STYLE

Towards

AND
Theory a

CREATIVITY:
Creative of Stylistics

by Yosliifuini

Saito,

MA

't'hesis submitted

to the University

of Nottingham May, 1997

for the degree of Doctor

Philosophy, of

4.0 INTRODUCTION 4.1 CREATIVITY IN LINGUISTIC AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES

143

4.1.1 Traditional Idea of Creativity in Linguistic and Literary Activities 146 4.1.2 Creativity in Reading 4.13 Creativity in Writing 148 150 152 153

4.1.4 Creativity in Conversation 4.1.5 Cognitive Development or'Creative Language Awareness'

4.2 RHETORIC
4.3 LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM

153
157

4.4 CHECKLIST FOR CREATIVE LANGUAGE AWARENESS 4.4.0 Introduction 4.4.1 Intention 4.4.2 Message, Theme, or Motif 4.43 Text Type

161 161
162 163

4.4.4 Setting and Characterization

4.4.5 Narrative Structure and Point of View 4.4.6 Tense and Time-Shift 4.4.7 Syntactic Choice 4.4.8 Lexical Choice 4.4.9 Phonological Choice 4.4.10 Graphological Choice 4.4.11 Metaphor and Symbolism 4.4.12 Cohesion, Coherence, and Overall Textual Patterning 4.5 AUTONOMY 4.6 SUMMARY OF TEXT

163
164

166 167 168

170 170 171 173 174 175

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ix

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF STYLISTICS

1.1 GENERAL OUTLINE 1.2 FRENCH SCHOOL 12 15

13 RUSSIAN-FORMALIST JAKOBSONIAN SCHOOL

13.1 Russian Formalism 21 22 25

1.3.2 Roman Jakobson 133 Prague Linguistic Circle

1.4 GERMAN SCHOOL 1.4.1 Vossler 1.4.2 Spitzer 1.43 Auerbach

26
27 29

1.5 BRITISH SCHOOL

1.5.1 Practical Criticism: I. A. Richards 1.5.2 Leavisism 1.5.3 Literary Stylistics

30 33
36

11

1.5.4 Linguistic Stylistics

1.5.5 Pedagogical/Practical Stylistics 1.6 SUMMARY

43

47 54

CHAPTER 2 THEORY OF STYLISTICS 2.0 INTRODUCTION

2.1 DEFINITION OF STYLE 2.1.0 Introduction 2.1.1 Style as Idiolect 57

57
60

2.1.2 Style as Ornamentation 2.13 Style as Choice

2.1.4 Style as Deviation 2.1.5 Style as Coherence 2.1.6 Style as Connotation 2.2 DEFINITION 2.2.0 Introduction 2.2.1 Stylistics as a Branch of Linguistics 2.2.2 Stylistics as a Branch of Literary Criticism 2.23 23 Stylistics as an Interdisciplinary Field OTHER THEORETICAL PROBLEMS OF STYLISTICS

61 62 65 69
71

73

74 78 79

2.3.1 Subcategorization of Stylistics

85 89 91 93
98

2.3.2 What is Literary Language? 233 Fish 'Hook'

23.4 Interpretation 2.4 SUMMARY

III

CHAPTER 3 REARRANGEMENT OF THE PRINCIPLES OF STYLISTICS 3.0 INTRODUCTION 3.1 LINGUISTIC STYLISTICS
3.1.1 Theoretical Problem 3.1.2 Selection of the Text and the Analytical Strategy 3.13 Analysis 106 108 111 113 115

101

3.1.4 Testing the Idiolectal Cognitive Model 3.1.5 Conclusion 3.2 LITERARY STYLISTICS

3.2.1 Aim
3.2.2 Intuitive Response 3.2.3 Literary Background 3.2.4 Linguistic Strategies

116 117
118

121 124
133

3.2.5 Analysis
3.2.6 Conclusion

33 PEDAGOGICAL STYLISTICS 33.1 Languageand/or Linguistics?

33.2 Gap-filling for Understanding Discourse

133 134
136

3.3.3 Imagining Contexts of Situation

33.4 Sensitizationto Languageof Literature 33.5 Conclusion 3.4 SUMMARY

138 139 139

CHAPTER 4 THEORY OF CREATIVE STYLISTICS

iv

4.0 INTRODUCTION 4.1 CREATIVITY IN LINGUISTIC AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES

143

4.1.1 Traditional Idea of Creativity in Linguistic and Literary Activities 146 4.1.2 Creativity in Reading 4.1.3 Creativity in Writing 4.1.4 Creativity in Conversation 148

150 152 153 153 157

4.1.5 Cob itive Developmentor'Creative LanguageAwareness' 4.2 RHETORIC 4.3 LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM 4.4 CHECKLIST FOR CREATIVE LANGUAGE AWARENESS
4.4.0 Introduction 4.4.1 Intention 4.4.2 Message, Theme, or Motif 4.43 Text Type

161
161 162 163

4.4.4 Setting and Characterization

4.4.5 Narrative Structure and Point of View 4.4.6 Tense and Time-Shift 4.4.7 Syntactic Choice 4.4.8 Lexical Choice 4.4.9 Phonological Choice 4.4.10 Graphological Choice 4.4.11 Metaphor and Symbolism 4.4.12 Cohesion, Coherence, and Overall Textual Patterning 4.5 AUTONOMY 4.6 SUMMARY OF TEXT

163
164

166 167
168 170 170 171 173 174 175
V

CHAPTER 5 PRACTICE OF CREATIVE STYLISTICS 5.0 INTRODUCTION

5.1 CREATIVE PROCESS 5.1.1 Intention 5.1.2 Setting and Characterization 5.1.3 Narrative Voice and Point of View 5.1.4 Syntacitic Choice 5.1.5 Title and Symbolism 5.1.6 Graphological Choice 5.1.7 Intertextuality 179

178

180 180 182 182

183

184 185 191

5.2 CREATED TEXT 5.3 POSSIBILITIES OF PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 6.1 CONCLUSIONS 6.2 SUGGESTIONSFOR FURTHER RESEARCH 205 207

REFERENCES

211

vi

between language and literature, since it has hardly paid attention to the issue of the creativity of style and language; (c) that, in order to establish stylistics as a truly interdisciplinary field of study between linguistic and literary studies, we need to take up the classical idea of rhetoric with its prescriptive function as well as the new idea of 'creative language awareness' in order to open up the domain of stylistic study for the purpose of textual creation; (d) that, as the descriptive analyses of traditional stylistics should be retrievable, so the processes of creative stylistics should be replicable for any creatively-motivated writer, irrespective of the kind of text he or she is trying to create; (e) that, by being replicable, the theory of creative stylistics would be extraordinarily useful in pedagogical contexts in helping language learners both to improve their skills in writing and to sensitize themselves to language and literature; and (f) that creative stylistics is designed to explore and exploit the possibilities of breaking down the native/non-native opposition in English studies and of bridging native/nonnative cultural gaps in aesthetic creation.

viii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this thesis is to present a new theory of creative stylistics as an antithesis to traditional description-oriented stylistics. For this purpose it undertakes: (1) a selective historical survey of stylistics with special attention to its academic formation in the context of the theoretical dissociation between linguistics and literary criticism (Chapter 1), (2) a theoretical survey of stylistics with special attention to the way it has been defined and subcategorized (Chapter 2), (3) a rearrangement of various stylistic theories according to the criterion of purpose, and a cognitively oriented demonstration of redefined linguistic, literary, and pedagogical stylistics (Chapter 3), (4) a theorization of creative stylistics as a prescriptively oriented discipline

complementing the descriptivism

of traditional

stylistics, in terms of the cognitive

processes of textual creation (Chapter 4), and (5) a demonstration of creative stylistics through an examination of my own literary writing, together with a discussion of further pedagogical and cross-cultural issues arising from this (Chapter 5).

Through these chapters I make it clear. (a) that the theoretical proliferation, the variety of nomenclature, and the arbitrary subcategorization of stylistics has made this discipline seem more complicated than it really is;

(b) that stylistics has so far only followed the courselaid down by descriptive linguistics and literary criticism, and hasnot yet fully explored or exploited the dynamic interaction
vii

between language and literature, since it has hardly paid attention to the issue of the creativity of style and language; (c) that, in order to establish stylistics as a truly interdisciplinary field of study between linguistic and literary studies, we need to take up the classical idea of rhetoric with its prescriptive function as well as the new idea of 'creative language awareness' in order to open up the domain of stylistic study for the purpose of textual creation; (d) that, as the descriptive analyses of traditional stylistics should be retrievable, so the processes of creative stylistics should be replicable for any creatively-motivated writer, irrespective of the kind of text he or she is trying to create; (e) that, by being replicable, the theory of creative stylistics would be extraordinarily useful in pedagogical contexts in helping language learners both to improve their skills in writing and to sensitize themselves to language and literature; and (f) that creative stylistics is designed to explore breaking the possibilities of and exploit down the native/non-native opposition in English bridging of native/nonstudies and native cultural gaps in aesthetic creation.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank all those friends and colleagues who have helped me to complete my Ph.D research. Among them I am particularly grateful to Paul Rossiter, George Hughes, Brendan Wilson, Sandra Lucore, and John Boccellari, who gave me detailed and informative comments on my draft thesis. I am also indebted to a number of stylisticians, linguists, and literary scholars, Short, Roger Mick Fowler, and Alan Durant, who were generous enough to spend to especially information for time their on precious me and provided me with valuable pieces of some of historical and institutional backgrounds of stylistics. I particularly value the constructive

Ronald Carter, who has encouraged my stumbling efforts to supervisor, criticisms of my theorize my idea of creative stylistics. Finally I thank SAITO Yuko and SAITO Masafumi for their patient support.

ix

INTRODUCTION

What is stylistics? What is its aim? How does it function? Is it a branch of literary criticism, or of linguistics? If it is neither, how does it differ from them, and how does it cooperate with them? And, if it is concerned in some way or other with linguistic and literary studies, has it fully examined, or more importantly, interaction between the and exploited relationship

language and literature? These are the questions which this thesis tries to examine and answer. Based on this examination, this thesis also suggests a new concept, 'creative stylistics'. The questions I mentioned above, except possibly the last, are not new. Stylisticians have long struggled to settle such theoretical problems in order to lay a solid foundation for their discipline. This strenuous effort, however, has not contributed so much to elusive somewhat the integration of stylistic principles, much less of related disciplines, as to the rapid

proliferation and confusion of terminologies and methodologies. Indeed, it seems that the more stylisticians struggle, the deeper they sink into a mire of theoretical complications, and the more opaque the unsolved fundamental problems have become. Many books and articles about this field of study have been published, especially in the past few decades, respectively presenting insightful notions and methodologies. Most of them, however, including such avowedly

introductory books as Turner (1973), Chapman (1973), Cluysenaar (1976), Haynes (1989), Wright and Hope (1996), or even Wales (1989), which is the first comprehensive dictionary of stylistic theories and one of the major milestones in the development of this discipline, deal only with some specific dimensions of stylistics, and do not tell us much about the whole context of its academic formation. It is worthwhile, therefore, in the current upsurge of stylistic study, to reconsider the overall theoretical issues in a new light, and at the same time to assess what stylistics has done over the past eighty years and what it has left undone as well. What this thesis presents is neither a new reading strategy nor a simple chronological description of 1

diachronic, firstly but both theories, and of the theoretical critical a survey, synchronic various development and analytical practice of stylistics and secondly, and more importantly, a new theory about previously unexplored ideas on creatively 'prescriptive' stylistics. It is my candid feeling that the development of stylistics has been seriously obstructed by the long-standing disputes over its raison d'etre, which crudely took the form of sharp offence, very often misdirected, by anti-stylistic (Vendler, literary critics scholars, mainly 1966;

