INNOVATIVE PEOPLES TECHNOLOGIES

Anumakonda Jagadeesh

INNOVATIVE PEOPLES TECHNOLOGIES

Anumakonda Jagadeesh

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Nayudamma Centre for Development Alternatives founded in 1994 has been acting as a Think Tank in promoting Energy, Environment, and Appropriate Technology programs and projects.
First Floor, 2/210, Nawabpet, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh 524002 India

Copyright by Anumakonda Jagadeesh

Anumakonda Jagadeesh asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work. Some Rights Reserved. This book can be reproduced or transmitted by means like electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, with written permission from the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or in reviews with appropriate citations. You are free to distribute it for non-commercial reasons accepting above terms with appropriate credits. Although every precaution has been taken in preparation of this book, the author and publisher assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of information contained herein. Cover Design, Book Design and Layout by Alahari Raja Cover Photo of Green Planet from foto-tapeta.org Typeset in Apple Garamond by Alahari Raja Proofreading by Alahari Swetha Note: This publication contains the opinion and ideas of its author. It is intended to provide helpful and informative material on the subject matter covered.

NOT FOR SALE

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Table of Contents
Contents
About the Author Foreword Reviews Chapter 1 - Rural Industrialisation Chapter 2 - Wind as an Alternate Energy Source Chapter 3 - Science For the Poor Chapter 4 - Biofuel Technologies Chapter 5 - Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Areas Photo Gallery

Page Number
iii iv v 1 8 20 25 30 39

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About the Author

Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh obtained his Bachelors and Masters Degrees in Physics from Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India and his Doctorate degree in Wind Energy from the prestigious University of Roorkee (now the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee -IITR)

Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh has been involved in teaching and research for the last 30 years. He founded Society of Science for the People in 1973, an NGO which has been acting to formulate innovative science and technology programs and projects. Dr. Jagadeesh widely interacted with several global and national organizations in Science and Technology projects; his programs attracted world wide attention, especially in Appropriate Technology, Afforestation, Renewable Energy, Environment, etc. Dr. Jagadeesh also founded Nayudamma Centre for Development Alternatives in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India in 1994 which has been acting as a think tank in promoting Energy, Environment, and Appropriate Technology programs and projects. He has been Resource person to several organizations connected with Sustainable Development in India and abroad. Dr. Jagadeesh has travelled to over 30 countries and worked in Italy, Denmark, Sultanate of Oman, etc. He has held many important positions such as Director, Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre, Chennai, India; Vice President, Subhash Projects and Marketing Ltd, Bangalore, India; Director, Infrastructure Consulting and Engineers Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore; and currently Professor and Head, Centre for Energy and Sustainable Resources, R.M.K. Engineering College, Kavaraipettai, Tamil Nadu, India. Dr. Jagadeeshs pioneering work won him several international and national awards including the prestigious Margaret Noble Foundation, Seattle Award for Research in Energy. He has membership in several international and government bodies in India. It is rarely one finds an Innovator, social scientist and crusader for the promotion of Science and Technology for Sustainable Development, all blended into one.

To know more about Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh Blog: www.drjagadeeshncda.blogspot.com Facebook: www.facebook.com/anumakonda.jagadeesh E-mail: anumakonda.jagadeesh@gmail.com

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Foreword
Dr. A. Jagadeesh, who has a doctorate in wind energy, is an expert in renewable energy sources. He provides many insights into renewable energy sources as alternatives to the use of fossil fuel. We urgently need to develop new technologies and implement renewable sources if we are to slow, and hopefully reverse, the direction of climate change. The challenges are great. It is predicted that by 2050 we will need to be producing twice our current amount of food in order to feed the growing population of the world. Emerging economies will need ever increasing amounts of energy to satisfy their higher standards of living. Much is known about how to reduce dependence on fossil fuels but the demand continues to grow. Short and long term strategies and incentives for dramatic change are needed in order to accomplish this global challenge. What is called for is sustainable economic development that increases standards of living while not having a negative impact on our planet. Readers are encouraged to understand and promote alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, water, geothermal, hydrogen, atomic, and biomass. We cannot simply leave it to governments to solve our energy problems. Each of us must do our part, in whatever small or large ways we can, to ensure we dont waste energy. More importantly, we need to use renewable energy sources wherever possible. This book is part of Dr. Jagadeeshs life-long work encouraging scientific and technological innovations that support sustainable development. He shares a great deal of information, including useful technical data and examples of the practical use of renewable energy sources such as wind, biofuel, and solar. He also encourages Innovative Technology including inventions and initiatives by people from all walks of life.

Vern Burkhardt, Author and Director, IdeaConnection.com IdeaConnection Ltd. 1027 Pandora Ave. Victoria, BC, Canada V8V 3P6

reviews
The book is excellent in bringing up important issues, for instance Leaf to Root concept, putting nature first, with accurate numerical details and analysis of many leaf to root crops and uses, taking for example Agave Americana, Annona Squamosa (Sugar Apple), and Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes), and giving the reader some idea of the varied and unexpected potential of these plants. It then moves to Wind Power in India of which it gives potential in different states. It also considers the difference in costs and energy output of onshore and offshore wind plants, looking also at wind programs in different countries. The book also illustrates some of the authors own inventions for the poorer people, including a wind power generating Savonius rotor, a system to sterilise water by exposing it in bottles to sunlight, and an evaporative cooling system to allow cheap cooling with a fan only, rather than expensive air conditioning. So, this book will give you plenty to learn, and also clues to have access to cheap variants for living coolly, having clean sterile water, and electric power from a homemade wind rotor. An enjoyable and useful contribution to an ecological way of life. Dominic Michaelis Director, Energy Island UK In his valuable book, Dr Jagadeesh tells us about several great innovative technologies in the renewable energy arena wind, solar, biomass-, not only as futuristic clean sources of sustainable energy, but as a way to empower poor people and help them out of poverty. The democratization of socially-oriented energy production and usage in the country-side is a must, if we are to survive Climate Change. This book puts us right in the center of the discussion about the need for true Sustainable Development, via the best alternative energy technologies available in the agricultural, industrial and business arenas. As Dr Anumakonda describes it, Innovative Technology (IT) deliberately involving people from all walks of life is the need of the hour in identifying the felt needs in the developing countries and finding solutions. The great promise of Innovative Technology is masterly revealed in this book, bringing hope for the future of mankind. Arturo Velez Jimenez Director, The Agave Project Mexico It is an excellent book. It will provide good examples for future scientists. Congratulations for coming up with such an important book. Prof.T. Nejat Veziroglu President, International Association for Hydrogen Energy 5794 SW 40 St. #303 Miami, FL 33155, USA I would like to congratulate Dr Jagadeesh for his concern on draw backs from conventional energy sources and capturing his thoughts as possible solutions in the form of a book which is so pithy; its is timely that too in view of Global warming concerns. One can see Dr Jagadeeshs passion on how Technology can be leveraged to address the global societal issues. Dr Jagadeesh succinctly explained how we can leverage the renewable energy sources (Nature) including Sun, Water, and Wind for energy generation. This is a small book but wealth of information. V Rajanna Vice President & Regional Head Global Head - Telecom Technology Business Unit Tata Consultancy Services Limited, Hyderabad, India

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Why This Book on Innovative Peoples Technologies?

Lately there has been some problems in the supply of conventional energy sources (those that come from fossil fuels) so it is really no wonder that more and more nations are interested to use different renewable energy systems in order to satisfy their growing energy demand. All renewable energy systems have one thing in common, namely the fact that they are harnessed from nature. This means that they are constantly replenished unlike the fossil fuels that are likely to run out in years to come. These advantages are making them more and more popular compared to conventional energy sources. Renewable energy sectors are all about using natural sources to create energy. These natural sources usually include the sun, water, wind, and geothermal sources. The science and technology are constantly developing so it is logical to expect even more renewable energy sources in years to come, as well as the highly improved efficiency of existing ones. Many people think of the sun, or to be more precise solar energy as the main future energy source. Throughout the history of the humanity Sun has been used to give light and heat but Suns almost unlimited potential can provide electricity enough for the whole planet. Different methods have been used to harness energy from Sun, and the simplest method is through the use of a photovoltaic cells. Photovoltaic cells contain a special technology that traps the suns energy and converts it into electricity. Water is also one very important source for clean renewable energy. The most common form of using water to get electricity is hydroelectric energy that is acquired from large river dams. Hydroelectric power stations are usually built in large river systems that have big quantifies of water. The more water there is, the easier it is to produce kinetic energy, which is then used to produce electricity. Beside hydroelectric energy there are also some other energy sources that harness water to get electricity such as wave and tidal power. Wind power is also one renewable energy sector in the rise, especially in some European countries like Denmark and Germany. Basically wind power uses the same principle found in hydroelectric dams to convert the wind kinetic energy to electricity. There are lots of windy areas across the globe, and in many parts of the world people are trying to harness wind energy as much as possible, though efficiency of this energy source still remains a big problem, largely because of inconsistency of wind blowing. While Solar, wind, biomass, mini and micro-hydel, etc., are being utilised in several countries, their penetration in rural areas especially in developing countries is limited. With inspiration from Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. E. F. Schumacher and Prof. Y. Nayudamma, an Internationally acclaimed Scientist who championed the cause and use of Science and Technology to bring to the doors of those who needed it, has been involved in the Design, Demonstration and Dissemination (3D) of PEOPLES TECHNOLOGIES in the fields of Renewable Energy, Environment and Appropriate Technology. It is hoped this small book will act as source of information on Innovative Peoples Technologies and inspiration for others to follow suit. Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh
* Founder, Nayudamma Centre for Developing Alternatives, India * Founder, Dr. Yellaragada Subbarao Foundation, India * Vice Chancellor, Scientific Communications, Australian Institute of High Energetic Materials, Australia * Member, Editorial Review Board of Science of International Journal of Green Economics and Production - ISSN 1929-2813

