generation capacity, arterial roads and transportation
facilities and other sectors which are considered to be more directly impactful in terms of such
affecting income creating economic effects as opposed to being considered a purely cost
item. The top down headline approach has a further disadvantage in that for the 3-5 years
the typical construction cycle for such mega plants, the wastewater problem continues and is
further aggravated since the new capacity is added in huge step-like aggregates rather than in
more graduated increments in demand.

3. Algae Phytoremediation

One more graduated approach is to utilize a more natural system of wastewater treatment
through phytoremediation, or the utilization of natural plant-based systems to provide some of
the wastewater remediation such as through the use of wetlands and other natural geographic
life-cycle systems to augment and replace some primary and secondary treatment ponds in a
typical chemical or physical treatment facility.

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Figure 1: An example of phytoremediation. [3]

As passive systems, such phytoremediation systems are cheaper and more natural in that the
soils and plants of a system would in effect be staged to remove pollutants. However, such
systems take a longer timeframe to work and are smaller in scale in terms of capacity, and
require a larger land footprint than a conventional chemical treatment plant. [4] Also, while
cheaper, they still carry a pure monetary cost which must be budgeted for by local
governments and are generally also not popular since such passive systems do not encourage
greater employment or utilization of other factor inputs. Simply, such systems do not generate
active economic footprints. In light of the above discussion, each of these negatives have
resulted in such systems being basically lost in the shuffle of numerous well-intentioned social
projects for study or small-scale pilot rollouts but not as a serious bottom line benefit
development project of the sort favored by Asian policymakers.

4. Algae Biofuels

In the meantime, one of the main tranches of renewable energy has been in the development of
transport fuels such as through biofuels. First and second generation biofuels tended to be
macroflora such as soybeans, jatropha, etc. which were used to produce fuels such as biodiesel
with first general fuels being more directly food related. In terms of productivity, microalgae
(being single-cell organisms without a diversion of energy for roots, leaves, and other macro-
vascular systems, can produce per weight, significantly larger quantities of fuel. As seen in
the below table, while with some variation on species and conditions, algae can produce
significantly larger volumes of biofuels. In terms of land usage, as micro-organisms, algae
grows continuously and can also be harvested on a short regular timeframe such as every two
weeks. The land used is configured usually as open raceway ponds with a motor providing
continuous circulation of the water. The inputs are basically wastewater (preferably rich in
nitrogen and phosphates), sunlight, and CO2, similar to other flora.

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Figure 2: Comparison of biofuels yields. [5]

Algae biofuels also provides an elegant sustainability solution in terms of addressing both the
energy and wastewater issues, while consuming exactly the problematic inputs of wastewater
and excess CO2. Inputs for growing algae are wastewater, sunlight and CO2 and what are
deemed problematic wastewater pollutants such as nitrogen and phosphates are actually
nutrients beneficial for the growth of alga. Similarly, smokestack CO2 if percolated through
algae growth ponds, can increase growth by up to 50% while also removing and locking CO2
from the atmosphere, an added benefit in terms of greenhouse gas emission concerns.
As yet, while the science and technology have been proven to work, the algae biofuels sector
is still in its infancy as systems for deployment, species selection, cultivation and scale-
deployment are just now being geared up to try to achieve commercial validation and the
results thus far, are mostly extrapolations of laboratory research thus far. Such state is not a
negative indictment that algae biofuels doesnt work rather, it is more indicative of the
timeline that commercial-scale viability hasnt happened yet.

5. Policy Threshold Commercialization Considerations

Currently, the state of algal research and deployment is at the threshold from the
demonstration of technical viability to that of scaled-up commercial viability, with much of
such research and commercial trials being conducted in the US and the West. However, due
to high transactions and factor input costs such as for land and labor, etc., more technological
innovation is seen as necessary for such cost hurdles and policymakers have focused on such
R&D support. As a result, the algae biofuels sector is now in the evolutionary step of
increasing yields in terms of oil production to overcome the cost hurdles which make algae
biodiesel production still commercially unviable. R&D has focused on algae species
development including genetically modified species generation, and through increased yield
capture through various chemical catalytic, centrifugal, and other process refinements. Most
of the impetus for the research and development have been through universities funded by
military defense departments, with the bulk of current research being undertaken in North
America and Europe. [6]

6. Current State of the Algae Biofuels Sector in Asia

As yet however, those two tranches discussed above pressures for sustainable renewable
energy including those with a positive wealth creation policy orientation, and for the
444 888
2664
3552 3552
88800
Soybeans Rapseed Jatropha Palm Oil Babassu Algae
Liters of Oil Yields (ha/year)
1
st
generation biofuels 2
nd
generation biofuels
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development algae biofuels, have not meaningfully intersected. There have been increasing
interest in algae biofuels research and activity in Asia but as yet, such efforts have been
sporadic. From the commercial side, there have been as yet the initial stirrings of algae
biofuels related interest, again mostly from the pure R&D side such as from PTT of Thailand
and from several Korean Government supported initiatives such as for domestic companies
like Pegasus. As yet however, the state of algae biofuels in Asia is still in its infancy with no
commercial-scale production of algae biofuels and can be characterized more as being
reflective or derivative of the R&D and sector approaches in the Americas and the EU rather
than take an independent pathway.
One possible direction change has come from Japan where in the aftermath of the Fukushima
Nuclear Crisis and resulting withdrawal of over 20,000 MW from the Eastern Japan grid, there
has been an urgent and concerted push towards renewables and the current focus on the algae
sector reflects the broad long-term social consensus triggered by such event. The initiatives
have come from the public sector such as from joint declarations among the Government
Ministries to coordinate support through NEDO (New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization), empirical efforts such as the collaboration between Tsukuba
University and Tohoku University with Sendai Citys Minami-Gamou sewage facility, and
importantly, from huge corporations such as IHI, JX Nippon Oil, and Denso who see
standalone commercial opportunities as Japan reorients itself more towards next-generation
energies as a part of the Governments long-term energy programs which rely more on
renewables than traditional fossil fuels. Such reorientation is being driven by long-term
energy security necessity as nuclear has become politically impractical and the sheer volume
of fossil fuels needed to replace the nuclear shortfall would distort the markets themselves.
Note the discussion herein is with respect to microalgae which lends itself chemically to the
production of biodiesel and bioethanol. Macroalgae (such as seaweeds) are a more established
industry with quite a long production history across Asia from northern China all the way to
Indonesia and its products have established economies in terms of foodstuffs, chemicals and
nutritional supplement industries. However, macroalgae is generally not considered an oil
producing sector (aside from some bioethanol possibilities) and as such alternative uses (food,
cosmetics, supplements, etc.) are very high value-added consumer sector products, its market
characteristics are quite different from the microalgae biofuels sector discussed herein which is
more public policy and energy security oriented.

7. A Different Policy Pathway Possibility - Costs

On the other hand, due to the lower costs of the inputs, more direct price regimes and a more
urgent policy need for energy and treated water in Asia, algae projects may be financially
viable for deployment in Asia even under current technology levels and policy conditions. In
the US for example, financial models for assessing financial viability and sustainability have
used factor inputs based naturally, on US cost inputs. Inputs also reflected costs for algae
inputs such as for CO2 (such as from compressed tanks), nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphates, skilled labor (primarily from universities at this stage), etc. However, in most
developing Asian economies, there are much cheaper lands, significantly lower labor costs,
areas of good sunlight, abundant smokestack CO2, and nitrogen/phosphate rich wastewater.
Due to the above problem of wastewater treatment, in almost all jurisdictions in Asia, there is
often a tipping fee paid for vendors to treat and remove such inputs like CO2 and
nitrogen/phosphate wastewater, and willing subsidized land and employment. In other words,
rather than needing to invest R&D focus to raise production revenues to overcome a high
factor cost hurdle, in emerging markets Asia, algae focus could simply be on lower the hurdle
to reflect those lower factor costs. Although algae biofuels costs have not yet been sufficiently
firmed to provide a robust independent reference measure, there are comparative cost
indicators on a relative basis with respect to 2
nd
generation biofuels which should give an
accurate comparative cost insight regarding relative project and production costs vis--vis
Southeast Asia and developed countries such as in the EU and North America.
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Figure 3: Regional comparison of 2
nd
generation biofuels costs. [7]

From trial costs and modeling at Greenpower Fuels Pte. Ltd. of Singapore, the comparative
price and cost differentials between the 2
nd
generational fuels and 3
rd
appear to be similar.
Such figures are being finalized and expected to be released for an on-site project feasibility
study in Kalimantan in the 2
nd
quarter 2012.
The challenge in Asia then, is not necessarily from repeating the pathway of R&D in the West,
but to adapt the extant capabilities and capacities of the algae biofuels production sector, to a
commercially viable deployment. Because of the structural emphasis of Asian economic
policies on economic wealth generation capacities, the dynamics of the algae sector are
different and such differences should be utilized to construct a pathway appropriate for such
Asian economies. Already, there are sufficient land and labor policy incentives and by
characterizing the algae biofuels as a wastewater remediation pathway, there is also then
logically a revenue positive model existing and viable from the tipping fee for wastewater
treatment. Even if such fee is not present (such as in the areas where wastewater is currently
simply dumped into the watersheds), policymakers throughout Asia are willing to provide at
no cost the wastewater itself, as well as smokestack CO2, thereby eliminating major cost
factors.

8. A Different Policy Pathway Possibility Size (and Transaction Costs)

Currently, algae R&D in the Americas is with respect to scalability. While production in the
laboratories has been successful, the next stage of deployment has been identified as being
able to produce over a 1 hectare sized lot in the next year or so, with additional scale-ups
thereafter once the systems have been tested at such pilot facility sizes. In emerging markets
Asia, a progression up to 1 hectare sizes would meet implementation resistance as being
impractical for a public policy and also project transactions costs emphases on employment,
wastewater remediation, etc. Since there is in any case much more leeway in terms of lower
costs in Asia, the more efficient sizing would be to immediately target a larger size framework
such as for 10 or 15 hectares in terms of obtaining regulatory permitting, water and land rights,
etc. but stage deployment in terms of a roll-out being in 1 hectare lots. Same end-goals but
via a different pathway. Such a pathway is important since in terms of deployment, without
such size, there would not be enough of a practical commercial consideration to overcome
issues regarding the transactions costs and without such commercial aspect being possible,
such algae projects would then not be considered on a business-oriented policy priority
category which emerging markets Asian countries favor but rather, on a less-emphasized
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purely social policy track. Transactional costs are noteworthy since for the most part, the main
hindrance to implementation in emerging markets Asia for infrastructure overall, has been
with respect to such costs including obtaining water and land use rights, ownership
clarification of the products, regulatory hurdles, etc.

9. The Algae Challenge in Asia

The framework for implementation regarding algae biofuels in Asia, is then more specifically
one where the technical and scientific considerations will not be the critical chokepoint
rather, it will be the specific deployment and empirical buildout challenge.
Such a difference in orientation has implications on how algae biofuels development in Asia
must be approached and framed from a policy perspective to reflect such difference. Several
differences are worth emphasizing from the above discussion. First, rather than a broad-based
algae initiative maximizing returns which would include not just biofuels but also higher
revenue nutraceuticals and chemicals which in turn appeals to private equity and other
investors in the West, in the emerging markets Asia context, although lower in terms of
returns, the emphasis on the fuels and wastewater remediation aspects are more in lin with a
broader public policy framework. Second, rather than a focus on improving yields or
efficiencies to meet the high cost hurdle, the focus in emerging markets Asia should be on
maximizing employment and utilization of other factor inputs as these are also public policy
priorities. Third, the emphasized size should be from a larger plotting developed in smaller
increments rather than from smaller increments expanding upwards. Because emerging
markets Asia has at present, a focus and need for infrastructure and energy which algae
biofuels implementation could address, the necessity of its successful deployment is satisfied.
Due to emerging Asias structural cost, size and inputs orientation, the sufficiency may also be
present too for a successful algae biofuels sector development. The critical consideration is
that the differences in such Asian countries in terms of policy considerations require that the
implementation be pursued to match such Asian conditions.

10 REFERENCES

[1] Senate Testimony of J. Yun, United States Foreign Relations Committee, Washington,
DC, September 23, 2010.
[2] Janjira Pongrai and Pongphon Sarnsamak, July 20, 2012, The Nation.
[3] Picture from Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia (from
http://srel.uga.edu/outreach/snapshots/phytoremediation.htm).
[4] Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) 1992. Sewage Purification Through
Aquatic Plants, Final report. Division of Environmental Engineering, AIT, Bangkok.
[5] Asia Renewables Report on Biofuels, August 2012. (Internal algae production
financial model study: Asia Renewables Group, 2012].
[6] Biofuels and industrial biotech: Scale-up, 2011-2025, Jim Lane, Biofuels Digest, June
2011.
[7] http://www.aumbiz.sg/market.html

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Decentralized Power Factor Correction

J. Hazra, Balakrishnan Narayanaswamy, Kaushik Das, Ashok Pon Kumar, Deva P Seetharam,
De Silva Liyanage and Sathyajith Mathew
UBD | IBM Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
Sathyajith.mathew@ubd.edu.bn

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Abstract
Power Factor (PF) is a measure of electrical efficiency and is given by the ratio of KW (kilo
watt) to KVA (kilo volt ampere), where KW is actual power consumed by the load whereas
KVA is total power delivered to the load. The power consumed is called active power and the
remaining (KVA-KW) is called re-active power. Even though reactive power doesnt do any
actual work, it still needs to be generated and carried. When power factor is poor (pf<1),
reactive power travels through the wires between the load and the utility grid, passing back
and forth through the residential meter which makes the system less efficient by increasing the
system loses. This also increases the monthly electricity bill when reactive power is charged.
In order to improve the power factor, we propose a system and method that achieves power
factor correction with minimal extra hardware through intelligent scheduling of electrical
loads. The proposed system consists of a smart meter, consumption profiler (software) and a
scheduler (software). The proposed system is expected to improve the power factor by
intelligent load scheduling and reduces reactive power requirement from grid and there by
improves system efficiency and monthly electricity bill. The system requires minimum
hardware as it avoids the use of additional costly hardware like capacitor/inductor bank.

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Environmental Impact Analysis - Options for Bio Energy and Sustainable
Development: Issue and Intricacies

Dr.Alluri V.N.Varma
1
* Dr.J.Chandra Prasad
2

1
*Associate Professor in Economics, P.G.Courses & Research centre, D.N.R.COLLEGE (Andhra
University), Bhimavaram-534202, W.G.District, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA. E-mail: avndnr@gmail.com,
Mobile: +91-9393087255,
Fax: +91-8816-227318, Phone: +91-8816-225632, +91-8816-222454.
2
Professor in Commerce & Management Studies, Principal, D.N.R. (Autonomous) College,
Bhimavaram-534202, India.