Bateson, 1971; Fish, 1973; Hirsch, 1976) and overreactive defence by stylisticians, who were literary linguistics indeterminate between their and position always uneasily conscious of criticism. From the 1950s, when stylisticians began to be acutely aware of the need to establish their discipline, up until the emergence of practical/pedagogical 80s, in the the stylistics

defensive strategies had been mapped out generally along the lines of conceptual definition and deductive methodization. The Style Conference at Indiana University in 1958, the proceedings of which were published in Sebeok (ed. )(1960), was symbolic, though it treated too many aspects of style for a single conference, and consequently ended up with discursive or even chaotic disputes, in that it sought to lay a common basis for interdisciplinary arguments on the much-discussed concept of 'style' by defining it in some way or other. After this time, 'style', or rather its definition, was the major concern of stylistics as its supposedly central notion up to the 70s, when people simply stopped talking about it, largely because the notion turned out to be too ambiguous and complex for any scientific definition. Around that time concern gradually shifted to the definition of 'stylistics' itself. Here again there appeared as many definitions as those of style, though this time they somehow shared the general idea that stylistics is a linguistic study of literary discourse - an agreement which after Since discipline. in time discussions the the the not worth about was and energy all spent all the 80s, its definition has been sought in its subcategorization according to linguistic models, analytical frameworks, subject matters, aims of analysis, or whatever specifies its diverse 2

theoretical positions. This definitional practice has led to its overall nomenclatural proliferation dozen notions than two more methodologically, 'literary', 'linguistic', 'expressive', 'pedagogical', purposively, have been presented so far to classify, the schools or principles whether

or ideologically,

of stylistics:

'structural', 'formalist', 'generative', 'functional', 'general', 'affective', 'statistical', 'critical', 'computational', 'cognitive', 'new', 'radical', 'feminist', 'practical', 'ethical',

'processing', 'discourse',

'lexical',

'contextualized', 'political', 'social' or'socio-',

'psycho-', 'phono-', etc. This phenomenon is

further complicated by the fact that a number of stylistic studies have been undertaken under the name of the related disciplines: narratology, proliferation linguistics, poetics, semantics, semiology, criticism, forth. and so semiotics,

discourse analysis, linguistic

The nomenclatural self-

of stylistics, brought about partly by need and partly by stylisticians'

consciousness, is one of the primary reasons for confusion within the discipline, and it is necessary to examine closely the validity of the subcategorical framework and its classificatory notions to see what stylistics has been all about. The theoretical and nomenclatural proliferation of stylistics I mentioned above may mislead us into believing that it has investigated the whole range of language-literature relationships at almost all grammatical and textual levels. However, a bird's-eye view of the history of its theoretical development reveals its general propensity to descriptive, as opposed to prescriptive, and structural theorization, which is the premise of modern linguistics and New Criticism, and at the same time its persistent disregard for practical processes of creative writing. Strangely

enough, stylistics has never taken up the popular idea of style, as can be seen in those books such as Stylebook or How to Write in Style, as an exemplary or refined way of writing, or the idea presented by ancient rhetoric, one of its remotest ancestors, of effective verbal creation. There seems to be no special reason why stylistics should reject the idea of literary creation through linguistic analysis and stylistic selection, and in this thesis I explore the possibility of 3

applying the methodologies of stylistics to textual creation, especially in literary contexts.

Chapter 1 of this thesis gives a historical survey of stylistics to show that it has been mostly concerned with the analysis and description of completed texts. Since this partiality to

descriptivism is largely determined by the way stylistics has developed in the contexts of theoretical dissociation between modern linguistics and critical theories, we have to pay special attention to the relationship between stylistics and the other two disciplines as well as to the cause of its departure from them. Stylistics cannot be fully understood, if at all, until the historical dynamics of academic disintegration and unification relevant to its formation are The have disputes discipline to d'etre past the this examined. closely seem about of raison lacked this historical point of view. For convenience sake, I dissect its history mostly along geographical borders, though the dissection is sometimes difficult because of the multinational academic activities of such influential cosmopolitan scholars as Jakobson, Halliday, or Toolan, and all the more so recently for the worldwide academic interchange through conferences and editorial collaboration. It will be necessary, in the course of the historical review and later in Chapter 4, to refer to ancient poetics and rhetoric or the classic trichotomy of styles, but the main scope of this chapter is from the early twentieth century to the present day. Chapter 2 considers what stylistics has been all about by taking a close look at the problems of disciplinary definitions - what is 'style'?; what is 'stylistics'? - and theoretical arguments, both self justificatory and critical. My basic position throughout the chapter, indeed throughout

the whole thesis, is one of scepticism concerning rigid scientific definition and theorization. I believe that no study of language can be a science, if science means a purely objective and systematic study of some phenomenon, without ignoring, as in the case of generative grammar, a great deal of the linguistic activities actually made with reference to their relevant contexts of imperfect is Language tool for representing reality, and no word or phrase can be an situation. 4

an exact synonym for another; therefore, as a conclusion of a simple syllogism, metalanguage from linguistic is tries to twice reality. represent phenomena removed which By the same

token, I am also critical of the clear definition of the term 'style' as a basis of stylistics. So long as exact synonymy is impossible except in tautology, the act of definition inevitably creates a binary opposition in a defined semantic entity: if you define something by notion A, then at the very moment, by a simple logic, the part of non-A in the 'something' is automatically cut off. Therefore, problematization of the conceptual precision of a definition quite often leads to the futile argument about its inevitable inaccuracy and inadequacy. Since no concept can be

understood only through cyclical, endless verbal definition, a scientific definition of any basic framework be is impossible. I that of metalinguistic not concept nearly stylistics should argue systematized according to the strict definition of 'style', its putative object of study, just as linguistics, sociology, or cosmology, for example, are not determined according to the

definitions of 'language', 'society', and 'universe'. Chapter 2 also discusses how stylistics has been subcategorized by means of such arbitrary concepts as I listed earlier on and how the nomenclatural proliferation has made it look more complicated than it really is. The problem of this subcategorization is that those classificatory concepts are neither contradictory nor complementary, but to a great extent unrelated to each other, and do not make a legitimate framework. Stylistics, together with its theoretical and

ideological partiality, will not be fully understood unless this problem is solved, and the solution will be sought, in Chapter 3, in the rearrangement of diverse stylistic principles. Chapter 2 also considers three of the major theoretical problems concerning stylistics: the definition of 'literary' language, Stanley Fish's attack on stylistics, and the positioning of 'interpretation' in stylistic analysis. Chapter 3 rearranges the various principles in a more clear-cut and of stylistics

comprehensible framework. This is not, I hasten to add, another attempt at self justificatory 5

theorization; one piece of excellent analysis would serve the purpose better than a whole volume of theories. My true intentions are to locate and remove the causes of the accumulative

from business discipline the the that to the of stylistician of so we set main complication can now on without wasting any time or page in reviewing them, and at the same time to show again that stylistics has had a theoretical and ideological partiality, in spite of its seemingly universal outlook and wide-ranging concerns, in its selection of texts, language for academic for basic premises analytical practice. presentation, or What I look to for a basic idea for rearranging stylistic principles are the purposes of stylistic analysis - at least of the past stylistic studies - which can be roughly classified into three groups: stylistic analysis may be made for the purpose of testing the validity of linguistic theories for discourse, literary the purpose of getting a better understanding of literature, or for against the purpose of sharpening the linguistic learners. language awareness and sensitivity of

According to this criterion of purpose, all past stylistic studies can be categorized into linguistic, literary or pedagogical stylistics, not always distinctly, of course, because many of them have more than one purpose, in which case we still can categorize them according to their points of emphasis or basic orientations. However, when we glance over the whole field of exchange between language and literature, we find one particular area which, though vigorously even in by looked Renaissance to times the cultivated way of as well as at ancient now and also prescriptive handbook-like writing instructions, is completely left out of the purview of stylistics: verbal or literary creation. Therefore, besides those three types of stylistics

mentioned above, I propose the fourth - creative stylistics - which takes up the classic viewpoint of rhetoric and proceeds, unlike any other description-oriented structuralist theories, from intention to textual creation. This discipline will be fully theorized and demonstrated later in Chapters 4 and 5. Chapter 3 also shows how the three traditional stylistic theories typically work, inevitably on 6

the assumption of descriptive linguistics and structural literary criticism, when applied to the from Woolf's I Virginia discourses. texts use passages writings to or analysis of specific demonstrate the three disciplines, with special attention to the ways they represent or exploit the process of cognition, to make the differences in their orientations more conspicuous. The linguistic theory I have chosen for illustrating the analytical practice of linguistic stylistics is

is to and now well on cognitive grammar,which emergedas an antithesis generativegrammar

its way to rapid development as an efficient framework for tracing our cognitive pattern from the way we use language. I apply this theory to an analysis of Woolf s 'A Sketch of the Past', in Dalloway first Mrs her the to order to see paragraph of autobiographical essays, and one of how it is also efficient in explaining the relationship between the author's characteristic cognitive pattern and the syntactic, lexico-semantic, and metaphorical structures in her writing. '*Fo demonstrate the practice of literary stylistics, I analyze the dinner scene in Chapter 17 of To the Lighthouse by means of Mick Short's model of speech and thought presentation, which is (relevant to the textual structure of the novel. I adopt this model to show how Woolf put her literary credo - that the novel should describe 'life' which is happening more fully in our mind than in the outside world - into practice with careful linguistic calculation. The pedagogicalThe Waves, illustrates, Woolfs linguistic the procedure of with a analysis of section stylistics using literary works in the language classroom for the purpose of sensitizing the students to the function of language. So far as the idea of cognition is concerned, my demonstrations of the three types of descriptive stylistics focus respectively on the author's, the characters', and the readers' cognition. Chapter 4 presents my new idea of creative stylistics, which is designed to help the author For intentions literary them the her that his on and realize page. of or cognition organize traditional theories of the models stylistics and the and combines stylistics purpose. creative institutionalization in the the idea contexts of recent of rhetorical verbal creation classical of

has Traditional English. the spent so much time stylistics globalization of writing and creative little but literary, texts, paid attention to the entities, as mostly autonomous semantic analyzing fact that there were as many creative processes as there were authors. It is largely because of the Romantic belief, still influential in aesthetic appreciation, that artistic creation is a product of imagination, inspiration, or mental activity which is assumedly inexplicable in logical terms. Theorization of creative stylistics, therefore, should start by challenging this belief with the literary heavily is The that on the creation relies counter-argument not a mystery. argument traditional idea of rhetoric which has treated verbal creation as an art to be acquired and is in its prescriptive approach to discourse. essentially In building up the theory of creative stylistics, I would again take a cognitive approach, integrating the different ideas of cognition demonstrated in Chapter 3, to the linguistic and literary of phenomena creation. I thereby try to theorize the creative process in terms of stylistic the author's 'creative language awareness', which is to be tested phase by phase against the checklist of stylistic elements conventionally discussed from the descriptive point of view. However, we have to bear it in mind that, throughout the whole process of textual creation, the text does not always go as the author likes. Indeed, no matter how meticulously designed, no matter how carefully written, the completed text may conve something quite different from the intention. literary This is it original merit or an author's extra effect - whether an additional unexpected textual defect - still counts as a legitimate value of the completed text. It should be emphasized in this context that the New Critical idea of the autonomy of text, though

in inexplicable in is therefore terms, and out creative stylistics. not ruled unpredictable practical Chapter 4 also discusses the cross-cultural implication of creative stylistics, which is designed to help non-native, as well as native, users of English to express their cultural identity creatively.

