Document Type: Tutorial NI Supported: Yes Publish Date: Jan 25, 2012

Strain Measurement with a Strain Gauge

Overview Strain guages and strain-guage-based sensors provide a variety of measurements, from load and force to pressure and torque.Click on the links below to learn more about strain-related topics and to find strain/force/load/torque/pressure-specific application examples: Configure a DAQ System for Strain Measurements Find Strain Data Acquisition Application Examples

Table of Contents 1. Hardware Solutions for Strain Gauge-Based Measurements 2. What Is Strain? 3. What Is a Strain Gauge? 4. Strain Measurement with a Strain Gauge Hardware Solutions for Strain Gauge-Based Measurements Strain Gauge-Based Sensors Module NI 9235 NI 9236 NI 9237 NI 9219 Description Image

Modular, Flexible, C Series Modules (recommended)

4-ch, 24 bit Universal Strain/Force/Load module

SC Express Modules (recommended)

PXIe-4330 or PXIe-4331

8-ch, 24 bit Bridge Input Modules

Front-End Signal Conditioning

SCXI-1520 or SCXI-1521

8-ch Programmable Strain Input Module 24-ch Programmable Strain Input Module

Low-Cost, Per-Channel Signal Conditioning

SCC-SG0x or SCC-SG24*

2-ch Strain Input Modules

Distributed DAQ

cFP-SG-140

8-ch Strain Input Module

DAQ with Integrated Signal Conditioning

PXI-4220

2-ch Programmable High-Speed Strain Input Device

* for load cells and pressure/force/torque sensors

Modular, Flexible, C. Series I/O Modules: C Series C Series modules combine analog to digital converters, front end signal conditioning, and signal connectivity into a single, rugged module. C Series modules can be used in a variety of chassis for use as a portable USB data logger, as a full USB data acquisition system in CompactDAQ, or an embedded I/O platform when used in a CompactRIO chassis. Including the NI 9237 bridge-measurement module, over 40 different modules exist for C Series systems.

Signal Conditioning Express: SC Express The NI SC Express family introduces PXI Express data acquisition modules with integrated signal conditioning for strain gages, bridge-based transducers, thermocouples, and high-voltage analog input signals. Increased accuracy, high data throughput, and tight synchronization are key features that make this family ideal for advanced measurement systems from low to high channel counts.

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Front-End Signal Conditioning: SCXI SCXI is a high performance signal conditioning platform for PC-based instrumentation applications. An SCXI system consists of a shielded chassis that houses a combination of signal conditioning input and output modules that perform a variety of signal conditioning functions. You can connect many different types of sensors, including thermocouples, directly to SCXI modules. The SCXI system can operate as a front-end signal conditioning system for PCI, PXI, or PCMCIA data acquisition devices. To learn more visit the SCXI product page, or return to the top of the page.

Low-Cost, Per-Channel Signal Conditioning: SCC SCC is an affordable, portable signal conditioning system for use with E Series and Basic multifunction data acquisition (DAQ) devices. SCC products condition a variety of analog input and digital I/O signals. With this modular design, you choose your conditioning on a per-channel basis. SCC offers custom connectivity options, matching your sensor or signal connection type. While the low-profile carrier is perfect for use with PCMCIA DAQCards and DAQPads for portable applications, you can also use the SCC DAQ systems for rack-mounted or desktop applications. To learn more visit the SCC product page, or return to the top of the page. DAQ with Integrated Signal Conditioning: 435x

The National Instruments 4350 and 4351 devices are computer-based high-precision instruments designed specifically for temperature measurements (with thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors), chromatography measurements, and for low-frequency analog signals within 15 V. They deliver exceptional measurement quality, while tightly integrating with development environments such as LabVIEW, CVI, and Measurement Studio to simplify measurement application development. NI offers these devices for PCI, PXI, PCMCIA, and USB. To learn more visit the High-Precision DAQ Devices product page, or return to the top of the page.

Distributed DAQ: FieldPoint & Compact FieldPoint If your measurement, control, or data logging application involves a diverse array of sensors and actuators located centrally or spread over large distances, you can benefit from a networked FieldPoint system. National Instruments FieldPoint is an easy-to-use, highly expandable measurement and control system composed of industrially rugged, dependable I/O modules and communication interfaces. From top to bottom, NI FieldPoint is designed to function reliably and make engineers and scientists more productive, even in electrically and environmentally harsh environments. To learn more visit the Compact FieldPoint - Rugged, Intelligent I/O product page, or return to the top of the page. What Is Strain?

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Definition of Strain

Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain (me), which is e x 10 -6. When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio n of a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or n = e T/e. Poisson's Ratio for steel, for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3. For more information on strain visit the strain tutorial, or return to the top of the page. What Is a Strain Gauge?