Abstract:
There is growing concern that environmental degradation in the Asian and Pacific region is
pervasive, accelerating and unabated, putting people's health and livelihoods at
risk. These environmental consequences disproportionately impact the rural poor who depend
on agriculture, lack access to safe and adequate water supplies. Much effort is needed to
reduce rural poverty and meet the basic needs of the vast and expanding population in the
region, as well as to reduce the environmental impact of its economic growth. What we need is
an integrated approach that enables economic growth to support and reinforce environmental
sustainability.
Energy is a core component for achieving higher agricultural productivity and alleviating rural
poverty. Without modern energy inputs, agriculture will have to rely on human power that
translates into human drudgery, low productivity and extensive agriculture. The production
and use of bio energy in its modern forms can have a major and positive impact on agricultural
development and the environment. If bio energy, particularly as a modern energy carrier,
becomes a major source of energy, it could have a profound influence in many rural areas of
developing countries. It could possibly speed up socio-economic development, and a large
number of farmers could increase food production and their own energy in a sustainable
manner. This could be done through efficient use of agricultural residues and combined
agriculture-energy crop systems.
Policy-makers must assess the impact of producing bio fuels on food security due to potential
change in land use and switch in plantation of agricultural crops; that is,
environment/economic tradeoffs in terms of food/feed/fuel production and security should be
carefully evaluated. Furthermore, the processing/conversion technology dimension of bio fuel
development and production is another important aspect to be considered by the policy-makers
at the country level.
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Government policy-makers are now promoting the use of renewable energy and bio fuels, as a
means to achieving the goals of reducing dependency on fossil fuel and mitigating effect of
climate change. There are a number of potential measures and policy instruments which could
be applied to agriculture to reduce GHG emissions ranging from economic instruments such as
carbon (green) taxes, to regulatory measures and research and development. The quest for
solutions that incorporate environmental considerations in the path of economic development
is required, especially in view of the climate crisis contributed by GHG emissions.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Environmental Performance of Energy Production from Waste Biomass

Vladimr Ko
1*
, Tatiana Treckov
2

1
Faculty of Environmental Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology Prague, Czech Republic
ETC Consulting Group s.r.o., Prague, Czech Republic
* Corresponding Author. Tel (420) 220444171, Fax: (420) 220444171, E-mail: vlad.koci@vscht.cz

Abstract
In this contribution life cycle assessment of different energy producing technologies will be
presented. Waste biomass is a source of energy and can be used for energy production.
Different sources of biomass need different treatment. In this contribution sludge from
wastewater treatment plant, waste tree biomass and municipal solid waste as sources for
energy production will be compared. Life cycle analysis is a method able compares possible
environmental impact of all involved processes from cradle to grave with respect to defined
functional unit of assessed product and/or service. In assessment of environmental impacts all
emission of adverse compounds into atmosphere, soil and water are evaluated. All these
emissions are expressed to production of 1MJ of energy produced, so selection of
environmentally effective energy source can be appointed. Environmental impacts not only
based on amount of emitted pollution are demonstrated, but such data into results of impact
category indicators as global warming GWP, ozone depletition potential ODP, eutrophication
EP, acidification AP, photochemical ozone creation potential POCP, human toxicity potential
HTP and ekotoxicity potential ETP are presented. Such a comparison is able to detect adverse
situation when environmental problems are not finally solved, bud only shifted from one
problem into another one. Carbon footprint of different sources of energy production from
biomass is presented.

Keywords: life cycle assessment, secondary biomass, carbon footprint, energy production.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mixed municipal waste contains biomass what is subject to energy recovery. The most
common method of mixed municipal waste (MMW) management currently used in the Czech
Republic is that of landfills, i.e. 75% of municipal waste was placed in a landfill. A total of
approximately 20% of the municipal waste is recovered; 11 - 12% for materials, 9% for the
recovery of energy. In recent years, there have been many discussions about the possibilities
of MBT implementation and possible energy recovery from biomass containing mixed
municipal waste. There are various tools useful for the inventory and assessment of the
environmental impacts of waste management systems. LCA assesses both the environmental
impacts, as well as the consumption of resources during the entire life-cycle of a product; from
the extraction of the raw materials, through their production, and to the final disposal after last
use. A product not only describes the product system, but also its services [1, 2]. By
applying the life-cycle approach to the waste management system, the effects of utilizing and
disposing of a defined amount of waste can be assessed, without looking at the preliminary
stages of the product or service life-cycle [3]. This contribution reflects the fact that a
perspective of the wastes entire life-cycle is a useful tool in order to analyze waste
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management system processes, since it provides a comparison between the different
technologies and the integrated systems of waste management. On the other hand, at present
there are a number of limitations and deficiencies in using LCA software, especially with the
databases complexity, and with the data for the Czech Republic.

2. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT IN WASTE MANAGEMENT AND ENERGY
RECOVERY

At first sight, it would seem that the use of LCA for the problems of waste management goes
counter to the purposes and principles of the methods to assess the environmental impacts of
products from the cradle-to-the-grave. From this point of view, waste management would
always be a part of the life-cycle of specific products, because they become waste at the end of
their useful lifetime. On the other hand, we can view waste management technologies as a
service, related to those environmental impacts in which we are interested. From this point of
view, two different emission modelling approaches can be put forth: a process approach, and a
product approach [4]. The process approach uses ready-made emission and resource
consumption factors for the different waste treatment methods and their underlying
technological variations. This approach was selected as being crucial for this study.
The idea to apply LCA in waste management is not new. A very good overview of the use of
LCA in waste management was elaborated by Cadena [5]. A significant number of
publications describe the use of LCA using comparisons of different waste management
scenarios, in order to quantify the environmental burdens and benefits of the different
proposals [6-9]. The LCA method can be used in waste management for the purpose of
environmental assessment of alternative waste management systems and/or the identification
of the main areas for potential improvements on specific concepts of either waste management
or the specific technologies involved. The LCA results could be useful towards the end of
proposing suggestions for the decision-making process. LCA within waste management is
mainly focused upon: the identification of environmentally important processes in the waste
management chain; the identification of important environmental burdens within these
processes; the definition of the proposed improvement end points on local optimization (the
displacement of environmental burdens to other locations); whether these are environmentally
preferable for the entire waste management system; and upon the assessment of environmental
impacts of the waste management alternatives throughout their entire life-cycle.

3. ASSESSED TECHNOLOGIES

Waste management is a complex system for the disposal (or secondary use as energy
recovery) of the waste produced. Currently waste is not being disposed of at any one facility,
but it is usually disposed of in several subsequent facilities. This sequence of technological
processes that participate in the waste management process is called an integrated system. In
this project, the environmental impacts of the following various IS were assessed:

- IS MBT with aerobic treatment (MBT-Aer)
- IS MBT biodrying with RDF incineration of a monosource (MBT-Mono)
- IS MBT biodrying with RDF co-incineration (MBT-BD)
- IS Landfills with landfill gas incineration by flaring (Land)
- IS Landfills with recovery of the landfill gas (Land-R)
- IS Incineration without slag recovery (Incin)
- IS Incineration with slag recovery (Incin-R)

The main technology involved within this IS MBT (classic) with aerobic treatment without use
as compost is the mechanical-biological treatment of MMW. The outputs of this treatment
are a stabilised organic fraction, a high calorific fraction, and the separation of those metals
which are recyclable. The last of the outputs are hazardous materials from the mechanical
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treatment, inert materials, and waste from the cleaning of waste gases which then get placed
into a landfill. Between 30 - 40% of the input mass of the waste ends up in a landfill. The high
calorific fraction, that is useful as RDF for the co-incineration in the energy industry,
represents from 30 - 40% of the input mass of the waste.
The primary technology of MBT (biodrying) with RDF co-incineration or with RDF
incineration of a monosource is the mechanical-biological treatment of MMW. The outputs of
this treatment are RDF, separation of metals that are recyclable, materials disposed of at
landfills (dangerous materials from the mechanical treatment, inert materials, and waste from
the cleaning of the waste gas). The materials disposed of at landfills represent from 10 - 20%
of the mass of the waste input. RDF represents from 50 - 60% of the input mass of the waste,
and it is co-incinerated within the first of these IS with energy sources, and within the second
of these IS in an especially installed (monosource) facility for this purpose.
The main technology of IS with landfilling is one in which the landfill wastes in the delivered
MMW is spread over the landfill and then compacted. The outputs of this kind of landfill are
leachate water and landfill gas. The leachate water runs out through a drainage system into a
catchment for the leachate water; it is then used for spraying down the landfill, or it is treated
in a wastewater treatment plant. When IS landfills are performed without recovery of the
landfill gas, the landfill gas is collected and incinerated in a flare tower, without any value
being derived from it. When IS landfills are performed with landfill gas recovery, the landfill
gas is collected, and then used for the production of heat and electricity. The produced heat
and electricity are then modelled (as inverse flows of their production), as the pollution and
emissions that were avoided and would have produced with ordinary production of the same
amount of heat or electricity.
The main technological process of this IS containing incineration is the incineration of the
waste at a specific facility (a MMW incinerator). The principle outputs of this technology are
heat and electricity, which are then used. The other outputs are metals, slag, waste gas, and fly
ash from the treatment of the gas. The slag is treated, and within this process, the metals are
separated out for subsequent smelting. The waste gas is treated. In the case of IS incineration
without slag recovery, the slag and fly ash produced are put into a landfill (30 - 35% of the
input mass of the waste). In the case of IS incineration with slag recovery, the slag is treated,
and the materials are used as construction materials; with these products and processes having
avoiding emissions then respectively included in the inventory. In this case, 2 - 5% of the
input mass of the waste ends up in a landfill.

4. LCA METHODOLOGY

The aim of this study was to compare the IS of MMW management for the conditions within
the Czech Republic, from an environmental point of view. The functional unit chosen was the
treatment of 1 tonne of MMW. This functional unit permits the comparison of all studied IS,
regardless their treatment capacity. The choice of a system for the life-cycle approach
essentially depends on the required depth of the enquiry. If necessary, not only the operating
process, but also all pre- and post-processing involved in the preparation of the materials, in
the manufacture of the components, building construction, demolition, and disposal of the
plant and equipment, as well as transport, can be taken into account [3]. This, of course,
requires comprehensive data, and efforts appropriate for their collection. The data often must
be verified by making a number of assumptions, which can greatly restrict the general
applicability of the results obtained; additionally, they can have significant consequences on
the costs of the study itself. Thus, to make a sufficiently objective assessment of the waste
management process or of the process chain forming a waste management system from an
ecological perspective, the entirety of all construction facilities consisting of the product
chains assessed, were not included. In this study, the LCA was principally performed on the
management of MMW, including its transportation, production of the necessary materials and
energy, consumption of fuel and water, as well as atmospheric, aquatic, and soil pollution
produced.
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The methodology used to inventory the problems associated with IS was a questionnaire
designed for the plant managers. The data obtained included: the amount of treated MMW,
material consumption, energy and water consumption, pollution going into the environment,
residues, secondary materials, and energy usage. Data in the questionnaire related to both the
operational conditions as well as the economics involved in these processes; additionally,
these were occasionally checked and confirmed in situ. Furthermore, the LCA methodology
was used to calculate the environmental interventions (inventory profile) and characterisation
profiles (results of impact category indicators). The facilities assessed were located both in the
Czech Republic (incinerators, landfills), as well as abroad (the MBTs). Inventory analysis
permitted the calculation of different ratios; corresponding to resource consumption of the
plant performance and process yields related to 1 t of MMW. The pollution from diesel
consumption and electric production, as well as the relevant processes, were derived from use
of the GaBi 4 Professional database (PE International). The electricity model covers the
consumption of electricity produced in the Czech Republic, including the production and
transport from primary energy sources.
The impact categories analysed in this analysis were based upon specific characterisation
methodologies. The CML methodology was chosen for the calculation of the profile
characterisations; with a particular interest in the CML. CML uses the following impact
categories: global warming (GWP100), acidification (AP), photochemical ozone creation
potential (POCP), eutrophication (EP), human toxicity potential (HTP), aquatic and terrestrial
ecotoxicity potentials (AETP and TETP), as well as ozone layer depletion (ODP). The EDIP
2003 methodology was used for sensitivity analysis and to analyse the influence of the
selection of a characterisation method for the formulation of significant issues.

5. RESULTS

Results show that MBT IS with aerobic treatment is comparatively dependent upon the
consumption of raw material sources, especially of crude oil and natural gas. On the other
hand, IS MBT with RDF incineration of a monosource is less demanding on hard coal
consumption. The highest savings of crude oil were obtained in IS incineration with slag
recovery. Then again, this IS technology is highly water-consuming (as is IS incineration
without slag recovery). Both IS landfill categories are demanding of lignite consumption. It is
important to note that the inventory of landfills from a short-term (one year) point of view is
not flawless. Due to the lack of actual long-term operational data from the landfills, as well as
data on the landfills closures, the material and energetic demands assessed for just one year of
a landfills operation are considered the minimal values; that likely, in reality, might well be
higher.
Assessment of environmental impacts is problematic if only the mass flows of pollution are
considered. For example, while IS incineration presents higher emissions of metals into
waters; they are minor contributors to metal pollution into the soil, as well as minor
contributors of organic pollution into the air. One important finding is that IS MBT is
relatively consuming of energy. It is necessary to consider the results for IS MBT as
approximate, as the data obtained and used for this modelling came from foreign facilities.
The results of the impact category indicators to be mentioned next are more suitable for the
assessment of potential impacts of elementary pollution flow to the environment, and for
mutual comparisons of IS.
The inventory results of elementary flows were transferred to the results of the impact
category indicators. It was found that the rate of environmental interventions in single impact
categories showed degrees of important differences. The normalization of the results, in
particular, provides possible combined IS comparisons. The consistent quantification of
environmental impacts, according to the LCA method, was made using an impact
characterisation (Life-cycle Impact Assessment - LCIA). The importance of this step is in the
fact that the impacts of different types of pollution on the environment have other different
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specific impacts; therefore, it is not possible to compare the environmental impacts of systems
based only upon the mass of the pollution emitted.
It is not suitable to summarise the mass of a material (e.g. hydrocarbons) by their differential
environmental impacts, and then to express their pollution by a mass sum. LCIA was based on
the CLM methodology, therefore the mass flows of pollution to different parts of the
environment were converted into impact category indicators. The inventory data for each IS
were classified into different categories, based on the character of their impacts, following
LCA methodology CML. The IS landfills without energy recovery of the landfill gas has the
highest consumption of raw materials (0.023 kg Sb-equiv./1 t of MMW). All of the other
assessed IS showed relative raw material savings. Both IS incineration and IS MBT biodrying
with RDF co-incineration demonstrated the greatest material savings.
With regard to the acidification category, the most important contributors are both IS with
landfills, where the resulting values of the impact category indicator varied from 0.28 to 6.6 kg
SO
2
-equiv./1 ton of MMW. Additionally, IS MBT with aerobic treatment has a significant
acidification potential with a value of 0.6 kg SO
2
-equiv/1 ton of MMW. In contrast, IS with
incineration has a positive impact on acidification, due to the resulting electric production.
This benefit was included in the inverse flow of electric production, using the energy mix that
is specific to the Czech Republic. The savings of materials that cause acidification in IS with
incineration are higher than their impacts, so they have a negative balance on acidification
(and therefore a positive net benefit for the environment).
The eutrophication impact category is mostly caused by IS landfills with incineration of the
landfill gas by flaring (from 3.9 to 5.8 kg PO
4
3-
-equiv./1 ton of MMW). In this impact
category, IS MBT with aerobic treatment (0.54 kg PO
4
3-
-equiv./1 ton of MMW), IS MBT
biodrying with RDF incineration of a monosource (0.37 kg PO
4
3-
-equiv./1 ton of MMW), and
IS landfills with energy recovery (from 0.22 to 0.33 kg PO
4
3-
-equiv./1 ton of MMW) also have
significant impacts. IS with incineration appears to be the most environmentally friendly
within the eutrophication category.
The impact categories of toxicity and ecotoxicity are mostly dominated by IS with
incineration. The low impact of IS with landfills are caused by insufficient data on the long-
term effects of the landfills operations, as well as their influences on soil quality and water
ecosystems. It is usually assumed during a landfills operation that the escape of leachate
water or the escape of toxic substances after closure of the landfill will not happen. Quite the
contrary, as this is very problematic, and an increase of toxic leachate waters coming from
landfills can be expected over time. This fact also decreases the calculation of the
environmental impacts of IS incineration without slag recovery for products. Slag that is not
recovered is disposed of into the landfills after solidification, while the slag used as a product
has, according to its content of toxic substances, an impact on the toxicity and ecotoxicity.
Additionally, IS MBT with aerobic treatment has significant impacts on toxicity and
ecotoxicity.
The IS landfills without energy recovery (500 kg CO
2
-eqiv./1 ton of MMW) have the largest
impact on global warming; this category significantly contributing to it, due to their
contributions of the major landfill gases (CO
2
and CH
4
). IS with incineration, as well as IS
MBT biodrying with RDF incineration of a monosource, have lower impacts (420 kg CO
2
-
eqiv. for 1 ton of MMW). IS landfills with energy recovery have the lowest impacts upon
global warming. IS MBT biodrying with RDF co-generation has a net negative sum.
The impacts of all tested IS within the impact category of ozone layer depletion were
relatively low. Performing the comparisons of the different IS, those with the greatest amounts
of pollution negatively influencing the depletion of ozone layer come from IS MBT with
aerobic treatment (3.6E-06 kg CFC11-equiv./1 ton of MMW), and from IS landfills without
energy recovery (both IS 2.6E-07 kg CFC11-equiv./1 ton of MMW). IS landfills without
energy recovery (from 9.7E-02 to 1.4E-01 kg C
2
H
4
-equiv./1 ton of MMW), and IS MBT with
aerobic treatment (9.6E-02 kg C
2
H
4
-equiv./1 ton of MMW) have the highest impacts within
the category of photochemical ozone creation.
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The reason for the exclusion of the impact categories of human toxicity and ecotoxicity was
the lack of available information on the basic flows involved within these impact categories.
The facility operators follow their respective legislative requirements in their monitoring.
These requirements do not always reflect the full spectrum of substances emitted; and at the
same time, the requirements are not consistent for all facilities. Therefore, a specific emission
can be monitored at one facility but not always at another. In this case, it is appropriate to not
consider these impact categories in mutual comparisons of IS. Noteworthy from Fig. 5 is that
the exclusion of the toxicity and ecotoxicity impact categories leads to a decreased impact of
IS with incineration; while these IS classes are in 2
nd
and 3
rd
place for the most
environmentally sound of all of the IS.
The observed sums of the normalised results of the different impact category indicators shows
that IS landfills without energy recovery have the greatest environmental impacts in both cases
(with and without the inclusion of human toxicity and ecotoxicity). The IS MBT with aerobic
treatment also has a relatively high impact. MBT with biodrying is the most environmentally
sound. The difference between the impacts of IS incineration with and without slag recovery is
very important, as well. This is caused by the fact, discussed above, of the slags composition;
especially contained metals, that are important to the impact categories of toxicity and
ecotoxicity, in the case they are applied onto the land. Because the referenced results of the
impact category of human toxicity and ecotoxicity are significantly influenced by local
conditions.
The main parameter variances in life-cycle assessments of IS are: 1) the different assumptions
of emission pollution for IS landfills, 2) the LCIA methodology used, and 3) the inclusion or
exclusion of the toxicity and ecotoxicity impact category. As to the first point, the differences
in the values of the impact category indicators for both options of air pollution and leachate
water releases are presented in the tables and figures. Although changes in this assumption
leads to relatively significant changes of the environmental impacts (mainly IS landfills
without energy recovery), it has no impact on the overall assessment of IS landfills. The
sensitivity analysis within the LCIA methodology was based on a description, using the EDIP
2003 methodology.