Chapter 5 illustrates creative stylistics as a selective and creative processthrough which

8

literary intentions and stylistic variants on different levels of grammar converge into the final form of the text. In order to demonstrate the process, it is absolutely essential to know the author's intentions before the text is finally composed -a condition extremely difficult to fulfill unless I can to be the author - and this required me actually to write a piece of literary work, which finally shaped itself as a short story about the training and practice of Zen Buddhism, according to the selective and creative procedure I set up for myself. I will not refer to all of the stylistic elements listed in the previous chapter, simply because some of them are irrelevant to my particular work. This chapter also demonstrates the pedagogical use of this theory in a language classroom. Finally, I conclude the whole argument by suggesting that creative stylistics will fully descriptive traditional complement stylistics and open up a new field in linguistico-literary study and pedagogy, even exploiting the possibility of breaking down the native/non-native

in literary study and creation. opposition

Throughout these chapters, my argument develops as follows (bold-face indicates the key notions): (Ch. 1) Stylistics has been quite often misunderstood as an offshoot from linguistics and literary criticism, but it actually is a discipline which initially emerged as a mediator

between those two fields of study in the historical and theoretical dynamics of their dissociation and respective specialization. (Ch. 1-2) The rapid development of stylistics, brought about partly by the globalization of English, has made stylisticians keenly aware of the shaky ground of its theoretical basis and driven them into various attempts at defining their discipline only to make it more and more complicated.

(Ch. 1-2) My historical and theoretical survey suggests that the complication lies partly
9

in the academic dynamics of its development and more importantly in the way it has been defined and subcategorized according to arbitrary notions. (Ch. 2-3) Re-classification and re-arrangement of pre-established stylistic theories show us that traditional stylistics, despite its seemingly wide-ranging concerns, has become more descriptively criticism. (Ch. 3-4) If stylistics is to be more comprehensive and constructive in its research into the relationship between language and literature, it needs to take up the idea of rhetoric with its prescriptive orientation and theorize the way an addresser goes through the oriented under the influence of modern linguistics and literary

process of stylistic choices to create a text. (Ch. 3-4) In building up the theory of creative is given by the idea of human cognition, stylistics, another theoretical support

an idea which has drawn more and more

attention in linguistics and can also be incorporated into traditional linguistic, literary, and pedagogical stylistics. (Ch. 4-5) Creative stylistics not only helps literary authors to find creative awareness language

but, it is hoped, also encourages non-native English users to express their

cultural identity creatively and enables students of English to sensitize themselves to the language.

10

CHAPTER

HISTORY

OF STYLISTICS

1.1 GENERAL

OUTLINE

In order to clear the ground for my argument, I am first going to give a historical survey of has it been how in developed theoretical the contexts of rapidly specific and show stylistics dissociation between modern 'descriptive' linguistics and literary studies, and at the same time how it has prospered largely in the form of 'English' stylistics. history discipline, the of a very selective giving important. I consider problems The study of verbal art dates back to ancient Greece and Rome where rhetoric, with special emphasis on oratory, the art of composing as well as delivering a speech, was a major subject of specialist study. In literary composition also, classic rhetoric developed the idea of genre style, which was later sophisticated into a set of three different styles - grand (high or elevated) style, middle style and plain (low) style - and this was most influential through the Renaissance to the eighteenth century. Although in this work I am not tracing the history of stylistics so deeply into the past, I should like to draw attention to its ancestry to make it clear that stylistics is not a latecomer on the academic scene, that it did not occur as a result of the development of linguistics and literary criticism. Language and literature have always been there, inseparably intertwined, and stylistics was only highlighted as a discipline concerned with the organic for, literary linguistics longer their whole and as a criticism grasp could no entity which fields Still, deny influences two these the specialization. no one neighbouring can respective had in it have its indeed, formation theoretical upon stylistics or reformation; was of study linguistics that provided the first incentive for traditional style studies to shape themselves into linguistic the from though from differ theories to relevant stylistics, country country, modern school to school. 12 I am well aware that I am

but this is because the focus is on the

Struturallinguistics,.

which had the greatest impact on the twentieth-century humanities in

in formation different helped development the theoretical of stylistics academic and also general, ways. At the most fundamental level, the Saussurean biplanar model of signification -

his dichotomy between langue the on with emphasis and parole signifie and and signifiant former as a subject of linguistics led to the idea that linguistics could be a science of natural language as a system of signs, and at the same time negatively specified those linguistic its highly in individual, those artificial and scope, especially outside occurring phenomena discipline, for be later to another which called stylistics. was writings, artistic At a more

linguistics birth linguistic level, theories to gave ands structural of range a wide concrete
grammatical models, which provided a whole set of analytical tools for stylistics.

Structuralism also played a central part in the development of French stylistics, firstly through Bally's stylistique, which, however, still stayed with the Saussurean idea of langue, focusing French of as a system rather than on the style of any particular piece of on the affective aspect in introduced Russian-Formalist-Jakobsonian combination with secondly poetics writing, and Todorov Garvin. the France through of works and to No less important in the theoretical formation of stylistics is the tradition of philology in Germany. The characteristic feature of the German school of style study, represented by Vossler, Spitzer, and Auerbach, is its wide purview covering the whole tradition of Western literature as a verbal manifestation of Western mind. Though it did not step out of the

historical linguistics in its analytical practice, its stance towards of traditional methodology both linguistics and literature (or'literary flexibility and of neutrality history' in Spitzer's framework) represents the kind

which stylistics should always retain for efficient functioning: circle', above all, can be seen as a basic methodological

Spitzer's idea of the 'philological descriptive stylistics. of principle

Although the institutional formation of stylistics is a fairly recent phenomenon, Britain has 13

has been long tradition study, which characteristically stylistic mostly concerned with the of a literature. One in language has the and study of reasons why stylistic prospered teaching of Britain may be traced partly to the emphasis on empirical study which has been typical of the British. Britain have not produced such highly could theorized reading strategies as

Deconstruction or New Historicism;

this country has consistently and confidently taken a

down-to-earth view of the world, which was realized, in the reading of literature, as a downfor literary it values. There is also a political reason: colonialism to-text search, as were, in in language English the the the the to of world position most widely used elevated imperialist jargon'world (or international) language' - and this has inevitably destined Britain to English has been to teaching education, which of provide methods required centre as a operate English language from learning to to various stages of cover study primary materials and intermediate literary and education study, at a wide stage where the study of advanced language is not necessarily distinct from that of literature. This partly explains the pedagogical is but it domestic British to the also closely stylistics, situation of the study of related nature of English literature preceding the emergence of this new discipline. It is significant that the taking

in literature late implicitly English the started a subject nineteenth as century study of

linguistic formerly by different traditions: the pedagogical two undertaken education over formerly by the and philology, and moral education undertaken religion. classical rhetoric however, functions, These two pedagogical soon turned out to be contradictory, and after in Richards's into temporary themselves two theory, combination critical shaped a attaining different modes of reading - literary style-study and Leavisite moralism - which helped the theoretical negatively. formation of stylistics in two different ways, one positively and the other

(All through this time up to the present, there has always been the tradition of

English literature, by Ian Helen Gardner, Tillotsons, Jack, historical of the study as more Glynn Wickham, etc., but this thesis does not touch on this historical school, which is 14

irrelevant to my argument. ) Generally speaking, the main stream of British stylistics derived from this tradition of by Fithian in 60s It joined the and and pedagogical style study. was reading empirical close highly became, linguistics though temporarily, consequently a scientific or and neo-Firthian discipline. pseudo-scientific It then shifted slightly towards more intuitive and appreciative

but itself, just Leavisite literary the time to texts, at same settle rejected orthodoxy, reading of in the middle between linguistics and literary criticism, as practical or pedagogical stylistics. This new discipline has expanded, and is still expanding its territory firstly into the theoretical field of stylistic study, secondly into language and literature teaching, and thirdly and most in the ESL and EFL contexts. English into studies recently And in this process, it has

incorporated other traditions of stylistics - or at least Western stylistics - by the unifying force linguafranca. This 'stylistics' today English partly quite often academic explains why an as of but is between discipline link for there the 'English the another reason stylistics', close means English literature, language: losing its danger the this now confronted with of particular and imperialism, identity British to English the globalization owing of of as a result own cultural for restructuring its system in a hierarchy of English studies with desperately needs a principle literature foreign language British the English top the teaching at and as a at the of the study of bottom. Stylistics, with its wide range of concern from language to literature, its with or

language literature happens inseparable, to the and that of studies are provide such a premise its liberal, theoretically ironically against anti-imperialistic principle, approach to culture.

Such being the case, it seems useful to investigate the most recent idea of 'literature(s) in English' to fully evaluate the achievements of English stylistics.

1.2

FRENCH SCHOOL
15

Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique gdndrale, or more precisely his lectures which by his disciples, edited and finally published under the title opened the door to a were recorded His linguistics. greatest contribution to language study was the introduction of the new era of idea, later to be called 'structuralism', that language is a system of arbitrary signs governed by idea birth laws, the to a variety of linguistic models and theories. These which gave universal models and theories provided stylistics with analytical tools, but this positive methodological important discipline German to the so was not our contribution school of stylistics, as we will is how in its in 1.4, stylistics possible shows own way without structuralist linguistics - as see his geneial -idea of what linguistics is all about. Saussure's definition of linguistics as the langue, the system of communication, inevitably highlighted the need of another of study discipline which is capable of dealing with what it left out, that is the study of parole, the behaviour individuals in speaking and writing. or performance verbal of specific The founding father of the French school of stylistics is Charles Bally who co-edited Cours de linguisticgdnerale with Albert Sechehaye. Bally had a clear idea what he should do under the name of stylistics, or stylistique: Stylistics studies the elements of a language organized from the point of view of their is, that the expression of emotions by language as well as the effect of affective content; language on the emotions. (Bally, 1909: 16) As is suggested in this passage, the expression of emotions or'expressivity' does not occur as

a part of parole with reference to a particular situation but realizes itself in the whole expressive langue, the system of similarities and dissimilarities of expressive signs. Hence the of system idea of synonymity, which implies the ideas of similarity and dissimilarity at the same time, in Bally's a role stylistics, as he argues: crucial plays

16

The investigation of the intellectual and affective characteristics of particular expressions is nothing but a comprehensive study of synonymy, in the broadest sense of the term. (Bally, 1909: 140) For example, he traces the stylistic difference between the two French words 'fragile' and 'freie', synonymous with each other, both originating in the Latin word 'fragilis', to the time lag of their formation: the former, lexicalized earlier and therefore closer in form to their formal domesticated'frele'. important The than the thing to note entirely more sounds etymon, here is that this stylistic phenomenon occurs not in some particular context of literary writing but in the whole system of the French language. Indeed, Bally excluded the study of literary language from his concern, and in this respect his theory, which was the first to take up the is different ironically from by is later be quite the same name (for to what called stylistics, name Taylor, 1980). structural detailed of stylistics, see explanation a J. Marouzeau and Marcel Cressot applied Bally's stylistics to literature (see Maroseau, 1946; Cressot, 1947), but their studies were still concerned mainly with the way the structure of French presents itself in literary writings. It was not until the 1960s that the structural study of literature started in France, clearly marked by a single work by Roman Jakobson and Claude Levi-Strauss (Jakobson and Levi-Strauss, 1962), though often under some other names than in France time this description and especially the at which meant scientific of stylistics, linguistic features of literature, as Tzvetan Todorov (presumably with Chatman, 1972 in mind) explains: Linguistic broad (in the analysis sense, including stylistics, or "pragmatics, " etc. )

distinguishes the true from the false: whatever the critical point of view, it is admitted that the subjects of sentences in the prose of the later Henry James are by preference abstract favors intransitive this that writer verbs or negation; the pluralist has nothing to nouns; say on this matter.