Chapter i

Rural Industrialisation

Rural Industrialisation Leaf to Root Approach

Not mass production but production by the masses Mahatma Gandhiji Small is beautiful Dr. E. F. Schumacher Modernise the Traditional Traditionalise the Modern Prof. Y. Nayudamma The goal of any country is development. Development is development of people their increased living standards and improved quality of life. Industry provides goods, services and material comforts to increase living standards. Social values such as human dignity, self-reliance and gainful employment for every person set the quality of life. Such development can only come by generating, mobilizing and optimally utilizing natural and human resources, natural genius and skills and maximizing the returns for the same. Majority of the people live in rural areas. The question then arises as to how to maximize the returns, let us say, for a hectare of land. On land, we have soil, water, forest or agricultural crop, animals and people under a given climate. How to maximize the returns for these resources is the issue. How to grow more crops, get better yields is one aspect: Soil-water management, better seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and farming techniques, etc. have given good results. But these involved high-energy inputs. The emerging technologies like tissue culture, genetic engineering, etc offer great promise. Past experience has clearly shown that rural industrialization is not setting up large industries in rural areas. We are also fed up with the opiate that rural development is synonymous with agricultural development. True, rural people live on land and agricultural development is a must. But it is not enough. Agriculture should have a nexus with industry. In food crops, the proportion of agricultural residues to the food obtained for human consumption is approximately 1.5 to 1 for roots and tubers; 2 to 1 for cereal grains; 6 to 1 for oil seeds and 10 to 1 for sugar crops.

Leaf to Root Concept

Every part of the agricultural plant must become a raw material for industries. For example, several industries may be set up around paddy plant. Straw may be used for making card boards, wrapping paper, roof thatch; bed for mushrooms, apart from animal fodder. Paddy husk may be used as fuel and the resultant ash for producing sodium silicate, solar grade silica, silica sol, ceramic materials and refractories and cement like products. It can also be used for making particle boards, activated carbon, furfural, fillers and extenders, fire resistant compositions. Paddy husk is used by brick manufacture, for mulching, soil reclamation and as filler in fertilizer industry and animal feed. Rice bran is extracted for oil for edible and non-edible purposes like soaps, detergents, paints, etc. The deoiled rice bran contains 20 22% protein and used as animal fodder. Rice as such is used for food and several food products for use in beer, wine and several starches based industries. Similarly 25 industries could be started around sugar cane; 7 to 12 industries around cotton and groundnut, etc. Sugar industry produces three principal residues, namely, bagasse, press-mud and molasses. These residues are no more wastes, if utilized properly to get various valuable products. The main product of the sugar industry sugar is used as an item in food and as a raw material in chemical and bio-chemical industry. Bagasse is mostly used as a fuel in the sugar industry. It is also used for the manufacture of paper. If alternate source of energy is available to the sugar mills, large quantities of bagasse would be available for the manufacture of pulp, paper, and boards, furfural, activated carbons and other products. The pith can continue to be used as a fuel while the depithed bagasse can be used for the manufacture of pulp and paper. Along with other cellulosic wastes, bagasse can be used as a source of energy for enzymic and microbial reactions to produce single cell proteins (SCP) and sugars.

Molasses is used for the production of alcohol, yeast and animal feeds. Production of organic acids from molasses include: acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid, lactic acid, glutamic acid, itaconic acid, aconitic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid. Oxidation of molasses will give oxalic acid. The types of yeasts produced from molasses are: bakers yeast, food and feed yeast and fat yeast. In fermentation, besides yeasts, ethyl alcohol and organic acids, some other products like butanol, butylenes glycol and glycerol are also produced.

Agave Americana

The main drawback for wider application of Biofuels is input. There was a big moment for biofuel from Jatropha in India but in reality not much has been achieved. Agave (Americana), Sisal Agave is a multiple use plant which has 10% fermentable sugars and rich in cellulose. The fibre is used in rope making and also for weaving clothes in Philippines under the trade name DIP-DRY. In Brazil a paper factory runs on sisal as input. A Steroid HECOGENIN is extracted from this plant leaves. Since on putrification, it produces methane gas, it can be cut and used as input in biogas plants. Also in Kenya and Lesotho dried pieces of Agave are mixed with concrete since it has fibres which act as binding. Here is an excellent analysis on Agave as a biofuel: Agave shows potential as biofuel feedstock, Checkbiotech, By Anna Austin, February 11, 2010: Mounting interest in agave as a biofuel feedstock could jump-start the Mexican biofuels industry, according to agave expert Arturo Valez Jimenez. Agave thrives in Mexico and is traditionally used to produce liquors such as tequila. It has a rosette of thick fleshy leaves, each of which usually ends in a sharp point with a spiny margin. Commonly mistaken for cacti, the agave plant is actually closely related to the lily and amaryllis families. The plants use water and soil more efficiently than any other plant or tree in the world, Arturo said. This is a scientific factthey dont require watering or fertilizing and they can absorb carbon dioxide during the night, he said. The plants annually produce up to 500 metric tons of biomass per hectare, he added. Agave fibers contain 65% to 78% cellulose, according to Jimenez. With new technology, it is possible to breakdown over 90% of the cellulose and hemicellulose structures, which will increase ethanol and other liquid biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass drastically, he said. Mascoma is assessing such technology.

Annona Squamosa (Sugar Apple)

Pulp in the fruit On top of ice cream, jelly & jam making Drinks and in fermented liquors. The fruit has sizeable number of seeds. The seed yield about 30% oil. The extraction of the oil can be done by the process of solvent extraction.
Image Source: mgonlinestore.com

The oil is used in Paints and varnishes As natural insecticide. Annona seed oil contains acetogenins that are toxic to insects. Annonin, ascimicin, bullatacin, isobullatacin, desacecylucaricin and isodesacetylucaricin have been isolated from the sugar apple seeds and shown to be biologically active against the spotted stem borer, chilo partellus swin,oriental armyworm,Mythimna Separate wek., head bugs, Calocoris augustus Leth., and the aphid, Melanaphis sacchari Zehnt. Pesticides derived from plants like Annona Squamosa can play a major role in pest management in sustainable agriculture. They have renewable character, are non persistent in the environment, and are relatively safer to the natural enemies, nontarget organisms, and human beings. The Annona oil contains the following percentages of acids: Oleic: 18.1 Linoleic: 55.1 Palmitic: 14.7 Stearic: 10.7 These acids find use in the preparation of: Oleic: Soap base, manufacture of oleates, cosmetics, polished compound, lubricants, Ore floatation, organic synthetic intermediate, surface coatings etc. Linoleic: Soaps, special dryers, for protective coatings, emulsifying agents. Medicine, Foods, feeds, and bio-chemical research. Palmitic: Starting point in the manufacture of various metallic palmitates, soaps, Soaps, lube oils, and water proofing. Stearic: Chemicals, especially stearates and stearic driers, lubricants, soaps, candles, Pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic rubber compounding, shoe and polishes, coatings and food packaging. The seed cake after extraction of oil can be used as fertiliser. The nitrogen content of the defatted meal from the sugar apple is in the range of 4.3 %. The epicarp after removal of pulp and seed from the Annona Squamosa fruits can be used as green manure. The leaves of the plant are bitter and as such the cattle wont eat them.

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes)

Water hyacinth which is generally regarded as a menace can find many uses: In food production As leaf protein concentrate, which is rich in protein and vitamin A As a substrate for mushroom cultivation By making soils more fertile which yield better crops By purifying water, in which fish can then thrive Through the production of silage, for fattening animals Through vermiculture, producing feed for poultry or fish In regenerating degraded soils As compost As fertiliser, produced by mixing with other organic materials and phosphate rock. In biogas production. 1 hectare of weed can produce 100 tons of dry water hyacinth/year which could produce 30,000 cu.m of gas sufficient to supply cooking for 40 families. The residual slurry must be used as mulch. As briquettes, which can be used for cooking in kitchens for schools and restaurants. In providing employment and income, through the production and sale of : A range of art papers and cards, crafts and furniture, (on industrial level), chemicals and liquid fuels.