6. DISCUSSION

The results obtained confirmed the information of Cadena et al. [5], that LCA in MMW
management systems includes a wide variety of data that is necessary in order to perform the
required inventory. In accord with Barton et al.[10], some waste management processes were
found to be independent of the specific characteristics of the waste processed, while some
others are strongly related to these specific characteristics.
It is important to pay attention to the major suggestions, and the limitations on the relevance of
the study results. Data collection in the area of waste management is a relatively complicated
issue. Data from the operators differs from facility to facility, due to the different legislative
requirements that apply. The specific categories of pollution that are monitored at different
facilities differ. This fact significantly decreases the possibilities for parallel comparisons of
the environmental interventions at a mixture of different facilities.
The second important factor that decreases the possibility of parallel comparisons of IS with
landfills, with other IS, is the above-mentioned fact that the emission balance made for any
single year of a landfills operation does not correspond with the real impacts during its entire
life-cycle [4]. Using a comparison of the environmental impacts of landfills and incinerators
over a short period of their operation (e.g. a single specific year), the landfills are absolutely in
a better position, as any of their future environmental impacts are thereby not considered.
Most of the harmful substances that will leach out into the soil and/or water, will later on, in
case of any damage to the landfills bottom. It can be argued that such damage can be repaired;
however, such repair will present secondary impacts on the environment, which should have
been previously included in the equilibrium of the environmental impacts. In this regard, it is
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important to understand that the results of the environmental impacts for IS landfills are
undervalued. In reality, the real impacts undoubtedly would be much greater.
The next limitation on the validity of this study is the fact that the facilities assessed only
represent an illustrative fraction of the facilities operating in the Czech Republic. The
operational data from the MBT facilities were collected from foreign facilities (Germany and
Italy), as this type does not operate in the Czech Republic. The MMW composition is slightly
different abroad, and therefore the composition of the pollution can be quite different. This is
not a sufficiently rigorous relative comparison of IS impacts, within the specific impact
categories, as mentioned in section 3.2. The importance of the rates of the effects of particular
impact categories is obvious, after the normalisation of the indicator results. The aggregate of
the normalized results of the various impact category indicators for all IS was selected by
summation, in order to simplify the results, as presented.
Both used the LCIA methodologies (EDIP and CML), which indicated IS landfills without
energy recovery and IS MBT with aerobic treatment were those systems which had the
greatest environmental impacts. Unlike the CML methodology, EDIP 2003 evaluates IS
landfills with energy recovery as the more environmentally friendly, compared to IS
incineration. IS MBT biodrying with RDF incineration of a monosource, and IS MBT
biodrying with co-incineration are the friendliest, according to EDIP 2003; this corresponds
with the results of the CML methodology. The issue discussed earlier relates to the landfills
age and the lack of data on any future environmental consequences of harmful substances in
the landfills being taken from a long-term point of view. Using the available data, this study
assesses the environmental interactions of IS with the perspective of only a single year.
The comparison of IS landfills with energy recovery versus IS incineration is limited, due to
the availability of the inventory data for only one year of the landfills operations. All of the
future environmental impacts, related to a landfills operation, or to any recultivation or other
impacts connected to the leachate of harmful substances were not integrated into the
environmental impacts of IS landfills, again due to the inventory data available only being for
one years operation of the assessed facilities. While the unfriendly impacts of emissions from
IS incineration are already included at the time of waste disposal and for IS landfills, it is also
necessary to consider their future impacts. The next important aspect is that the release of air
pollution and leachate water from the landfill was selected according to studies from abroad;
whose factors are well known. If the air pollution and leachate water releases in reality were
higher, then the negative impacts of IS landfills would also be higher. So, the environmental
impacts of IS landfills could well be undervalued.

7. CONCLUSION

Biomass containing mixed municipal waste is important source of energy to be recovered. It
has been established that in the region of Czech Republic the highest environmental burden
comes from IS landfills without energy recovery, and MBT with aerobic treatment. The most
environmentally friendly IS are the MBT biodrying with RDF co-incineration, and MBT
biodrying with RDF incineration of a monosource in these scenarios always with energy
recovery. The comparison of the environmental impacts of IS landfills to the other IS should
be made using a detailed long-term inventory, including the closures of the landfills, and all of
their future environmental impacts. It would also be appropriate to include some other aspects
(such as social, technical, and economic) for a truly objective assessment, and in making a
proper choice of IS.

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project was carried out within the framework of the National Research Programme II, by
the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (Grant No. 2B06121 for
the years 2006 - 2010); and also from support of Research Plan Grant MSM 6046137308 also
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic.
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9. REFERENCES

[1] ISO14040. 2006 International Standard (ISO): Environmental management - Life cycle
assessment: Principles and framework. ISO 14040.
[2] ISO14044. 2006 International Standard (ISO): Environmental management - Life cycle
assessment: Requirements and Guidelines. ISO 14044.
[3] Wittmaier M, Langer S, Sawilla B.(2009) Possibilities and limitations of life cycle
assessment (LCA) in the development of waste utilization systems - Applied examples for
a region in Northern Germany. Waste Management;29:1732-8.
[4] Bjarnadttir HJ, Fririksson GB, Johnsen T, Sletsen H. 2002 Guidelines for the use of
LCA in the waste management sector. NORDTEST. Espoo.
[5] Cadena E, Colon J, Artola A, Sanchez A, Font X.(2009) Environmental impact of two
aerobic composting technologies using life cycle assessment. International Journal of Life
Cycle Assessment;14:401-10.
[6] Emery A, Davies A, Griffiths A, Williams K.(2007) Environmental and economic
modelling: A case study of municipal solid waste management scenarios in Wales.
Resources Conservation and Recycling;49:244-63.
[7] Finnveden G, Bjorklund A, Moberg A, Ekvall T, Moberg A.(2007) Environmental and
economic assessment methods for waste management decision-support: possibilities and
limitations. Waste Management & Research;25:263-9.
[8] Guereca LP, Gasso S, Baldasano JM, Jimenez-Guerrero P.(2006) Life cycle assessment of
two biowaste management systems for Barcelona, Spain. Resources Conservation and
Recycling;49:32-48.
[9] Wilson EJ.(2002) Life cycle inventory for Municipal Solid Waste management Part 2:
MSW management scenarios and modeling. Waste Management & Research;20:23-36.
[10] Barton JR, Dalley D, Patel VS.(1996) Life cycle assessment for waste management.
Waste Management;16:35-50.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Supercritical CO
2
-corrosion in Heat Treated Pipe Steels During Carbon Capture
and Storage CCS

Anja Pfennig
1*
, Phillip Zastrow, Axel Kranzmann
2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, HTW University of Applied Sciences Berlin,
Wilhelminenhofstrae 75A, Gebude C, 12459 Berlin, Germany
2
Federal Institute of Materials Research and Testing, BAM, Berlin, Germany
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: 0049 30-50194231, Fax.: 0049 30 8104 1517,
e-mail: anja.pfennig@htw-berlin.de

Abstract
Heat treatment of steels used for engineering a saline aquifer Carbon Capture and Storage
(CCS) site may become an issue because its influence on pit corrosion needs to be considered
to guarantee reliability and safety during the injection of compressed emission gasses mainly
containing CO2 into deep geological layers. In laboratory experiments differently heat
treated steels used as injection pipe with 13% Chromium and 0.46% Carbon (X46Cr13,
1.4034) 0.2% Carbon (X20Cr13, 1.4021) were tested under supercritical CO2 at 100 bar and
60 C. Independent of the exposure time the least amount of pits is found on hardened steels
with martensitic microstructure. Regarding steels with similar Cr-content the higher C-content
in 1.4034 results in fewer pits and lower maximum intrusion depth compared to 1.4021.

Keywords: steel, heat treatment, pit corrosion, CCS, CO
2
-storage

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Engineering a Carbon Capture and Storage site
Engineering a geological on-shore saline aquifer CCS-site (CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
[1-3]) corrosion of injection pipe steels may become an issue when emission gasses, e.g. from
combustion processes of power plants, are compressed into deep geological layers [4-8].
Typically 42CrMo4 (1.7225, AISI 4140) is used for casing, and for injection pipe the steel
X46Cr13 (1.4034, AISI 420 C) or X20Cr13 (1.4021, AISI 420 J) is used. Figure 1 shows a
schematic drawing of a saline aquifer CCS-site in the Northern German Basin and possible
steels used for the injection.
Saline formations are the most favorable storage sites in Germany [9], because of their large
potential storage volume and their common occurrence. But relatively little is known about
them. Leakage of CO
2
back into the atmosphere may be a problem in saline aquifer storage,
especially around the water level within the borehole. Carbon dioxide corrosion may cause
failure of pipelines and wells as known from the oil and gas industry [4,6,10,11]

Figure 1. Schematic drawing, casing and tubing of the CCS-site Northern German Basin

Corrosion phenomena are most likely at the interface between the caprock and the reservoir
where the brine may be in contact with the injection pipe: if CO
2
injected is into the aquifer it
will not contact the aquifer water until near the bottom of the injection well, so internal
corrosion will depend largely upon the source of the injected gas, its composition and the
presence of water and dissolved salts. Here corrosion of the injection pipe in CO
2
-rich aquifer
water (2) may be a possibility when at injection intervals, the aquifer water may flow back into
the injection pipe and then form phase boundaries (3) [12].

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508

Figure 2. Schematic drawing of possible corrosive attack of the bottom of a well at a CCS-site

1.2 Corrosion phenomena in CO2-saturated aquifer water
From thermal energy production it is known, that the CO
2
-corrosion is sensitively dependent
on alloy composition, contamination of alloy and media, environmental conditions like
temperature, CO
2
partial pressure, flow conditions and protective corrosion scales [6-8;13-20].
Considering different environments, aquifer waters and pressures, the analyzed temperature
regime between 40 C to 60 C is a critical temperature region well known for corrosion
processes as shown by Pfennig et al. [21-23] and various other authors [10,24-28]. Here a
maximum around 4.7 mm/year was found for the pit intrusion depth of 13% Cr steel X46Cr13.
Still this may be predicted by the rather conservative Norsok-Model used in the oil and gas
industry to calculate surface corrosion rates of carbon steels [29].
Generally steels, that are exposed to CO
2
-environment, precipitate slow growing surface layers
mainly comprised of FeCO
3
(siderite) [4,8,30]. After the CO
2
is dissolved to build a corrosive
environment the solubility of FeCO
3
in water is low (p
Ksp
= 10.54 at 25 C [28,31). As a result
of the anodic iron dissolution a siderite corrosion layer grows on the alloy surface which is
also found in pits of locally corroded samples [21,23]:

CO
2
(g)+ H
2
O (l) H
+
+ HCO
3
-
(aq) (1)
cathodic: 2 HCO
3
-
+ 2 e
-
2 CO
3
2-
+ H
2
(2)
anodic: Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
-
(3.1)
Fe
2+
+ CO
3
2-
FeCO
3
(3.2)
Fe
2+
+ 2 HCO
3
-
Fe(HCO
3
)
2
(4.1)
Fe(HCO
3
)
2
FeCO
3
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O (4.2)

These reactions have been described in detail by various authors [7,21] and a precipitation
model has been introduced by Han et. al [30].

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1.3 Influence of heat treatment
The influence of heat treatment, that is: temperature and time of austenitisizing, cooling rate as
well as temperature and time of annealing, has been shown by various authors. The presence
and amount of retained austenite as a microstructural component resulting from the heat
treatments applied has a beneficial effect on the pitting corrosion resistance of 13%-chromium
steels (13CrNiMo) [32]. A higher Ni and Cr content in the heat treated steels improve the
corrosion resistance [32, 33]. Hou et al. introduce a method of empirically calculating the
influence of alloying elements in heat treated steels [34]. Cvijovi and G. Radenkovi showed
that the corrosion resistance of duplex steels with chromium contents even as high as 22-27%
varied with solidification mode and annealing condition [35]. In general raising the annealing
temperature lowers the pitting potential of lean duplex stainless steels [35-37]. The lowest
potentials, corresponding to the transition from metastable to stable pitting, are observed for
annealing at 900 C while a maximum improvement of corrosion stability can be achieved by
annealing at 1200 C [35]. The better corrosion resistance of martensitic stainless steels with
13% Cr at higher austenitizing temperature (980-1050 C) is related to the dissolution of
carbides [37-39]. The precipitation of Cr-rich M23C6 and M7C3 carbides reduced the
resistance of passive film and pitting corrosion [37] and has high impact on mechanical
properties due to secondary hardening [38]. The influence of heat treatment on the
microstructure and mechanical properties is well known [37,40]. However for C-Mn (carbon)
steels in a H
2
S-containing NaCl solution the martensitic microstructure has the highest
corrosion rate up to two orders of magnitude higher than ferritic or ferritic-bainitic
microstructures due to the fact that martensitic grain boundaries are more reactive [40].
This work was carried out to assess the influence of heat treatment and microstructure of steels
on the local corrosion behaviour. This knowledge may be used to estimate the corrosion
phenomena during CO
2
-injection into aquifer water reservoirs and predict the reliability of
steels used in on-shore CCS sites.

2. Materials and Methods

Usually the CO
2
is meant to be injected either as a liquid or as a supercritical phase. In these
laboratory experiments the samples were kept in the liquid phase (CO
2
-saturated aquifer
water) to simulate the injection intervals, where aquifer water may flow back into the injection
pipe. This may happen as often as the pressure in the injection tube is not maintained.

2.1 Materials
The steel qualities for laboratory experiments X20Cr13 (1.4021, AISI 420 J) and X46Cr13
(1.4034, AISI 420 C) are used as injection pipe. The alloy composition was analysed by spark
emission spectrometry SPEKTROLAB M (Spektro). Exposure tests in CO
2
-saturated aquifer
brine were carried out using samples made of thermally treated specimen of the steels with 8
mm thickness, 20 mm width, 50 mm length (table 1). Austenitizing prior to exposure was done
at 950 Cm 1000 C and 1050 C for 30 min, 60 min and 90 min. A hole of 3.9 mm diameter
was used for sample positioning. X46Cr13 (0.46 mass% C) and X20Cr13 (0.2 mass% C)
contain the same chromium content, but different carbon contents. It is well known, that with
increasing carbon content the corrosion rate increases as well. Therefore both steels were
analyzed to evaluate the influence of the carbon content of the steels.