17

(Todorov, 1981: xxix) Interestingly, what Todorov covers under the name of poetics is much closer to what we now generally call stylistics: Poetics breaks down the symmetry thus established between interpretation and science in the field of literary studies. In contradiction to the interpretation of particular works, it does not seek to name meaning, but aims at a knowledge of the general laws that preside But in birth the work. of each contra-distinction over to such sciences as psychology, Poetics is therefore an

it laws literature these itself. seeks etc., within sociology, "abstract" literature to at once and "internal. " approach

It is not the literary work itself that is the object of poetics: what poetics questions are the properties of that particular discourse that is literary discourse. Each work is

therefore regarded only as the manifestation of an abstract and general structure, of which it is but one of the possible realizations. Whereby this science is no longer concerned

but literature, with a possible literature in other words, with that abstract with actual property that constitutes the singularity of the literary phenomenon: literariness. The goal longer is to articulate a paraphrase, a descriptive resume of the concrete this no study of but functioning theory to the a propose of structure and of literary discourse, a work, theory that affords a list of literary possibilities, so that existing literary works appear as achieved particular cases. (Todorov, above : 6-7) He does not confine the purview of his poetics to poetry but builds up the whole system of literary text, different levels literary any setting of up analysis several or aspects of structural discourse: i. the semantic aspect, ii. registers of discourse, iii. the verbal aspect (mode, time), iv. the verbal aspect (perspective, voice), v. the syntactic aspect (structures of the text), vi. the (narrative (specifications syntax), the and vii. aspect syntactic and reactions) aspect syntactic 18

(Todorov, above: 13-58). Influenced greatly by the Russian Formalists and Bakhtin as well, Todorov's approach to literary text is far more dynamic, macroscopic (see, for example, his discussion in 'ii registers of discourse' about how Diderot's Jacques leFataliste is 'polyvalent' is, relying heavily on what we now call intertextuality - in explicitly invoking Tristram that Shandy) and 'discoursal', to use the terminology successors. Roland Barthes made a semiotic approach to literature, and further to cultural phenomena in S/Z (1970) he in five different literary discourse For the classifies of example, codes general. hermeneutic, (cultural) (actional), semic, symbolic and codes - and referential proairetic Balzac's'Sarrazine' describes Barthes (1981) to the according classification. rather analyzes or in dividing into Poe's demar' 'Val basically the the text method same of small segments, adopts 'lexias' in Barthes's terminology, consisting of sentences, parts of a sentence, or a group of for lexia 'the lexia four to that each and observes which sentences, meanings gives three or he declares that this approach is not 'stylistic', by which word he seems to Although rise'. indicate a simple observation of grammatical structures and vocabulary, his analysis is idea important feature by textural the the of narrative whole structure, with an concerned in holistic theories their of stylistics, which and are getting more recent more of standard discourse. In this light, we can even see Barthes (1953) as a work of textual to approach in its remarkable observation that writing reflects the ideology of the especially stylistics, belongs. the author to which society This new trend of formalist or semiotic analysis of literature introduced by Jakobson, Gerard Genette, by later Barthes, Todorov, who built a comprehensive theory of narrative in 1983), 1972; (Genette, and a slightly different way by Michael Riffaterre, the discourse in France (Riffaterre, theory reader-response champion of 1966; 1978), joined the main of recent stylistics, than Bally and his

This tradition I have French discussed above was more concerned stylistics. as of tradition 19

with the rhetorical use of language as a whole or with the classification of different approaches to 'style', as, for example, can be seen partly in Pierre Guiraud's work (Guiraud, 1954), than with the stylistic features of some specific literary work, the main object of study in the other The joining European stylistics. of schools of these two schools of French stylistics, if we can Todorov, Barthes, by theories the and Genette by the name, is symbolically marked by the call former Guiraud two the and of attendance at the Villa Serbelloni Symposium on Literary Style (Chatman, ed. 1971) in the collaborative pursuit of a common basis of stylistic argument, though Guiraud looked upon the two traditions as antagonistic to each other. Present-day stylistics is divided into large antagonistic tendencies or schools: traditional stylistics, originating with Bally, and a new stylistics, which is derived from Prague Structuralism by way of Jakbbson. Both define style as the specific form of the text, but the first group looks for a source for its definition in a study of the stylistic properties of the code, while the second looks for it in a description of the internal structures of the message. (Guiraud, 1971a) Whether antagonistic or not, these two schools seem to have diverted from each other after the upheaval of stylistic arguments in the 70's, or the Formalist-Jakobsonian diverted from the main course to join literary criticism. school simply

French stylistics thereby has resumed

its traditional pursuit, though this time more organic and systematic, of the rhetorical structures discourse its literary or of old affiliation with the tradition of close reading, or explicationde texte (see de Boissieu et Garagnon, 1987; Fromilhague et Sancier-Chateau, 1991; GardesTamine, 1992; Bacry, 1992; Bellard-Thomson, Peyroutet, 1994). 1992; Pierrot, 1993; Maingueneau, 1993;

20

1.3

RUSSIAN-FORMALIST

JAKOBSONIAN

SCHOOL

1.3.1

Russian Formalism

language beginning of The of the twentieth century witnessed the upsurge of structural study historical from the of to the point traditional literature, texts a reaction as study of mainly and in Formalism idea literature. form In Russia Romantic which the this took of the of to or view itself was partly a reaction to Symbolism. Victor Shklovsky, the leading figure of the OPOJAZ Symbolism (1917), in Shklovsky towards the of manifesto antagonism expressed group, Russian Formalism: 'Imagistic thought does not, in any case, include all the aspects of art nor development A in imagery is to the of the art. change of verbal essential not aspects all even poetry'. But the most important idea he presented in this article was the idea of

'defamiliarization' (originally ostranenie in Russian): The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as forms ' 'unfamiliar, The to known. is technique make they are to make objects of art difficult, to increase the difficulty because the length process of perception and of Art is a way of

is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. perception experiencing the artfulness of an object; the object is not important.

Art removes objects from the automatism of perception in several ways. Shklovsky (above) He illustrates this idea by analyzing extracts from works by Tolstoy, Gogol, Pushkin, Spencer, and some anonymous texts of legends, with special attention to the way familiar objects are

21

defamiliarized deautomatized This idea in in led turn or each extract. artistically and artificially 'foregrounding' School's Prague of concept the to stylistics. In sharp contrast to this chiefly lexical approach to the descriptive system of literary texts, Vladimir Propp, who was neither exactly a member of the Moscow Linguistic Circle nor of the OPOJAZ group but who has been conventionally treated as a Russian Formalist, focused on the folktale individual (Propp, 1968). the with of units smallest episodes as structures macroscopic Propp's work pioneered the study of the structure of narrative, which was later to be the (see, for example, Holloway, 1979; Eco, 1994). territory stylistics of outermost and further to deviational theories of

1.3.2

Roman

Jakobson

Roman Jakobson, the founder of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and cofounder of OPOJAZ, the Linguistic Circle Circle of New York, was the central figure in each the Linguistic and Prague internationalization to the the contributor greatest of stylistics. circle and Gaining insight into

in his Moscow period, he always had a consuming the through of poetry language study interest in the structure of poetic language throughout his life. From the early stage of his career, he had approached poetry in terms of different linguistic functions. Jakobson (1971), the translation of the unpublished Czech text of the lecture

in 1935, University begins with a brief summary of the achievements of Masaryk delivered at Russian Formalism: The first three stages of Formalist research have been briefly characterized as follows: (1) analysis of the sound aspects of a literary work; (2) problems of meaning within the framework of poetics; (3) integration of sound and meaning into an inseparable whole.

22

During this latter stage, the concept of the dominant was particularly fruitful; it was one Formalist in Russian the theory. elaborated, and crucial, productive most concepts of The dominant may be defined as the focusing component of a work of art: it rules, determines, and transforms the remaining components. integrity the of the structure. guarantees His recognition of the aesthetic function as the 'dominant' of a poetic work leads him to distinguish between two different functions of language - referential and expressive - and further to explain poetic language, which is 'often quite erroneously identified [with emotive language]', not as something distinctive, but as presenting the verbal message with the aesthetic function as a dominant, inevitably with more devices of expressive language than in other forms of language. This theory is elaborated in Jakobson (1960) with his famous diagrammatic factors of verbal communication: the constitutive six of explanation It is the dominant which

ADDRESSER

CONTEXT MESSAGE CONTACT CODE

ADDRESSEE

With this diagram as a basic theoretical framework, he explains the poetic function of language, importantly, not as a special feature of poetry but as a function which takes charge of the factor in type any occurs possibly of verbal communication: and message of The set (Einstellung) toward the message as such, focus on the message for its own sake, is the POETIC function of language. This function cannot be productively studied out of touch with the general problems of language, and, on the other hand, the scrutiny of language requires a thorough consideration of its poetic function. Any attempt to reduce the sphere of the poetic function to poetry or to confine poetry to the poetic function would be a delusive oversimplification. The poetic function is not the sole function of

23

verbal art but only its dominant, determining function, whereas in all other verbal activities it acts as a subsidiary, accessory constituent. This function, by promoting the deepens fundamental dichotomy of signs and objects. Hence, the signs, of palpability function, dealing linguistics cannot limit itself to the field of poetry. the poetic with when Jakobson goes on to arrange the six functions of language, which correspond to the

diagrammatic in the elements six constitutive of communication, same way: aforementioned

EMOTIVE

REFERENTIAL POETIC PHATIC METALINGUAL

CONATIVE

This idea, which tries to define the poetic nature of language in terms of the proportion of function as the dominant, was a breakthrough in that form of functions, the poetic with verbal the study of literary style that traditionally takes the language of literature as its main target. It leads to the recent idea of non-generic'literariness'. Another important idea Jakobson put forward concerning the poetic nature of language is the 'equivalence' between selection and combination: 'The poetic function projects the principle of into from (Jakoboson, This the the of selection axis axis of combination' above). equivalence be by 'paradigm' 'syntagm', familiar terms simply explained can another pair of of and pair linguistics, in structural terms but the idea underlying this proposition is profound and

here suggests that poetic language makes sense both in its meaning and in Jakobson revealing: its form, especially phonetic or phonological form; that it conveys a certain literary meaning and to This is he time overall prosodic conforms tried to show through the the rules. same what at famous literary (see Jakobson, 1970; Jakobson 1977; of some analysis structural pieces close "vi-Strauss, and 1962).

24

1.3.3

Prague Linguistic

Circle

The activities of the Prague Linguistic Circle, or the Prague School as it is commonly called, by West this to the the school articles until of representative collection unknown were relatively Garvin by Garvin (Garvin, 1964). that the clearly shows ed., translated published and was Prague School took over the tradition of Formalist study of language and literature as well as (de)automatization. Russian Formalism dominant the basic and terminologies of such as the foregrounding idea is Formalist this to the the tradition school of The greatest contribution of (originally Czech), in a more positive theorization aktualisace of deautomatization as a

linguistic device. Havrnek explains the idea as follows: By foregrounding, on the other hand, we mean the use of the devices of the language in such a way that this use itself attracts attention and is perceived as uncommon, as deprived of automatization, as deautomatized, such as a live poetic metaphor (as opposed is lexicalized which automatized). one, to a (Garvin, ed., above: 10) Or, according to Mukarovsky: The function of poetic language consists in the maximum of foregrounding of the

is is, deautomatization Foregrounding the that the opposite of automatization, utterance. is less it is it is the the the automatized, an act more more consciously executed; of an act; foregrounded, the more completely conscious does it become. Objectively speaking: foregrounding an event; schematizes means the violation of the scheme. automatization The standard language in its purest form, as the language of science with formulation as its objective, avoids foregrounding [aktualisace]: thus, a new expression, foregrounded

25

because of its newness, is immediately automatized in a scientific treatise by an exact definition of its meaning. Foregrounding is, of course, common in the standard

language, for instance, in journalistic style, even more in essays. But here it is always its (listener's) is to to the communication: purpose attract reader's attention subordinate more closely to the subject matter expressed by the foregrounded means of expression. (Garvin, ed., above: 19) One noticeable difference between Jakobson's and Mukarovsky's language is that the former does not differentiate ideas about poetic

it from other forms of language, as we

latter does. 'Poetic language is Mukarovsky in the the while section, argues: previous surveyed language different function from ' (Garvin, form that the different with a standard. of of ed. a between poetic language and standard language is a direct This 26). opposition above: inheritance from Saussurean structuralism and is later to be problematized or even denied by stylistics.