Nutritious Protein from Water Hyacinth

Leaf fractionation produces up to 10 times as much protein per hectare as when the land is used to grow food for animals. It does not require artificially fixed nitrogen, which is made using a large amount of energy. It is already being used on Lucerne, or alfalfa in France, Hungary and the US to make supplementary feed for pigs and poultry.As Lucerne is a legume, it adds nitrogen to the soil. The process can be applied to almost any fresh green leaves, including weeds such as water hyacinth and nettles. The leaf protein it produces contains no animal fats, and the fibrous residue is an excellent ruminant food. Feeding trials in 14 countries have shown that regular leaf concentrate consumption promotes good health and weight gain, increases hemoglobin and vitamin A status, and reduces the frequency and severity of illnesses. One series of trials in which leaf protein was used to supplement the diet of badly nourished children for six months showed that the weight increase was nearly three times as great as that of those whose diet was unaltered (New Scientist,5th April,2000). Such enterprises, centered round the rural produce/waste as industrial raw material will mean: better use of local resources; better dispersal of industries; reduced requirements of storage, transport and distribution; utilization of profit- generating low-capital labor-intensive processes; starting a healthy economic chain leading to production of additional capital and more capital and more capital being ploughed into the industries sector from the agriculture sector. The present pattern of urban-oriented, capital-intensive industrialization has produced severe imbalances in developing countries between the elite groups that monopolies wealth and power and the majority of rural people who are poor. A correction is called for. It is urged that decentralized rural industrialization, based on the generation and optimal utilization of biomass may well prove to be an alternate pathway for industrialization. Contrary to traditional thinking on cottage and rural industries, the coupling of large, rich, renewable local resource biomass with technological advances, utilizing every part of a plant from leaf to root will help maximizing the returns for the resource, provide additional incomes, employment and equity and keep people in the rural areas instead of bringing them to the city slums. Development is not development of things but development of people, their inherent resourcefulness and capabilities, resulting in increased employment, productivity and improved income distribution - Prof. Y. Nayudamma

Furniture from Water Hyacinth

Image Sources: 1. madeinchina.com | 2. tradenote.net | 3. asia.ru

Weed Harvestors at Work

Image Sources: 1. plants.ifas.ufl.edu | 2. trout-fishing-scotland.blogspot.com

Chapter ii

WIND AS AN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE

9 Abstract
Wind energy has been used for pumping water and milling grain for hundreds of years. In the last 4 decades Wind turbines have been deployed for power generation .Today wind power is the most matured one among renewable energy. The global scenario and current position of Wind power in India, state wise wind power installations presented in the article. Need for wind farm co-operatives to boost wind power and offshore wind farms discussed.

Introduction
Renewable sources of energy have a vital significance in the context of growing concern about sustainable energy supply and protection of the environment from adverse effects of fossil fuel utilisation. The current pattern of energy consumption and the growing energy requirements on economic development and population growth are considered to be essentially unsustainable. The staggering increase in the burden of oil import, the crippling effects of power shortage and the deterioration in environmental quality are some of the critical issues facing India today. Worldwide, vast amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that are being dumped into the atmosphere by fossil fuel burning and other economic activities are causing grave concern about the possible global warming and attendant consequences. It is becoming increasingly clear that any effective strategy to eliminate global warming must involve rational and efficient use of energy, and a gradual transition from reliance on fossil fuels to alternative and environment friendly energy technologies. A major component of this strategy will admittedly be the promotion of renewable energy systems. In this respect, wind energy is expected to play a big role.

The Advantages of Harnessing Wind Energ y

* Wind energy is freely available. * The production and use of wind energy does not pollute the atmosphere. Wind energy does not cause acid rain and does not contribute to greenhouse effects * A wind farm irrespective of its size has a low gestation period.

Global Scenario
The use of wind power is increasing at an annual rate of 20%, with a worldwide installed capacity of 238,000 megawatts (MW ) at the end of 2011, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. China leads with 62,400 MW.

Wind Power in India

The programme for demonstration of wind farms was initiated in 1985. Since 1992, private investors and developers have taken the lead in setting up commercial wind power projects in the country.

10 The Installed Capacity of Wind Power

The break-up of projects implemented in prominent wind potential states (as on December 31, 2011) is as given below

State Andhra Pradesh Gujarat Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Others Total (All India)

Gross Potential (MW ) 8968 10,645 11,531 1171 1019 4584 4858 5530 48,561

Total Capacity (MW ) till 31.03.2011 213 2641 1852 35 330 2560 1830 6613 4 16078

India occupies 5th position in wind power with 17644 MW as on June 2012 next only to China, US, Germany and Spain. Wind power in India surged in 2011, with the country crossing the 3GW barrier. It added 3,019 MW of new capacity. Renewable energy accounted for 12.1% of total installed capacity, of which wind power accounted for about 70%.
Source: MNRE, India

Tariff paid by respective Electricity Boards (State Governments) vary from state to state. State Tamilnadu RPS(%) specified 14% Tariffs fixed by commissions in INR per kWh 3.39 (fixed) Validity of tariff (year) 10 Charges for captive users 10 % (includes 5% for banking if applicable) 2% to 5% Actual OA charges

Karnataka Maharashtra

10% 6%

3.70 5.07 ( Wind Zone 1)* 4.41 ( Wind Zone 2)* 3.75 ( Wind Zone 3)* 3.38 ( Wind Zone 4)* 3.83 for Jaipur, Jodhpur and Barmer district 4.03 for rest of Rajasthan 3.50 4.35 3.14 (fixed) 4.00 (fixed, to be used as a cap) 3.56 4.08 (with 1.5 % escalation per year)

20 13

Rajasthan

7.45%

20

50% of normal OA charges Actual OA charges 2% plus transmission charge 5% 2% 4% 2%

Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Kerala West Bengal Gujarat Haryana

5% 10% 3% 4-6.8% 4.5% 10%

10 25 20 Flexible 25 5

* Wind Zone 1 - Annual mean WPD of 200-250 w/sqm * Wind Zone 3 - Annual mean WPD of 300-350 w/sqm

* Wind Zone 2 - Annual mean WPD of 250-300 w/sqm * Wind Zone 4 - Annual mean WPD more than 400 w/sqm

11 Central Government Policies

Accelerated Depreciation
The main incentive for wind power projects in the past was accelerated depreciation. The Income Tax (Fourth Amendment Rules, 2012) vide Notification No.15/2012[F.No.149/21/2010-SO (TPL)] S.O.694 (E), dated 30 March 2012, has reduced the accelerated depreciation rate for wind power projects from 1 April 2012 onwards from 80% to 15%. In the past it was 100%. Accelerated depreciation provides a way of deferring corporate income taxes by reducing taxable in current years, in exchange for increased taxable income in future years. This is a valuable tax incentive that encourages businesses to purchase new assets This tax benefit allows projects to deduct upto 80% of value of wind power equipment during first year of project operation. Investors are given tax benefits upto 10 years. Wind Power producers receiving accelerated depreciation benefits must register with and provide generation data to IREDA and are not eligible to receive more recent Generation Based incentives.

Central-level Generation-based Incentives

Offered by the central government since June 2008 and administered by IREDA, the GBI for wind is available for independent power producers with a minimum installed capacity of 5 MW for projects commissioned on or before 31/03/2012. As of December 2009, the GBI is set at INR 0.50/kWh (USD 0.01/kWh) of grid- connected electricity for a minimum of 4 years and a maximum of 10 years, up to a maximum of INR 6.2 million (USD 140,000) per MW. The scheme will deploy a total of INR 3.8 billion (USD 81 million) until 2012 and aims to incentivize capacity additions of 4,000 MW. Wind power producers receiving a GBI must register with and provide generation data to IREDA. The GBI is offered in addition to SERCs state preferential renewable energy tariffs. However, IPPs using GBIs cannot also take advantage of accelerated depreciation benefits. The GBI program will be reviewed at the end of the Eleventh Plan and revised as deemed appropriate. As of December 2011, 58 projects had been registered under this scheme with over 288.8 MW commissioned. (Tamil Nadu-30, Rajasthan-21, Gujarat-3; Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka-1 each).

Renewable Purchase Obligations

Several states have implemented RPOs with a requirement that renewable energy supplies between 1% and 15% of total electricity. The impact of the RPOs on wind development may depend on the penalties and enforcement of the targets as well as an effective REC market to promote development of areas of the country with the most abundant wind resources. More details are available under state initiatives and policies towards Wind Power development. Renewable Energ y Certificates: framework on Forbearance and Floor Prices
This is framed to be applicable from 1st April 2012 for a control period of 5 years.

Non solar REC (Rs/ MWh) Forbearance Price Control Period upto FY 2012 Floor Price Control Period upto FY 2012 Forbearance Price Control Period 1st Apr 2012 onwards Floor Price Control Period 1st Apr 2012 onwards 3,900 1,500 3480 1400

Solar REC (Rs/ MWh) 17,000 12,000 13690 9880

A tax break that allowed projects to claim an accelerated depreciation at 80 percent of the cost of equipment expired on March 31, and that incentive has been dropped to 15 percent.

12

State Governments Policies

Different states have come up with Renewable energy policy

Need for Wind Turbine Co-operatives in India

Wind turbine cooperatives - Origin from Denmark
To encourage investment in wind power, families were offered a tax exemption for generating their own electricity within their own or an adjoining commune. While this could involve purchasing a turbine outright, more often families purchased shares in wind turbine cooperatives which in turn invested in community wind turbines. The role of wind turbine cooperatives is not limited to single turbines. The Middelgrunden offshore wind farm with 20 turbines the worlds largest offshore farm at the time it was built in 2000 is 50% owned by the 10,000 investors in the Middelgrunden Wind Turbine Cooperative, and 50% by the municipal utility company. By 2001 over 100,000 families belonged to wind turbine cooperatives, which had installed 86% of all the wind turbines in Denmark. By 2004 over 150,000 were either members or owned turbines, and about 5,500 turbines had been installed, although with greater private sector involvement the proportion owned by cooperatives had fallen to 75%. Financially, community-based wind projects are structured much differently than traditional wind farms. In the traditional model, the company that builds and manages a wind farm retains sole ownership of the development. The owners of the land on which the wind turbines were built usually have no stake in development, and are instead compensated through lease payments or by royalty-based contracts. The more people that become involved through community wind power, the more democratic the energy supply system becomes. Energy sellers make a profit, landowners receive leasing fees, communities get improved infrastructure, local people get jobs, governments receive taxes, and consumers receive electricity at competitive prices.

Australia
The Hepburn Wind Project is a wind farm at Leonards Hill near Daylesford, Victoria, north-west of Melbourne, Victoria. It comprises two 2MW wind turbines which produce enough power for 2,300 households.

Canada
A number of community wind projects are in development in Ontario but the first project that is likely to obtain a FIT contract and connect to the grid is the Pukwis Community Wind Park. Pukwis will be unique in that it is a joint Aboriginal/ Community wind project that will be majority-owned by the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation, with a local renewable energy co-operative (the Pukwis Energy Co-operative) owning the remainder of the project.