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Table 1: heat treatment of samples used in exposure experiments.

2.2 Exposure conditions
The CO
2
injected into the borehole of the CCS-test site at the Northern German Basin as well
as the CO
2
used throughout these experiments is of the purity 99,995 vol.-%. The brine (as
known to be similar to the Stuttgart Aquifer [42]) was synthesized in a strictly orderly way to
avoid precipitation of salts and carbonates. This led to a rather unusual high starting pH of the
brine of about 9.2. The pH of the synthesized aquifer water after the experiments was between
5.2 and 5.6 revealing the total saturation of the brine with CO
2
. The exposure of the samples
between 700 h to 8000 h was disposed in autoclaves according to the conditions at the
geological site at 60 C at 100 bar and for comparison as well at ambient pressure each
material in a separated reaction vessel (Figure 3). Samples of each base metal were positioned
within the vapour phase and within the liquid phase. The brine (as known to be similar to the
Stuttgart Aquifer [41]: Ca2+: 1760 mg/L, K2+: 430 mg/L, Mg2+: 1270 mg/L, Na2+: 90,100
mg/L, Cl-: 143,300 mg/L, SO42-: 3600 mg/L, HCO3-: 40 mg/L) was synthesized in a strictly
orderly way to avoid precipitation of salts and carbonates. Flow control (3 NL/h) of the
technical CO
2
(purity 99,995 vol.-%) into the brine at ambient pressure was done by a
capillary meter GDX600_man by QCAL Messtechnik GmbH, Munic.

Figure3. Experimental Setup for long exposure of steel samples to CO
2
-saturated saline
aquifer brine

2.3 Sample Preparation
Before corrosion tests the surfaces of the steels were activated by grinding with SiC-Paper
down to 120 m under water. After the corrosion tests, the samples were cut partly for scale
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511

analysis with the corrosion layer and prepared partly for kinetic analysis after the scale was
etched. Descaling of the samples was performed by exposure to 37% HCl. Then parts of the
samples were embedded in a cold resin (Epoxicure, Buehler), cut and polished first with SiC-
Paper from 180 m to 1200 m under water and then finished with diamond paste 6 m and 1
m.

2.4 Analysis
Different light optical and electron microscopy techniques were performed on specimens to
investigate the layer structures and morphology of the samples. X-ray diffraction was carried
out in a URD-6 (Seifert-FPM) with CoK-radiation with an automatic slit adjustment, step
0.03nd count 5 sec. Phase analysis was performed by matching peak positions automatically
with PDF-2 (2005) powder patterns. Mainly structures that were likely to precipitate from the
steels were chosen of the ICSD and refined to fit the raw-data-files using AUTOQUAN by
Seifert FPM. To characterise the pitting corrosion, 3-D-images were realized by the double
optical system Microprof TTV by FRT. Kinetics of the corrosion were determined by the
corrosion rates which were calculated via mass change of the samples before and after
corrosion testing according to DIN 50 905 part 1-4.

| |
| | | | hour time
cm
g
density cm area
g loss weight
year
mm
rate corrosion
=
(

3
2
4
10 76 . 8
(5)

The measurement of the layer thicknesses and residual pipe wall thicknesses was performed
by the line scan method using the semi-automatic analyzing program Analysis Docu ax-4 by
Aquinto. The scale thickness was measured for each exposure time taking a set of 10 to 20
micrographs. Then a set of 100 line scans was placed over the scale residing in the average
scale thickness of the sample.


Specimens exposed to the brine form a carbonate layer as stated through equations 1 to 4,
which is demonstrated by reflection changes of the surfaces (from a polished metal to dull
reddish) (figure 4 and 5). These non-uniform corrosion layer are differing in thickness but
formed all over the surface and indicate the dependence on atmosphere, that is either the
water-saturated supercritical CO
2
or the liquid CO
2
-saturated aquifer phase

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512

Figure 4. Sample surfaces of steel qualities (X20Cr13 with pits) after 4000 hours of at 60 C
and 100 bar to water-saturated supercritical CO
2
or liquid CO
2
-saturated aquifer phase.

Figure4. Sample surfaces of steel qualities (X46Cr13 with pits) after 4000 hours of at 60 C
and 100 bar to water-saturated supercritical CO
2
or liquid CO
2
-saturated aquifer phase.

The multi-layered carbonate/oxide structure is described in detail by Pfennig and Bler [21].
It reveals siderite FeCO
3
, goethite o-FeOOH, mackinawite FeS and akaganeite
Fe
8
O
8
(OH)
8
Cl
1.34
as well as spinel-phases of various compositions. Carbides, such as Fe
3
C,
were identified within the corrosion layer, similar to the high-temperature corrosion
phenomena [42]. The pits are covered with the same precipitates of the corrosion products
formed on the surface elsewhere [23].
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513

3.1 Microstructure of the heat treated base metal
X20Cr13 exhibits a normalized ferritic microstructure, but also seems to contain remaining
martensitic formations (slightly acicular formations marked with green circles). X46Cr13
shows a soft annealed structure with encapsulated globular carbides. Hardened X20Cr13 has
an acicular martensitic structure with carbides, while X46Cr13 is dominated by Cr-carbides.
After hardening and tempering at different annealing temperatures (HT3=600 C, HT4=675
C and HT5=755 C) X20Cr13 consists of tempered acicular martensite with carbides whereas
X46Cr13 exhibits hardened microstructure with carbides in combination with residual
austenite or delta-ferrite.

3.2 Kinetics
The differently heat treatment samples were examined via light optical methods to predict the
amount of counted pits and the pit depths. Kinetics was obtained via weight loss according to
DIN 50 905 (figure 9-11) after exposure to the CO
2
-saturated aquifer water. Since corrosion
rates are usually given for surface corrosion rates only these rates apply for the overall surface
but results were taken into account for the pit corrosion layers only and therefore serve as a
starting comparison of the steel qualities and heat treatment methods.
According to figure 6 the hardened steel exhibits the lowest corrosion rate of less than 0.002
mm/a after 4000 h of exposure. The other heat treatments behave very similar with around
0.005 mm/a after 4000 h. Except for HT5, which does not only show the highest corrosion rate
of 0.017 mm/a after 4000 h, but also shows the only corrosion rate increasing over time.
Figure 7 stresses out that the specimens in the supercritical phase have lower corrosion rates
compared to specimens in the liquid phase.

Figure 6. I nfluence of heat treatment:
Corrosion rate summed up for all differently heat treated samples of X20Cr13
and X46Cr13 after 4000 hours of exposure to aquifer brine water at 60 C and
100 bar

Maximum intrusion depth after normalizing, hardening+tempering2 and 3 are below 50 m.
Maximum intrusion depths for X20Cr13 after 1400 hours of exposure were about 35 m. For
these 3 types of heat treatment the exposure time does not influence the pit penetration depths.
For hardened and hardened-tempering3 samples there is an increase in pit penetration depth
with exposure time. X20Cr13 shows maximum penetration depth (~250 m) after hardening.
These specific high penetration depths could be due to local inhomogeneties of the
microstructure. Pit depths measured on X46Cr13 are neither susceptible towards exposure
0.0000
0.0025
0.0050
0.0075
0.0100
0.0125
0.0150
0.0175
0.0200
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

i
n

m
m
/
y
e
a
r
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
exposure time in h
normalized
hardened
hardened & tempered 1
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514

time nor heat treatment, but are rather a phenomenon of the steels particular composition. Still,
the heat treatment has little influence on the maximum penetration depth, that is: there is no
such heat treatment preferable to achieve a lowest corrosion rate. For the 13Cr steels
(X20Cr13 and X46Cr13) normalizing and hardening+tempering1 show less intrusion ( in
general 18-25 m) than the other heat treatments.

Figure 7. I nfluence of atmosphere:
Corrosion rate summed up for all samples of X20Cr13 and X46Cr13 after 4000
hours of exposure to either water-saturated CO
2
-phase (vapour) or CO
2
-
saturated aquifer water at 60 C and 100 bar

4. CONCLUSION

During the normal storage procedure the CO
2
is supposedly injected in the liquid or
supercritical phase. When there are intermissions of the injection the water level may rise into
the injection pipe. This will then lead to the precipitation of corrosion products and formation
of pits as stated. Pit growth cannot be calculated as easily as surface corrosion rates, because
of its little predictability. Therefore it is not possible to give corrosion rates and lifetime
predictions regarding pit corrosion in CCS technology. Summarizing the kinetic results the
heat treatment preferred to obtain the least corrosive attack is hardening X20Cr13 and
X46Cr13. But annealing at too high temperatures (650 C) will lead to precipitation of high
amounts of ferrous carbides resulting in high corrosion rates with no regard of exposure time
Although pit growth rates will be above 0.1 mm/year but below 1 mm/year it may still be
possible that the analysed steel qualities are suitable for injection pipes in CCS environments
if monitored closely. In future detailed microstructure analysis will be necessary.

6. Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the FNK (Fachkonferenz fr wissenschaftlichliche
Nachwuchskrfte) of the Applied University of Berlin, HTW and by IMPACT (EU-Project
EFRE 20072013 2/21).

7. REFERENCES

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2
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0.0000
0.0025
0.0050
0.0075
0.0100
0.0125
0.0150
0.0175
0.0200
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

i
n

m
m
/
y
e
a
r
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
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X20Cr13 liquid
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Evaluation of Olivine Mineral on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage by pH
Swing Mineral Carbonation

Aimaro Sanna
1*
, Marco Dri
1
, Mercedes Maroto-Valer
1,2
1
School of Engineering & Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
2
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
* Corresponding Author. Tel: (+44) (0) 1314513299, E-mail: a.sanna@hw.ac.uk

Abstract
Mineral carbonation represents one of the technologies that can contribute to reduce the
emissions of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) in the atmosphere. A wide range of mineral resources and
different technical approaches can be employed to permanently sequester the CO
2
emitted
from industrial/power plants into stable carbonates. The aim of this work is to investigate the
dissolution and carbonation of olivine mineral (Mg
2
SiO
4
) using a promising ammonium salts
pH swing process. The effect of temperature (50, 70 and 100C), time (5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120
and 180 minutes) and solid to liquid ratio (25-50 g/L) in the dissolution of olivine was
investigated using a batch reactor at ambient pressure. It has been demonstrated that the
dissolution efficiency of olivine with the NH
4
-salts pH swing process was 77%. The rate
limiting step was product layer diffusion for olivine particles with a size distribution of 75
150 m.

Keywords: Clean fossil fuels, mineral carbonation, CCS, dissolution, olivine.

1. INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is the most important greenhouse gas and the anthropogenic activities,
such as fossil fuels power plants, are largely responsible for increasing CO
2
atmospheric
concentrations in the last century [1]. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) or CO
2

sequestration is the preferred technology option to reduce anthropogenic CO
2
emissions to the
atmosphere [1].
Mineral carbonation is a promising technology in the CCS portfolio, where CO
2
is sequestered
by accelerating the naturally occurring carbonation of magnesium and calcium silicate
minerals. This technology eliminates the potential long-term risks associated with other CCS
technologies, such as geological storage. Moreover, it would also allow to re-use industrial
wastes converting them and/or fresh Mg-silicate rocks in final inert materials than can be re-
used in a wide range of applications, such as in construction, and therefore, indirectly reducing
the CO
2
emissions related to the production of fresh materials [2-4].
Natural mineral weathering is an exothermic and thermodynamically favoured reaction at
ambient temperature, but requires geological times to happen due to the unfavorable kinetics.
Therefore, additional steps requiring energy input are required. The use of high pressure and
high temperature in direct processes or the use of chemical additives in multistep processes
can be employed to overcome these barriers [1]. A new pH-swing CO
2
mineralization process
using recyclable ammonium salts has been proposed to overcome these barriers [5-7]. It
consists of three steps: dissolution that represents the rate limiting step, neutralization and
carbonation. Previous assessment of silicate rocks indicate that Mg-silicates have the
advantage of being available worldwide in large amounts compared to Ca-silicates and should
be preferred as mineral carbonation feedstock. Among the Mg-silicates, olivine (fosterite) is
the most suitable mineral in terms of Mg content and CO
2
uptake [8]. However, this mineral
has not been tested yet using a NH
4
-based pH swing process. Accordingly, the aim of this
work is to investigate the dissolution and carbonation of olivine (Mg
2
SiO
4
) mineral using
ammonium salts. The effect of temperature (50, 70 and 100C) and time (5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 120
and 180 minutes) in the dissolution of olivine were investigated using a batch reactor at
ambient pressure. The olivine and the reaction products were characterized by a series of
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techniques (XRF, XRD, ICP-MS, SEM), and a kinetic analysis was performed based on
experimental data on dissolution of magnesium from olivine and compared with olivine
dissolution kinetics obtained using a different mineral carbonation process [9].

2. MATERIALS AND METHOD

2.1 Materials
Sequi-olivine rock from Greenland provided by Minelco minerals, Flixborough, UK, was used
in the dissolution and carbonation experiments. The particle size of the olivine used in the
experiments was between 75 and 150 m.
The X-ray fluorescence (XRF) data presented in Table 1 provided by the British Geological
Survey was used to calculate the quantity of NH
4
-salt needed in the process. Mg and Si are the
major elements in the rock. The olivine sample contained 29.55 and 19.17 wt% of Mg and Si,
respectively.

Table 1 XRF Elemental analysis of olivine.
Compounds
Olivine
Elements
olivine
wt% wt%
MgO 49 Mg 29.55
SiO
2
41 Si 19.17

The mineral phases of the samples were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Forsterite
(Mg, Fe)
2
SiO
4
was the primary mineral phase in the olivine sample, with traces of antigorite
Mg
3
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
.

2.2 Method
The dissolution experiments were carried out using a 0.5L 3-neck flask and a hot stirring plate.
Generally, 20g of the serpentine, with particle diameters ranging from 75 to 150m were
dissolved in 0.4L 1.4M NH
4
HSO
4
solution at 50, 70 and 100C for 3 hours. The solution was
stirred at 800rpm and after the experiment, the content of Mg in the solution was determined
by ICP-MS (Thermo-Fisher Scientific X Series Instrument). After 3 hours of dissolution, the
flask content was cooled to ambient temperature and filtered with a 0.7m Pall syringe filter.
The solid residue was dried for 24 hours at 105C. After the dissolution experiments,
ammonia-water was added to the dissolution solution obtained at 100C to rise the pH of the
solution from 1 to 8.5 in order to precipitate all the impurities such as iron and aluminum and
prepare the solution to the final carbonation stage. Finally, the carbonation experiment was
carried out at 80C and pH 8.6. 200mL of the solution produced after the pH swing
experiment was poured into a 250mL 3-necks flask and heated up at the required temperature
by using a silicon-oil bath under continuous stirring at 800rpm. As soon as the desired
temperature was stable, a stoichiometric amount of NH
4
HCO
3
was added to start the
carbonation reaction. An aliquot of 1mL was extracted after 5, 10, 15, 30 and 60 minutes to
measure the concentration of Mg by ICP-MS. The morphology and elemental composition of
the original olivine and dissolution residues was determined by SEM-EDS analysis. The
Scanning Electron Microscopy used for the residue remaining after the serpentine dissolution
was an Oxford Inca 200 EDS on an FEI Quanta 600 (Tungsten filament). The mineral phases
of the samples were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a PANalytical XPert Pro
series diffractomenter equipped with a cobalt target tube, XCelerator detector and operated at
45 kV and 40 mA. In order to determine the kinetic parameters and rate-controlling step
during the olivine dissolution, the data have been fitted into heterogeneous reaction models
represented by integral rate equations. The shrinkage core model of constant size particle was
selected based on previous study [9]. The equations of the controlling mechanism of the
heterogeneous reactions that take place on the external shell of the unreacted particle such as
film diffusion control, reaction control, product layer diffusion were fed with the experimental
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data [9]. The best suited model represented the most likely mechanism for the olivine
dissolution. The multiple regression coefficient (R
2
) was used to evaluate the accuracy of the
proposed models. Also, the apparent activation energy of the chemical reaction was calculated
according to the Arrhenius law [10].