1.4

GERMAN SCHOOL

1.4.1

Vossler

In sharp contrast to French stylistics, which started from the positivistic study of language as a for has in German has find text, tried sought to always a structure and stylistics signs of system in line thought or some characteristic of pattern of mentality a certain group of texts. a coherent Largely influenced by Croce's aesthetics, the whole tradition of German idealism, and more

26

directly by Hugo Schuchardt's idea of 'word-people (Wortmenschen)', is intuitivistic

in its

initial reading of text, mentalistic or idealistic in its analytical practice, and collectivistic in its final interpretation of text within the broad contexts of language community and its cultural heritage (see Vossler, 1932). Karl Vossler, who was a direct successor to Schuchardt, began his career by studying Italian poetry and thence shifted his interest to French and Spanish literature. He took an antiliterature, individual language idea to the and of rejecting correspondence of positivist approach linguistic facts and other tangible phenomena, and tried to interpret linguistic facts as a textual higher in Die For order or some collective gttliche mind. example, manifestation of some Komdie, he explained the language of Dante's Piero as representing the bureaucracy of Dante's time. To Vossler, language is not an object to be examined or analyzed piece by piece but an organic representation of one collective mind.

1.4.2

Spitzer

Leo Spitzer, another disciple of Schuchardt, is quite often discussed together with Vossler, Vossler-Spitzer School, but he is rather cautious, or even the the of name under sometimes Vosslerian literature directly the to the whole the of relating way whole of a national of critical 'more language, he himself, 'with the question: starts modestly', and as writes of a national "Can one distinguish the soul of a particular French writer in his particular language? "' (Forcione et. al. eds., 1988: 13). He covers such a wide a range of language and literary studies - Romance philology, historical linguistics, semantics, literary history, and literary criticism - that it is difficult to sum So far is for is famous his he his as stylistics activities. exclusively concerned, academic all up 27

idea, now widely acknowledged, of the 'philological circle'. This can be simply explained as a hypothesis, between linguistic but be movement analysis and explanation, critical may constant in framework his fully the whole understood of assumptions and principles, some of more displayed in his most representative essay 'Linguistics and Literary compactly which are History' (Spitzer, 1948: 1-39): There is no mathematical demonstrability in such an equation [between conundrum and quandary = calembredaine], only a feeling of inner evidence; but this feeling, with the trained linguist, is the fruit of observation combined with experience, of precision imagination by dosage fixed but be the in which cannot of a only priori, supplemented the concrete case.

Stylistics, I thought, might bridge the gap between linguistics and literary history.

But, of course, the attempt to discover significance in the detail, the habit of taking a detail of language as seriously as the meaning of a work of art - or, in other words, the attitude which seesall manifestations of man as equally serious - this is an out growth of the pre-established firm conviction, the "axiom, " of the philologian, that details are not an inchoate, chance aggregation of dispersed material through which no light shines.

Perhaps I should make it clear that I am using the word "method" in a manner from American common aberrant somewhat use: it is for me much more a "habitual "program than the mind" a of regulating beforehand a series of operations procedure ... in view of reaching a well-defined result. "

This first step is the awareness of having been struck by a detail, followed

by a

28

is it detail has basically that this the that connected art; means one with of work conviction is been has "observation" the that theory, which a one starting point of an made find to a question which must raise an answer. prompted -

And the capacity for this feeling is, again, deeply anchored in the previous life and in in keep his his to the and not only critic, order soul of scholarly education: education he have in his his life, for task must scholarly ordering already made choices, of ready I what would call a moral nature; ... His method, depending initially on intuition and further on interpretative sensitivity, or what he calls an 'inner click', was bitterly criticized by the Yale school of linguists and simply ignored through the late 60s and the 70s when stylistics sought to establish itself as a science of describing literary texts. However, after the attack by Fish (see 233) of excessive claims to from 80s, its the especially practical/pedagogical stylistics, readjusted stylistics objectivity, inevitable due to the attention position with 1.5.5). (see appreciation role of intuition in literary evaluation and

1.4.3

Auerbach

Erich Auerbach, like Spitzer, his immediate predecessor, was forced into exile by Hitler's dictatorial regime and, after spending some time in Istanbul, during which he completed Mimesis (1953), amazingly with very limited resources, went to the United States to teach at Professor Sterling University of Romance Languages. We can see the compressed Yale as in his the by above-mentioned texts scholarship of masterpiece, which examines representation Tacitus, Petronius, Homer, St Augustine, St Francis, Dante, Boccaccio, as writers such

29

Rabelais, Montaigne, Saint-Simon, Goethe, Schiller, Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, Proust, and Virginia Woolf to explain, as its subtitle declares, how Western literature has tried to represent 'reality' in many different ways. Noticeably, he adopts at least three different analytical frameworks, apparently unrelated to each other, to detect respective target elements in the text: time shift or the ordering of events, the arrangement and mixing of high, middle and low styles, free Rede (represented technique thought the speech or presentation called erlebte special and indirect style), which he was one of the first to discuss in stylistic terms (see also 1.5.3). In its in literary, historical this to or particular evaluation of work, and even cultural prioritization linguistic theorization, Auerbach's textual analysis can be considered as a model of literary framework. in my stylistics

1.5

BRITISH

SCHOOL

1.5.1

Practical

Criticism:

I. A. Richards

In the tradition of British poetry, there has been a conviction, clearly stated by William Blake, P.B. Shelley, and Matthew Arnold, that poetry ranks higher than anything else, even than hierarchy in I. A. Richards is, the though not primarily a poet, a of moral value. religion, faithful successor to this tradition, perhaps owing most to Arnold, in his great concern for in firm belief the moral effect of the critical reading of poetry on society: culture and For the critic is as closely occupied with the health of mind as the doctor with the body. (Richards, 1924: 35)

30

Yet since the fine conduct of life springs only from fine ordering of responses for too has by by be the touched to this any general of art neglect moralist subtle ethical maxims, been tantamount to a disqualification. not by preachers but by poets. (ibid., 62) It is not, however, in this moralistic aspect that Richards's literary idea can be looked upon as a forerunner of stylistics; indeed, this superimposition of morality on criticism, encouraged more invited F. by his R. Leavis, in the admirer erstwhile section, next as we shall see emphatically by judgments denounce their that to to making analysis react moral-free, any value stylisticians language by Put differently, Leavis's Richards the text. the of and commitment attested not are to a moral dimension in literary study negatively helped the formation of stylistics. Unlike the other founding fathers of stylistics, Richards is not a practitioner of stylistic is He not even concerned with 'style' so much as with the 'meaning (of meaning)', analysis. 'value', or 'psychology'. Paradoxically enough, PracticalCriticism is not a book of practical The basis of morality, as Shelley insisted, is laid

in (in fact but 'protocols' theoretical the guidebook, a which analysis of anonymous analysis Cambridge his for by how undergraduates) to are criteria only show examples written it is his William Empson R. followers, F. including actually work, poetry and and appreciating Leavis, who put his credo into analytical or pedagogical practice. However, his original idea of 'practical criticism' shares some significant tenets with stylistics. At the most abstract level, both practical criticism and stylistics aim at the demystification of literature, though the

for removing the veil of mystery are different: the former tries to do so by just strategies concentrating on texts of poetry without considering the traditionally awe-inspiring names of facts concerning them, the latter by problematizing poets or extra-textual the linguistic

itself. For literature Richards, the traditional authority is no more than a hindrance properties of to the reader's sensitive response to poetry which leads to the development of a keen insight

31

into moral issues. He argues: [Poetry] is regarded too often as a mystery. There are good and evil mysteries; or rather there is mystery and mystery-mongering. That is mysterious which is inexplicable, or But there is a

it. inquiry far in explain cannot as our present means of so ultimate

because form are explanations our arises only mysteriousness which of spurious have forget because already the we what of significance we overlook or or confused understood. (Richards, 1929: 346) like "good" he it important 'less to but poetry and Interestingly, considers not surprisingly, is 'It the both be to them to minds'. "bad", than our use dislike able as a means of ordering he 'not ' them that we the which with correctness matters, continues, give we quality of reading be seen as a reaction to This 349). (ibid, aspect can them' of practical criticism classify been has his It is inevitable irony history 'touchstone'. that idea the approach Arnold's an of of Arnold's and Leavis's, and regarded by the next generation as a together with compressed literary ancienrdgime to be overturned. One of the most conspicuous features in Richards's idea is, as I suggested above, his great in his is It that for argument the psychological aspects of reading and writing. notable concern Richards (1929) frequently draws on the supposition concerning poets' psychology, as well as be stigmatized as 'intentional fallacy' according to the criteria of can which protocol-writers', New Criticism, the Americanized (and optimistically Criticism. Practical of version strict)

Stylistics is also based more or less on the tacit assumption that the writer has some intention in linguistic framework, linguistic device, the this as and assumption, as well adopting a certain differentiates stylistics from the other descendant of Practical Criticism, which further leads to the more drastic literary theories of post-structuralism. We have to bear it in mind in considering Richards's mentalist approach to poetry and

32

illuminating it development to the that corresponds rapid of such criticism

psychological

theories as psycho-analysis, gestalt psychology, and behaviourism in the early twentieth development influence development This the their of early may on also explain great century. in in Conference' 1958 line-up first 'Style the the seen and agenda of symbolically stylistics, as University. Indiana at As one of the speakers, Richards joined in the optimistic attempt at approach from literature, linguistics and psychology;

defining style through a tri-directional

indeed, with his deep interest in psychology and almost manic inclination for definition and Be been have key he the to the conference. completely attuned note of might well classification, idea he inevitably it the though the presented at conference, that as may, basic the tenets of stylistics: one of mentalism, would pass as To be more serious, if possible: what I am hoping to suggest is that some of the Analysis be Literary to which seems pegged to the poet's so of often nowadays criticism in be if it discussed linguistic the the more profitable powers grounds personality would the words and movement of the poem - which make the reader invent and project spiritual for the poet. spiritual adventures and characteristics tinctured with

(Richards, 1960)
It is not too much to say that this is the starting point of British stylistics.