Germany
In Germany, hundreds of thousands of people have invested in citizens wind farms across the country and thousands of small and medium sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a new sector that in 2008 employed 90,000 people and generated 8 percent of Germanys electricity. Wind power has gained very high social acceptance in Germany, with the development of community wind farms playing a major role.

13
The Netherlands
The Netherlands has an active community of wind cooperatives. They build and operate wind parks in all regions of the Netherlands. This started in the 1980s with the first Lagerweij turbines. Back then, these turbines could be financed by the members of the cooperatives. Today, the cooperatives build larger wind parks, but not as large as commercial parties do. Some still operate self-sufficiently; others partner with larger commercial wind park developers.

United Kingdom
As of 2012, there are 43 communities who are in the process of or already producing renewable energy through co-operative structures in the UK. They are set up and run by everyday people, mostly local residents, who are investing their time and money and together installing large wind turbines, solar panels, or hydro-electric power for their local communities.

United States
As of 2011, Iowa has just one community owned wind farm, that is Hardin Hilltop near Jefferson, Iowa. National Wind is a large-scale community wind project developer, with thirteen families of projects in development or operation. These projects have an aggregate capacity of over 4,000 MW. The vision of the company is to revitalize rural economies by promoting investment in domestic renewable energy resources. National Wind creates shared ownership with communities and allows them participation in decisions which are made.

In India also Wind Farm Co-operatives can be started.

A Wind Fund can be created by Government with contributions from Individuals paying Income Tax to get tax Exemption under Section 80 C. This fund will invest in Community Wind Farms ( Wind Turbine Co-operatives). This way Wind and will become a mass movement.

14 Offshore Wind Farms in India Need of the Hour

WONDERS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN WINDMILL
The TvindMill (Tvind Mllen, Skorkrvej 8, Tvind, 6990 Ulfborg, Denmark) is one of the biggest windmills in the world (54 m). It is an impressive building, constructed by the pupils of the school with the advice of experts. The construction of the mill started in 1975, and today the mill supplies the many school-buildings with electricity. There is a lift inside which takes people to the top. It is a tourist attraction. The author visited the Wind Turbine.

Tvindkraft was created to show the way forward for wind energy - and to show the way out for nuclear power. But the most important thing was probably that the Teacher Group showed that it was possible for normal people, without any significant scientific education, to build a large wind power plant.

With their determination, their drive, their elbow grease and common sense, cooperation and support, where help was to be found, this unparalleled structure was created - despite comments like: You are doing wind power a disservice by trying to build a windmill, and despite the fact that no authority wanted to give any financial assistance to the windmill construction, although it clearly followed the recommendations of the Akademiet for Teknisk Videnskaber [Academy for Technical Sciences] to promote the development of wind energy in Denmark, with both practical experiments as well as research projects.

Upwind Vs Downwind Turbines

An Upwind turbine faces into the wind with the turbine blades in front of the Nacelle while a downwind turbine has blades to the rear of the Nacelle and faces away from the wind. Up-wind turbines are by far and away the most common, but down-wind turbines (usually two-bladed) are also used in certain situations. Incidentally in India few Downwind Turbines were installed.

15
Offshore Wind Farms
Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Better wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind powers contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher. Power P = 0.5 p A V3 ... (1) Where P = Power, p density of air,V=speed of the wind and A is the area of the intercepted airstream (equal to the swept by the rotor). In standard conditions (sea level, temperature 15 degrees Celsius) the density of the air is 1.225 kg/m3. So the amount of Power intercepted by each square rotor is: Power P = 0.612 V3 Watts (2)

Picture Source: www.pmgenerators.com

For Example, if the wind speed is 6 m/s (a moderate breeze) the power intercepted per square meter is 0.612 X 63 = 132 W; but if the speed rises to 24 m/s (a severe gale) the power becomes 0.612 X 243 = 8460 W. This massive increase is due to cubic relationship between wind speed and power by equation (2). Here the word intercepted rather than captured is used because the above figures relate to the power in the wind, not the amount actually extracted by a turbine rotor. Large modern turbines typically capture up of about 50% of the wind power presented to them. Betzs law is a theory about the maximum possible energy to be derived from a wind turbine developed in 1919 by the German physicist Albert Betz. According to Betzs law, no turbine can capture more than 59.3 percent of the kinetic energy in wind. The ideal or maximum theoretical efficiency n max (also called power coefficient) of a wind turbine is the ratio of maximum power obtained from the wind to the total power available in the wind. The factor 0.593 is known as Betzs coefficient. It is the maximum fraction of the power in a wind stream that can be extracted.

Economics and benefits

Offshore wind power can help to reduce energy imports, reduce air pollution and greenhouse gases (by displacing fossilfuel power generation), meet renewable electricity standards, and create jobs and local business opportunities. COST COMPARISON OF ONSHORE AND OFFSHORE WIND FARMS Onshore Investment of about $1.5 million per MW Levelized cost of 6-7 cents per kWh O&M 1-3% of capital costs May be built in smaller units Offshore Investment of $2.3 million per MW Levelized cost of about 10-11 cents per kWh Higher O&M 40$ per kW and 0.7 cents per kWh variable Large turbines and farms required

At the end of 2011, there were 53 European offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 3,813 MW, while 5,603 MW is under construction USA, China, South Korea, Taiwan, France and Japan have ambitious plans to go in for offshore wind farms on a massive scale. Length of coastline of India including the coastlines of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshwadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea is 7517 km. Length of Coastline of Indian mainland is 6100 km. Thorough Wind studies have to be carried out along the coast to identify the prospective offshore wind farm sites. Based on these studies a Pilot project can be started by MNRE which will help as a Demonstration project.

16

Accurate wind measurements at the site are the constraint. Many a time wind data is extrapolated to the hub height at sites where the wind turbines are to be erected. In the US in California wind farm developers used to monitor (Anemometers, Anemographs) in the past at the sites where wind turbines to be erected (Now Wind Masts). This gives more or less reliable wind data and hence the turbine output.Unfortunately in some cases Wind Farm developers cant wait for years to measure the wind data(In some cases to avail the tax benefits quickly) and hence correlate the nearest wind mast data. That is why there will be variation in the output. Moreover terrain also plays an important role in wind energy production. Remote sensing measurement techniques enable measurements to hub height and beyond. There are resource measurement technique using sodar and lidar which need to be adopted in India along with at least 75 meter Wind masts.

Conclusions and Prognosis

With advanced wind turbine technology and more accurate wind data at higher heights available, there is wide scope to expand wind farms in India. Wind farm co-operatives can be started in India. A Wind Fund can be created and the investments in it by Individual Income Tax payers can be exempted under Section 80 C. This way there will be funds available for large scale wind farms besides large participation of people in the Wind Farms. Offshore wind farms will be future energy option to supplement conventional power. With extensive research on large size wind turbines and installation techniques of offshore wind turbines, the cost of power generation through offshore wind farms is expected to come down to be competitive with conventional power. USA, China, South Korea, Taiwan, France and Japan have ambitious plans to go in for offshore wind farms on a massive scale.It is hoped MNRE will initiate at least a Pilot project of Offshore Wind Farm in India. All modern techniques of wind assessment have to be undertaken which will identify prospective locations to set up offshore wind farms in the country. Wind masts to obtain wind data at higher hub heights (about 80 m) need to be carried out at as many locations as possible besides resource measurement using Sodar and LIDAR. The Centre for Wind Energy Technology(C-WET) under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launching a reassessment programme to validate the revised estimates for wind power potential made by various organisations will help generate data for taller towers being erected in the country in the near future. C-WET had estimated the potential of 102GW at hub height of 80 metres, and a decade back a potential of 49.2 GW was estimated at 50 metres hub height.

Put the WIND to WORK: To Get Inexhaustible, Pollution-free Energy which cannot be misused.

17 Savonius Wind Turbine with Concentrator for Low to Medium Wind Sites
An Innovation by Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh, Wind Energy Expert Savonius wind turbines are a type of vertical-axis wind turbine ( VAWT), used for converting the force of the wind into torque on a rotating shaft The turbine consists of a number of aerofoils, usuallybut not alwaysvertically mounted on a rotating shaft or framework, either ground stationed or tethered in airborne systems.

Origin
The Savonius wind turbine was invented by the Finnish engineer Sigurd Johannes Savonius in 1922. However, Europeans had been experimenting with curved blades on vertical wind turbines for many decades before this. The earliest mention is by the Italian Bishop of Czanad, who was also an engineer. He wrote in his 1616 book Machinae novae about several vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped blades. None of his or any other earlier examples reached the state of development made by Savonius. In his Finnish biography there is mention of his intention to develop a turbine-type similar to the Flettner-type, but autorotationary. He experimented with his rotor on small rowing vessels on lakes in his country. There are no results of his particular investigation known, but Magnus-Effect is confirmed by Knig.

