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The views of space and time which I wish to lay before you h have sprung f from th the soil il of f experimental i t l physics, h i and d therein lies their strength. They are radical. Henceforth space by itself, and time by itself, are doomed to fade away into mere shadows, and only a union of the two will preserve an independent reality. Hermann Minkowski Minkowski, 1908

Space-Time

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Points to Remember!
inertial mass: rest energy: total energy: Equivalence of mass and energy:

m = m0

E0 = m0 c 2
E = K + E0
E = mc 2

Points to Remember!
The familiar results of relativity may be derived from the Lorentz equations: Relativistic velocity (one-dimensional):

v AC =

v AB + vBC v v 1 + AB 2 BC c

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What will we learn?

Spacetime

Foundations of Relativity
From the combination of space and time in the Lorentz transformations it can be seen that space and time transformations, cannot be treated separately. Einstein understood the meaning of the Lorentz transformations to be an expression of the geometry of space-time itself.

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Space-time Diagrams
How can events in space-time be represented? Space-time diagrams (also called Minkowski diagrams) were first introduced by Hermann Minkowski to visualize the events in space and time between inertial reference frames.

Space-time Diagrams
Instead of x and t axes, Minkowski diagrams use x and ct axes.

ct

The factor c is multiplied to time on the ct axis in order for the axis to have length units. Notice, velocity in a Minkowski diagram is inversely proportional to the slope of the line, where the proportionality constant is c. The x and ct axes use the same scale such that a slope of 1 corresponds to a 45 line.
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Space-time Diagrams
The complete history of the motion of a particle in spacetime is represented by the particles world line. ct
world line of object with relative speed v.

The world line corresponds to the velocity v of an object moving relative to S. The slope of the world line is proportional c/v. Since the object is at rest in its own reference frame, v will lie along that objects own ct axis . 9

v c
world line of light signal sent from x = 0 at t = 0.

Space-time Diagrams
Since the Lorentz transformations forbid velocities faster than c, the slope of the world line representing relative motion must always be greater than 1. That is, c/v > 1.

ct

world line of object with relative speed v.

v c
world line of light signal sent from x = 0 at t = 0.

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Space-time Diagrams
The ct axis corresponds to the world line of v for the S inertial frame. Since light has a slope of 1 in ct a space-time diagram for all ct reference frames, its world line must equally bisect each axis of every reference frame. c x This explains the slant of x toward the world line of the light signal with a slope of v/c.
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Space-time Diagrams
Space-time coordinates for events in different reference frames may be found by projecting the space-time coordinates for those events onto the coordinate axes for each reference frame events frame.

ct

ct E2 x t2 E1 x1 x2 x
Click here for a flash animation illustrating this concept.
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t2 t1

t1

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Space-time Diagrams
To draw space-time diagrams: 1) Draw a stationary reference frame S with orthogonal x and ct axes. 2) Indicate the space-time coordinates of events on the diagram. 3) Use world lines to represent the history of bodies moving relative to S. If the velocity is constant, constant the world line will be represented by a straight line of slope c/v.

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Space-time Diagrams
To draw space-time diagrams: 4) Draw the coordinate system for a reference frame S moving uniformly relative to S such that its ct axis is superimposed on its own world line and its x axis is drawn in such a way that the mutually shared world line for a light bisects each axis equally. 5) Indicate the space-time coordinates for events in S by drawing lines parallel to the frame axes of S and using those lines to project the events coordinates onto its axes.
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Exercise
Use a space-time diagram to represent the space-time coordinates of the firecrackers exploding simultaneously in Bills stationary reference frame. Be sure to indicate the space-time coordinates for both Bills reference frame and Anns uniformly moving reference frame.

Click here for a flash animation illustrating this question from a Bills frame.
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Exercise
Use a space-time diagram to represent the space-time coordinates of the firecrackers exploding simultaneously in Anns reference frame of the moving rocket ship. Be sure to indicate the space-time coordinates for both Anns reference frame and Bills stationary reference frame.

Click here for a flash animation illustrating this question from Anns frame.
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Space-time
The previous examples illustrates two important ideas: 1. The perception of an event is not the event itself. 2. All experimenters in a single reference frame agree as to whether or not two events are simultaneous. Therefore, An event simultaneous in reference frame S Therefore is not necessarily simultaneous in any other reference frame moving relative to S.

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Space-time Intervals
Space-time diagrams indicate and reinforce important truths concerning space and time: 1) Space, by itself, is not invariant. 2) Time, by itself, is not invariant. But, is there a quantity the integrates space and time in y that is invariant? such a way The space-time interval between two events is invariant.
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Space-time Intervals
The quantity s represents the space-time interval between two events, is invariant, and has the same value for all inertial observers. s is defined by:

( s )
2

= ( ct ) ( x )
2 2

p in time ] [separation p in space p ] [interval] = [separation

Note: The interval is the only measureable quantity describing pairs of events in spacetime for which observers in all inertial frames will obtain the same numerical value.

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Light Cones
ct
(s) )2 =0 Lightlike. (x)2 = (ct)2. The two eve events ts ca can be co connected ected o only ly by a light signal. Spacelike. (x)2 > (ct)2. The two events cannot be causally connected, may occur simultaneously in time, but are separated in space. Timelike. (ct)2 > (x)2. The two events can be causally connected, separated in time but not necessarily in space.
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Timelike c

(s)2 < 0

Spacelike
(s)2 > 0

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Light Cones
Space-time diagrams can be use to show the causal relationships between past, present, and future. Causal relationships between events that affect the present can only occur within the past light cone.

ct

future elsewhere the present past x elsewhere

The present can only affect those space-time coordinates that lie within the future light cone Events that occur cone. in elsewhere cannot be caused by the present and the present cannot be affected by events in elsewhere. 21

Exercise
At x = 1 ly and t = 0 a star explodes as a supernova. At x = 4 ly and ct = 2 ly a second supernova explosion occurs. Is it possible for the first supernova to have triggered the second one? Why or why not?

Use a Minkowski diagram to support your explanation.

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Points to Remember!
Space-time There is no such thing as absolute simultaneity. Minkowski space-time diagrams Light cones and events

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Points to Remember!
The quantity s represents the space-time interval between two events, is invariant, and has the same value for all inertial observers. s is defined by:

( s )

= ( x ) ( ct )
2

where h s2 is i an i invariant i t given i b by

s 2 = x 2 c 2t 2
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