1.5.2

Leavisism

F. R. Leavis is not a stylistician in any sense of the word, but here I briefly touch on him because his influence on English studies in Britain is too great to be ignored, and he also played history in the of stylistics by just standing as a solid antithesis to it. True, he is a some part but legacy Richards, he especially appreciated was moral power in literature, the to successor

33

linguistic in he the principles positive practical criticism to a general encouragement and reduced for training critical sensitivity. reading of close Before taking a critical stance towards him, we have to do him justice by acknowledging that he elevated the study of English literature to the central position of liberal education, that he in leading English the remodelling part of of studies, and that, generally syllabuses a played help, in he being deliberately to order cannot as extreme sometimes one could not, speaking, have (otherwise, to create some positive value who could said, with a make a great change, or Conrad, literary 'except Jane Eliot, James Austen, George that, evaluation, and sound sense of there are no novelists in English worth reading' (Leavis, 1948: 1). Like Richards and the preceding moralists of letters, he was very much concerned about the 'crisis of civilization', and believed in the moral power in literature. And in his grand scheme English (Leavis, literature the 'humane the study of education', central position occupied of 1943). However, one great difference of Leavis's moralism from Richards's is that, whereas Richards did not care so much about the quality of poems, as we have seen in 1.5.1, as about the process of reading which was supposed to sensitize the reader morally, Leavis even literary the'moral seriousness' of work. emphasized He pushed moralism up to the highest rank of literary evaluation at the cost of the other linguistic. True, he interested in the the language of scale, especially was very on much values literature, but what Leavis sought for in language was a manifestation of the writer's self, very by linguists else, anyone and not system which a want to or a structure unperceived often investigate. Indeed, he was positively opposed to the 'linguistic' treatment of literature: The English School with which I was connected', he complacently declares, '... had emancipated literary studies from the linguistic grinds' (ibid.: 7). (The stylistic implication of the words 'emancipated' and 'grinds' is important. ) This somehow explains his partial, or even distorted Criticism' in 'Practical his truly practical 'sketch' for an English School: he of exploration

34

conceived of'Practical Criticism' as a means of training and examining critical competence, and for linguistic its systematic concern analysis. cut off Noticeably, in the same book he is

Empson Criticism Empson Practical the took and analytical part of original which criticizing over. [In the work of Richards], of course, will be found the ambition to make analysis a laboratory technique, and the student going through Practical Criticism will note that is book little in the than that or consequently more show nevertheless of actual analysis 'semasiological' The later work, with its insistent campaign against the 'Proper show. (or One Right) Meaning superstition' and its lack of any disciplinary conter-concern has tended, in so far as it has had influence, irresponsibility. (ibid, 72) As is expected of Leavis's argument, what Empson exactly is irresponsible for is never infer he is but his that can reasonably we criticizing moral-free systematic approach explained, to poetry, which leads to stylistics. It is almost inevitable, when a teacher tries to work out a curriculum of English literature, that he should choose some authors or works rather than others according to some kind of Leavis's The is intuitive that they to a great extent and never with criteria problem are criterion. fully explained. And the intuitive approach even permeates his reading of specific passages. For example, in discussing George Eliot's characterization of Lydgate in Middlemarch, he writes: [Lydgatel knows what he means, and his aim is specific. It is remarkable how George Eliot makes us feel his intellectual passion as something concrete. When novelists tell us that a character is a thinker (or an artist) we have usually only their word for it, but Lydgate's'triumphant delight in his studies' is a concrete presence: it is plain that George to encourage the Empsonian kind of

35

Eliot knows intimately what it is like, and knows what his studiesare.
(Leavis, 1948: 66) We never know why Lydgate's delight in his studies is 'a concrete presence' and that of other historical is draw definite the or why about not, one can a conclusion novelists' characters is inexplicable literary Leavis's If is Richards knowledge. what says, a mystery, as author's long were required to acknowledge as axiomatic, was nothing other perception, which students than a mystery, and quite naturally it became a major target of stylistic demystification. judgment. that this most severely value reacted against mysterious practical stylistics It is It is

)(1982), first by begins Carter (ed. the this that of school, substantial manifesto symbolic Leavis: criticizing Throughout Leavis shows no willingness to indicate either the modality or selectivity of his assertions. His commentary is, to a considerable extent, characterized by im-

his critical propositions are embedded. while pressionism, (ibid., 3) But the reason why practical stylistics is so critical about Leavisism is more ideological than in 1.5.5, is the this will see school closely connected we pedagogical as practice of technical; literary Leavis of the reconsideration was one of the central critical orthodoxy, of which with figures.

1.5.3

Literary

Stylistics

This section looks at stylistic studies in the pre-linguistic stage from the 1930s to the 60s, and literature-oriented some individually, published ones in the 70s. Most of the stylistic works of this period were with no explicit ideological alliance, but we can find some general

36

tendencies among them: the authors are more or less conscious of Practical Criticism, and innovations by technical their their relation to it; the analytical strategies are own measure hoc; the object of concern shifts from poetry to prose, and very often ad uniquely experimental framework holistic. the time the analytical same gets more complex at and and Empson's Seven Types of Ambiguity (1930), one of the earliest works of stylistic analysis in Britain, was completed under Richards's supervision, and therefore shows a typically Richardsian propensity for mentalism and definitionaUclassificatory logic. It is also interesting to notice the influence of this collaboration upon Richards, who once wrote 'Ambiguity in a poem, as with any other communication, may be the fault of the poet or of the reader'

(Richards, 1924: 207) changed this negative attitude towards 'ambiguity' to the positive and during PracticalCriticism, In the before supervision. presumably a year published analytical, Empson's epoch-making book, Richards argues: Ambiguity in fact is systematic; the separate senses that a word may have are related to if not as strictly as the various aspects of a building, at least to a remarkable another, one extent. (Richards, 1929: 10) This is also a tacit assumption of Empson's work, which thereon classifies the literary 'ambiguities' into seven types, and investigates, at the phonological, lexical, syntactic, or level, discoursal the feelings their mechanism the even of conveying author's sometimes or creating certain stylistic effects with examples usually taken from 'canonical' poetry.

Significantly, his 'ambiguity' is a considerably broad notion which comprises those rhetorical devices like metaphor, pun, irony, or oxymoron, as well as ambiguity in its normal sense. It is Riffaterre (1978) terms 'indirection' to the what as akin of poetic semiosis. Although rather Empson was no more conscious of the term 'style' than his supervisor, his study covers as wide a range of stylistic phenomena as any other studies of a mock-scientific kind.

37

Compared with Empson's work, Davie (1955) seems to lack the precision of terminology lapses his into sometimes argument sheer intuitionism which stylisticians suspect and analysis; in his than spite of else: avowedly technical adoption of the terms like 'energy' anything more it is difficult in for to 'strength', the make out what author exactly writing, means example, or The lines are full of energy' (50), or This is the strength that resides in expressions which are "short", "compact", "close"' (59); he sometimes does not even bother to analyze the quoted is There than more such nothing gives a perfunctory and surely no need to remark as passages labour the point that the handling of syntax here is a main source of the pleasure we get from the poem' (68). Nevertheless, once we realize that, in spite of the deceivingly systematic taxonomy of 'poetic syntax', Davie uses the key-word rather loosely - at least from the linguistics be interpreted to and stylistics modern of mean what might as the viewpoint 'arrangement of words in poetry', and stop searching for a clear-cut methodology, we can insightful ideas find some which are closer to the principles of stylistics than to paradoxically 'appreciative' Empson calls criticism. those of what Firstly, the idea that'poetic syntax' does

(67) is belong to poetry parallel to the recent idea of non-generic 'literariness' not exclusively (see 23.2). Secondly, his 'poetic syntax', which is decisively divorced from the grammarian's fit into 'deviation' the logician's theory of style. can syntax, or Brooke-Rose (1958) is, with its classificatory strategy and strong concern for poetic

language, in the same line with these two works, though all the more restricted in scope for its by 'Cambridge the critical and even about the approach content-oriented analysis grammatical Davie's careless adoption of the concept 'syntax'. and critics' Brooke-Rose focuses on

'metaphor', which is one of the oldest rhetorical devices in literature, and very often regarded 'literary language'. feature of the primary as She classifies it into five types (1) simple -

formulae, (2) (3) the (4) link the pointing the copula, with "to make", and (5) the replacement, the between its feature analyzes accordingly and relation genitive grammatical and idea-

38

her lexical inevitably Although analysis of metaphor seems rather simple and oldcontent. fashioned in comparison to the later studies on this linguistic phenomenon (e. g. Ortony ed., 1979; Ching et. al. eds., 1980; Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Steen, 1994; see also 3.1), it is in it in Davie important that work exploits as an analogy, as grammar not an nevertheless (above), but as a true apparatus for analysis. Nowottny (1962) should be remembered together with Empson (above), Davie (above) and Brooke-Rose (above), and is in a sense a theoretical synthesis, though not practical, of the language in Britain. in Its to the attempted poetic early of style-study stage approaches various for be is the that theoretical which work can synthesis, contention, regarded as a consistent is diverse language consisting complexity a of elements - vocabulary, rhyme, metre, poetic syntax, etc. - and a variety of poetic values or effects such as metaphor, ambiguity, symbolism, from 'formal the relations' of those elements. or obscurity stem Since the relation and

from differ is fixed in to there this one poem elements no standpoint of another, combination book, hardly any apparatus for analysis of the texts other than a very basic grammar and Practical-Critical terminology; each argument of textual analysis is so constructed that all

levels in be in to on whatever of grammar are examined organic complexity elements relevant This is important holistic for its terms work available. advocacy of reading of texts, whatever but still stays with the optimistic assumption of Practical Criticism, or more conspicuously of New Criticism, about the connection between description and response (interpretation): the disagreement 'a is disagreement the that about meaning of or value a poem a argues author be interminable is likely just long to in the and so as relationships operating relationships about both dispute inaccurately by to described' (18). parties a or either estimated and are a poem

Apart from the professional investigations of the techniques of fiction writing by the James, Somerset Henry Maugham, had been E. M. Forster, there as such or no novelists in Britain 1960s style the prose of until study with the possible exception of systematic 39

Lubbock (1921) which first presented the technical idea of the 'point of view' in fiction. In the 1960s, partly in the course of nature and partly as a reaction to poetry-centred literary fiction, be fiction. In to to the the stylistic study of of came paid style education, more attention however, the methodological framework cannot help being more complex and multilateral because each linguistic device is organically connected - at least in a good novel - to the other theme, plot, character, narration, or point of view. as such elements This is why many

but language been have the the about structure, very also not only concerned about stylisticians often narrative structure, of novels. I should like to date the beginnings of the strictly stylistic study of fiction from Watt (1960). Interestingly, it begins by criticizing Practical Criticism: Yet at least in the form in which I picked [Practical Criticism] up as a student and have later attempted to pass it on as a teacher, both its pedagogical effects and its basic Its be to to to seem question. air of assumptions me open serious methodological ... is that a spurious authority on confers a process often only a rationalization of objectivity its judgment, be that to and must extent subjective; always some an unexplained factors historical seems to authorize a more general anti-historicism; and ... exclusion of it contains an inherent critical bias in the assumption that the part is a complete enough literary be in isolation from discussed to the whole profitably of appreciated and reflection it is surely demonstrable that Practical Criticism tends to find the most its context. ... has kind from in in their that the which of virtues writing are some way separable merit larger context; it favours kinds of writing that are richly concrete in themselves,

in brilliant, composed or relatively small units. stylistically Watt further argues that, because of its nature, Practical Criticism is more suited to verse than to fiction. He therefore draws on a unique mixture of Practical Criticism, explication de texte and Romance philology, and presents a lexico-semantic analysis of the first paragraph of James's

