STUDIES IN YAMA AND M/~RA by ALEX WAYMAN

Berkeley

IlI. THE FOUR M/~RAS* Aryfisaflga, or Asaflga, has this passage in his ~rdvaka-bhf~mi as found in the photographic manuscript of the Bihar Research Society, and a translation follows immediately after the Sanskrit: 15s / tatra catv~tro m~tr~h,sa.mbahulfini m~rakarm~m.i / veditavy~mi yogin~t / yogaprayuktena / tena parijfiaya parivarjayitavy~t .h / tatra catvaro mar~.h / tadyath~ skandhamara.h kle~amfira.h mara.nam~tra.h devaputram~ra~ ca / paficopadanaskandM.h / skandhamara.h / traidh~tuk~tvacara.h klefft.h kle,~am~ra.h / te.s~.m te.s~t .m satv~m~tm. / tasm~tt tasm~tt satvanik~y~t.h yan marana.m kalakriya maran.amara.h / yo 'sya ku~alapak.saprayuktasya skandhakle~am.rtyu.m samatikram~tya k~tmadMtfipapanno devaputrah. ai~varyapraptah / antar~tyam upasamharati / vyak.sepakara.ne / ayam ucyate devaputram~ra.h//tatra yatra ca mriyate / yena ca mriyate / ya~ casau m.rtyur yena ca m.rtyu.m na samatikramaty antarfiyikena vastun~ ity etad adhik.rtya catv~ro m~rfi vyavasthfipit~.h / tatra paficasfip~d~naskandhe.su jfite.su vartamanesu mriyate / kleia.mjanayaty fiyatya.mjata~ ca mriyate / cyuti~ ca cyavanatfi satvfinfi.m jivitendriyanirodhah. / k~lakriy~tsvabh~tva eva mrtyu.h / devaputramfiro ('sya?) mara.na.m samatikram~ya prayuktasyfintar~,yam upasa.mharati / yena naiva v~ ~aknoti mara.nadharmata.m samatikramitum / kalfintaren.a v~t samatikr~mati / Here there are four Mfiras, and the yogin applied to yoga should know the numerous deeds of M~ra (mdrakarm~n.i). Having well understood [the latter], they [i.e. the four M~ras] should be well avoided. Among those, the four Maras are the skandha.mdra, the
* See 11,1,III (1959),pp. 44--73. 15s Tib. is in DergeTg., Sems tsam, Dzi, 126a-2, f.; Chin. in Taish6 30.449a-22,f.; Ja. in Kokuyaku Daiz6ky6, 2nd Set. Yoga, Vol. 7, p. 56.

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klega-mdra, the maran, a-mdra, and the devapatra-mdra. The skandhamdra is the five grasping personality aggregates (skandha). The klega-mdra is the corruptions (klega) that range in the three worlds. The maran,a-mdra is what fixes the time of the various sentient beings for death (mara.na) from the various classes of sentient beings. [As to the devaputra-mdra :] When someone is applied to the virtuous side for the purpose of transcending the personality aggregates (skandha), corruptions (klega), and death (mrtyu), a "Son of the Gods" (devaputra) born in the world of desire (kdma-dhdtu) who has attained
lordship brings about an "interruption," so as to swerve that person. This is called devaputra-mdra. Among those, where does one die, whereby does one die, which is death itself, and by what interruptive element does one not transcend death? Leading with those questions, the four Mfiras are well established. Among those, one dies among the five grasping personality aggregates that, having been born, are present. One generates corruptions (klega), and having been subsequently born [thereby], one dies. The decease and passing away of sentient beings is cessation of their life organ; and death is precisely the intrinsic nature of fixing the time [of that]. The "Son of the Gods" Mfira brings about an interruption for the one engaged in the purpose of transcending death. Either one is just not able, by reason of that [interruptive element], to transcend the true nature of death; or, at a later time he transcends it. 159 The passage shows that the word mdra has for Asaflga its etymological meaning of "death", but employed metaphorically. For example, the tenement of death is the personality aggregates (skandha), so the latter are called "death" (mdra). When an ascetic is trying to avoid death by transcending it and the "Son of the Gods" swerves him, the ascetic cannot avoid death, so the "Son of the Gods" is also called "death" (mdra). Accordingly, while the conventional translation of the word " m a r a " as "the Evil One, the adversary and tempter ''1~176 may seem suitable in many contexts, when we come to a strict employment of the word, as in the above passage by Asaflga, it can only mean "death" (understood metaphorically). The word mdra passes through four metaphorical values of "death" and in one of the values - so to say the "zero value" - the word means the concrete death, the death "death". 159 For the renditions "brings about" for upasa.mharatiand "at a later time" for

antare.na, cf. Edgerton, BHS Dict. 1no E.g., Edgerton, BHS Dict.

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Asaflga follows the passage quoted above with illustrations of the deeds of M~ra, closing with the remark, "Whatever are of the same kind, know as deeds of Mhra (marakarmSn.f). Those belong to the four M~tras as appropriate" (iffmdny eva.mbhag~ySni marakarmdn,i veditavydni Mni caturn,am. m~rdn,tim. yathayogam.). He did not classify particular deeds of M~ra under one or other of the four M~ras, but this would usually not be difficult to do. In the text, the various cravings (rdga) are called "nooses of M~ra" (mdraptiga). Here the deeds of M~ra are the various influences that swerve a person attempting to succeed in yoga. One example, which has an interest of its own, will be cited: Likewise, when one who is occupied in engagement to the practice of staying awake in the former and latter parts of night sinks his thought in the pleasure of sleep, the pleasure of resting, the pleasure of lying on his side - that is known as a deed of Mhra (evam. pf~rvardtrd-

parardtram, jdgarikdyogam anuyuktasya viharatah. / nidrdsukhe gayanasukhe pdk~asukhe cittam, praskandhati / veditavyam, m~rakarmaitad iti). a61
If we should try to relate this "deed of M~tra" to one of the four Mhras, the solution in terms of the Atharva-Veda would probably be the death "death" (maran.a-mdra), because this attraction to sleep reminds us that in the Atharva-Veda sleep is called the child of death: "Thou who art neither alive nor dead, the immortal child of the gods art thou, O sleep! Varu .n~m.i is thy mother, Yama (death) thy father, Araru is thy name. ''x62 Varadaehari points out, le3 "One fact that has to be noted is that the word Svapna meant two things, the state of sleep as well as what it contains, the dreams." He applies this two-fold connotation in his analysis of the Atharva-Veda hymn XIX. 56 (trans. Whitney), which begins "Out of Yama's world hast thou come h i t h e r ; . . . " In Buddhist doctrine the "Son of the Gods" Mhra is the king of the Paranirmitavagavartin gods. 164 In the general Indian tradition, Indra, at least in Epic or later times, seems to fill the position, for as Winternitz writes :165
18x For the rendition "sinks" for praskandhati, eL Edgerton, BHS Dict. 16~ Bloomfield (op. cit.), p. 167. 183 K. C. Varadachari,. Sri Ramanuja's Theory of Knowledge; A Study (Tirupati, 1943), p. 186. le~ Cf. l~tienne Lamotte, Le Traitd de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse (Louvain, 1944), I, 340, and I, 251 (note). ls5 Op. cit., I, 393.