Operation

Schematic drawing of a two-scoop Savonius turbine

The Savonius Rotor

Advantages of the Savonius Rotor over the Conventional Airfoil
1. Relative ease of construction 2. Readily available materials for construction (for smaller units). Requires no unusual materials and can be made from many materials including metal, wood, or plastic 3. Materials last longer 4. Specifications are less stringent 5. Easily reversible. The airfoil is made to operate one way only, but the Savonius Rotor can be switched to operate in the opposite direction 6. The unit is unidirectional. This means: No need for a vane to direct it into the wind No torquing problems Possibility of direct drive down the tower, meaning there are no slips rings or directional gearing necessary (also, the generator or power application unit can be located at the base of the tower) Can be used for more applications. Airfoils are generally limited to electrical generation Much safer operation (the sharp edge is the trailing edge) Can more easily be made into a multiple unit on the same drive train, whereas the airfoil is solitary Heavier construction provides the advantage of a flywheel effect

18

Disadvantages of the Savonius Rotor over the Conventional Airfoil

1. Difficult to balance (although balance is less critical) 2. Less efficient than a conventional airfoil 3. Requires a tower extension 4. Slower operating speed How to increase the wind speed? Power and rotational speed The maximum power in watts [W] of a Savonius rotor can be calculated with the following formula: [W] where is the height and the diameter of the rotor, both expressed in meters [m] and the cube of the wind speed in meters per second [m/s]. The rotational speed in revolutions per minute [rpm] of a Savonius rotor is calculated using the following formula: speed in [m/s] and [rpm] where is a factor called tip-speed ratio (dimensionless number), the diameter of the rotor Savonius in [m]. the wind

The tip-speed ratio is a characteristic factor of specific windmill. Its value ranges between 0.5 and 14. It is obtained by dividing the speed of the tips of the blades by the wind speed. In a Savonius rotor is approximately equal to unity . Applying these two formulas to a Savonius constructed with the two halves of an oil barrel of approx. 200 liters , ) under a wind of 10 m/s (36 km/h), the rotor will have a power of approx. 120 watts and a rotational speed of approx. 150 revolutions per minute (depending on the load)

19

Origin of Wind Concentrator

When we stand on a hill or on a dam, we experience high winds. Why? One is due to the height and another due to the slope. Taking a clue from nature, we conducted number of wind tunnel tests on models simulating dams (Escarpment) and measured the wind speeds at different heights with the model and with out the model. It has been found a 30 degrees slope increases the wind speed by a factor of 1.5 times at half the height of the top of the model. Since power is cube of velocity, power gain is 1.5 cubed = 3.34 This principle has been incorporated in the design of the concentrator (30 degrees over and below the rotor) The generator is the automobile generator with change of windings to reduce RPM. This Wind rotor can be used for battery charging and will be a boon in rural areas with even moderate wind speeds as roof mounted device. It can be mounted on a big oil drum with pebbles out in the bottom of the drum to give stability.

Savonius Rotor with Concentrator designed by Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh

For Video: http://tinyurl.com/SavoniusWindmill

Chapter iii

Science for the Poor

21
The Challenge today is to harness science to the chariot wheels of progress and to press science as a deliberate tool to serve the basic needs of the common man and contribute to the economic, social, and cultural transformation of the country. If the benefits of science and technology are to reach the vast majority of our people who live in country side, some serious thinking is called for to develop science to serve the needs of these people. Science must be relevant and percolate to reach these people and involve the people in the process of development. This calls for organisation and management of science and developing science to suit the development of these people.

Innovative Technolog y
The new awareness culminating in quest for Innovative Technology has three components: the realization that mans inner needs are as great as, if not greater than, his outer requirements; the appreciation of the inadequacy of our institutions for rethinking and the acceptance of the fact that the world is evolving not towards a plurality of civilizations. The Innovative Technology arises from the new awareness. A prior commitment to enlightened cosmologies is a necessary pre-condition for the development of the Innovative Technology. As such, the Innovative Technology : Integrates values with knowledge Replaces linear thinking of old science by the multi-dimensional systems approach; Is multi-cultural, that is, it carries different hopes and aspirations for different groups of people; and Gives rise to alternative Innovative Technologies. The Innovative Technology is based on a new concept and is intended for the well-being of men and his habitat. It encourages direct innovation with human needs and environmental imperatives in view. It is unique to people and their culture, it is their technology and will meet only their needs and their requirements. Three essential ingredients to evolve such Innovative Technology are Mass scientific network: This is basically an extension network covering agriculture and related activities, public health and industry. Local problem-solving capability: Formalized groups within rural industries and other production units: (a) to articulate its demand for additional inputs; (b) to establish outward linkages into the national S&T system; and to extend inward linkages into the extension network serving the locality. Content and Scope of Innovative Technologies In this field several terms have sprung up and have been indiscriminately used like (a) Intermediate technology or low technology, (b) appropriate technology, and (c) Innovative Technologies.

(a) Intermediate or Low Technolog y

Intermediate technology has meant many things to many people as a type of technology which lies in between the primitive technology and sophisticated technology. The concept of intermediate technology comes very near the one propagated by Mahatma Gandhi the Father of our Nation but this would hardly satisfy our scientists in these countries, who, by training and temperament, are keen on undertaking internationally fashion oriented sophisticated research. Development of intermediate technologies, by and large, has thus remained a programme to be worked at technicians level.

22
(b) Appropriate Technolog y
Appropriate technology is a priori a normative concept which implies that its delimitation can take place only after the norms are decided. These norms change with every shift in time and place. At the advent of Industrial Revolution, technological innovations aimed at diversifying product design and cheapening the production cost for meeting the needs of rapidly expanding consumer market. Appropriateness of technology was considered in terms of profit, with or without a concern for social goals.

(c) Innovative Technologies

Innovative Technology is defined as development of technologies or production systems, which are not only appropriate to a social situation at a particular point of time, but also is free from the deleterious effects such as alienation or environmental imbalances. It considers the possible social and environmental changes, and this has built-in flexibility to adjust changing needs. Since such technologies would have to be essentially based on the integrated development of the total region, the concept becomes wider in its economic, social and political perspective. At the scientific level it poses new challenges for the scientists to devise new technologies that are not available anywhere. It compels the scientists to come out to the people and try to understand them, their needs, their environment, their traditional technologies and skills, understand the science behind such skills based on experience and observation, and then evolve new techniques of production to suit their resources and native genius and meet their needs. The quest for Innovative Technology means many things to many people and they are summarised as below: To people it may mean - Gainful employment; - Self-help, and competence to utilize their skills and other resources; - Inculcation of scientific temper: with the association of cultural change, they may turn for help to science rather than to quackery; - Acceleration of development with multiplier effects; and - A feeling of adventure and pride in achievement To the Planners and Policy Makers, it may mean - A different approach to grass-root planning - Science is used deliberately as a tool for growth and selective changes; - Better utilisation of resources (including wastes); - More and better distributed employment opportunities with less movement of people; - An integrated approach with flexibility of adjustment as per available resources; and - Maintenance of ecological balances.

23
Human Resources Traditional Knowledge and Methods Great Assets to Developing Countries
Ideas float around in bewildering numbers, and scores of designs, ranging from windmills to the spinning wheel, are available; papers are circulated stating the wonders of intermediate (not innovative) technology what could be done, why it should be done, what must be done, and how the rural countryside can be changed if intermediate technology is implemented. Experts are called from abroad to tell people this. In all this talk, there seems to be no place for the ideas generated by farmers, rural artisans. A stand seems to have been taken that this transfer of technology for the socio-economic regeneration of the rural areas is a novelty for country-folk. But rural communities have survived for generations without any help in ideas and materials from outside. They have developed a low-cost technology of their own, suited to their own particular areas. It would be foolish to overlook and take for granted methods used by farmers and artisans. When a ploughshare develops trouble on the field, when a bullock cart breaks down on the road to market, when a house collapses in a storm, the villager uses materials available in the immediate vicinity to solve his problem. It is the scientist who must see these problems as challenges that must be met if there is to be development in rural areas. It is clear that the villagers and scientists will see the problems of the villages quite differently, and it will not always be true that the projects proposed by the scientists will be meaningful to the villages. If projects are imposed on the villagers, they are likely to be skeptical and may well resist rather than co-operate with the programme. Rural Development Schemes, in the broadest sense, requires first a good sociological approach, and as much psychology as scientific knowledge. After all country means people and not soil.

Problems People Solutions

Research, Development and Demonstration projects in developing countries have generated a variety of devices and systems for exploitation for example, solar cookers, wind battery charges etc. In Innovation theory, this is a classic case of technology push, that is, technical solutions looking for a social application. Technology push innovations might of course be adopted if they happen to satisfy a real demand, or are heavily promoted. Success is much more likely, however if the needs, priorities and demands are studied before attempting to introduce a new technology or system. This is the demand pull approach to innovation. Often identifying the right problem is difficult rather than finding a possible solution. People are better judges to identify the problems and since they benefit most by the solutions, they can contribute for finding the best solutions. A novel and innovative scheme is suggested to achieve the above goal. In developing countries the Government can advertise in the media seeking problems from the people in different disciplines like education, health, energy, industry etc. The problems received can be screened, studied and short-listed by a committee comprising government officials, experts, representatives from N.G.Os etc. The short-listed problems can be re-advertised seeking solutions from people. The solutions received can be studied in detail and the best solutions given awards. To catch a fish the bait should be attractive enough. As such there should be sizeable incentive so that people can devote their talent and energies for finding solutions. As the saying goes Anything can be done for a Dollar. In this way the creative potential of the people can be tapped to the full and a thought process will be set in motion in the country. In India a general knowledge programme conducted by a Super Star on TV is a roaring success and children, youth and oldall alike have become addicted to get equipped with general knowledge so that they can try their luck for winning fabulous cash prizes. The Author has developed Novel solutions and sustainable technologies for the benefits of bottoms billions like Everybodys Solar Water Heater, Simple Solar Drier, Safe Drinking Water from Solar Disinfection, Energy Conservation in Irrigation pumpsets, Hand operated Battery Charger, Savonius rotor with concentrator for Battery Charging, Multiple Uses of Gas Stove, Pedal operated Washing machine and several others.