40

The Ambassadors, thereby showing how the general theme of the novel is condensed in the paragraph. But the most important work in the 1960s is Lodge (1966), in which he tried to 'bring a New-Critical attentiveness to verbal texture to bear on a number of nineteenth and twentiethit is fiction 1987): important for linguistic (Lodge, its not only analysis of close century novels' but also for its unprecedented review of the theoretical development of style study, though the itself defining the the tasks to rather narrowly of clarifying as addressing stylistics review, for'style' developing literature, in the a central and study of place concept of style, establishing 'more precise, inclusive, and objective methods of describing style than the impressionistic (52), language leads the that'[t]he traditional to the criticism' of conclusion of generalizations be by the methods, not of therefore, most satisfactorily will and completely studied novel, linguistics or stylistics ... but of literary criticism, which seeks to define the meaning and value of literary by relating subjective response to objective text, always pursuing artefacts

judgment, but that these unanimity and goals are of of explication conscious exhaustiveness idea into practice in Part Two and analyzes the textual element He (65). this puts attainable' imagery in literary Park, Jane in Mansfield the text: to value of each vocabulary most relevant Eyre, rhetoric in Hard Times, narrative voice in Tess of the D'Urbervilles, thought presentation in The Ambassadors, social description in Tono-Bungay, and some of the most important linguistic features in modernist fiction. This bipartite structure of this book symbolically

foreshadows the bi-scopal preoccupations of literary stylistics from this time on. Page (1973) took the course of practice. He analyzes the techniques of speech presentation in fiction on the insightful assumption, which was never articulated before, that fictional dialogue is an elaborate artifact burdened with informative and suggestive details and far from He is transcript speech. of actual especially concerned with the way authors exploit an accurate dialect idiolect free indirect speech of types modes and speech, speech, etc. speech, various

41

in terms of characterization. Though this work was published, with meanings to convey certain be literary to the teachers to purpose criticism, useful of students and an avowedly pedagogical independently of the new stylistic movement at this period on the linguist's side (see the next hits it be its the times; the very centre all of of should concern of stylistics approach section), borne in mind that stylistics, with all its struggles to utilize the latest linguistic theories, has been constantly back its to most comfortable coming home ground: the analysis of

Indeed, frequently has been literary text no more aspect and presentation. of speech/thought linguistic device the than the name of under stylistics called'Free specific studied successfully Indirect Speech (style indirect libre, erlebte Rede)' (e. g. Ullmann, 1957; Verschoor, 1959; Cohn, 1966; Guiraud, 1971b; Banfield, 1973,1982; Pascal, below; Neumann, 1992;

Fludernik, 1993), and it is no exaggeration that the framework of speech/thought presentation in Page's direct, indirect, 'submerged', is work shown mode, as 'parallel', indirect,

'coloured' indirect, free indirect, free direct speech, and 'slipping' from indirect into direct by Short developed (Leech further Short, Short, 1982,1996; 1981; and see also and speech 3.2) and Hutchinson (1989), is the only strategy stylistics has ever worked out for itself. Page's study makes us wonder why this relatively simple strategy has worked more effectively in the actual analysis of prose fiction than any other linguistic models. Pascal (1977) focuses on the function of free indirect speech, the very centre of the abovein framework the presentation, of narrative a more confined context of nineteenthmentioned After giving a historical survey of studies on free indirect speech, he European novel. century by Goethe, in function Jane Austen, George its Buchner, Dickens, Eliot, the novels explains Trollope, Flaubert, Zola and Dostoyevsky in relation to the authors' artistic intentions. Despite its seemingly narrow purview, the book covers a wide range of techniques of fiction writing, development the in to the analyses expands even parts general some arguments about of the and novel.

42

In sharp contrast to these two studies, Holloway (1979) looks at the farthest end of stylistic lens divides into Holloway through with an algebraic a unique a calculator. narrative concern episodal units, reducing each event to a matter of simple occurrence/nonoccurrence alternative kind between This basic tries to the those and elucidate action, events. of relation of a certain 'narrative' here homonymic is form the structure an adjective of noun analysis of narrative 'narrative' as opposed to 'narration' - dates back to Propp (1928/68), but he put forth an innovational idea that a narrative is not a set of events but a set of sets, namely, that 'each is far have total this the a set of events set which so as we read represents narrative member of (or listened) up to a certain point in it'. He devises rather pedantic mathematical formulae - is it for just Muriel Spark's The Prime Miss to an analogical argument, signify of really necessary, Jean Brodie by ',12'? - to explain its whole structure. One important phenomenon from the late 1960s on is the appearance of works totally devoted to the arguments about the nature of stylistics. Hough (1969) gives the first historical Spitzer, literary Bally, Alonso, covering such stylisticians stylistics, and critics as of review Richards, Holloway, Davie, and Barthes. Cluysenaar (1976) gives a theoretical introduction to literary stylistics, which she presents as 'an extension of practical criticism' (10). She rejects description linguistic of a text as applied linguistics, and instead takes a mentalist the mere literary language drawing to the way attention operates on the reader's perception. position,

1.5.4

Linguistic

Stylistics

The first Chair of General Linguistics in Britain was established in the University of London in 1944, at the School of Oriental and African Studies, and J.R. Firth was appointed to the post.

43

He was also the first British linguist who took the stylistic aspects of language into serious 1957: indirectly, Firth, 190-215) (see directly and and contributed, consideration to the

theorization of stylistics. Indeed, it is not an exaggeration to say that his linguistic theories, for linguistic idea line his 'contexts determined the of of stylistics situation', general especially to take, for, as we will see later, British linguistic stylistics, as well as British linguistics, is dynamics discourse in the the with contextual of or situational whole meaning more concerned than with arithmetic rules, as in the American-bom language as an abstract system. M. A. K. Halliday took over Firth's ideas, theorized some of them into systemic-functional his Here like literary I therewith texts. to to expanded scope should and of study grammar, touch on Halliday (1964; reprinted in Freeman, cd., 1970 under the heading of '[]linguistic his discuss His framework Theory') the to theoretical analysis. general of article stylistics: Firthian '[l]anguage in does from that the context of the assumption except not operate starts Yeats's 'Leda Swan' its to to the on analyse with special goes attention and and other events' 'lexical items its the that to and structures power' verbs show verbal are group of nominal 'deverbalized' and transformed into nominal groups in terms of function. It goes on to describes generative grammar, which

from literary Thomas Angus by John Dylan Wilson Braine, three passages works and compare features: different lexical textual three the sets and cohesion. At nominal group structures, on first sight the linguistic Hemingway's framework looks like that Carter was to use in his analysis of

'Cat in the Rain' (Carter, 1982b; see also 2.3.4), but the two works are

direction in different Halliday begins by the the of argument analysis: and aim of completely linguistic is the strategies and out concerned exclusively with the description of the mapping linguistic features of those texts, while Carter starts from his intuitive response to the text and how his it initial intuitive to to see analyse observations are attested by textual details goes on interpretation into developed be an of the story. and can

44

This distinctive feature of linguistic stylistics - prioritization of linguistic description of the text to its literary evaluation, or even automatization of the former at the cost of the latter - is Sinclair (1966), in which adopts the neo-Firthian linguistics of the'London seen more radically School' to analyse Philip Larkin's 'First Sight'. This article begins, somewhat deceptively, literary linguistic descriptions that text'might help a suggestion of a with a pedagogico-stylistic ' Then he the text. to and appreciate understand examines the sentential and clausal reader its line boundaries, the poem, of word groups, and nominal group structure, structures dichotomy free/bound (the insertion to the that reference with arrest of clauses, of respectively in it is incomplete) (the the a sentence element at point where and grammatical release some of completion of a sentence with no remaining grammatical predictions), the part-of-speech trichotomy (nominal, verbal and adverbial), and the combination of headword, deictic,

its initial Despite literary consideration qualifier. of appreciation, this article ends and adjective, linguist 'some be that the the the of a conviction aspects of poem of meaning can up with described quite independently of evaluation' (my italics). Quirk approached stylistic aspects of text within the framework of traditional grammar. Apart from his outstanding achievements in linguistics, his first major contribution to stylistics his inaugural form lecture in delivered in Applebey Lecture Theatre 26 the the of made on was May 1959. This lecture, published later in the same year by the University of Durham (Quirk, 1959), is mainly concerned with Dickens's idiolectal use of language in his novels, analysing it from the point of view of phonology, grammar of the verb, typography (especially with reference to the author's unique presentation of speech characteristics), and character-idiolect. Although this is one of the most primitive forms of style-study (see also Chatman, 1972), listing up the author's idiolectal characteristics extracted through the testing process of whatever linguistic framework is available, and it is not concerned, as most works of linguistic stylistics interpretation literary the of the texts, it anticipates practical stylistics in its flexible with are not,

45

linguistic theories of use and terminologies. noncommittal and

However, Quirk did not take

line idiolect in further but his this of study, shifted concern to the more macroscopic, step any socio-linguistic phenomenon of the globalization and internationalization of English, and gave, backup, ideological his liberal, is an with relativistic view about seemingly giving still or English (see Quirk, 1962,1985; in EFL contexts. activities No linguist has been more keenly aware of the theoretical, ideological, or even emotional dissociation between linguistics and literary studies than Roger Fowler. Unfortunately, one feels that the integration of linguistics with its natural companion, literary criticism, has been hindered by something unsympathetic in the way the linguist has presented himself. The image is sometimes an unhappy one: pretention of scientific accuracy; obsession with an extensive, cumbersome and recondite terminology; display is in impressionistic, that techniques; scorn of all subjective, mentalistic a of analytic word, 'prelinguistic'. (Fowler, 1966) In short, the history of English studies in England presents the lamentable spectacle of two close neighbours jealously fencing in their own pastures and defending them at any cost, including irrational argument. (Fowler, 1971: 2) This observation of the unfortunate and unnatural divorce between the two allegedly interactive disciplines provoked him to work for their reconciliation and integration through linguistic he does literature, though not seem to have modified at any time of his career the basic study of linguistic of assumption stylistics, which we have already seen in Sinclair (above), that Quirk and Stein, 1990), to the worldwide pedagogical

'description can be conducted independently of evaluation and interpretation' (Fowler, ed., 1975: 3). Starting his academic career as an Anglo-Saxon scholar, Fowler made his first

46

literature Fowler, The by (see 1971). traditional to of aspects way of metrics approach stylistic linguistics in him, 1970s development the of as well as many other emboldened remarkable linguistic stylisticians, to expand his methodological scope to the whole range of contemporary linguistic theories and thereby to present the new idea of 'New Stylistics', with which he edited the proceedings of the stylistic conference at the University of East Anglia in 1972 (Fowler, himself format He the a contributed paper on metrical and rhetorico-logical ed., above). his interest Shakespeare's this seventy-third at sonnet, which clearly reflected of structure in affective stylistics. particular moment At this point he already noticed the important role

in had development 4), but it (Fowler, the played above: stylistics ed., grammar of generative interest in his Fowler, itself for (see later the that theory theorization embodied until was not 1977). In Fowler (1977), the generative-linguistic notions of 'surface structure' and 'deep

in interestingly an analogic way rather than a technical one, as an overall structure' are adopted, framework, within which are discussed some different levels of style, even those normally incompatible (e. 'text' Later he be 'discourse'). the theory to with g. came as and considered functional (Fowler, language 1981), with pragmatic or aspects and put of concerned more forward the notion of 'linguistic criticism' (Fowler, 1986), thereby expanding his purview from sheer linguistic analysis of individual texts to socio-linguistic consideration of text

by is largely ideological discourse controlled social, which economic, political, or or production discourses.

1.5.5

Pedagogical/Practical

Stylistics

We have seen how the traditional close reading was modelled into stylistics with the linguistic linguist, it for is And first the pedagogical a not surprisingly, the also who cue gave chisel.