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It is even said that asceticism can compel Indra himself to enter the home of Yama (the god of death). And often indeed does Indra have recourse to the proved expedient of allowing a beautiful Apsaras to seduce a saint who, through his severe austerities, threatens to become dangerous to the gods. This role of Indra is beautifully illustrated in the Kathdsaritsdgara version of the ~ibi story. 16n And likewise, in olden times, there was a king, ascetic (tapasvin), compassionate, generous, steadfast, gibi by name, who gave a feeling of safety to all creatures. In order to deceive him, Indra, having himself adopted the form of eagle (gyena), pursued Dharma in the form of an illusory pigeon (kapota). That pigeon, proceeding through fear, went for protection to the lap of gibi. The eagle then spoke with human speech to the king, " O monarch, this is my food. Surrender the pigeon to me, who is hungry. Otherwise, know me dead. What Dharma would you then have?" Then Sibi said to him, "This, having come to me for protection, is not to be abandoned. Therefore, I shall give you other flesh equal to it." The eagle said, " I f that is so, offer me your own flesh!" The king, being delighted with that, replied "Agreed!" And just as much as that king, cutting off his flesh, lifted up, just so much did the pigeon increase in the scales. Then the king lifted his whole body to the scales. Thereupon, "Excellent, excellent! That is indeed equal," a divine voice came forth. Then, Indra and Dharma, having abandoned the form of eagle and pigeon, being satisfied, fashioned that injured body as King gibi. And having granted him other wishes, they disappeared. In the popular conception, "This is my food" means not only that the pigeon is the eagle's food, but also that righteousness (dharma) is Indra's food. "What Dharma would you then have?" points both to righteousness and to the pigeon. But there is a more profound interpretation of the story. For this, we recall that the deity Dharma is really Yama and that the pigeon (kapota) is a messenger of Yama. Then the story can be lee Cf. Lamotte (op. cit.), I, 255 f., for a Buddhist version of the story and for extensive bibliography. The Kathflsaritsagaraversion (I, 7)islisted under the Brahmanical sources. This version is noteworthy for economy of words and to the writer's mind is more elegant than the Buddhist one. However, a comparison of the two versions is instructive in illustrating the different roles of Indra in Buddhism and in Hinduism. In the Buddhist one, Indra is not charged with a bad intention. He is only going to test the King, who is a Bodhisattva.

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understood through Asafiga's remarks a b o u t the devaputra-mdra. King gibi is practising severe austerities (tapasvin), so he m a y be in danger of death. Indra's food is the death of ascetics, for if they do not die his existence of supremacy will be overthrown. Therefore, I n d r a contrives an " i n t e r r u p t i o n " for Sibi in the f o r m of the frightened pigeon, and the latter could well be the harbinger of ~ibi's death. But the ascetic does not give the pigeon (his death) to Indra. Instead he gives his life. Life alone is the equal of death. I n d r a cannot refuse ~ibi's life, although he prefers his death. Thereby the ascetic defeats the " S o n of the G o d s " M~tra. This interpretation can be c o m p a r e d with Vasubandhu's explanation in his Xrya-Ak~ayamatinirdega- !fkd :167 The four kinds of M~ra are the devaputramdra, the klegamdra, the skandhamdra, and the *m.rtyumdra. A m o n g them, the devaputramdra was defeated by the samddhi of love (maitrf) beneath the Tree of Enlightenment (bodhi-v.rk.sa). The klegamdra was defeated at the time

of clear comprehension (abhisamaya)ofEnlJghtenment. The skandhamdra was defeated by the ~layaviihdna-dAraya-pardv.rttiat the time of
clear comprehension of Enlightenment. Repressing the life motivation (c~yu.h-sam. skdra) in Vai~alP 68 three months before passing into Nirvan. a - the *mrtyumdra was defeated there by achieving the power over life (~yur-vaditd). The teaching by V a s u b a n d h u that the devaputram~ra is defeated first is consistent with Asafiga's statement that when someone is trying to surm o u n t the other three M~tras, a devaputramdra tries to divert him. His order of defeating the M~ras will also explain a rather obscure part o f Asaflga's statement. "Either one is just not able, by reason of that, to 1,7 Derge, Mdo-bgrel, Vol. Ci, 3b-5 f.: / bdud rnam bs ni lha.hi bul3i. ' bdud daft //ion moils pa.hi bdud daf / phufl poh.i bdud daft / .hchi bdag gi bdud do / de la lha.hi buh.i bdud ni byaf chub kyi ~ifi drug du byams pa.hi tiff fie bdzin gyis bcom / fion moils pah. i bdud kyafl byaf chub nation par rtogs pa.hi tshe bcom/ phufl pohi bdud kyaf byafi chub nation par rtogs pa.hi tshe kun g2i rnam par ~es pa gnas yofs su gyur pas bcom / .hchi bdag gi bdud kyaf grog ldayer yafs pa can du mya fan las .hdal) ba las mi h.dah. bar zla ba gsum du tshe.hi h.du byed slat bsnur te / tshe la dbafl thob pas h.chi bdag gi bdud kyafi der bcom mo/. 16a For this event, see, for example, Ernst Waldschmidt, Das Mahaparinirv&nasatra, Abh. der D. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, Klasse ftir Sprachen, Literatur und Kunst, 1950, Nr. 2, Tell II, 218-9. We learn there that three months before the parinirva.na,the Great Earth quakes, for at that time he abandons the life motivation (ayusankhara.m ossajjati in the Dighanikaya XVI, 3, 19). The P~li has no equivalent for the Skt. jivitasar~skaranadhi~thaya. This may well be what Vasubandhu means by "achieving the power over life", if we translate adhi~t.hayaas "superintending", i.e. "superintending the life motivations".