24 Conclusion
Innovation, Invention and creativity are the pillars of progress of any Society / Nation. The greater the participation of people in the developmental activities, the quicker will be the progress. A new approach Innovative Technology (IT) deliberately involving people from all walks of life is the need of the hour in identifying the felt needs in the developing countries and finding solutions. Such a technology will contribute to Integrated Development (ID).

Chapter iv

biofuel Technologies

26
There were efforts to utilise Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) in combination with animal dung to produce biogas. But Biogas from Opuntia offers promise especially in developing countries since Opuntia can be grown under a variety of Environmental conditions.

Biogas from Opuntia

A source of renewable gas and fertilizer Structure of the proposed process 1st step: Production of Biomass (Opuntia) 2nd step: Process of the Biomass into Biogas through Anaerobic Fermentation 3rd step: Process of the Digested Material into Fertilizer The potential of Opuntia Biomass for energy production in semi-arid areas 100 to 400 tons of biomass/ha/year 1 ton Opuntia biomass = 50-60 m3 of biogas = 300-360 kWh of gas 30 000 to 140 000 kWh per ha 150 to 400ha necessary for 1MW electrical capacity High efficiency in water & fertilizer use Reduced risk for farmers of crop failure due to high drought tolerance. No competition with food crops on arable land as it can grow on degraded land. Study on renewable biogas energy production from cladodes of Opuntia ficus indica by Elias Jigar, Hameed Sulaiman and Araya Asfaw and Abraham Bairu (ISABB Journal of Food and Agriculture Science Vol. 1(3), pp. 44-48, December 2011) revealed: Cladodes, which are a plate like section of Opuntia ficus indica, were characterized for their physical properties, total solids (TS) and volatile solides ( VS) and they were assessed in five combinations with or without cow dung for their suitability to biogas production in 2.8 L triplicate batch digesters. The highest total biogas yields were obtained from T5 (75% Cow dung: 25% Cladodes combination) as 14.183 L followed by T1 (cow dung alone) as 13.670 L (0 .022 m3/kg) and the lowest was from T2 (Cladodes alone) as 6.176 L. The percentage of methane gas obtained from the experiment for treatments T1, T2, T3 (50% cow dung: 50% cladodes), T4 (25% cow dung: 75% Cladodes) and T5 were 66.33, 53.16, 63.84, 52.1 and 69% respectively. Among all treatments, T5 was found to produce high methane percent of the biogas. Treatments (T1 and T5) that have a C: N ratio within the range of 20 to 30 was found to perform better in biogas yield and methane production than those that are not. Statistical test showed that the biogas and methane content of the gas produced by T5 vary significantly at 0.05 level except with T1 and T3 which means the biogas and methane content of the gas produced by T1 and T3 were comparable with that of T5. The experimental findings further showed that the composition of methane for all treatments were within the range of 50 to 70%. The finding further revealed the suitability of the substrate as a supplement feedstock with the conventional cow dung for biogas production and if suitable materials for co-digestion, such as manure, are not available, Cladodes can be digested alone.

27
There are other options like biofuel and conversion of biogas into power. Agave is a care free growth plant which can be grown in millions of hectares of waste land and which produces Biofuel. Already Mexico is using it. Another Care free growth plant is Opuntia which generates Biogas. Biogas can be input to generate power through Biogas Generators. Biogas generators of MW size are available from China. Yet another option is Water Hyacinth for biogas. Water Hyacinth along with animal dung can produce biogas on a large scale and then power. In Kolleru Lake in Godavari and Krishna Delta in Andhra Pradesh it is available in 308 Sq. Km for nearly 8 months in a year. Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions in a plant using full CAM, the stomata in the leaves remains shut during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO2 is stored as the four-carbon acidmalate, and then used during photosynthesis during the day. The pre-collected CO2 is concentrated around the enzyme RuBisCO, increasing photosynthetic efficiency. Agave and Opuntia are the best CAM Plants. What is needed in an agrarian country like ours is AGRO INDUSTRIES to utilise local resources and resourcefulness - Mahatma Gandhi Researchers find that the agave plant will serve as a biofuel crop to produce ethanol. Agave has a huge advantage, as it can grow in marginal or desert land, not on arable land, and therefore would not displace food crops, says Oliver Inderwildi, at the University of Oxford. The majority of ethanol produced in the world is still derived from food crops such as corn and sugarcane. Speculators have argued for years now that using such crops for fuel can drive up the price of food. Agave, however, can grow on hot dry land with a high-yield and low environmental impact. The researchers proposing the plants use have modeled a facility in Jalisco, Mexico, which converts the high sugar content of the plant into ethanol. The research, published in the journal Energy and Environmental Science, provides the first ever life-cycle analysis of the energy and greenhouse gas balance of producing ethanol with agave. Each megajoule of energy produced from the agave-to-ethanol process resulted in a net emission of 35 grams of carbon dioxide, far below the 85g/MJ estimated for corn ethanol production. Burning gasoline produces roughly 100g/MJ. The characteristics of the agave suit it well to bioenergy production, but also reveal its potential as a crop that is adaptable to future climate change, adds University of Oxford plant scientist Andrew Smith. In a world where arable land and water resources are increasingly scarce, these are key attributes in the food versus fuel argument, which is likely to intensify given the expected large-scale growth in biofuel production. Agave already appeared to be an interesting bio ethanol source due to its high sugar content and its swift growth. For the first time Researchers at the universities of Oxford and Sydney have now conducted the first life-cycle analysis of the energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of agave-derived ethanol and present their promising results in the journal Energy & Environmental Science. On both life cycle energy and GHG emissions agave scores at least as well as corn, switchgrass and sugarcane, while reaching a similar ethanol output. The big advantages agave has over the before mentioned plants is that it can grow in dry areas and on poor soil, thus practically eliminating their competition with food crops and drastically decreasing their pressure on water resources. Plants which use crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), which include the cacti and Agaves, are of particular interest since they can survive for many months without water and when water is available they use it with an efficiency that can be more than 10 times that of other plants, such as maize, sorghum, miscanthus and switchgrass. CAM species include no major current or potential food crops; they have however for centuries been cultivated for alcoholic beverages and low-lignin fibres. They may therefore also be ideal for producing biofuels on land unsuited for food production.

28
In Mxico, there are active research programs and stakeholders investigating Agave spp. as a bioenergy feedstock. The unique physiology of this genus has been exploited historically for the sake of fibers and alcoholic beverages, and there is a wealth of knowledge in the country of Mxico about the life history, genetics, and cultivation of Agave. The State of Jalisco is the denomination of origin of Agave tequilana Weber var. azul, a cultivar primarily used for the production of tequila that has been widely researched to optimize yields. Other cultivars of Agave tequilana are grown throughout Mxico, along with the Agave fourcroydes Lem., or henequen, which is an important source of fiber that has traditionally been used for making ropes. The high sugar content of Agave tequilana may be valuable for liquid fuel production, while the high lignin content of Agave fourcroydes may be valuable for power generation through combustion. Along with Agave species described above, some other economically important species include A. salmiana, A. angustiana, A. americana, and A. sisalana. Agave sisalana is not produced in Mxico, but has been an important crop in regions of Africa and Australia. Information collected here could thus be relevant to semi-arid regions around the world.

Agave Competitive Advantages

* Thrives on dry land/marginal land. Most efficient use of soil, water and light * Massive production. Year-around harvesting * Very high yields with very low or no inputs * Very high quality biomass and sugars * Very low cost of production. Not a commodity, so prices are not volatile * Very versatile: biofuels, byproducts, chemicals * World-wide geographical distribution * Enhanced varieties are ready

Agave Plantation Picture Source: tequilasource.com

Opuntia Plantation Picture Source: desertification.wordpress.com

Water Hyacinth Picture Source: duke.edu

Biogas Commercial Generator Picture Source: ecvv.com

Prospects for Biofuel Production in Gujarat State (India) There is much interest in harnessing Solar and Wind Energy in Gujarat State.Apart from Solar and Wind there is vast scope to generate biofuel from Agave besides biogas from Opuntia in Gujarat. There is huge area of wastelands in Gujarat state. The details are: Gujarat - Category-wise Distribution and Changes in Wastelands Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Total TGA % of TGA
Source: dolr.nic.in

29

Total 392.02 1.73 11614.83 6658.03 0.00 80.59 696.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 1413.86 155.35 44.19 53.06 0.00 75.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.29 0.00 149.49 0.00 21350.38 196024.00 10.89

Cant it be brought under cultivation through plants which require less water like Agave and Opuntia which can be put to multiple uses. Apart from Wind and Solar Gujarat can go in for Biofuel. One promising plant is Agave which is a care-free growth plant. It is being done on a massive scale in Mexico.

Chapter v

Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Areas

31
Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependence on fossil fuel resources, and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. The International Energy Agency states that: Conceptually, one can define three generations of renewables technologies, reaching back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies emerged from the industrial revolution at the end of the 19th century and include hydropower, biomass combustion, and geothermal power and heat. Some of these technologies are still in widespread use. Second-generation technologies include solar heating and cooling, wind power, modern forms of bioenergy, and solar photovoltaics. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) investments since the 1980s. The initial investment was prompted by energy security concerns linked to the oil crises (1973 and 1979) of the 1970s but the continuing appeal of these renewables is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials. Third-generation technologies are still under development and include advanced biomass gasification, bio refinery technologies, concentrating solar thermal power, hot dry rock geothermal energy, and ocean energy. Advances in nanotechnology may also play a major role. First- and second-generation technologies have entered the markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long term research and development commitments, where the public sector has a role to play. A 2008 comprehensive cost-benefit analysis review of energy solutions in the context of global warming and other issues ranked wind power combined with battery electric vehicles (BEV ) as the most efficient, followed by concentrated solar power, geothermal power,tidal power, photovoltaic, wave power, coal capture and storage, nuclear energy, and finally biofuels.