3.1 Olivine dissolution: effect of temperature and solid to liquid ratio
The dissolution of olivine was tested in a 1.4 M NH
4
HSO
4
solution for 3 hours where, 40%
excess of stoichiometric amount was used to ensure maximum dissolution power. The effect
of temperature upon the extraction of Mg from olivine during the reaction time was
investigated. As expected, temperature has a significant effect upon the solubility of
magnesium as well other elements from olivine. According to the results, the magnesium
extraction increases steadily with increasing reaction time and increasing temperature. The
higher temperature investigated of 100C showed higher extraction efficiency. In fact,
dissolution at 100 C and after 3 hours using NH
4
HSO
4
was able to extract 77.4% of Mg,
whereas, at 50C and 70C, the NH
4
HSO
4
was able to leach out only 17.7% and 48.7% of Mg
within 3 hours, respectively. Therefore, the extraction percentage was approximately tripled
by increasing the temperature from 50 to 100 C.
The effect of the dissolution of the olivine particles can be seen in Fig.1 where, the starting
olivine particles (Fig.1-1) and the particles after 3 hours dissolution (Fig.1-2) are shown. The
olivine particles suffered the leaching of part of the outer layer leaving behind an irregular and
porous surface depleted in magnesium and richer in silica left behind.

1 2

Fig. 1 Dissolution effect on olivine particles. 1-starting olivine particle; 2- olivine particle after
dissolution at 100C.

The preferential dissolution of Mg and other cations (e.g. Fe, Al) can be appreciated in Fig.2
where the XRD analysis of the starting serpentine and dissolution residue obtained at 100C
are reported. The completely different composition of the dissolution residue indicates that the
typical structure of olivine has suffered major modifications with the Si tetrahedral crystals
spatial rearrangement.
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1
2

Fig. 2 XRD of (1) starting olivine and (2) dissolution residue obtained at 100C.

3.2 Olivine carbonation
The carbonation of olivine run after the pH swing step produced almost pure hydromagnesite
(Mg
5
(CO
3
)
4
(OH)
2
4H
2
O) as shown in Fig. 3 and gave an efficiency of 90% calculated
considering the concentration (wt%) of Mg in the solution after 60 minutes reaction (data from
ICP-MS analysis). The high carbonation efficiency is comparable with that obtained using
antigorite-rich minerals [7].
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Fig. 3 XRD of carbonation product.

3.3 Olivine dissolution kinetics
The concentration of Mg into solution represents the progress of the olivine dissolution.
Therefore, in the kinetic models considered in Table 2, x corresponds to the Mg concentration.
Data obtained from experiments were fitted into kinetic models and the values of the multiple
regression coefficients (R
2
) are reported in Table 2.

Table 2. R
2
coefficients for kinetic models applied to dissolution of olivine.
Model Equation R
2
film diffusion kt=x 0.6153/0.9263
chemical reaction control kt=1-(1-x)^1/3 0.818/0.9641
product layer diffusion kt=1-3(1-x)^2/3+2(1-x) 0.9642/0.9751

None of the proposed model was able to perfectly suit the set of data from the dissolution
stage. However, the product layer diffusion model was the one with multiple regression
coefficients closer to the ideal 1 and for this reason was selected as representative as olivine
dissolution mechanism. Finally, the apparent activation energy was calculated from the plot of
lnk versus 1/T employing the Arrhenius law (k=Ae Ea/RT). The calculated value was
30.65kJ/mol. This value is lower compared to those obtained by Founda et al [11] (35.6
kJ/mol) and Wang et al. [5] (40.9 kJ/mol) using serpentine mineral samples, suggesting that
olivine is relatively easier to dissolve compared to serpentine.

4. CONCLUSION

About 76% of magnesium was extracted in 3 hours from an olivine mineral using a solid to
liquid ration of 50g/L, particles ranging from 75 to 150m, 1.4M NH
4
HSO
4
and 100C. The
carbonation of olivine was investigated at 90C using ammonium bicarbonate (NH
4
HCO
3
) and
it was demonstrated that the overall sequestration capacity was higher than 75%. The
dissolution rate was limited by product layer diffusion for olivine particles with a size
distribution of 75150 m and the apparent activation energy was 31 kJ mol
-1
for dissolution
in NH
4
HSO
4
.
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5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work presented here was funded by the Centre for Innovation in Carbon Capture and
Storage, Heriot-Watt University (EPSRC GrantNo. EP/F012098/1). The authors also thank
Mike Styles and Alicja Lacinska from the British Geological Survey for the XRF and XRD
analysis of olivine rock.

6. REFERENCES

[16] IPCC (2005) IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by
Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Metz, B., O.
Davidson, H. C. de Coninck, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer (eds.). Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 442 pp.
[17] Sanna A, Hall M.R., Maroto-Valer M. (2012) A review of post-processing pathways in
carbon capture and storage by mineralisation, Energy and Environmental Science, (DOI:
10.1039/C2EE03455G).
[18] Sanna A, Dri M., Wang X., Hall M.R., Maroto-Valer M. (2012) Micro-silica for high-end
application from carbon capture and storage by mineralisation, Key Engineering
Materials, 517, pp. 737-744.
[19] Sanna A, Dri M., Hall M.R., Maroto-Valer M. (2012) Waste Materials as a Potential
Resource for Carbon Capture and Storage by Mineralisation (CCSM) in the UK Context,
Applied Energy, (DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.06.049).
[20] Wang X. and Maroto-Valer M.M. (2011) Dissolution of serpentine using recyclable
ammonium salts for CO
2
mineral carbonation, Fuel, 90, pp.12291237.
[21] Wang X., Maroto-Valer M.M., (2011) Integration of CO
2
Capture and Mineral
Carbonation by using Recyclable Ammonium Salts, ChemSusChem, 4, 9, pp. 1291-1300.
[22] Sanna A., Dri M., Wang X., Hall M.R., Maroto-Valer M. (2012) Optimisation of carbon
capture and storage by pH swing aqueous mineralisation in presence of ammonium salts
mixture, Fuel, (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.08.014).
[23] Gerdemann S.J., OConnor W.K., Dahlin D.C., Penner L.R., Rush H., (2007) Ex Situ
Aqueous Mineral Carbonation, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, pp. 2587-2593.
[24] Prigiobbe V., Costa G., Baciocchi R., Hnchen M., Mazzotti M. (2009) Validation of a
population balance model for olivine dissolution, Chemical Engineering Science, 64, pp.
3510-3515.
[25] Levenspiel O. (1972) Chemical Reaction Engineering. New York, USA, John Wiley and
Sons.
[26] Fouda M.F.R., Amin R.E.S., Abd-Elzaher M.M., (1996) Extraction of magnesia from
Egyptian serpentine ore via reaction with different acids II. Reaction with nitric and
acetic acids. Bulletin, Chemical Society of Japan, 69, 7, pp.19131916.

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Reducing Carbon Emissions in the Tourism Sector: An Early Indicator in Sekayu
Recreational Forest, Malaysia

Md. Anowar Hossain Bhuiyan
1*
, Chamhuri Siwar
1
, Shaharuddin Mohamad Ismail
1
and
Khairul Naim Adham
1

1
Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM),
Bangi, Selangor D.E., Malaysia.
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+603) 8921 7659, Fax: (+603) 8925 5104, E-mail:
anowaranu@yahoo.com

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Abstract
Ecotourism is one of the fasted and growing tourism segmentation in the world which
potentially leads to minimize environmental degradation. Estimate indicates that tourism
sector contributes to 5 percent of global green house gases (GHGs) and for this reason,
environmental impact assessments for such tourism destinations are necessary to take into
account. The present study illustrates the potential of ecotourism development in contributing
towards low carbon emissions and environmental sustainability. Sekayu Recreational Forest of
Malaysia has been selected for primary data collection from the tourists in the study. The
respondents feel that ecotourism development in Sekayu has no negative impact on the
environmental sustainability. It has limited negative impact on environment as well as local
communities. The study reveals that tourists are concerned for low carbon emissions from
transportation sector. For low carbon emissions, tourists have prepared low energy consuming
vehicles in their visiting period. The study recommends that conserving natural resources,
providing sustainable harvest, improving local people living quality and maintaining
environmental quality can upkeep the environmental sustainability of Sekayu. Apart from that,
low carbon consumption practices and technologies, carbon taxes mechanism, develop
institutional facilities, government and tour operators efforts are vital to further reduce the
carbon emissions in the ecotourism destination.

Keywords: Carbon emissions, Ecotourism, Environmental Sustainability, Sekayu
Recreational Forest.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ecotourism is one of the prospective tourism segmentation in the world today. Many countries
in the world reached in economic advancement by using the potentialities of this tourism
segmentation [1]. Ecotourism can ensure sustainable tourism development by protecting the
ecology and conservation of tourism areas. It provides environmental consciousness and
experiences to the tourists [2]. Environmental impacts and sustainability are concerning issues
for ecotourism. Sometimes, ecotourism development creates degradations on local
biodiversity, ecosystem and society due to poor management and planning. Zhong et al. [3]
have emphasized environmental monitor and analysis for sustainable ecotourism development
in an area. In this regard, some tourism developing countries strictly observe environmental
impacts of ecotourism for ensuring tourism sustainability [4].
Tourism sector is one of the main contributors for carbon emissions. Tourism can enhance
economic development as well as energy consumption and carbon emissions for a country [5].
An Estimate indicates that tourism sector contributes to 5% of global green house gases
(GHGs). Furthermore, tourists are responsible for 4.4% of global carbon emissions and it will
be increasing at an average rate of 3.2% per year up to 2035 [6]. For this reason, tourists are
considering as main players in tourism industry for energy consumption and carbon emissions.
In tourism industry, transportation sector is main source for carbon emissions. This sector is
contributing 65-73% of global energy consumption and most of tourists are visiting tourism
destinations by the transportations [7]. Kuo and Chen [8] have showed the transportation
sector contributes 67% of carbon emissions in their explored Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
for carbon emissions measurement. The carbon emissions in Malaysia were 1.34 and 7.57
metric tons per capita on 1970 and 1980 respectively. Furthermore, the annual growth rate of
carbon emissions in Malaysia was 4.2% and 4.3% in the period 1970-80 and 2000-08
respectively. The scenario reveals that annual growth rate of carbon emissions is higher in
Malaysia rather than global standard [9].
Malaysia has ranked 16th place in terms of tourists receipt in 2008 which is 2% of global
market share. About 1.7 million people are engaged with this sector which is 16% of total
employment of the country in 2008 (EPU, 2010). Malaysia has emphasized ecotourism for
sustainable tourism development in the country. The country has formulated separate
ecotourism plan in this regard. The plan was accepted for implement by the government in
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1996. This plan ensures sustainable preservation of natural resources and cultural heritage with
ecotourism development [10]. Malaysia has a good number of forest recreational forest areas
in the country. Recreation forests are attracting large number of foreign and domestic tourists
due to their natural beauties and recreational facilities. Sekayu is the largest recreational forest
in Terengganu state of Malaysia. It was established in 1974 and officially launched in 1985.
The total area of this forest reserve is 30 hectares [11]. The present study reveals the potential
of low carbon emissions ecotourism development in Sekayu. The study illustrates indicators of
environmental sustainability in ecotourism destinations.

2. METHODOLOGY

The study has used both primary and secondary data to attain the objectives. Primary data are
collected from domestic tourists in Sekayu. A total of 80 respondents have interviewed from
study area for the purpose of primary data collection. The data collection has been completed
on first part of January, 2011. The secondary data are collecting from the study site office and
published materials. A structured questionnaire with 5-point Likert scale has been used in this
study for data collection from the respondents. The questionnaire has been developed from
various related literature sources. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software has
used for descriptive analysis of the data in this study.


Table 1 Domestic tourist arrival in Sekayu Recreatioal Forest
Year Total Tourists Annual Average Growth Rate (% per year)
2006 134,337 ---
2007 181,000 34.7
2008 181,275 0.2
2009 190,465 5.1
2010 203,947 7.1
2015 (e) 287,097 8.2
2020 (e) 424,856 9.6
Source: Compiled by the authors (e= estimation)

Table 1 highlights the domestic tourist arrival in Sekayu Recreational Forest. The total
domestic tourists arrivals were 134,337 and 203,947 in 2006 and 2010 respectively. The
annual growth rate of tourists was 7.1% in 2010. The total domestic tourists arrival will be
predicted 287,097 and 424,856 in 2015 and 2020 respectively. The annual growth rate of
tourists will be reached at 8.2% and 9.6% in 2015 and 2020 respectively.
Table 2 explores the tourists perception regarding environmental sustainability. The
respondents agree the statements regarding ecotourism provide sustainable cultivation,
improve tourists environmental consciousness and provide environmental education
opportunities. The respondents disagree on the statements of ecotourism activities threat to
tourism areas ecosystem. They also disagreeing the statements on ecotourism activities
polluting the natural environment and degrading the local biodiversity.

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Table 2 Tourists perception regarding environmental sustainability
Statements Mean Standard
Deviations
Ecotourism is helpful for sustainable cultivation 4.02 .158
Ecotourism activities polluting the natural environment 1.87 .648
Ecotourism activities threat to tourism areas ecosystem 1.72 .452
Ecotourism activities degrading the local biodiversity 1.92 .615
Ecotourism provides tourists with environmental education
opportunities
4.07 .266
Ecotourism improves tourists environmental consciousness 4.07 .450
Source: Authors Calculation

Table 3 Tourists perception regarding carbon emissions
Statements Mean Standard
Deviations
Carbon emissions is concerning matter for ecotourism
development
4.12 .268
Low carbon emissions from transportation is essential for
sustainable ecotourism
4.30 .432
Tourists prepare low energy consumption vehicle during their
visit
4.35 .287
Tourists are willingness to pay for low carbon emission in
ecotourism area
4.03 .154
Source: Authors Calculation

Table 3 reveals the tourists perception regarding carbon emissions. The respondents are
concerned for low carbon emissions from transportation sector. The respondents agree that
carbon emission is concerning matter for ecotourism development. They emphasized on low
carbon transportations for sustainable ecotourism development. The respondents are willing to
pay for low carbon emissions in ecotourism area and low energy consumption vehicle during
their visit.
The study identifies the indicators of environment for sustainable ecotourism development
from the perception of tourists. The tourists are giving their positive opinion on sustainable
cultivation, environmental education and consciousness achieved by ecotourism development
in Sekayu. They are agreeing on the statements ecotourism helpful for sustainable cultivation
(mean= 4.02), ecotourism provides environmental education opportunities (mean= 4.07) and
ecotourism improves environmental consciousness (mean=4.07). The respondents are
disagreeing on the statements ecotourism polluting the natural environment (mean=1.87),
ecotourism activities threat to tourism areas ecosystem (mean=1.72) and ecotourism
activities degrading the local biodiversity (mean=1.92). Sustainable cultivation is helpful to
prevent land misuse and degradation. Due to suitable use of land, the local communities have
prepared ecotourism development in any areas. Because of ecotourism can ensure sustainable
cultivation in tourism areas. Tourism development in any areas can create some negative
impacts on environment. Tourism activities are polluting natural environment, degrading the
local biodiversity and create threat to ecosystem of tourism areas. In this case, ecotourism has
limited negative impact on environment. Furthermore, ecotourism is helpful for preservation
of local biodiversity and ecosystem. Tourists are now interested to visit a place from the
consideration of natural experiences and awareness. Ecotourism provides environmental
educational opportunities and improves environmental consciousness for the visitors.
Moreover the study reveals the indicators of low carbon emissions of ecotourism from the
perception of tourists. The respondents are giving their positive opinion regarding the related
aspects of low carbon emissions. They are agreeing on the statements carbon emission is
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concerning matter for ecotourism development (mean=4.12), low carbon emissions from
transportation is essential for sustainable ecotourism (mean=4.30), prepare low energy
consumption vehicle (mean=4.35) and willingness to pay for low carbon emissions in
ecotourism areas (mean=4.03). Carbon emissions are one of the negative impacts for any
tourism destination. Many tourism destinations in the world are become polluted and less
attractive to the tourists due to emissions. Cai and Wang [12] have emphasized on low-carbon
tourism for ensuring sustainable development of an area. Peeters et al. [13] have identified
carbon emissions as one of indicators to measure sustainability of tourism areas. Some
developing countries such as, China has formulated special regulations to decrease and prevent
carbon emissions from tourism development of the country [14]. The ecotourism destinations
are giving concentration on low-carbon emissions for long-term sustainability. Transportation
sector is always considered as main part for carbon emissions in tourism industry. Kuo and
Chen [8] pointed that about 67% of total energy in tourism sector is consumed by
transportation. Due to emissions, tourists are choosing low energy consumption vehicles
during their visit periods. The tourists prepared the tourism destinations which have
environment friendly vehicles arrangements. Tourists have vital role for developing
ecotourism destinations in any areas. They are contributing in tourism development by their
voluntary paying. This study reveals that tourists are willingness to pay for low-carbon
emissions in ecotourism areas.