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transcend the true nature of death" - i.e. the devaputra M~ra has defeated the ascetic; "or, at a later time he transcends it" - that "later time" being the time when he defeats the last M~ra to be defeated, the Death "Death".lsa It also seems consistent to call ~ibi's method a "samddhi of maitre", since his lofty regard for living beings provides the sentiment (rasa) of the story. The question arises: what does Vasubandhu mean by the samddhi of love beneath the Tree of Enlightenment? Presumably he would believe in the life of the Buddha as displayed in the Lalitavistara. In the Chapter "Assault of M~ra" (maradhar~an. aparivarta), we read :170 Same as an illusion, likewise same as a dream, Like a cloud - he considers the dharmas. The ~ k y a s o n . . . Is not deceived when he has seen the craft accompanied with army. This is a necessary realization, but alas! the deceit of the world is not removed by knowing it. Subsequently, in the episode of earth's "measure" (pramdn. a), we read: 17~ "Then the Bodhisattva was suffused with thought preceded by love (maitrO and compassion (karu.nd) toward Mfira and the M~ra assembly." With his right hand he touches earth (p.rthivO, and immediately earth responds by shaking in six different ways. This event marks the defeat of Mfira. According to Vasubandhu, the particular M~ra defeated must be the devaputramdra. According to Asaflga, this particular M~ra has attained lordship in the world of desire. How then does the future Buddha gain the victory? This is the verse he utters at that time to M~ra :172 This Great She is the abode of all beings, Impartial alike to the moving and the stationary. This, my "measure," is not false to me. You must admit my evidence here. 1~9 In contrast, ~the solution in the Mah~prajfu~p~ramita~dstra (Lamotte, op. cit., I, 340) represents a rival tradition. 1~o Ed. Lefmann: (308,9) m~yasamfirlaStath~ svapnasamfiria~ca abhranibM samudik~ati dharmatla / (308.13-14) ~fikyasutas... na bhramate sabalarla ~a0ha dr~Ivi// There are many passages of like nature in the Samadhirajasatra, which has been completely edited in Sanskrit by N. Dutt in the Gilgit Manuscripts series. ~x Ibid., 318.11-12: atha bodhisattvo mfirarla m~apar~adarla ca maitrikarun.~pfirvartagamena cittena sphuritv~. 171 Ibid., 318.18-19: / iyarp mahi sarvajagatprati~h~ sacar~f~aresarni / / iya~a pram~oi mama nfisti me nar~i s~k~itvam asmi~ mama samprayacchatu//

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Now, the future Buddha has preceded with the "boundless" (apraman. a) states of love (maitrf) and compassion (karun. d), implying that he has passed to the third and fourth of these called "joy" (muditd) and "indifference" (upek.sd). Speaking mythologically, he has courted the World Mother in four stages. One must understand that the earth goddess will only be made to shake by a man who is her match, or has her "measure" (pramd.na). 17a This is implied in the iconography when he is shown with his left hand extended out level by his breast. The proof is when earth shakes at the touch of his right hand. M~tra in the limited realm of desire can never equal this. It is of interest to compare this episode under the Bodhi tree with the gibi story translated above. In both cases the ascetic has to submit to "measurement". King gibi shows that he weighs as much as death in the guise of a pigeon. The future Buddha shows that his measure is more than Mara's because equal to the earth. The defeat of the klegamdra may be said to take place in the Vajropamasamddhi ("Diamantine sam~tdhi"), which completely severs the hindrance (~vara~a) of corruption (klega) and thus yields the attainment called Arhat. 17+ This is the ultimate attainment of the ~r~vaka, as shown in Asafiga ' s ~ravaka-bhftmi, final paragraphs. Butaecordingto Vasubandhu, the defeat of the skandha-mftra takes place at the same time, namely when there is clear comprehension of Enlightenment. The defeat of the latter M~ra is accomplished through dlayavijhdna-dgraya-pardv.rtti. The ~layavijhdna-6graya part of this compound must be construed as "the dlayaviihdna kind of tigraya". This is because, as Nagao has shown, x75 there are many kinds of dgraya, and dlayavijhdna is an important kind. Furthermore, as Liebenthal points out, 17s Asafiga's Abhidharmasamuccaya mentions three kinds of pariv.rtti ( = pardv.rtti), ~77 and the variety cittapariv.rtti m a y be equated with dlayavijhdna-pardv.rtti because of the x78 The future Buddha is called prama.nabhata at Ibid., 319.9. Having become the equal of Earth, he now has her measurement. When Difln~ga calls the Buddha this in the opening verse of his celebrated Prama.nasamuccaya, his usage of the expression is undoubtedly fixed by the important usage in the Buddha's biography. The term may be translated "who is the measure". Of course, the widespread translation of the word prarna.na in the context of the M~ra defeat as "witness" must now be rejected. x~4 The Vij~aptimatratasiddhi,I, 162. x75 Gadjin M. Nagao, "The word agraya (basis) in the Mahayana-Sraralar~kara", Liebenthal Festschrift, 146-55. ~7e Waiter Liebenthal, "Notes on the 'Vajrasam~dhi", T'oung Pao, Vol. XLIV (1956), p. 369, note. x77 The three varieties, citta-, rnarga-, and dau4t.hulya-pariv.rtti,may well be the same as the three described in the Sanskrit-Tibetan text quoted in Giuseppe Tucei, "RatngtkarManti on 3,~raya-paravrtti", Asiatica (Festschrift Friedrich Weller), p. 765-7.

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equation citta = dlayavii~dna, discussed earlier. Liebenthal quotes the unedited commentary of Sthiramati, cittdgrayasya pariv.rtti.h, dharmattL Hence the resultant is the True Nature (dharmatd) [of thought (citta)]. To arrive at a translation of pardv.rtti, we note that according to Asaflga the Arhat, who has defeated the kle~a-mdra, is not provided with dlayavijhdna. The others not provided with one are the Pratyekabuddha, the Avaivartika-bodhisattva (who cannot be turned back, the Bodhisattva on the Eight through Tenth Stages), the Tath~tgata, the persons in nirodhasamdpatti and nirupadhi~e.sa-nirv&na.17s The frequent English translation of paravrtti as "reversion" or "revolving" is inadequate to account for this fact, for these expressions actually translate dvrtti and pay no attention to the para-, which is semantically productive in Sanskrit. Neither does the frequent translation as "revulsion" take care of the para-, for this translation amounts to "reaction away from". The translation "transmutation" is suitable: "trans-" (para-) and "mutation" (dv.rtti). This is consistent with the Tib. yohs su gyur pa "complete change", which is literally equivalent to pariv.rtti. In short, the compound dlayavijhdna~raya-pardvrtti may be translated "transmutation of the dlayavijhdna (kind of) basis". It is natural to connect this with the manomaya-kaya of the Lahkdvatarasatra, especially beginning of the third chapter. The Sanskrit text (136.7, f.)179 sets forth three manomaya-k~ya: (1) the mental body with stabilization in the pleasure of samddhi (samddhisukhasamdpatti-manomaya); (2) the mental body which completely comprehends the intrinsic nature of the dharmas (dharmasvabhdvdvabodha-manomaya); (3) the mental body which performs the instigations natural to its class (nikdyasahajasam, skdrakriyd-manomaya). The commentary by Jfifinavajra18~ shows that the first of these, prevalent up through the Seventh Bodhisattva Stage, does not involve transmutation of the basis (ddrayapardv.rtti) of the eightfold set of perceptions (vijhdna). The second is prevalent on the Eight or Superior Stage of the Bodhisattva, and here, with a body comparable to that [of the Buddhas] one proceeds to all the Buddha Realms. The third is natural to the class of Buddhas. The second of those manomaya-kdya is associated with transmutation (par~vrtti). Now manomaya means literally "composed of mind", so the body is formed of intellectual substance. This suggests a Buddhist

ava The V~iaaptimatratasiddhi,I, 163. x T Q BunjiuNanjio, ed., The Latikavatara Satra (reprint Kyoto, 1956). xso Zrya-Laakavatara.ndma-mahayanasatra-vrttitathagatahrdayala~kara.nama,Derge Tg., Mdo-~grel, Vol. Pi, 187a--6,f.