Solar Energ y
Solar insolation is very high in most of the developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. But the main consrtraint is Technologies which are affordable and which can be built with local man power. The author designed some technologies like Innovative Vertical and Cylindrical Solar Water Heater, Solar Water Purifier and Simple Solar Drier.

32
Innovative Solar Water Heater
The sun is an energy source available to everyone, an energy source that can be used simply, and inexpensively to reduce developing countries dependence on imported fuels. Solar water heater is the simplest and most cost-effective solar applications. Solar water heaters are based on a common natural phenomenon: cold water in a container exposed to the sun undergoes a rise in temperature. The solar water heater is basically a flat-plate collector and an insulated storage tank. The collector is commonly blackened metal plate with attached metal tubing and is usually provided with a glass cover and a layer of insulation beneath the plate. The collector tubing is connected by piping to a tank that stores hot water for use during nonsunny periods. When mounted on a roof or other suitable support, the collector absorbs radiation, by transfer of resulting heat to water circulating through the tubing, hot water is supplied to the storage tank. In the most common designs, the storage tank is located above the top of the collector. The elevated position of the tank results in natural convection: water circulates from the collector to the tank. When solar water heater technology is so simple, how is it that developing countries are yet to catch up? The reasons are not far to seek. The main constraint is prohibitive cost. For instance, in India a 100 liter solar water heater costs around Rs. 20,000/- (about US $ 400). Another interesting point is that not many people living in towns and villages have access to overhead water storage tanks to get continuous supply of cold water. To overcome the above barriers, the author designed and tested a vertical and cylindrical Solar Water Heater.

Design Details
Two vertical and cylindrical collectors made of stainless steel (normally used in the manufacture of drinking water drums) with a height of 0.6 m and a diameter of 0.32 m are made and placed one over the other with thermo Cole in between as well as at the bottom to prevent heat losses. The top cylindrical auxiliary tank is provided with an inlet at the top and provided with a cap and the same is provided with an opening at the bottom, which is connected to the bottom cylinder with a hose pipe (strong enough to withstand high temperatures). There is a lever attached to the pipe to control water flow. The bottom cylinder is provided with an outlet at the top from which water is drawn. Both the cylinders are provided with concentric rings to provide gap and covered with high density transparent polyethylene sheet to simulate green house effect. A lotus flower shaped reflector (as shown in the picture below) made of stainless steel acts as a reflector. This takes into account the diurnal motion of the sun. The insulator is made of bamboo basket with a height of 1.3 m and a diameter of 0.45 m (circular) and covered with 6mm of glass wool (rock wool) and over it with transparent polyethylene cover so that the whole setup is airtight. The collector is filled with potable water in the morning at 8 a.m. and is covered with the insulator (bamboo basket) at 4 p.m. The hot water can be used either in the evening, night or next morning. Hot water up to 70 C is obtainable depending on the sunshine. In 15 hours of storage about 7 C drop in the hot water temperature is observed. This 100 liter unit costs around USD 150 in South India and will be highly useful as a pre-heater for cooking, for bathing, for washing cloths and utensils, for rural schools, hospitals etc.

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Advantages
The unit is mobile, modular and easy to install and dismantle for transporting No necessity of cold water supply through pipes No need for over head storage water tank There is no need to have separate collector as it is an integrated system Since the collector is made of stainless steel, the hot water will be hygienic Because of the omni-directional reflector, relatively higher water temperatures are obtained even in moderate sunshine The unit occupies less space being vertical and circular, on the ground or roof All the materials used in the fabrication of this simple and cost effective solar water heater is available locally The unit is durable except that the polyethylene cover has to be replaced once in 4 months, which costs just USD 1 When using pre-heated water for cooking from this unit, considerable fuel such as firewood, kerosene, gas, electricity etc. can be conserved.

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Simple Solar Drier
Drying soaked rice, pickles, salted fish, and millet in winnowing basket is a common sight in India. Winnowing basket in sunlight is a common sight in our country. But this system suffers from many disadvantages like falling of dust in the contents, longer time to dry, no protection from insects, birds etc. In order to overcome these defects a simple and inexpensive solar drier which can be fabricated locally has been designed and tested. The bigger unit consists of a tray-shaped structure made of bamboo of dimensions 1 m x 0.16 m x 0.15 m height with slant sides for wider incidence of sun light. It is covered with black polyethylene sheet inside, which acts as absorbing material. In areas where there is difficulty in procuring black high density polyethylene sheet the inside portion of the basket is coated with enamel black paint and covered with transparent HDP cover. Over the basket, a transparent polyethylene sheet is provided with opening at two sides and the other two sides being fixed to enable for easy lifting to put the contents. The top polyethylene sheet is provided with Velcro for fixing. The basket is provided with holes on the sides for easy passage of air which avoids formation of water vapor at the top. This design costs just Rs 350 in South India. The second system is meant for drying small quantities in rural areas. In this, a winnowing basket is provided with similar arrangement as in the previous case. This costs Rs.100 Experiments reveal that on an average it saves half of the time to dry the contents when compared to open drying. The advantages offered are: (a) The contents dry quickly (b) The contents will be hygienic as they are protected from dust because of cover (c) The contents are free from bird menace like crows as there is a thick covering (d) When sudden rain comes, the contents are protected because of the polyethylene covering (e) The units are light and easy to carry (f ) All the materials used in the fabrication are available locally and can be fabricated by local people (g) Fabrication of this simple gadget helps generate rural employment

Safe Drinking for All through Solar Disinfection

Introduction Every 8 seconds, a child dies from water related disease around the globe. 50% of people in developing countries suffer from one or more water-related diseases. 80% of diseases in the developing countries are caused by contaminated water. Providing safe drinking water to the people has been a major challenge for Governments in developing countries. Conventional technologies used to disinfect water are: ozonation, chlorination and artificial UV radiation. These technologies require sophisticated equipment, are capital intensive and require skilled operators (1,17,20). Boiling water requires about 1 kg of wood/liter of water which results in deforestation in developing countries. Also halazone or calcium hypochlorite tablets or solutions (sodium hypochlorite at 1 to 2 drops per liter) are used to disinfect drinking water. These methods are environmentally unsound or hygienically unsafe when performed by a layperson. Misuse of sodium hypochlorite solution poses a safety hazard (2,4,11). Treatment to control waterborne microbial contaminants by exposure to sunlight in clear vessels that allows the combined germicidal effects of both UV radiation and heat has been developed and put into practice (5,712,13,14,18,19).

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The SODIS system (Solar Disinfection of water) developed by scientists at the Swiss Federal Agency for Environmental Science and Technology(EAWAG) recommends placing PET bottles (usually discarded mineral water/beverage bottles) painted black on one side, aerating (oxygenating) the water by vigorous shaking three fourths water filled bottles and then filling them full and placing them in sunlight for 6 hours. In this method, the water is exposed to UV radiation in sunlight, primarily UV-A and it becomes heated; both effects contribute to the inactivation of water borne microbes. The use of PET bottles requires periodic replacement because of scratches and they become deformed if temperature exceeds 65C. Also dust accumulates on these bottles in the groves (provided for strength). The PET bottle mineral water manufacturers print on the label, crush the bottle after use in India. Unless cleaned thoroughly everyday, PET bottles turn brown over usage rendering lesser transmission of sunlight. Microorganisms are heat sensitive. Table 1 lists up the required temperature to eliminate microorganisms within 1, 6 or 60 minutes. It can be seen that it is not required to boil the water in order to kill 99.9% of the microorganisms. Heating up water to 50 - 60C (122 - 140F) for one hour has the same effect (2,21). The most favorable region for solar disinfection lies between latitudes 150 N/S and 35 0 N/S. These semi-arid regions are characterised by high solar radiation and limited cloud coverage and rainfall (3000 hours sunshine per year).The second most favorable region lies between the equator and latitude 15 0 N/S, the scattered radiation in this region is quite high (2500 hours sunshine per year). The need for a low-cost, low maintenance and effective disinfection system for providing safe drinking water is paramount, especially for the developing countries. Materials And Methods The innovative solar disinfection system has a wooden frame of length 2 ft,width 1 foot and depth 6 inches with bottom sinusoidal shaped polished stainless steel (curvature slightly larger than standard glass wine bottles, about 5 inches diameter) . On the front is fixed a glass sheet having lifting arrangement with a knob (this glass enclosure will protect the glass bottles from cooling down due to outside wind). There are screws which can be used to keep the contents airtight. On the backside a stand is fixed which will help the unit to be placed according to the latitude of the place for maximum solar insolation. In this method clear glass bottles (used wine bottles) are utilised instead of PET bottles as the former are easy to clean, lasts longer and are available at a low cost in India. Solar disinfection is more efficient in water containing high levels of oxygen; sunlight produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) in the water. These reactive forms of oxygen kill the microorganisms. Aeration of water is achieved by shaking the 3/4 water filled bottles for about 20 seconds before they are filled completely. The unit has an advantage in that the rear reflection stainless steel will pass the light through the bottles a second time, to both increase exposure and eliminate shadowing. This reflection system will increase the light intensity minimum 2 times. It has been widely experimented and established by earlier researchers that at temperature of 50C (122F), pathogenic microbes are inactivated. The temperatures which cause approximately a 1-log decrease in viability with 1 min are 55C (131F) for protozoan cysts; 60C (140F) for E.coli, enteric bacteria, and rotavirus; and 65C (149F) for hepatitis A virus (3,6,8,9,10,16). Negar Safapour and Robert H.Metcalf (15) in their extensive studies reported enhancement of solar water pasteurization with reflectors and the crucial role of temperature above 50C (122F) in the elimination of pathogens. Operation The unit is placed in the south direction (in India) around 10 am with inclination equal to the latitude of the place. The glass bottles are filled with water three fourths and shaken for 20 seconds to generate oxygen and then completely filled. The water filled bottles are fixed with caps and put in the groves of the solar disinfection unit. The glass door is closed and clipped airtight.