4. CONCLUSION

Sekayu Recreational Forest is one of the famous ecotourism destinations in East Coast
Economic Region (ECER) of Malaysia. This area is prepared to the tourists for its
environmental friendly features. Ecotourism development in Sekayu is ensuring limited
negative impact on environment as well as local people. This site maintain environmental
sustainability for longevity and as well as tourists satisfaction. The tourists fell that some
indicators are must for maintaining environmental sustainability in Sekayu. These are
sustainable cultivation, pollution free natural environment, local ecosystem and biodiversity,
environmental education opportunity and environmental consciousness. The study
recommends that conserving natural resources, providing sustainable harvest, improving local
people living quality and maintaining environmental quality can upkeep the environmental
sustainability of Sekayu.
Moreover, carbon emissions are considerable matter for any ecotourism destinations. The
ecotourism destinations are developing several strategies for low carbon emissions from
tourists. Low carbon emissions depend on awareness and environment friendly travel of
tourists. The tourists can prioritize low carbon transportations to minimize emissions.
According to respondents in this study, the considerable indicators in ecotourism destination
are emission awareness, low emissions transportation, low energy consumption vehicles and
willingness to pay for low carbon emissions. Apart from that, low carbon consumption
practices and technologies, carbon taxes mechanism, campaign and advertisement; develop
institutional facilities, government and tour operators efforts are vital to further reduce the
carbon emissions in the ecotourism destination.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial assistance provided by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS/1/2012/SS07/UKM/01/3) on Greening the Economy and Arus Perdana (AP) Research
Grant (UKM-AP-PLW-04-2010) on Sustainable Development of the ECER, Malaysia,
Institute for environment and development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
(UKM) is gratefully acknowledged.

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6. REFERENCES

[1] Bhuiyan, M.A.H., Siwar, C. Ismail, S.M. and Islam, R. (2011a). The role of home stay for
ecotourism development in east coast economic region. Amer. J. Appl Sci., 8, pp. 540-
546.
[2] Fallon, L. D. and Kriwoken, L. K. (2003). Community involvement in tourism
infrastructure the case of the Strahan Visitor Centre, Tasmania. Tourism
Management, 24, pp. 289308.
[3] Zhong, L., Deng, J., Song, Z. and Ding, P. (2011). Research on environmental impacts of
tourism in China: Progress and prospect. Journal of Environmental Management, 92,
pp. 2972-2983.
[4] Pickering, C. M., and Hill, W. (2007). Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant
biodiversity and vegetation in protected areas in Australia. Journal of
Environmental Management, 85, pp. 791-800.
[5] Chen, C.F. and Chiou-Wei, S. Z. (2009). Tourism expansion, tourism uncertainty and
economic growth: New evidence from Taiwan and Korea. Tourism Management, 30, pp.
812-818.
[6] Peeters, P. and Dubois, G. (2010). Tourism travel under climate change mitigation
constraints. J. Transp Geogr, 18, pp. 447-457.
[7] Becken, S., Simmons, D. G. and Frampton, C. (2003). Energy use associated with
different travel choices. Tourism Management, 24, pp. 267-277.
[8] Kuo, N.W. and Chen, P.H. (2009). Quantifying energy use, carbon dioxide emission and
other environmental loads from island tourism based on a life cycle assessment approach.
J. Cleaner Prod., 17, pp. 1324-1330.
[9] Bhuiyan, M.A.H., Bari, M.A., Siwar, C. Ismail, S.M. and Islam, R. (2012). Measurement
of Carbon Dioxide Emissions for Ecotourism in Malaysia. Journal of Applied Sciences,
12(17), pp. 1832-1838.
[10] Bhuiyan, M.A.H., Siwar, C., Ismail, S.M. and Islam, R. (2011b). The Role of
Government for Ecotourism Development: Focusing on East Coast Economic Region. J.
Soc. Sci., 7, pp. 557-564.
[11] Bhuiyan, M.A.H., Siwar, C., Ismail, S.M. and Islam, R. (2011c). Ecotourism
Development in Recreational Forest Areas. Amer. J. Appl Sci., 8, pp. 1116-1121.
[12] Cai, M. and Wang, Y.M. (2010). Low-carbon tourism: A new mode of tourism
development. Tourism Tribune, 1, pp. 3-17.
[13] Peeters, P., Gossling, S. and Becken, S. (2006). Innovation towards tourism
sustainability: Climate change and aviation. Int. J. Innov. Sustainable Dev., 1, pp. 184-
200.
[14] Huang, C. and Deng, H.B. (2011). The model of developing low-carbon tourism in the
context of leisure economy. Energy Procedia, 5, pp. 1974-1978.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Design of Converging-Diverging Nozzle of an Ejector for Powerplant Application
using Natural Working Fluids

Edward Talagtag Bermido
1*
2

1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (63) 9152895066, E-mail: etbermido@up.edu.ph

Abstract
This paper analyzes the geometric profile of the converging-diverging nozzle part of an ejector
for powerplant application, as well as provides comparison of fluid and flow properties for
isentropic and irreversible two-phase flows. It was theoretically proven that ejector can
dramatically enhance the efficiency of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) that utilizes low-
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temperature renewable and recoverable heat sources. Further increase in turbine temperature
drop can be achieved through the expansion, mixing and recompression processes in the
ejector. Ammonia and propane, which are both natural working fluids, were used in the
analysis. Fluid properties were based on REFPROP 8.0 using data from the National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST). Fundamental thermodynamic concepts and conservation
equations were used to analyze the flow at the converging-diverging nozzle. The working fluid
from the evaporator will pass through a separator. The liquid part becomes the primary fluid
while the vapor from the turbine outlet becomes the secondary fluid of the ejector. The turbine
power output is set at 3 MW. The inlet diameter of the nozzle was fixed at 0.2 m. The
converging part of the nozzle has an angle of 60 while the diverging part is set at 5, which
are within the range set by ASHRAE and ESDU. For the irreversible flows of propane and
ammonia, the Mach number at the throat is sonic and the nozzle lengths are 22.2 cm and 22.5
cm respectively. The nozzle efficiencies are 97% for propane and 93% for ammonia with
losses mainly attributed due to friction. It was shown that propane can provide a higher nozzle
efficiency and lower operating velocities at longer length for same temperature condition.

Keywords: ejector, ejector powerplant cycle, organic Rankine cycle, powerplant, natural
working fluids

1. INTRODUCTION

Researches and studies are being carried out worldwide to address the growing concern over
the worlds increasing energy needs and the projection of dwindling reserves of oil and natural
gas. Aside from that, the use of fossil fuels for powerplants and other industrial applications
has adverse impacts on the environment such as pollution, global warming and ozone
depletion. In response to these, renewable energy sources are being investigated for optimal
and safe application. Alternative means of power generation are being considered as a
response to increasing energy demand as well as to protect the earth from further
environmental degradation. The efficient extraction, conversion and utilization of energy from
low-temperature renewable and recoverable heat sources for power generation were being
studied [1].
Conventional Rankine powerplants require huge amount of heat in the boiler for the working
fluid to reach its superheated state which is not attainable if the heat is from a low-temperature
source. Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) would be suitable because it uses natural working fluid,
such as ammonia and propane, with boiling point lower than that of water. However, the
efficiency and power generated from ORC is less given the capacity of the heat source. If
ejector is introduced in the ORC, there will be a significant increase in performance and
efficiency.
An ejector is a device which employs a high velocity primary flow to entrain and accelerate a
slower moving secondary flow. The resulting kinetic energy of mixing is subsequently used
for compression of the mixture to a higher pressure. The main components of ejector, shown
in Fig. 1, include the nozzle, suction chamber, mixing chamber (constant-area section) and
diffuser. The nozzle, also referred to as primary or motive nozzle in some literatures, is usually
a convergent-divergent nozzle. As the high pressure fluid, known as primary fluid, expands
and accelerates through the nozzle, it flows out with supersonic speed to create a very low
pressure region at the nozzle exit plane and subsequently in the mixing chamber. Due to the
resulting pressure difference between the streams at the nozzle exit plane (low-pressure) and
secondary fluid inlet (high-pressure), the secondary fluid or entrained fluid would be drawn to
the suction chamber by the entrainment effect [2].

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Fig.1 Parts of an ejector

It was assumed that the two streams mix with a uniform pressure at the constant-area section.
Mixing causes retardation in velocity of the primary flow while the secondary flow will be
accelerated until the two flows are fully mixed. In most cases, the resulting velocity of the
mixture is supersonic leading to formation of normal shock wave. This shock causes a major
compression effect and a sudden drop in the flow speed from supersonic to subsonic. Further
compression of the flow is achieved as it is brought to stagnation through a subsonic diffuser
[3]. Basically, the principle of operation of ejector is based on the Venturi effect of a
converging-diverging nozzle which converts the pressure energy of the primary flow to kinetic
energy to entrain the secondary flow, and then recompresses the mixed fluids by converting
the kinetic energy back into compression energy [4].

2. POWERPLANT CYCLES

Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) powerplant and ejector powerplant both operate by utilizing
energy from low-temperature renewable and recoverable heat sources. This is a major
advantage over conventional thermal powerplants that require high temperature at the boiler to
superheat the working fluid which is commonly water. Natural compounds with lower boiling
point than water are used instead as working fluids for ORC and ejector powerplants. In both
cycles, the working fluid at the evaporator does not reach the superheated state because the
heat exchanging medium from the heat source is at low temperature. The quality of the
working fluid at the high-pressure separator is commonly 50 60% only [5].

2.1 Organic Rankine cycle
The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is named after its use of organic, high molecular mass fluid
with boiling point occurring at a lower temperature than water at the same pressure. The
schematic and T-s diagram of ORC powerplant are shown in Figs. 2-3. The working principle
of the organic Rankine cycle is the same with the conventional Rankine cycle: the working
fluid absorbs heat through the boiler or evaporator where it is evaporated, passes through a
turbine, rejects heat at the condenser, and is pumped back again to the evaporator.
As shown in Fig. 2, heat is transferred to the working fluid through the evaporator. The fluid
will then be separated into liquid and vapor through the separator. The vapor undergoes
expansion in the turbine while the liquid part is just pumped back to the evaporator. It is
important to note that the power required to pump the liquid from the separator is small, so it
can be neglected.

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530

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of conventional ORC powerplant
Fig. 3 T-s diagram of conventional ORC powerplant

2.2 Ejector powerplant cycle
The ejector increases the efficiency of the conventional ORC by increasing the turbine
temperature drop which is made possible by the expansion, mixing, and recompression
processes in the ejector [6]. The schematic diagram of the ejector powerplant is shown in Fig.
4 while the T-s diagram is shown in Fig. 5 where the isentropic processes were represented by
dashed lines. Aside from the ejector, the low-pressure separator and liquid pump are the
additional components included in the conventional ORC set-up. The low-pressure separator
separates the vapor and liquid from the turbine outlet. The liquid pump is used to pump the
liquid part at the low-pressure separator to the evaporator.
The vapor part from the high-pressure separator can run turbines as in the conventional ORC,
while the liquid part will pass through the ejector where it will undergo expansion through the
nozzle. The fluid at the nozzle exit is at low pressure and temperature, but is a high-speed two-
phase flow which can entrain the vapor part of the turbine outlet flow. The liquid part of the
turbine outlet flow can be directly pumped into the evaporator. Essentially, the turbine outlet
pressure and temperature can be decreased without affecting the temperature of the condenser.
The work output of the turbine therefore significantly increases which results to higher
efficiency. The mixture of the vapor from the turbine and the primary flow from the ejector
nozzle can be pumped in by the diffuser of the ejector into the condenser. Then, the resulting
condensate can be pumped to mix with the liquid part of the turbine outlet flow at the
evaporator inlet [6].

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Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of ejector
powerplant
Fig. 5 T-s diagram of ejector powerplant

The analysis considered a 3 MW turbine power output at evaporator temperatures of 90C
(propane) and 120C (ammonia) with condenser temperature of 35C. The efficiencies of
conventional ORC at these operating temperatures are 6.6% and 10.9% for propane and
ammonia correspondingly. Based on a previous study [1], the turbine outlet temperature for
the assigned evaporator and condenser temperatures can be lowered to 23C and 19C for
propane and ammonia respectively by using the ejector powerplant cycle. This would increase
the efficiency up to 11.7% using propane and up to 18.6% using ammonia. It is important to
note that there is a limit in lowering the turbine outlet temperature and pressure such that the
ejector diffuser can still compress the mixture back to condenser conditions.

3. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION FOR NOZZLE DESIGN

3.1 Control Volume Geometry
Certain geometric dimensions and relations of the ejector were set initially based on
suggestions by American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) [7] and Engineering Science Data Unit (ESDU) [8]. For the ejector nozzle, it was
set that the converging angle is 60 and the diverging angle is 5. The nozzle inlet diameter
was fixed at 0.2 m.
In the ejector powerplant, the working fluid from the high-pressure separator enters the
converging-diverging nozzle from saturated liquid state and undergoes expansion to two-phase
region as shown in Fig. 5. Isentropic and irreversible processes were analyzed which are
denoted by subscripts isen and irr respectively. Conservation equations for mass, momentum
and energy were successively applied to elementary control volume of the converging-
diverging nozzle as shown in Fig. 6. There is a temperature decrement dT equal to 0.1C
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Fig. 6 Elementary control volume of the converging-diverging nozzle
between the control volumes. The fluid and flow properties calculated at the outlet of the
preceding control volume become the properties at the inlet of the next control volume. The
properties were solved using Turbo C in Maruo editor.

The geometry of the control volume is related to the flow behavior, as well as on the fluid
properties. After the quality and flow velocity at the control volume outlet are known, the
geometry of the control volume can be determined.

(a) (b)
Fig. 7 (a) Control volume geometry for converging section, (b) Control volume geometry for
diverging section

Based on the geometry in Fig. 7, the diameter D
2
at the outlet of the control volume was
derived as follows
Converging section:

con
L D D u tan 2
1 2
= (1)
Diverging section:
. tan 2
1 2 div
L D D u + = (2)
The ratio of areas of the control volume outlet and inlet can be determined because diameters
at those positions were known. Based on Eqs. (1)-(2), the following equations were derived.
Converging Section:

( )
( )
2
1
2
1
1
2
tan 2
D
L D
A
A
con
u
=
(3)
Diverging Section:

( )
( )
2
1
2
1
1
2
tan 2
D
L D
A
A
div
u +
=
(4)
Manipulating the equation of continuity, the area ratio can be expressed in terms of
thermodynamic properties.
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533

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
1
1
2
fg f
fg f
v x v
v x v
u
u
A
A
(5)
The area ratios derived from the geometry of the control volume and the continuity equation
can be combined to solve for the incremental length L.
Converging section:

con
fg f
fg f
v x v
v x v
u
u
D
L
u tan 2
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
1
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(6)
Diverging section:

div
fg f
fg f
v x v
v x v
u
u
D
L
u tan 2
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
2
1
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
(7)

3.2 Governing equations for two-phase flow
It was assumed in the analysis that the two-phase flow is homogeneous, which means there is
a complete interaction between the two phases, considering them to flow together as a single
fluid [9]. The analysis is limited to one-dimensional flow. Quality, which is an important
property of two-phase fluids, was considered in the formulation. The effects of gravity were
also neglected with the assumption that the ejector is placed horizontally. The fluid properties
were based on REFPROP 8.0 using data from the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) [10].