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parallel to the Pit.r doctrine of the Hindus. In section I it was mentioned that the Soma drinking Pitrs reside in the "Mfinasa". TM It was even held that some Pit.rs could furnish mind :ls~ Then reach ye the kindly Pit.rs Who carouse in company with Yama.
, , ,

May the Pit.rs restore mind to us,

~ ~ 9

But it was also pointed out earlier that the departed spirit is endowed with an ethereal body and that the Pitrs can move about with an aerial form (vdyubh~ta). In order to demonstrate the parallel more credibly, it should be shown that the Buddhist manomaya-kSya also has an ethereal body. It would take us too far afield to show that this is the implication of Asafiga's expression r@a-kdyena manah.-kdyena (,~rdvaka-bhf~mi Ms.) 1as in his discussion of the dhydna heavens in the r@a-dhdtu. In short, r~pa has a general division of two kinds, "color" (varn. a ) a n d "shape" (sam. sthdna). T M The comparison here will be made only with the Buddhist Tantric doctrine of the Pa~cakrama, which says :1s5 "When the triad of vij~dna is accompanied by the winds, just that body of the yogins is born. That is called the Illusory Body." And, la6 "The Illusory Body is characterized by the image in a mirror. Its spread, by the ' m o o n in the water' like a rainbow, consists of colors." Omitting the lengthy proof, the writer is content to conclude that the "aerial form" of the manomaya-ktiya is the "color" (yarn. a) variety of r~pa and that the "color" is actually the colors of the five winds3 a7 ial However, in' the V~yu PutS.ha, this is a mountain. Patil (Ol). cit.), p. 306, has this information: "To the south of Meru~ on the head of M~nasa, is the city of Vaivasvata Yama called Sar~yamana." And p. 316, re Pu~kara, "This seventh dvipa encircles the K~iroda s e a . . . There is only one great mountain in this dvipa and thatis the M~nasa." 182 Keith, tr. of Taittirfya-Saeahita, p. 117. lsa Derge Tg., Sems tsam, Dzi, 170b-6;/... gzugs kyi ins daft / yid kyi lus kyis... / TaishO 30.468a-17; Kokuyaku, 2d Ser., Vol. 7, p. 146. ls4 Louis de la Vall6e Poussin, L'Abhidharmako~a de Vasubandhu, Premier et Deuxi~me Chapitres (Paris, 1923), p. 16. 185 / tad eva vfiyusam, yuktarta vijfifinatritayarfipunah. / / jayate yoginfi[r0] mfirtir mayadehas tad ucyate//(Svadhi~thana-krama, 19). x86 / darpa0apratihimbena m~tyadehartaca lak.sayet / yarn.an indrfiyudhenaiva vygpitvam udakendun~//(Svadhi$lhana-krama, 23). 187 However, the same works cited in note 155, above, present colors only for four of the winds: pra.na of the water disk (varu.na-ma.n41ala)- white; apana of the earth disk (mahendra-ma.n~tala) - yellow; udana of the fire disk (hutabhuti-ma.nd.ala)- red; sarnana of the wind disk (vayu-ma.n~lala)- yellow-black (haritagyama) when passing from the left nostril, otherwise black. Sanskrit terms are from the Pa~cakrama (Vajrajfipa-

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The foregoing discussion indicates that when one defeats the skandhamdra, this does not mean eliminating all the skandhas, but rather o f separating a certain rftpa f r o m the rest of the rapa-skandha. This certain rftpa m a y well team up with all three manomaya-kdya, in the first case, potentially separate f r o m the gross skandhas; in the second, actually separate; in the third, initiated as a Buddha. N o w we can return to Yama. As Keith translates the Taittiriya-

Sam. hitd: 1as

Y a m a is Agni, Yami is this (earth); the sacrificer becomes under a debt to Y a m s in that he strews the altar with plants; if he were to go away without burning (them), they would drag him a b o u t b o u n d by the neck in yonder world. It is not for this writer to say what was originally meant by this or what Brahmins in various centuries have thought it meant. I f we n o w consider what it might mean in Buddhist terms, neither would this solution be what a Buddhist m o n k chosen at r a n d o m would give. The Skt. word skandha is equivalent to Phli khandha, which is used for the trunk o f a tree or the stem o f a palm. is~ Asafiga said that one dies a m o n g the five skandhas, so we might say, figuratively, that they drag him about b o u n d by the neck in yonder world. F o r the burning o f the skandhas we resort to Buddhaguhya's c o m m e n t a r y on the Mahdvairocana, when he discusses the " I n n e r burnt offering" (T. nali gi sbyin sreg, S. *ddhydtmika-homa):190 Moreover, one destroys the five dtmaka-skandha in Voidness (gfmyatd), and also destroys the forms o f sense objects (visaya), such as the external 'hearth' (agnikun.d.a), in Voidness. In the same way krama), 19-22. These verses are quoted in S. B. Dasgupta, An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism (Univ. of Calcutta, 1950), p. 183. Compare Washington Hopkins, The Great Epic of India (New York, 1902), p. 174: "Elsewhere it is said that the beings that pass out of the gross body pass into a subtile, sflk~ma, body, and are called sQk~mabh~tani sattv~ni, 'fine beings,' which 'wander about like sunbeams,' superhuman, atim~tnu.s~rji, XII, 254, 1-3 (sattva is bhat~tman)."
188 HOS 18, p. 261.

x89 The P~li Text Society's P~li Dictionary, s.v. 1~o Derge T., Rgyudbgrel, Vol. Tu, 115-b2, f. : de ya~ bdag fiid kyi phut~ po Ir'mstofi pa fiid du b~ig la / phyi rol gyi me thab la sogs pa yul gyi gzugs rnams kya6 sto6 par b~ig ste / de b~in du sgo drug gi rnam par ~es pa h phro ba rnams kya~ so sor b~ig has mi h.phro bar bkag cifl de ltar .hjig cifi .hgog par byed pah.i bya6 chub kyi seres de ya6 13phro ba reed pa.hi ~es tab kyis bkag pa rnam par mi rtog pa.hi tiff he h.dzin la gnas pa ni ha6 gi sbyin sreg ste [ de bas na / duff gi me yafi h.phro ba reed pal~i ~es rab kyis bkag ste / yid kyis me la sbyin sreg byabo ~es gsufis pa yin no / flu6 gi me bkag pa ni srog da6 rtsol ha rab tu bsdams nas k s pa17o / yid lofts me la sbyin sreg byal~o / ~s p a ni seres mi gyo bar bsreg go ~es pa.ho/.