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Water bottles are removed from the unit at 3 pm and taken to a cool place and the disinfected water transferred to a clean vessel, covered for later usage. Suspended particles in the water reduce the penetration of solar radiation into the water and protect microorganisms from being irradiated. Solar disinfection requires relatively clear water with a turbidity less than 30 NTU.To remove turbidity traditional methods of putting the paste from seed of strichnos potatorum (Nirmal seeds) by rubbing the seed on a rough stone with water is used. The method is effective, turbidity settles down in half ofv an hour and the seed are available in plenty in forests in India besides being inexpensive. Sample Testing Water samples from the solar disinfection unit were tested with Most Probable Number (MPN) technique. To estimate the number of aerobic organisms present in water, Pour Plate Technique has been used. Results The test results of various water samples disinfected are presented in Table 2. In the samples from Ambattur Bore Water, Ambattur Well Water, Anna Nagar Bore Water and Kavaraipettai Bore Water, since they are highly contaminated, further dilutions were not carried out. The dilution should be done only when the MPN indicates more than 1100 organisms/100 ml. For these samples only log reductions can be calculated. As regards R.S.M.Nagar Bore Water and Thathai Manji Well Water, the percentage of reduction is 85 and 86.95, which indicates that the water is less contaminated. As MPN index shows less than 3 organisms for 100 ml, after solar disinfection of water, the samples are free from coli forms. The results of Avadi Waste Water and Perambur Waste Water show 3 log reduction (99.8%) and 4 log reduction (99.993%) respectively. For comparison PET and Glass bottles were placed with black background as well as in the innovative device I developed. It can be readily seen that solar disinfection of water is complete with my device compared to open. Discussion Eradication of coli forms from well water bore water and waste water has been reported from test results. The results confirm that there is 4-log 10 reduction of coli forms in the waste water after solar disinfection. The experiments were conducted at Kavaraipettai, Tamil Nadu, and India. Maximum temperature occurs around 1 pm. Though 6 bottles were used in the system (each of 1 liter capacity), larger units with up to 100 bottles can be designed. The unit destroyed 99.99% of bacterial coli forms both in well water and waste water samples in 5 hours. The innovative solar disinfection system has the advantages, like: 1. The unit is portable and cost-effective 2. It can be fabricated in South India for USD 20 3. The unit incorporates the principle of reflection to increase solar intensity and has protection from wind which results in temperature rise inside the unit 4. Larger units can be manufactured, Used glass bottles withstand higher temperatures and are available in plenty each for 2 US cents in South India, Since all the materials are available locally, the unit can be manufactured locally with local people. 5. Temperatures above 30C occur in south India for more than 10 months in a year and as such this innovative solar disinfection unit will be a boon in this region. Acknowledgement - The project is financially supported by Science and Society Division, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.

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Innovative Solar Disinfection System by Anumakonda Jagadeesh, Ph.D

References
1. Acher, A., E.Fischer, R.Turnheim, and Y.Manor. Ecologically friendly wastewater disinfection techniques.Water Res. 31:1398-1404. (1997). 2. Pelizzetti,E.1999.Solar water detoxification.Current status and perspectives.Z.Phys.Xhem.212:207-218(1999). 3. U.S.Environmental Protection Agency..Ultraviolet light disinfection technology in drinking water application: an over view.EPA 811-R-96-002.U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. (1996) 4. Acra, A., M.Jurdi, H.Muallem, Y.Karahagopian, and Z.Raffoul.Water disinfection by solar radiation. Assessment and application.IDRC-TS66e.International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada. ISBN 0-88936-555-5 (p5), (1989) 5. Bunce, N.J. Environmental chemistry, p.183-214.Wuerz Publishing Ltd., Winnipeg, Canada (1991). 6. Ishikawa, T., T.Sato, Y.Ose.and H.Nagase.Reaction of chlorine and bromide with humic substance.Sci.Total Environ.54: 185-194(1986). 7. Wagelin, M., S.Canonica, K.Mechsner, T.Fleischmann, F.Pesaro, and A.Metzler. Solar water disinfection: scope of the process and analysis of radiation experiments.J.Water Supply Res. Technol.AQUA 43: 154-169(1994). 8. Calkins, J., J.D.Buckles, and J.R.Moeller. The role of solar ultraviolet radiation innatural water purification.Photochem. Photobiol. 24: 49-57(1976). 9. Conroy, R.M., M.Elmore-Meegan, T.Joyce, K.G.McGuigan, and J.Barnes. Solar disinfection of drinking water and diarrhea in Maasai children: a controlled field trial.Lancet 348: 1695-1697(1996). 10. Joyce, T.M., K.G.Mcguigan, M.Elmore-Meegan, and R.M.Conroy, Inactivation of fecal bacteria in drinking water by solar heating. Appl.Environ.Microbiol.62: 399-402 (1996). 11. Sinton, L.W., C.H.Hall, P.A.Lynch, and R.J. Davies-Colley. Sunlight inactivation of fecal indicator bacteria and bacteriophages from waste stabilization pond effluent in fresh and saline waters. Appl Environ Microbiol.68: 1122-1131(2002). 12. Jagger, J.Inhibition by sunlight of the growth of Escherichia coli b/r.Photochem.Photobiol.22: 67-70(1975). 13. Rijal, G.K., Fujioka, R.S, Synergistic effect of solar radiation and solar heating to disinfect drinking water sources, Water Sci Technol.43: 255-162. 14. McGuigan.K.G., Joyce.T.M, Conroy.R.M, Gillespie.J.B, Elmore-Meegan.M, Solar disinfection of drinking water contained in transparent plastic bottles: characterizing the bacterial inactivation process, J.Appl. Microbiol.84 (6), 1138-1148(1998). 15. Anderson, B.C., Moist heat inactivation of Cryptospordium sp. Am.J.Public Health 75:1433-1434 (Abstract) (1985). 16. Ciochetti, D.A., Metcalf.R.H. Pasteurisation of naturally contaminated water with solar energy.Appl.Environ. Microbiol.47:223-228(Medline) (1984). 17. Faechem,R.G., Bradley.D.J,Garelick.H,Mara.D.D,Sanitation and disease; health aspects of excreta and wastewater management,John Wiley & Sons,New York,N.Y(1983). 18. Fayer, R., Effect of high temperature on infectivity of Cryptospordium parvum oocysts in water.Appl.Environ.Microbiol.60: 2732-2735(Abstract) (1994). 19. Harp, J.A., Fayer, R.Pesch.B.A, Jackson.Effect of pasteurization on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water and milk.Appl.Environ.Microbiol. 62: 2866-2868(Abstract) (1996). 20. Parry, J.V., Mortimer. The heat sensitivity of hepatitis A virus determined by simple tissue culture method. J.Med. Virol.14: 277-283(Abstract) (1984). 21. Negar Safaour., Metcalf,R.H,Enhancement of Solar Water Pasteurisation with Reflectors, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65, No.2,859-861(1999)

38 Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh - Assignments connected with Wind Energ y

* January1986 to June 1986, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, Preparing a Feasibility Report on the Potential of Wind and Solar in the Energy in Sultanate of Oman. * June 1989 to June 1990 Folkecentre for Renewable Energy (Formerly Danish Centre for Renewable Energy), Denmark, Working in Wind/Solar/Biogas besides in-charge of International Relations. * September 1990 to September 1991, At ENEA, CRE CASACCIA, Italian Commission for Nuclear and Alternative Energy Sources Rome on a study-stay. * October 1991 to December 1991, Folkecentre for Renewable Energy, Denmark, Wind Energy Research & Training Programmes in Renewable Energy. * February 1992 to June 1992, ENEA CRE CASACCIA, Rome, on a study-stay. * September 1999 to November 1999, Folkecentre for Renewable Energy, Denmark, Wind Energy Research & Training Programmes in Renewable Energy. * Consultancy Project on Appropriate Technology including Renewable Energy to UNIDO, 1990. * Consultant, Zond Wind Energy, USA * Wind Consultancy Project to Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan, 1989 * Wind Consultancy Project to Fuji Heavy Industries Ltd., Japan, 1989 * Wind Consultancy Project to CICERO, University of Oslo, Norway, 2000 * Consultant, Tacke Windenergie, Germany. * Did consultancy to 20 Wind projects aggregating 40 MW from concept to commissioning especially in Tamilnadu * Worked as Vice President ( Wind) at SUBHASH PROJECTS & MARKETING LTD, Bengaluru, India * Included in High-Level Group on Sustainable Energy for All: in the Working Groups of Supply chains & entrepreneurship, Energy & agriculture of United Nations Foundation

Photo Gallery

39

Dr. Anumakonda Jagadeesh receiving Margaret Noble Foundation Award from World Renowned Scientist Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, FRS, Chairman, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation in 1994. Dr.G.Thyagarajan, Former Secretary, Commonwealth Science Council, London was also present.

Global Conference on Renewable Energy Approaches for Desert Regions, Amman, Jordan 2006

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Conference on Science and Technology for Development, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington DC 2003

Conference in Ankara, Turkey 2007

Notes