Conservation of Mass

2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1
1 1
fg f fg f
v x v
A u
v x v
A u
+
=
+
(8)

Conservation of Energy

( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
2
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
u u
h x h h x h q
fg f fg f
+ + + =
(9)

Conservation of Momentum

D
u
f
u
dz
d
dz
dP
v
2 2
2
2
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (10)

The Blasius-type friction factor was used in the study and is expressed by the following:

. Re
n
C f

=
(11)

Joseph and Yang [11] suggested that for Re > 240 000, C and n are approximately equal to
0.118 and 0.165 respectively.
Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter which is used to determine if the flow is
laminar, turbulent, or in transition phase. The viscosity was expressed similar to other
specific thermodynamic properties in two-phase flow [9].

( )( )
fg f fg f
x xv v
uD
+ +
= Re (12)

The speed of sound in two-phase flow was derived from the following:
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.
/
/
5 . 0
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
dT dv
dT dP
v a
m
m
(13)
Another important dimensionless parameter in flow analysis is the Mach number which is
defined as the ratio of fluid flow speed to the speed of sound in that fluid.

a
u
M = (14)

3.3 Isentropic nozzle expansion process
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an isentropic process. The
entropy at the outlet of the control volume has the same value with the inlet such that

.
1 1 1 2 , 2 2 fg f fg isen f
s x s s x s + = +
(15)
An expression for determining the quality at the outlet of the control volume was derived.

( )
2
2 1 1 1
, 2
fg
f fg f
isen
s
s s x s
x
+
=
(16)
Isentropic process is an adiabatic process so there is no heat transfer involved.
0
2 2
2
1
2
, 2
1 , 2
= +
u
u
h h
isen
isen
(17)
The flow velocity was derived from Eq. (17) considering the quality.

( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2 1 1 1
2
1 , 2
2
fg f fg f isen
h x h h x h u u + + + = (18)

3.4 Irreversible nozzle expansion process
An irreversible process is a process which cannot spontaneously reverse itself nor restore the
system to its initial state. The actual path of the irreversible process in the T-s diagram is
initially unknown. According to Cengel and Boles [12], the path of an irreversible process can
be assumed to be along some convenient internally reversible path in order to compute for dS.
The irreversible path is on the right of isentropic path due to entropy generation associated to
heat dissipation and friction losses.

The Conservation of Energy in Eq. (9) can be rewritten as

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
2
u
d dh Tds
(19)
It can be observed from Eq. (10) and Eq. (19) that d(u
2
/2) is a common term, such that the two
equations can be combined to obtain the following form.

dz
D
u
f vdp dh Tds
2
2 =
(20)
Eq. (20) can be expressed in terms of the quality x
2
,
irr
such that it becomes

( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |( )
( )( )
( )( )

(
(
+ +
+
(
(
+ +
+ + +
+ + = + + +
n
fg irr f fg irr f
n
fg f fg f
m
m
fg f fg irr f
fg f fg irr f fg f fg irr f
x v x v
D u
x v x v
D u
L
D
u
C
P P v x v v x v
h x h h x h s x s s x s T T
2 , 2 2 2 , 2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2
1 2 1 1 1 2 , 2 2
1 1 1 2 , 2 2 1 1 1 2 , 2 2 2 1
5 . 0
5 . 0

(21)
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535

Fig. 8 Nozzle geometry of ejector using propane at T
evap
=90C and T
nozz,ex
=23C

The only unknown variable in Eq. (21) is x
2,irr
. However, the equation is highly non-linear
which makes analytical computation difficult. Numerical calculation using an iterative
program was used to solve for the quality. The velocity u
2,irr
can already be solved based from
the Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of Energy equations. The resulting
equation is as follows:

.
2 2
2
1
2
, 2
1 , 2
u u
h h Tds
irr
irr
+ =
(22)
From Eq. (22), the velocity at the outlet of the control volume for an irreversible process in
terms of quality is

( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
.
2
1 1 1 2 , 2 2 2 1
, 2 2 1 1 1
2
1
, 2
fg f fg irr f
irr f fg f
irr
s x s s x s T T
x h h x h u
u
+ + +
+ + +
=

(23)

3.5 Nozzle Efficiency
The isentropic efficiency of a nozzle is defined as the ratio of the actual change in kinetic
energy of the fluid from the inlet up to nozzle exit to the change of kinetic energy from the
inlet to the exit of an isentropic nozzle for the same inlet state and exit pressure.

.
2 2
,
2 2
,
in isen out
in irr out
isen
irr
nozz
u u
u u
KE
KE
=
A
A
= q
(24)
The nozzle inlet and outlet are denoted by subscripts 1 and 4 respectively based on Fig. 5.


The performance of the nozzle for isentropic process serves as the standard on how efficient
the nozzle is working. It is the ideal process on which the entropy is constant because heat and
friction losses are neglected. Majority of the total energy of the high-pressure primary flow at
the inlet was mainly converted to kinetic energy at the nozzle exit. Irreversible process is the
actual process where irreversibilities are present in the system. For this study, irreversibilities
are mainly attributed to friction and heat loss.

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536

Fig. 9 Nozzle geometry of ejector using ammonia at T
evap
=120C and T
nozz,ex
=19C
Fig. 10 Nozzle temperature profile using propane at T
evap
=90C and T
nozz,ex
=23C
Fig. 11 Nozzle temperature profile using ammonia at T
evap
=120C and T
nozz,ex
=19C
Fig. 12 Nozzle Mach number profile using propane at T
evap
=90C and T
nozz,ex
=23C

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537

Fig. 13 Nozzle Mach number profile using ammonia at T
evap
=120C and T
nozz,ex
=19C

The geometric profiles of the nozzle for propane and ammonia are shown in Figs. 8-9. It was
shown that for irreversible and isentropic expansion processes the nozzles have the same
geometry except that the irreversible nozzles are longer. The blue dashed line is the outlet for
isentropic nozzle and the black dashed line is for irreversible nozzle. The isentropic nozzle is
shorter because there is no friction involved and the energy at the inlet is mainly converted
into kinetic energy at the outlet. On the other hand, the irreversible nozzle is longer because
additional length is required to compensate for the loss due to friction. A nozzle operating with
high irreversibility can be expected to have relatively large sizes. The isentropic nozzles for
propane and ammonia have lengths equal to 21.6 cm and 21.8 cm respectively. For irreversible
flow, the nozzle lengths are 22.2 cm for propane and 22.5 cm for ammonia. The temperature
profiles for propane and ammonia are shown in Figs. 10-11. The dashed lines represent the
throat location which divides the graph into converging section (left) and diverging section
(right). The nozzle throat for using propane and ammonia are located at 3.3 cm and 4.9 cm
respectively. The temperature drop in the converging section is very small such that the
temperature can be assumed to be constant. However, as the fluid approaches the throat its
temperature starts to decrease significantly. There is an abrupt temperature drop just across the
throat. This is a result of the choking condition at the throat in which the fluid is accelerated to
sonic speed thus reducing the fluid pressure and temperature. The Mach number profiles for
propane and ammonia are presented in Figs. 12-13. The model formulated in the study was
able to predict that the Mach number at the throat must be unity because the flow is at choking
condition. The Mach numbers at the outlet of isentropic nozzles using propane and ammonia
are 1.61 and 2.02 respectively. For irreversible flow, the Mach numbers at the nozzle outlet are
at lower values equal to 1.58 for propane and 1.94 for ammonia. This is expected because
there is no friction loss in isentropic process, thus kinetic energy is maximum.

5. CONCLUSION

Ejector application to powerplant is a novel concept in which the powerplant efficiency can be
improved by increasing the turbine temperature drop. The research focused on the design of
the ejector nozzle that would meet the required operating temperature and pressure of the
ejector powerplant cycle. It was shown that at the same nozzle inlet and outlet pressures, the
nozzle for irreversible process is longer than that of isentropic process. The method developed
for nozzle expansion calculation was able to show the rapid pressure drop across the throat due
to choking and proved that the flow is theoretically sonic at the nozzle throat. For irreversible
flow, the nozzle efficiencies using propane and ammonia are 97% and 93% respectively.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors are grateful to the Engineering Research and Development for Technology
(ERDT) program of the Philippine government for making this research possible.

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7. NOMENCLATURE

8. REFERENCES

[1] Bermido, E. T. (2012) Ejector design for powerplant application, Masters Thesis,
University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines, 2012.
[2] He, S., Li, Y., Wang, R. Z. (2008) Progress of mathematical modeling on ejectors,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 630 1-21.
[3] Chunnanond, K., Aphornratana, S. (2004) Ejectors: Application in refrigeration
technology, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 8 pp. 129-155
[4] CanmetENERGY Publication (2009) Ejectors, Canadas Clean and Renewable Energy
Research Centre, CETC Number 2009-185, July 2009.
[5] Avery, H., Wu, C. (1994) Renewable energy from the ocean: A guide to OTEC, Oxford
Press: NY.
[6] Berana, M.S. (2011) Ejector powerplant system with natural working fluid, 1st Asia-
Pacific Forum on Renewable Energy, Busan, South Korea, November 16 - 19, 2011.
[7] ASHRAE (1979) Steam-jet refrigeration equipment, equipment handbook, vol. 13, pp.
13.1-13.6.
[8] ESDU (1986) Ejectors and jet pumps, design for steam-driven flow, Engineering Science
Data Item 86030, Engineering Science Data Unit, London.
[9] Berana, M.S. (2009) Characteristics and shock waves of supersonic two-phase flow of
CO
2
through converging-diverging nozzles, Doctoral Dissertation, Toyohashi University
of Technology, Toyohashi, Aichi, Japan.
[10] E. W. Lemmon, M. L. Huber, M. O. McLinden (2007) NIST Standard Reference
Database 23: Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties - REFPROP,
Version 8.0, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
[11] Joseph, D. D., Yang, B. H. (2010) Friction factor correlations for laminar, transition and
turbulent flow in smooth pipes, Physica D 239 (2010) 1318 - 1328.
[12] Cengel, Y., Boles, M. (2006) Thermodynamics: An engineering approach, 5th edition.

a speed of sound, m/s
A area, m
2

C Blasius friction-type factor coefficient
D diameter, m
f friction factor
h enthalpy, J/kg, kJ/kg
KE kinetic energy, J/kg, kJ/kg, m
2
/s
2

L incremental length, m
M Mach number
n Blasius index
P pressure, Pa, kPa
q heat, J/kg, kJ/kg
Re Reynolds number
s entropy, J/kg-K, kJ/kg-K
T temperature, C, K
u velocity, m/s
v specific volume, m
3
/kg
x quality
z coordinate of one-dimensional flow
direction through a channel

Greek letters
change
efficiency
angle, degree ()
Subscripts
1 inlet, state point
2 outlet, state point
3,4,5,6,7 state points
con condenser, converging
div diverging
ex exit
evap evaporator
f saturated liquid
fg difference between saturated liquid and
vapor
g saturated vapor
irr irreversible
isen isentropic
m mean
nozz nozzle

Erratum: On pg 396, the second authors name is Kumar vaibhav as below:

LOAD FORECASTING OF DEI 33 KV SUBSTATIONS USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL
NETWORK APPROACH

Vikas Pratap Singh
1*
, Kumar vaibhav
2,
D.K.Chaturvedi3

1
Center of Excellence in Energy, Indian institute of technology, Rajasthan
2,3
Faculty of Engineering, Electrical department,DEI deemed University, Agra
*
Corresponding Author. Tel: (+91) 8946872794, E-mail: vikasforsmile@iitj.ac.in

SUSTAINABLE FUTURE ENERGY 2012 and 10
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Innovations for Sustainable and Secure Energy
1

Special session: country SRI LANKA

Sri Lanka: Towards a Renewable Energy Island

Prof. Rohan Senadeera
1,2
and Prof. Lakshman Dissanayake
1

1
Condensed Matter Physics (CMP) and Solid State Chemistry (SSC) Research Group, Institute of Fundamental Studies,
Hantana Road, Kandy , Sri Lanka
2
Departments of Physics, The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.

*
Corresponding Author: Tel: (94) 81 2232002, Fax: (94) 81 2232131, E-mail: rsena@ifs.ac.lk or makldis@ifs.ac.lk

Abstract:
Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean and blessed with plenty of sunshine, wind, rain and
lush vegetation all year round. All these natural resources are testimony to the great potential the country has for
harnessing renewable energy. Close to 50% of the countrys electricity generation at present is from renewable hydro
resources, though its share is fast coming down as the large hydro potential is already fully harnessed. The balance of
the energy requirement is met by imported fossil fuel making Sri Lanka more vulnerable to external forces. Sri Lankas
energy demand is on the increase for industrial and commercial uses as well as for rural electrification. It has
undoubtedly become a big challenge for policy makers to move towards a sustainable energy economy. However, the
share of electricity generation from non-conventional renewable energy resources, other than hydro, is still as low as
4%. The target is to achieve 10% by 2015.
Energy policy in Sri Lanka clearly emphasizes the attention to supplement the energy supply with renewable
energy forms with parallel emphasis on energy conservation and management. Related research and development and
technology transfer are also identified as strategies to meet the challenges faced by the countrys future energy sector.

Keywords: Energy policy, power generation, solar power

1. COUNTRY OUTLOOK
Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian ocean with a population of nearly 20 million and comprised of a total land
area of 6,5610 square kilometers. The current estimate of annual population growth rate is 1.1%. Despite the relative
small size of the country, there are considerable variations in climate over time and land. Therefore, Sri Lanka is
primarily divided into three main geographical zones: the wet zone, an intermediate zone and dry zone. The population
is evenly distributed across the country and nearly 60% is concentrated in the wet zone. The island itself is characterised
by a central highland, lowland mountain ranges, flat terrains and plateaus, which affect cloud formation. The annual
mean rainfall ranges from 750 to 5000 mm, which in turn creates a perennial river system (1).
Sri Lanka is now considered to be a middle income country and its economy grew at a relatively rapid rate of
6-7% a year during last few years. This growth and the culmination of the civil war which lasted for nearly three
decades resulted in a correlated growth in the countrys energy demand. As a result, Sri Lanka is now the fourth largest
electricity producing country in south Asia, behind India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Basically in Sri Lanka, there are
four categories of institutions which are directly involved in the electricity generation and distribution through the
national grid. Among them, Ministry of Power and Energy (MOPE), Public Utilities Commission (PUCSL) and Sri
Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority (SEA) are the government, regulatory and facilitation agencies. Ceylon Electricity
Board (CEB) and Lanka Electricity Company (Pvt) Ltd (LECO) are the Electricity Utilities institutions. The single,
state run agency, Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) is responsible for planning, generation, transmission, distribution and
sale of power in the country. Third category of those institutions is the Independent Power Producers (IPPs) which
comprised with nine (9) thermal IPPS and about 80 Small Power Producers (SPPs). In the fourth category, which covers
the off-grid services, a number of suppliers of solar photovoltaic systems and about 300 community cooperatives
developing and managing small village-level mini hydroelectric systems are active.
Sri Lanka does not possess any proven fossil fuel resources as at present. However as a result of recent
investigations, it is estimated that the off-shore petroleum resources of Sri Lanka can be about 125 million barrels of oil
equivalent. However, the feasibility of extracting these resources is yet to be under explored. Therefore, fossil-fuel
resources of oil, coal and gas are imported sources in the power generation. On the other hand, the renewable energy
sources exploited to different scales in Sri Lanka are : hydropower, biomass, solar and wind power. Energy requirement
of the country are met mainly from above resources. According to the Sustainable Energy Authority of Sri Lanka, these
resources include, 47% from thermal, 52% from hydro and the balance from wind, solar and biomass or wood (in
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2010). However, in order to keep uninterrupted power generation, today, Sri Lanka relies mainly on imported diesel
based thermal sources, with relatively high costs in generation of electricity which creates a substantial drain on the
foreign exchange reserve of the country. In 2011, the oil import bill of Sri Lanka had risen to US$ 4.63 billion, a record
high in the country's history. Therefore, to maintain the long term sustainability of the electricity sector in Sri Lanka, the
Ministry of Power and Energy has planned to ensure energy security of country by diversifying and rationalizing the
energy mix, while developing the power generation from renewable sources like solar and wind power. The sector
outlook is positive in the medium to long term, with the lower cost power plants at Upper Kotmale (hydro) and
Puttalam (coal) commissioned in 2012, and the second coal-fired power plant planned in Trincomalee, which are
expected to assist electricity prices to be reduced in real terms, to a regionally competitive level (1-5).
Table 1 summarizes gross generation electricity in Sri Lanka from the year 2005 to 2010. In the beginning of
the new millennium in 2000, electricity power generation capacity in Sri Lanka stood at around 7050 GWh and after a
decade, in 2010, it has increased to 10,800 GWh. However, in 2011 power generation grew 7.5 % to 11,522 GWh.
Table 2 summarizes the comparison of electricity generation statistics in year 2010 and 2011 in MWs.