122

ALEX WAYMAN one individually destroys the issuances of six-doored perception (vij~dna); T M and when they do not issue and are stopped, in the same way the "thought of enlightenment" (bodhicitta) which destroys and stops those is itself stopped by the non-issuing Insight (prajfid); and that abiding in the non-discursive (*avikalpa) samddhi is the Inner Burnt Offering. Hence, one stops the "fire of wind" (*vdyv-agni) by the non-issuing Insight (prajhd), and "One makes the burnt offering to fire with the mind (*manas)". "Stops the fire of wind" means "restrains the prdn. a and dydma". T M "One makes the burnt offering to fire with the mind" means "one burns thought immobile (ahinjya or dni~jya)".

Hence the mind is the sacrificer; and this accords with the standard Buddhist doctrine that the mind - the manas or the cittasam, tati - transmigrates. The fire is first said to be Voidness (g~nyatd), then identified with the winds. The mind may be said to be under a debt to the winds, for these support the skandhas and the perception of outer objects. TM Suppose the mind were to leave without having made offering to the fiery wind (or Yama): that would simply be an ordinary death. But if the mind makes the proper offering, it can leave by special permission (anujfid) with a vehicle given the mind by the winds, as mentioned previously. Presumably the disengagement of the subtle form from the body also takes place in ordinary death. Is this what is meant by the seventh day after death, alluded to in Ui's Dictionary, as cited in Section II, above? Then where does Yami fit in? The Samhitd says, " Y a m i is this," and of course Yami is the altar. When Keith interprets "this" as the earth, it is a most proper interpretation for an external sacrifice - also a proper interpretation for an internal sacrifice if "earth" be understood metaphorically. When the sacrifice is made with the mind, the altar is in the mind, hence the dlayavUhdna basis. 1~1 This of course means the five vUfu~na based on the five outer senses, and the v~i~ana based on mind, the manovijftana. 19z Buddhaguhya states in the Dhyanottarapat.alatika, Derge, Rgyud bgrel, Thu, 14b-6: "It is said in other texts, "Pra.nais explained as wind (vayu); by ayama is meant Mindfulness (smrti)"" (srog ces bya ba rluff du bgad / rtsol bas dran pa ~s bya.ho / ~es g/an dag las gsufis so/). This seems to be admitting that pra~ayama is interpreted in some Buddhist quarters as a tatpuru~a compound and equivalent to dnapana-smrti. But Buddhaguhya's own view, following the particular Tantra tradition of his commentary, is thatpra.na is the vital wind passing through the various orifices of the body, and that ayama is the outward-passing mental dement, as is shown in Mkhas grub's General Summary of the Tantras, translation from Tib. by F. D. l_x~singand A. Wayman being prepared for publication.
xss Cf. note 155, above.

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Padmavajra quotes, T M "Our own mental substance (citta) is caUcd 'M~ra'." This appears consistent with the Cittamdtra school, also known as Yog~c~ra or Vijfiaptim~tra. The external earth, demons, daughters of M~ra, and the like, arc understood as mental entities (perhaps what would today be called "unconscious mind")9 Tsofl-kha-pa's Sfzags rim chen too, when describing the ritual of the soil (sa.hi cho ga) 19s that precedes the drawing of the man..dala, uses language suggestive of the meditative process9 For example, the ascertainment of the ccntcr suggests the adoption of the proper meditative object, as set forth in his Lain rim chen mo on the basis of AsaSga's ,~r,~vaka-bhf~mi. The single digging and subsequent purification of the site from pebbles and rocks suggest the settling on the meditative object and elimination of corruptions (kle~a) from the mental substance (citta). Having completed the ritual of the soil, one proceeds to the ritual of preparation (sta gon gyi cho ga). TM Here, first of all one enacts the preparation of the goddess of the soil (sa.hi lha mo sta gon), and Tso6-kha-pa quotes 197 that same passage from the Lalitavistara, cited in part earlier, concerning the defeat of M~tra. Among the verses recited at that occasion, there is included: 198 / O.m tshur sbyon tshur sbyon sa yi ni / / 1ha mo chen mo .hjig rten yum / / skyob pa ~-kya sefl-ge yis / / ji ltar bdud kyi dpufl bcom pa / / de ltar bdag gis bdud kyi stobs / / bcom has dkyil .hkhor bri bar bya / "O .m, come hither, come hither, Great goddess of the soil, Mother of the World9 In the same way that the Protector ~kyasi .mha Defeated the host of M~ra, So may I defeat the power of M~ra, And then the man.dala will bc drawn9 This suggests that the earthquaking and awesome sounds made by the Earth Goddess parallel the transmutation (pardv.rtti) of the dlayavij~dna194 Tantr~rth~vat~ravy~khy~na, Dcrge, Rgyud .hgrel, I~, 235a-3: / ra~ gi seresni bdud ces gsufls / cos pa.
19s Peking ed., 135a-5, f. 189 Ibid., 156a-2, f.

197 Ibid., 158b--6,f. 199 Ibid., 158a-2, f.

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ddraya. Thereafter the drawing of the ma.nd, ala means preview of the palace where initiation (abhi.seka) will take place; and what is initiated is the rftpa-kdya mana h-kdya, to use non-Tantric terminology, or the Illusory Body (mdyddeha) of the Tantras. One is never to lose sight of the center, whether it be the carefullychosen meditative object held in mind, or the center of the ma~.dala, with reference to which all the rest is drawn. The yogin with one-pointedness of mind (ekdgratdcitta) thereby touches the basis of mind, or dlaya-vijhdna. The yogin is therefore "male" (whatever be the sex of the meditator), and the basis is "female". Asaflga writes in his ~rdvaka-bhf~rni: 199''What is the 'limit of entity' (vastuparyantatd)? The phenomenon and the noumenon o f t h e meditative object.'" Tsofl-kha-pa paraphrases the explanation of the first as follows :zoo "Among them, the phenomenal limit of the entity is everything assembled in the five skandhas, all the dharmas in the eighteen dhdtus and in the twelve dyatanas, and all the knowable substances (j~eyavastu) in the Four Truths; there is nothing in it besides assemblage (sam. skrta).'" Asaflga defines the noumenat limit of the entity as "the Reality (bhgttatd) and the Thusness (tathatd) of the meditative object". 2~ This shows that whatever be the proper meditative object, by following through to the end of the meditative process, the meditative object is present in its Reality and Thusness end or "pole". 2~ The steady touch of this end causes the transmutation (pardv.rtti) of the mental earth, or YamL The Vedic yftpa, or sacrificial post, might symbolize the mental substance that extends from a phenomenum to noumenum. This possible identification of the yapa with a meditative object should be added to Eliade's discussion of "Ascension au Ciel. Vol mystique". ~~ And to the foregoing must be added Auboyer's discussion of the cosmic and terrestrial parts of the yftpa ~~ and the further discussion by Gonda. ~~ Once the yapa is brought into the discussion, one must reckon with the tree symbolism, but the latter has too many implications to be seriously xog Bihar Ms.: vastuparyantatft katam~ / yad ~lambanasya ygvadbh~vikatgyath~vadbh~vikati ca [. TaishO30.427b-28; Kokuyaku, 2d Set., Vol. 6, p. 742. zoo From the writer's Ms. translation of the ~amatha section of the Lam rim cherttoo. In the Tashilunpo ed., the discussion of the two limits begins 295b-4. ~o~ Ms. of note 199, above: y~ fdambanasya bh~tatii [ tathatf~ ca. zo~ The basic doctrine of the two limits is taken by Asaflgafrom theSartMhinirmoeanas~tra (see note 136, above). However, he does not mention this sittra in the ~rdvakabh~mi, which is based principally on the terminology of the four dgamas, a Sanskrit recension of the four Pgli Nikgyas. ~os Mircea Eliade, Le Yoga, Immortalitd et Libert~ (Paris, 1954), 323-7. ~o~ Jeannine Auboyer, Le Trine et son symbolisme dat,~l'Inde ancienne (Paris, 1949), 74f. zos Op. cit., 81, f.