While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (Figure 2). The cross-sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are available commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000 W, with 120, 350, and 1000 W being the most common values.

Figure 2. Bonded Metallic Strain Gauge

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It is very important that the strain gauge be properly mounted onto the test specimen so that the strain is accurately transferred from the test specimen, though the adhesive and strain gauge backing, to the foil itself. A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2. For more information on strain gauges visit the strain gauge tutorial, or return to the top of the page. Strain Measurement with a Strain Gauge

-3 In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain (e x 10 ). Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of 500 me . A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2 * (500 x 10 -6) = 0.1%. For a 120 W gauge, this is a change of only 0.12 W. To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below, consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, V EX, that is applied across the bridge.

Figure 3. Wheatstone Bridge

The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

From this equation, it is apparent that when R 1/R2 = R4/R3, the voltage output VO will be zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of the bridge will result in a nonzero output voltage.

Therefore, if we replace R4 in Figure 3 with an active strain gauge, any changes in the strain gauge resistance will unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal resistance of the strain gauge is designated as R G, then the strain-induced change in resistance, DR, can be expressed as DR = R G*GF*e. Assuming that R1 = R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above can be rewritten to express V O/VEX as a function of strain (see Figure 4). Note the presence of the 1/(1+GF*e/2) term that indicates the nonlinearity of the quarter-bridge output with respect to strain.

Figure 4. Quarter-Bridge Circuit

Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to change only in response to applied strain. However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to which the gauge is applied, will also respond to changes in temperature. Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen material for which the gauge is intended. While compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally remove it. By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can be further minimized. For example, Figure 5 illustrates a strain gauge configuration where one gauge is active ( R G+ DR), and a second gauge is placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gauge, called the dummy gauge. However, any changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way. Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the ratio of their resistance does not change, the voltage V O does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized.

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Figure 5. Use of a Dummy Gauge to Eliminate Temperature Effects

The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both gauges active in a half-bridge configuration. For example, Figure 6 illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in tension ( RG+ DR) and the other mounted in compression ( R G+ DR). This half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also illustrated in Figure 6, yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit.

Figure 6. Half-Bridge Circuit

Finally, you can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of the arms of the bridge active strain gauges in a full-bridge configuration. The full-bridge circuit is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Full-Bridge Circuit

The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an initially balanced bridge that generates zero output when no strain is applied. In practice however, resistance tolerances and strain induced by gauge application will generate some initial offset voltage. This initial offset voltage is typically handled in two ways. First, you can use a special offset-nulling, or balancing, circuit to adjust the resistance in the bridge to rebalance the bridge to zero output. Alternatively, you can measure the initial unstrained output of the circuit and compensate in software. The equations given above for quarter, half, and full-bridge strain gauge configurations assume that the lead wire resistance is negligible. While ignoring the lead resistances may be beneficial to understanding the basics of strain gauge measurements, doing so in practice can be a major source of error. For example, consider the 2-wire connection of a strain gauge shown in Figure 8a. Suppose each lead wire connected to the strain gauge is 15 m long with lead resistance R L equal to 1 W. Therefore, the lead resistance adds 2 W of resistance to that arm of the bridge. Besides adding an offset error, the lead resistance also desensitizes the output of the bridge. You can compensate for this error by measuring the lead resistance R L and accounting for it in the strain calculations. However, a more difficult problem arises from changes in the lead resistance due to temperature fluctuations. Given typical temperature coefficients for copper wire, a slight change in temperature can generate a measurement error of several me. Using a 3-wire connection can eliminate the effects of variable lead wire resistance because the lead resistances affect adjacent legs of the bridge. As seen in Figure 8b, changes in lead wire resistance, RL2, do not change the ratio of the bridge legs R 3 and RG. Therefore, any changes in resistance due to temperature cancel each other.

Figure 8. 2-Wire and 3-Wire Connections of Quarter-Bridge Circuit

For more information on strain gauges visit the strain gauge tutorial, or return to the top of the page.

Legal This tutorial (this "tutorial") was developed by National Instruments ("NI"). Although technical support of this tutorial may be made available by National Instruments, the content in this tutorial

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This tutorial (this "tutorial") was developed by National Instruments ("NI"). Although technical support of this tutorial may be made available by National Instruments, the content in this tutorial may not be completely tested and verified, and NI does not guarantee its quality in any way or that NI will continue to support this content with each new revision of related products and drivers. THIS TUTORIAL IS PROVIDED "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND AND SUBJECT TO CERTAIN RESTRICTIONS AS MORE SPECIFICALLY SET FORTH IN NI.COM'S TERMS OF USE (http://ni.com/legal/termsofuse/unitedstates/us/).

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