Table 1. Gross generation electricity in Sri Lanka from the year 2005-2010.

Summary - (GWh) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Hydro 3,450 4,634 3,946 4,129 3,881 5,634
Thermal 5,379 4,845 5,934 5,848 6,062 5,063
Non-Conventional 18.38 18.74 18.96 25.14 43.34 103.14
Gross Generation Sri Lanka 8,848 9,497 9,900 10,003 9,986 10,800
Generation Growth Rate (%) 1.2 7.3 4.2 1.0 -0.2 8.2
Source: http://www.info.energy.gov.lk/

Table 2. Electricity generation statistics: Comparison of year 2010 and 2011.

No. of Power Stations Installed Capacity in
MW
Gross generation in GWh
Percentage of
Total
Ownership & Source
of Power Station
2010 2011 %
change
2010 2011 %
change
2010 2011 %
increase
2010 2011
Total 23 24 4.3% 1758 2058 17.1% 6386 6355 2.6% 60% 57%
Hydro 16 16 0.0% 1207 1207 0.0% 4988 4018 -19.5% 47% 35%
Thermal Oil 6 6 0.0% 548 548 0.0% 1394 1494 7.1% 13% 13%
Thermal Coal - 1 - 300 - - 1038 - - 9%
CEB
wind 1 1 0.0% 3 3 0.0.% 3 3 -11.1% 0% 0%
Total 105 115 9.5% 1059 1082 2.2% 4329 4976 14.9% 40% 43%
Hydro small 85 90 5.9% 175 175 10.4% 646 604 -6.5% 6% 5%
Thermal Oil 11 11 0.0% 842 842 0.0% 3600 3600 18.1% 34% 37%
P.P.P.
NCRE 9 14 55.6 42 47 11.4% 83 83 43.0% 0.8% 1.0%
Total 128 139 8.6 2818 3141 11.5% 10714 11528 7.6% 100% 100%
NCRE -Non Conventional Renewable Energy (solar, Dendro, Biomass,
wind)
P.P.P.-Private Power Purchase
Source: Statistical digest 2011, Ceylon Electricity Board

Sri Lanka currently serves grid electricity to about 80% of households, and a further estimated 3% of
households use off-grid systems. About 40% of electrical energy is used in households, a further 40% in manufacturing
industry and the balance is used in the commercial sector. According to the latest statistics, over 92 percent of the
people in the country enjoy the facility of electricity and As per the national energy policy, the government intends to
raise total electrification to 95% by 2015 with a mix of grid extensions and off-rid solutions.
Apart from these main resources, Bio gas produced from cow dung and dendro power from burning fuel wood
and wood gasified stoves are small scale pilot projects that are being developed. Improved stoves and combustion
technologies for commercial activities like bakers and kilns add to the list of innovations in sustainable energy drive.
Households without any form of electricity or other form of renewable energy use kerosene for lighting.
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As the electricity demand is increasing at an unprecedented rate (over 8 % per year) especially after the
eradication of terrorism in 2009, Sri Lanka needs to double the electricity generation capacity every 10 years as the
country's energy supply system faces major strategic challenges due to a high annual electricity demand growth rate.
Therefore, Sri Lanka has declared her intention to reach a goal of providing 10% of the grid electricity supply by 2015
from non-conventional source of energy, which will be achieved through a mix of small hydro, wind, biomass and solar
power. According to the CEBs long-term power generation plans, more than 88% of the countrys energy mix will be
spearheaded by coal (refer to Table 3).

Table 3: Capacity expansion by plant type (CEB)

Type of Plant 2009-2012 2013-2017 2018-2022 Total Capacity addition
MW MW MW MW %
Hydro 150 - - 150 4.20%
Combined Cycles 270 - - 270 7.55%
Coal 285 1670 1200 3155 88.25%
Total 705 1670 1200 3575 100.00%
Source: long term generation Expansion Plan 2009-2022 (CEB)

Apart from the Hydro power, wind energy, biomass, solar power and municipal solid waste are potential alternative
energy sources for Sri Lanka. Although these non conventional resources are only expected to supplement the power
needs of the country, this sector is likely to be dominated by independent private power sectors (2).

Biomass gasification
The high rainfall, coupled with other bioclimatic conditions of the tropics, has yielded a high plant density in
Sri Lanka. Therefore, the potential in biomass is tremendous. Nearly 95 % of rural households still use wood as a fuel,
and 86 % of inhabitants obtain wood from the forest for free. Approximately 90 % of Sri Lankas industrial small- and
medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) uses wood to produce thermal energy and to meet energy requirements. Despite its
continuous dominance in supplying the countrys energy needs, biomass was not, until recently, recognized as a
potential future energy source and has never been developed as a formal and sustainable provider of energy in Sri Lanka.
For instance, biomass has always been a by product of other activities such as agro based industry replanting, pruning,
etc., manufacturing industry off cuts in timber industry, waste from wood working industry, construction industry, etc
and as waste generated from plantation sector - fallen trees & branches, natural waste from trees, leftovers from
plantation produce, etc. Therefore, exact figures and statistics of this potential remain unknown and it is necessary to
assess the type of bio resources, their respective quantities and points of origin on an island wide basis. However,
recently, the government has declared sustainably grown biomass using short rotation copping species such as
Gliricidia Sepium as the fourth plantation crop (in addition to tea, rubber and coconut) in the country as source of
energy for generation of electricity, due to its potential as a low-cost, indigenous supply of energy. Gliricidia is now
becoming a commercialized fuel and there is a tendency to grow it as an energy plantation to cater the increasing
demand (3-5).

Hydroelectric Power
Since there are plenty of
natural water falls available in Sri
Lanka for the generation of
electric power, electricity
development was initially focused
on developing conventional
hydropower resources. As a
result, hydroelectric power came
into use in 1950 with the
commissioning of the Laksapana
project in the Central Province.
Commencing in year 1950, a total of 1205 MW of medium and large-scale hydropower generating capacity has been
built by end 2007, to supply the national grid. In year 1995, Sri Lanka produced 95% of the grid electrical energy
requirements from such conventional hydropower plants. However, with no major new hydroelectric projects to be
developed, the dominance of hydropower changed dramatically from 1996 onwards. If the CEB is able to successfully
execute its strategy, dependence on hydroelectricity is likely to recede to 19.82% by 2022. Hence, Sri Lankas large
reservoirs of hydro power have already been exhausted, apart from the newly constructed 150-MW upper Kotmale
Victoria dam , Sri Lanka Upper Kotmale dam, Sri Lanka
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4

hydro-power plant, future hydro sources are more likely to be small or mini hydro plants using the run of the river
design which does not require the construction of a dam. Instead, water is diverted downwards from an elevation, thus
creating pressure that spins the turbines to produce electrical energy (5-7).

Wind power
There are evidence that the use of wind energy has been in
existence in Sri Lanka even before 500 BC. The ancient Sinhalese used
the monsoon winds to power furnaces to melt metal ores as early as 300
BC, making Sri Lanka one of the first countries in the world to
utilize wind power. Evidence of this has been found in
Anuradhapura and in other cities. Even though the tropical temperatures
and the islands location in the ocean have resulted in distinct wind
regimes, in Sri Lanka only few locations experience wind speeds that is
suitable for operating wind turbines. These sites are in coastal regions in
the South, North West and North and one in the central hills. The
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) of USA conducted a
full study for Sri Lanka and Maldives using satellite mapping. According to this study, the potential for wind power in
Sri Lanka is 20,740 MWs. The development of modern wind farms has been considered by numerous local and
international developers for many years, but, such developments were largely hampered due to the many obstacles
faced in such developments in terms of both, economics and infrastructure. The Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy
Authority (SEA) in 2007 started installing wind masts at several location of the country. Table 4 summarizes the names
and capacities of wind farms in Sri Lanka. The first commercial grid-connected wind farm is the 3 MW Hambantota
Wind Farm, located northwest of Hambantota (8).

Table 4. Names and capacities of wind farms in Sri Lanka.
Wind Farm
Capacity
(MW)
Wind Farm Capacity
(MW)
Ambewela Aitken Spence Wind Farm 3 Seguwantivu Wind Farm 9.6
Hambantota Wind Farm 3 Vidatamunai Wind Farm 10.4
Mampuri Wind Farm 10
Daluwa, Nirmalapura, Puttalama, and
Sethupola wind farms (2102)
30

Geothermal Power
Geothermal power is currently under research, although no power satiations of this type are currently operational in Sri
Lanka(9). Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS) has a research programme on Geothermal Energy resources Mapping
in the country.

Tidal power
The potential of tidal power is insignificant in Sri Lanka. However, National Aquatic Resources Research and
Development Agency of Sri Lanka has recently identified 14 sites with high potential of exploiting sea energy resources
and this is also currently under research.

Nuclear Power.
Even though, Nuclear energy has been completely excluded in the present energy sector policies and strategies, Atomic
Energy Authority (AEA) of Sri Lanka is in the process of exploring the possibility of using nuclear energy for future
power generation. However, according to the present minister for power and energy, Mr Champika Ranawaka, the
government is still undecided on using nuclear power to meet the electricity needs of the country.

Solar power
Since Sri Lanka is located in the equatorial belt, it receives a year round supply of solar irradiation. Although solar
power generation is an alternative option, it is still deemed too expensive. Under the programme on renewable energy
for rural economic development (RERED), solar energy panels are given to rural households at costs between 200
(Rs. 35,000) and 300 (Rs. 55,000). Through this scheme, certain financial institutions (participating credit institutions)
provide 80% refinancing facilities on loans extended to qualifying borrowers. Therefore, more than 150,000 solar home
systems already exist in the rural areas of the country as a result of private sector driven market development initiative.
Wind Farm in Ambewela, Sri Lanka
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5

In Sri Lanka solar powered electricity could become a viable part of an off-
grid power system which could provides electricity for water pumping,
drip irrigation and telecommunication systems in remote areas around the
country. It is evident from the currently running 5000 solar powered drip
irrigation systems in the dry zone in Sri Lanka, generation of electricity
from solar power in Sri Lanka is a well accepted alternative to the
expensive fuel based electricity generation.. In the year 2011 a solar power
plant with 500 kW to the national grid was commissioned in a rural city
of Hambantota (200 km from Colombo) to meet the electricity needs in
that area. The plant will generate 2,300 units of electricity daily and is
expected to generate 839,500 kilowatt hours. In order to boost the
renewable energy drive in Sri Lanka and to increase renewable energy up
to 20% of the national grid by 2020, the Ministry of Power and Energy of
Sri Lanka has launched Sri Lanka Energies (Pvt) Ltd a state owned
company in January 2012 (10-13).
It has been calculated that at present daily power consumption in Jaffna Peninsula in the north is around 36 MW and
this can be achieved by using 10 % efficient solar panels of 0.36 km
2
(~ 0.6 km 0.6 km) land area.

3. CURRENT STATUS ON RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

The Research and Development activities with regard to renewable energy generation and utilization in
Sri Lanka have been very limited and confined mainly to research on solar energy materials and solar cells.
Institute of Fundamental Studies (IFS), a government funded research institute situated in Kandy has a continuing
research programme on dye-sensitized solar cells since 1990s and has an impressive record of research
publications on this subject. In fact, IFS has been among the top ten research groups working on dye sensitized
solar cells around the world (14,15). There are similar research programmes on solar energy materials and solar
cells in several universities in Sri Lanka. University of Peradeniya (dye-sensitized solar cells), University of
Kelaniya and University of Colombo (copper oxide based solar cells), University of Jaffna (Hybrid polymer solar cells)
Solar Home Systems Installed in Sri Lanka under
RERED & RERED-Additional Financing as at 31 Mar
2009
Solar panels at the first solar power
plant at Hambantota, 2011
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6

have ongoing research programmes. More recently, a multi university R&D programme on cadmium telluride (CdTe)
based solar cells has been initiated in collaboration with Sivananthan Laboratories, Inc., USA. Coordinated by the IFS
and supported by the National Science Foundation and National Research Council, this programme aims at capacity
building in R&D in solar photovoltaic, with emphasis on developing capabilities for the manufacture of CdTe solar cells
within the country in the near future. Faculties of Engineering at University of Moratuwa and University of Peradeniya
also have research programmes on solar energy utilization.

For many years, NSF and NRC have been funding R&D activities on solar energy through their research grant
schemes. The Institute of Fundamental Studies has also a research programme on mapping of geothermal energy
resources in the country (16).

3. CONCLUSION; THE POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE RESEARCH TO THE
COUNTRY FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND AND/OR SUPPLY

As the government of Sri Lanka has made a policy decision to increase the contribution from renewable energy
(other than hydro) to 10% within few years, the possibility exist to manufacture solar cells and solar panels in Sri Lanka
through countrys own R&D efforts. Both dye sensitized solar cells as well as CdTe based high efficiency solar cells
are possibilities. Considering the highly educated pool of human resources, the possibility of combining a solar-hydro
energy mix, the strategic location to be an export hub in SE Asia, Sri Lanka has a great potential to manufacture solar
Panels for domestic use and export and at the same time become a Renewable Energy Island in the near future.

4. REFERENCES
[1] Statistical abstract 2010 ---- Department of census and statistics, Sri Lanka
[2] F.P. Jerome Reviving up Sri Lankas power sector, Sector report Power Industry 2010 .
[3] Munasinghe |Biogass technology and integrated development, experiences from Sri Lanka, web report.
[4] Energy data, sustainable energy authority Sri Lanka.
[5] M.W Leelaratne , Some Recent Technological Advancements in the Efficient Use of Biomass as an Energy Source
in Sri Lanka, National Engineering Research and Development Centre of Sri Lanka
[6] S. Fenando, L. Ariayadasa, T. Siyambalapitiya environmentally sustainable and energy efficient Alternate energy
strategy-EASES Sri anka, Asia Pacific Development Centre, Sri Lanka Energy managers Association, 1995 Sri
Lanka.
[7] L. Ariyadasa, Current Status of the Energy Situation in Sri Lanka, Web report.
[8] M.M.C Fernando, and R.J. Gunewardna, Electricity generation from Renewable energy in Sri Lanka: Future
directions web report.
[9] S. Fernando. Sri Lanka to become an energy hub in South Asia, Web report.
[10] http://www.ifs.ac.lk/research%20groups/geo%20thermal.html
[11] L. Ariyadasa Investment opportunities in wind energy projects in Sri Lank Paper presented at the seminar on
investment opportunities in renewable energy in Sri Lanka 2003, Colombo Sri Lanka.
[12] I. M. Dharmadasa and Lalith Gunaratne, . Solar Villages for Social Development and Poverty Reduction Pr
ocedings of the "Solar-Asia 2011" conference, 28-30 July 2011, IFS, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
[13] Sunday times 2011, 11 by Malaka Rodrigo.
[14] http://www.apsl.org.uk/dharmes%20blog.html
[15] Ying Guo, Lu Huang, Alan Porter. Profiling Research Patterns for a New and Emerging Science and Technol
ogy: Dye-sensitized solar cells. Atlanta Conference on Science and Innovation Policy, Atlanta, USA, 2009
[16] http://www.ifs.ac.lk/research%20groups/cmpssc.html
[17] http://www.ifs.ac.lk/research.

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SUSTAI NABLE FUTURE ENERGY 2012 and 10

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