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discussed here, ~~ even though Senart z~ considers the Bodhi tree to be no other than Y a m a ' s tree. En passant, the writer simply agrees with Senart. However, something can be said as a consequence of Emeneau's definitive study on the "epiphytism of a strangling fig,,.20s It is difficult for me to escape the conclusion that a fundamental reason for the veneration of the agvattha, and the meaning of its being "upside-down", is the fact that it destroys the host tree. Certain peculiarities of its growth apparently made it a symbol of the spiritual life that needs material life as a prop for a while, but eventually destroys material life, teaching that the life of spirit and the life of matter cannot both survive in the same place. Furthermore, the tree that has its roots in matter cannot withstand the tree whose roots are in heaven. Mankind might despair that this could ever be the case; the agvattha is the reassuring symbol that it is so. Still there is the epiphytism, and this may show the importance of the old Indian etymology even if not ultimately correct - *agva-stha "the standing place of the horse", 2~ where the horse is Agni, and hence also Y a m a - the sacrifice. Interpreting the host tree in terms of the four M~ras, it is natural to take it as the skandha-mdra (the personality-aggregate metaphorical death). The tree that is victorious in this instance represents that Y a m a known as King Vaivasvata, not the Epic-Buddhist Yama. IV. THE THREE YAMAS The passages to be translated in this Section show how in some Buddhist traditions the concepts of Y a m a and M~tra have completely merged, and the passages will justify the procedure of treating both these figures in these Studies. In the Legend of Y a m a as set forth by the Dzaya-pan.~lita Blo bzafi h.phrin las, ~1~ not only are three Yamas described, but also their three 206 Fortunately, there is now available Odette Viennot, Le Culte de l'Arbre dam rlnde
ancienne, Annales du Musre Guimet (Paris, 1954). 207 Op. cit., p. 204.
~os M.B. Emeneau, "The Strangling Figs in Sanskrit Literature", Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Classical Philology (Vol. 13, 1949), 345-70. 2oJ Ibid., p. 369. 31o In the work Zab pa daft rgya che ba.hi dam patti chos kyi thob yig gsal ba.hi me loti ("The 'Bright-mirror' Thob-yig of the profound and far-reaching illustrious Doctrine"), Peking ed., Vol. I, 272a-2 to 276a-3. This Thob-yig (book of received teachings) has

four volumes. According to the colophon of Vol. IV, the author was 61 years old when the Sixth Dalai Lama was 19 years old (i.e. in A.D. 1702). This seems to be the year he completed the work. He actually sums up Tibetan Buddhism at a turning point in Tibet's political destiny. For the events brewing at that time, and the loss of Tibetan independence, see L. Petech, China and Tibet in the Early tSth Century, Monographies

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executioners (Yamfiri or Yamfintaka). The initial descriptions o f the latter three will be translated, but not the extended descriptions.

Translation
It is said in the mfdatantra of the Kdlacakra-[tantra] that at the time when the Teacher p r o n o u n c e d the Kdlacakra-tantra at gri-Dh~nyaka~aka, he also p r o n o u n c e d the other A n u t t a r a Tantras. 211 It is said in the 18th section of the Kr.sn.ayamdri-kalpa: " A t the time when the Teacher was demonstrating on the D i a m o n d Seat (vajrdsana) the taming o f M~tra at dusk (srod), for the purpose of taming M~ra and Y a m a he caused Y a m ~ n t a k a and retinue (parivdra) to manifest, as the Tantras say." In accordance with the school that says that, there are three Y a m a s to be tamed - "external" (phyi), "personal" (nab), and "concealed" (gsaiO. m It says in the Vimala- [prabhd]: The Departed Spirit (preta) dwelling in the place; The L o r d o f D e a t h (m.rtyu) dwelling in the b o d y ; The Corruption (klega) dwelling in mental substance; These three are the karmie Y a m a to be tamed. Just as that says, there are three Y a m a s to be tamed. It says in the

K.r~.najdla-Tantra :
The "Cycle o f Life" (sam.sara) in the three worlds is Y a m a ; The King of the L a w (dharmardja) is the Master (T. rje bo); Y a m h n t a k a is his executioner.

du T'oung Pao, Volume I (Leiden, 1950). My supposition that he was a teacher of the Sixth Dalai Lama was supported by the Dilowa Gegen Hutukhtu in a conversation. In the two volume collection of his essays (Nag rnamsphyogs su bsgrigspa), there is an auto-biography in Vol. Kha (Rati gi .hkhorbar spyodpabi tshul / gin tu gsal ba.hisgron me), where we learn he was born in chu pho rta, therefore in 1642. 3n There are four divisions of the Tantras in the Kanjur: Kriya-, Cary~t-, Yoga-, and Anuttara-Tantra. For the distinction of these Tantras in terms of candidates as well as of deities, see my review of David Snellgrove, Buddhist Himalaya, in JAOS, Vol. 78 (Jan.-Mar., 1958). ~ls / ston pas dpal ldan h.bras spu6s su [ dus .hkhor gyi rgyud gsu~ pah.i tshe / blamed kyi rgyud g~n rnams kya6 gsufis par dus .hkhor rtsa rgyud las gsufls gift [ dgra nag gi rtog pa bco brgyad pa las / ston pas rdo rje gdan du srod la bdud btul ba.hi mdzad pa bstan pahi tshe [ bdud da6 ggin rje .hdul ba.hi phyir g~in rje gged kyi lha tshogs sprul te rgyud rnams gsufis so [ ~es gsufis pal~i lugs ltar na / gdul bya g~in rje la phyi nail gsafi gsum du yod do/.

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This sets forth individually both Y a m a and Yam~ri3 TM Furthermore, it says in the Vimala-[prabht~] Tantra: "As both Y a m a and Yamari are individually set forth with respect to taming, there are also three kinds of Yam~ri to do the taming: "(a) By showing the nature 0io bo) of the F o r m Body (rapa-kaya) from the nature of the Law Body (dharma-kdya), the Departed Spirit (preta) dwelling in the place is tamed. "(b) By manifesting from the joyful Realm Dharmadhatu the True Thought (*cittaM) Divine Body (*divya-kdya) which is unpolluted with illusion of false reflection, the Lord of Death dwelling in the body is tamed. "(c) By the non-duality of action (karma) and knowledge (jfitina); by the non-duality, in the pure immensity of True Thought, of what is to be tamed and the taming agent; by full comprehension (*avabodha) introspectively, the corruption (kle~a) dwelling in mental substance (citta) is tamed." Thus, his executioner is also said to be three. 2x4

[A. The External Yama.] First, the Y a m a that is the Departed Spirit dwelling in the place. In the southern direction, in the Underworld (pdtdla), beneath the seven steps, at the bottom of the great ocean, at the limit of the wind disk (vdyuma.nd, ala), there is a dark iron castle produced from action (karma) and corruption (kle~a) without doors, of sixteen sides (kha) and very sharp edges. M a n y fresh corpses and hearts are piled up in raJi rob(?).~15 A lake of blood clots is greatly agitated with whirlpools and waves. Outside of this is a spread-out scattering of flesh, blood, and bones, within which is the illusion in the inner apprehending consciousness, and there is a myriad zt3 / dri ma med pah.i lufi las / gnas na gnas pal3.iyi dvags daft / lus la gnas pa.hi l.lchi bdag daft [ seres la gnas pah.i fion moils gsum / gdul bya las kyi glin rje yin / ces gsufis pa ltar gdul bya g~in rje gsum du yod cifi / nag po dra ba can gyi rgyud las / khams gsum .hkhor ba g~in rje yin / chos kyi rgyal po rje bo yin / Ya-m~-nta-ka gied po yin [ ces g~in rje daft g~ed gfiis so sor gsufls/. 214 / dri ma reed pa.hi rgyud las kyafi / h.dul byed g~in rje daft g~ed gfiis so sor gsufis pa ltar / .hdul byed g~ed kyafl rnam gsum ste / chos kyi sku yi rio bolas / gzugs skuh.i rio bor bstan pas ni / gnas na gnas pah.i yi dvags .hdul / chos dbyifis bde ba.hi fiah las ni[ log rtog hkhrul pas ma bslad cifi / sems fiid lha yi skur snarl bas / lus la gnas pa.hi .hchi bdag hdul //as daft ye ges gfiis med pas / seres fiid dag pahi klofi du ni / gdul bya .hdul byed gfiis med pas / raft la gnas par rtogs pas ni[ sems la gnas pah.i fion moils h.dul / ~es deh.i g~ed kyafi gsum du gsufis pa las/. zt5 The native Tibetan dictionary Brdadag mi~ tshiggsal ha, by Dge b.~eschos brags, lists this term without definition and with question mark.

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b l a c k preta M~ras p r o d u c e d f r o m the fierce p o w e r o f the m a t u r a t i o n o f karma. ~1~ [ A m o n g them] is G u rift. ~17 H e is also called Y a m a pgvasattva ( " m i g h t y being"). H e is o f black color, naked, with long curly hair, fangs bared, tongue curled, eyes laughing, whites o f the eyes inflamed, enveloped in p i t c h - b l a c k fruit [of karma(?)]; his eye-brows a n d eye-lashes bristle; his two h a n d s h o l d the club a n d the noose. His t h o u g h t blazes like the fire o f hatred. 2~s His c o n s o r t is a demoness with the heat o f karma, Ca.nd. a (or Can..d~li). She is also called "she attired in an old t a t t e r e d g a r m e n t " a n d also C~mun..di, the b l a c k one (kalO. She is naked, with long hair; is extremely angry. H e r two h a n d s h o l d a trident (trigfda) a n d a skull d r i p p i n g with b l o o d . H e r t h o u g h t is agitated like the water o f lust. 2~9 The offspring o f their u n i o n is the servants, messengers o f karma, eight in all: Y a m a D h a r m a r ~ j a a n d the serpent P h y a bsafis, Y a v a t i a n d Telapa, A v a glafi m g o can a n d R m i g pa, R a l p a tshar dgu a n d M i g d m a r po. 22~ A l s o he has a c o n s o r t with a h u n d r e d feet a n d nine storied heads, one " m t s h a n m o d r e d kyi ha-ba-~am c a n " with m a n y feet a n d nine storied heads, etc. 2~ 216 daft po gnas na gnas pah.i yi dvags g~in rje ni / lho phyogs sa .hog rim pa bdun gyi hog / rgya mtsho then poh.i gtifl / rlufl gi dkyil h.khor gyi mtshams na / las daft fion roofs pa las grub pah.i lcags kyi mun khafl sgo med bcu drug kha zur kun rno ba / mi ro gsar sfiif mar po raft rofl du sptnks pa / khrag ~ag gi rgya mtsho h.khyil ~ifl rba klof rab tu h.khrugs pa / phyi ~a khrag rus pah.i thafi mar bdal ba.hi nail du / nail h.dzin pah.i ~es pa la h.khrul tiff / las kyi rnam par stain pa drag po.hi mthu las grub pa.hi yi dvags kyi bdud nag po bye ba. ~17 If this equals Gu li~, then according to the native dictionary cited in note 215, it is dba~ phyug chenpo (Mahe~vara), but with question mark. 218 gu rift ~es kyaf bya / g~in rje pi-wa-sa-tva ~es kyafi bya ba mdog nag po gcer bu ral pa can kha gdafs pa / mche ba gtsigs pa / ljags h.khril ba / mig rtsa rgod pa / mig sprin dmar ba [ h.bras bu mthifi nag h.dril ba / stain ma daf rdzi ma gzifls pa / lag pa gfiis dbyug pa daft ~ags pa h.dzin pa / sems ~e sdaf me ltar .hbar ba/. 219 de.hiyum las kyi gtum pah.i srin mo gtum mo/ dug hrul gos gyon ma ~es kyafl bya / ch-mu-oqli s kyaf bya ba mdog nag mo / gcer mo ral pa can ~in tu khros pa lag pa gfiis tri ~ul daf / thod rlon khrag daf bcas pa h.dzin pa / sems la h.dod chags chu ltar h khrugs pa. 2~0 See Tucci, Tibetan Painted Scrolls, II, p. 582-3, for the description of his Tanka No. 154 (Plate 187), Yama phyi sgrub, which includes these entities, which he calls the eight great Yama. He gives some iconographical description and shows that the cycle has been elaborated in Tibet. Apparently the fierce being Gu-rifi is represented among the group of eight as Yama Dharmar~ja. z21 gfiis tshogs pah.i sras / bkah. sdod las kyi pho fia / g~in rje chos kyi rgyal po daf / sbrul pa phya bsafls gfiis / ya-va-ti daf / te-la-pa gfiis / a-va glaf mgo daf rmig pa gfiis / ral pa tshar dgu daf mig dmar po gfiis te brgyad / deh.i yum yaf mgo dgu brtsegs pah.i rkaf brgya daft / mtshan modred kyi ha ba ~am can / mgo dgu brtsegs pa.hi rkaf mar

(koti)

sogs/.

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Also an innumerable host o f male and female Y a m a s have [respectively] t h o u g h t blazing like the fire o f hatred and agitated like the water o f lust. The blackish red and blackish green clouds o f the sky above are [thereby] supported in agitation. The one who subjects the life force o f the three worlds is called the L o r d o f Death, Yama. ~ It says in the same w o r k : The worldly sentient beings have multiplied the power in the wayward path since the limit o f beginningless time, A n d consequently have matured the harsh seed o f the cycle o f life. The M~ra in general agreement with this is the Karmic M~ra. 22z

B. The Personal Yama.

The Personal Y a m a is said to be the Death " D e a t h " (maran.a-mdra or m.rtyu-mdra) who appears in one's own dress to all people who see (him) f r o m this side and overcomes (those) powerless, but in fact all four M~ras are the manifestation o f impure actions (karma). He is accompanied by his various ministers, messengers, and servants, and is fearfully ugly. Because he seizes the life of the living beings, he is called * gri-svaya .mbh0m~ra (Glorious self-originated M~ra). ~2~ [C. The Concealed Yama.] In regard to the Y a m a of corruptions (klega) located in mental substance (citta), the corruptions located in the stream o f mental substance (cittasam.tdna) are called ' Y a m a ' . The reason is that just as the karmic Y a m a severs the life energy o f the living beings, so also the corruptions o f craving and so forth sever the life energy o f liberation o f [from?] what is to be tamed. 2~5 222 / g~in rje pho mo.hi tshogs dpag tumed pa de rnams kyafi sems la ~e sdafl me ltar .hbar pa / h.dod chags chu ltar h.khrugs pa / steft gi nam mkha.hi sprin dmar nag daft ljaft nag rab tu .hkhrugs pa la brten bcas / srid pa gsum gyi tshe srog sdud par byed pa la h.chi bdag g~in rje s bya ste. 22a de fiid las / h.jigrten pa yi sems can mains / thog ma reed pah.i dus mtha.h nas [ log pah.i lam la mthu brtas pas / .hkhor bah.i sa bon rtsub mor smin / bdud .hdi spyi mthun las kyi bdud / ces so/. 22, / haft gi g~in rje ni / tshur mthoft gi skye bo kun la .hchi bdag bdud pos raft dbaft med par .hjoms pa raft chas su yod par gsufts la bdud bs po de kun kyaft las rna dag pa rnams kyi shaft ba la / so so.hi blon po daft pho fia daft bran pho rnor bcas pa h.jigs su ruft ba b~in mi sdug pa / skye .hgro.hi srog len pasna / dpal raft byuft gi bdud ces bya. 225 / sems la gnas pa.hi fion molts pa.hi g~in rje ni / sems rgyud la gnas pah.i fion moils pa rnams la g~in rje ~es bya ste las kyi g~in rjes skye .hgroh.i srog good pa ltar / chags sogs fion molts pa rnams kyis gdul byahi thar pa.hi srog gcod par byed pah.i phyir ro /.

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~a~x WA'~_A~

Discussion o[ the Translation

Here Yama is something to be overcome, not a symbol of immortal life. The External Yama is called the karmic M~ra. His surrounding host is presumably the M~rak~yika pretas set forth in Section I. Perhaps the Son-of-the-Gods M~tra is also included here. This is the Yama commonly depicted in Tibetan iconography (Dharmardja bdhya-sadhana). ~as The Personal Yama is the Lord-of-Death M~ra, and may include also the skandha-M~tra. It seems to be the epic Yama that appears to the deceased. 227 The idea here, as the writer understands it, is that one's own actions (mental, verbal, and physical) become objectified as in a nightmare. The Concealed Yama is the "Corruption" M~ra (klega-mdra). The three principal varieties, taken from the list of twenty citta, earlier mentioned, are "thought with craving" (sardga-citta), "thought with hatred" (sadve.sa-citta), and "thought with delusion" (samoha-citta). Here "thought" should be understood as "mental substance". CONCLUSION When one has gathered together so many diverse traditions, it is still not necessary to expect from him some one absolute conclusion regarding the nature of Yama. This is consistent with the primary assumption of the Studies: material drawn from texts separated by several thousands of years will not always be saying the same thing; but the staying within a single cultural continuum, and utilizing texts of living, even if not always well-understood tradition, is the illuminating approach both to the old and to the new. The writer does not agree with a certain viewpoint that Indian thought has always had the same message, if one is sufficiently profound to detect it; but does hold that many primary ideas of Indian thought have been passed down through the many centuries and that there were disagreements in the middle and in the end as well as probably in the beginning. By bringing together various and contrasting views on the same general topic, gradually a picture of what is meant presents itself to the investigator, and the picture will probably differ for another investigator. 2~6 Besides the reference in note 220 to Tucci's monumental work, see Lessing, Yung-Ho-Kung, p. 76 and Plate XXII, No. 2. Also see Griinwedel, Mythologie du Buddhisme (French translation, 1900), Fig. 48, p. 64, where the trident held by Yami is wrongly interpreted as held by Yama, and Yami's skull bowl is not known to be full of blood. 2~ The Yama described in the Mah~bharata: Fausb~Jll (op. cit.), 137.

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It is clear enough that there are two strains of Yama: (1) A divine Yama of solar nature - the prototype of immortality; (2) A fearful Yama, personification of the evil in man and of his inevitable death - the principal Epic and Buddhist Yama. Both these Yamas occur in the Vedic literature. The difficulty of further interpretation is that the second kind of Yama gained textual and popular supremacy over the first. But this is the case as long as we discuss the matter using only the name "Yama". The first kind of Yama is by no means forgotten, if we take into consideration other names, and then the difficulty is extended to those names. It seems that the Solar Yama is the Form (rapa, often mistranslated in the compound ndma-rftpa as "matter" or "body") or the fiery Wind when Yami is the " N a m e " (ndma) or a river or the Store Perception (dlayavii~dna), the mental earth. It is sheer interpretation to say that here Yama is a Heavenly Man and Yami his Soul. This would not be in contradiction to the Buddhist nairdtmya doctrine, for neither does Hindu doctrine equate dtrnan with buddhi, and, in fact, the interpretation involves equating dlaya-vifidna or citta with the S~.mkhya buddhi, not essayed in the present Studies. The Buddhist Anuttara Tantras say that every man is a source of "means" (updya), every woman a source of "insight" (prajkd). These do seem to accord, respectively, with Form and Store Perception. In actual practice, they also seem to accord with the man's creative role, the woman's inspirational role. But as every man and woman has both " N a m e " and " F o r m " , if the deeper sense of these expressions implies that they are respectively submerged in the two sexes, this would recall Jung's theory of the Anima and Animus, where the Anima is the unconscious feminine side of a man; the Animus the unconscious male side of a woman. If this is a proper comparison, it still does not imply extended agreement in the two systems being compared on this bare point alone. The four M~ras are what obscure the true nature of that Form and Store Perception. But if the latter is purified of corruptions, it is no longer a Store Perception. It is transmuted, or loses its name, and ceasing its usual feminine passive role, becomes the aroused Mother of the World, frightening away the Mhras. For this to happen, the yogin, or male, has to become still, thus abandoning the usual male active role.