47

Widdowson (1975) interdisciplinary discipline. positions stylistics as an essentially shift of our field of study between linguistics and literary criticism (3; see also 2.2.3), of which the

below: language literature, hence diagram the are and and subjects respective

Disciplines:

linguistics

literary criticism

stylistics

Subjects:

(English) language

(English) literature
(ibid.: 4)

Then he goes on to illustrate how literature works not only as text (Chapter 2) but also as discourse, in other words, as a dynamic combination linguistic of elements and literary

3 An important 4). is (Chapters here 'discourse', that the thing to and notion of note messages ideological is be key loaded implications, to the the with or socio-linguistic notion of sometimes Carter, (see 1979; Carter Simpson, 1989). But the value of this school and eds., pedagogical book resides not so much in its flexible definition of stylistics, which is unprecedented and in its demonstration it is, discipline literary the to practical as as of application of outstanding teaching in the actual classroom context (Chapter 6). Although the book confines itself, as its literary discussion declares, the to teaching, its positioning of stylistics suggests the of title language is be discipline, teaching the to with same of actually pursued by which possibility Brumfit and Carter. Leech and Short (1981) synthesized the two different trends in literary stylistics and

48

linguistic stylistics, claiming, as Widdowson (above) did, to be mediators between linguistics Fowler's literary though the the authors adopted concept of usefully ambiguous criticism, and 'new stylistics' to define their position, with no other convenient terminology available at this book, is fictional discourse Theirs different theoretical of a more explaining aspects of point. process of creation and grammatical selection, lexicon, message, semantics, syntax,

illustrating devices for the speech/thought or presentation analytical rhetoric, and graphology, later it does this them, unlike works and, of school, not suggest any practical elucidating but its for basic activities, primary classroom aim principle are completely and guideline (For its idea 2.13). theoretical the problems as regards of style as choice, see pedagogical. There is one interesting feature that many of the works of this pedagogical/practical school have in common: as I have suggested repeatedly by the use of the word 'school', they are in in with principles coherent and more conspicuously organized methodology group works, ideology, with editors, series editors and contributors interrelating and overlapping among is )(1982) (ed. Carter a manifesto of this new stylistics, avowedly rejecting Leavisite them. 'impressionism' in favour of objective scrutiny of textual evidences and, on the other hand, bringing back the idea of literary intuition and appreciation to stylistics as an inevitable stage of (see 'Introduction'; for formulation the argumentation and positive of literary intuition reading by Carter the chapters see and Nash). It also set up the editorial style of appreciation, and further suggestions, or glossaries (see Carter and Simpson, eds., below; appending exercises, Carter and Long, 1987; Carter and Nash, below; Stephens and Waterhouse, 1990; Simpson, 1997). It is also noteworthy that in this collection, based primarily on the pedagogical idea of integrating language and literary study, the linguistic tools range from traditional or neo-Firthian theories to systemic grammar. Carter (1984) sums up the latest trend in stylistics up to this point with quite a new first in two the conventional categorizations - linguistic stylistics and literary except perspective

49

future for developments. least lines some promising suggests or at possible and stylistics Carter's third classificatory idea of 'style and discourse', which he acknowledges is

'linguistic Fowler's with synonymous

criticism' (see Fowler, 1986), refers to the study of

discourse boundary beyond in types the range of established a wider generically stylistic effects of literary language. His fourth classification is given with a novel idea - at least

terminologically, for similar ideas have continually recurred in the history of stylistics especially in Britain - of 'pedagogical stylistics', the more explicitly classroom-conscious version of what he advocated in Carter (ed. )(above) and virtually currently made worldwide. the propelling forth of stylistic studies of English, this

Recently, in response to the globalization

has its theory territory rapidly expanded pedagogical

into the field of teaching English

EFL ESL Carter fifth idea in in his 'stylistics the and context, as of and the surveys specifically foreign language learner'. This ESL/EFL-oriented theorization, or rather its notional

is features the conspicuous of most one of pedagogical/practical stylistics along specification, for ideological its discourse literary its the aspects concern of or problematization of strong with orthodoxy. The revised version of Carter (above) was printed in Short (ed. )(1989) by way of introductory survey, with a remarkable expansion in the latter two sections, especially in the last EFL section, showing the acceleration of the pedagogical shift of stylistics. The rest of the by Carter, including illustrates the stylistic analysis of article another methodizes and collection, literary texts and its application to classroom practice. Through the whole collection runs the by the editor. representatively conviction articulated In many ways, stylistic analysis has come of age. In spite of the fact that literary its in the study of literature, stylistics has proved to be wary about role still are critics increasingly popular with students of English, both in the UK and overseas. As Ron ... Carter suggests in 'Directions in the teaching and stylistics' (Ch. 2), stylistics is

50

becoming increasingly confident and mature.

Over the last few years there has been a resurgence of interest in the use of literature in language teaching, and a number of the contributions to this volume reflect this. Stylistic analysis has been of particular concern to the foreign-language learner as it has been seen by device which the understanding of relatively complex texts can be achieved. a as This, coupled with a general interest in English literature, has led to the stylistic approach becoming more and more popular in the EFL, context. Although the whole volume inevitably owes a great deal to the developments of modern linguistics, it contains, mostly in the sections where 'protocols' (transcripts of initial responses important in an role stylistic at reading) play analyses, a Richardsian concern for the

Importantly, this revaluation of psychological elements in of reading. process psychological stylistic analysis, as well as that of the Spitzerian idea of literary intuition in Carter

(ed. )(above), is not a simple throwback into the older idea, but an improvement on linguistic be turned to out overconfident stylistics, which in its assumption that purely objective

description of the text is possible independently of literary evaluation. From this stage on, pedagogical/practical stylistics has developed roughly in two different directions. Firstly, it has expanded its theoretical and methodological scope in a well-organized system of collaboration and serial publication: van Peer (ed. )(1988) reconsiders the

fundamental problems concerning the linguistic nature of (literary) text from a vantage point literary linguistics, study and stylistics: Carter and Simpson (eds. )(1989) is a overlooking based analyses on the idea of 'discourse stylistics', which was originally stylistic of collection Toolan Carter (1979); in (1988), forward Birch (1989), Stephens and Waterhouse (1990), put Toolan (ed. )(1992), and Mills (1995), all published in the 'Interface' series (Routledge) with Carter as series editor, which try to explain and demonstrate stylistic analysis with special

51

dynamism the to the structures of narrative, whole of modem academic respectively attention historical the theories, change of literary style, and context and contextualization in critical literary text; Carter and Nash (1990) developed their idea of 'literariness' (Carter and Nash, 1983), illustrating various stylistic phenomena in literary and non-literary texts. Secondly, by leading involvement in National to, the the propelled or even stylisticians' corresponding Curriculum Project, a number of textbooks have been produced, intended for actual classroom (1983), Lott Walker (1986), Carter Collie Slater Long (1987,1991), such as and and practice, (1987), Haynes (1995), Freeborn (1996), etc. And in this context, we cannot ignore Carter (ed. )(1990), which is not a practice-oriented textbook but a guidebook, produced in connection in National Curriculum) (Language LINC for basic idea the Project, the the understanding with language National Curriculum teaching the to play the the about and role of new project of therein. We may be able to gain an insight into what all these efforts amount to and what they are all Widdowson, but his by to though to the this to not returning starting point of section about latest book on stylistics (Widdowson, 1992). This book was written a few years after his

involvement in the Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of English Language. Considering the importance of the committee and its final report, generally known as the Kingman Report, for National Curriculum, it be inferred the that this the guideline official can reasonably as from debates 1992 heated Curriculum 93 National the to the over and new greatly project influenced his idea about the pedagogical application of stylistics. In the appendix to the

had he already expressed his scepticism, or at least 'reservation' as he put it report committee himself, about the recommendations of the committee: he argues that it has left out the central 'what these educational aims should be, what English is on the curriculum for', of question building be the starting point of should up the whole curriculum project (Widdowson, which 1988). This pedagogical fundamentalism, as it were, is repeated again in Widdowson (1992).

52

He argues:
There is little sign of interest (in Britain at any rate) in basic questions about educational criteria for curriculum design. People talk a good deal about what should or should not be included in the National Curriculum for subjects like History, English, Modern

Languages, and so on, but the debate is almost totally devoid of any consideration of basic educational purpose in respect of the kind of issues I have been raising, and it reduces for the most part to a confrontation of competing prejudices. Indeed, attempts to raise such issues are generally dismissed as an indulgence in vague philosophyzing, and the philosophy of education, in fact philosophy of any kind, is generally regarded as irrelevant obfuscation. (ibid.: 84) Although he adds that'these matters are not the business of this book', they definitely are, or at least they are what the book suggestively invites us to consider along with its primary subject of how efficient the stylistic analysis of poetry is in classroom teaching to enhance students' 'language awareness'. Interestingly, this book, despite its title of 'Practical Stylistics', is no A. Richards's I. PracticalCriticism. than practical more It is even less practical, against the

expected course of pedagogical theorization and argumentation, than his starting point in Widdowson (1975). It even looks like a throwback to the older concern of Russian Formalism in School Prague philosophizing or the poetic nature of language, or to that of Practical However, Widdowson's reversion to

Criticism in its attempt to 'demystify poetry' (179).

fundamental educational question about English studies and to the philosophy of poetics, just like Carter's or Nash's to the Spitzerian way of starting the analysis with an intuitive response, does not mean a simple return to the old ideas but implies that stylistics has come full circle become fully its fledged territory and surveying on the way.

As if to mark the maturity of stylistics, two books on this discipline were published in early 53

1996, each representing one of the two dimensions - diachronic and synchronic, or historical its development, first in this thesis the theoretical academic of which actually examines and two chapters. Weber (ed.)(1996) is a collection of the important articles from different schools inappropriately I in though this thesis, arbitrarily classified and named, as repeat of stylistics 'functionalist', 'formalist', as 'affective', 'pedagogical', 'pragmatic', 'critical', 'feminist', and

'cognitive' - and is supposed to survey its history from 'Roman Jakobson to the Present', as its indicates. subtitle Wright and Hope (1996) is an introduction to the techniques of

in literary lexico-syntactic texts terms of understanding

analyses. The authors belong to

Thorne's linguistics-oriented school of stylistics, but this 'practical coursebook', as its subtitle indicates, with all its pedagogical concerns, symbolically stylistics. summarizes the recent trend of

1.6

SUMMARY

This chapter has reviewed the academic dynamics concerning stylistics from a historical point

At I the of oversimplification, risk summarizethe four main traditions of stylistics as of view.

follows:

Schools stylistics

of

Relevant disciplines

Contexts of academic formation

Main feature

French

structuralism explicationde texte

application of structuralist focus on the rhetorical theories and models to the features of French in analysisof (literary) texts general

54

Russian-

Russian Formalism

Russian Formalism influ-

deviation theory as an

Formalist Jakobsonian
German

Poetics

encing the PragueSchool's explanation of the poetic poetics

nature of language concern with how re-

Romance philology

expansion of the territory of philology literary texts into modern

Western literature

presents the Western mind

British

Practical Criticism Firthian linguistics

the tradition of pedagogical close reading joined Firthian by

a close affiliation

with

language and literature teaching

and neo-Firthian

linguistics

The historical survey of this chapter Ngges that stylistics has functioned

oughly in three

different ways: (1) as a discipline for testing linguistic theories against literary texts; (2) as a language-oriented reading strategy; and (3) as a method of language and literature teaching. However, these three functions, which will be highlighted later in Chapter 3 with my purposebased framework for re-classifying stylistics, do not cover the whole range of relationships between language and literature, since they operate only on completed texts. Chapter 2,

look takes at the theoretical problemsof stylistics, especially the problemsof close a therefore, its definition, againwith specialattention to how the potential prescriptivefunction of stylistics.
has been ruled out.

_,_

55

CHAPTER

THEORY

OF STYLISTICS

2.0

INTRODUCTION

This chapter undertakes a theoretical investigation

in I discussed the which problem, of

historical terms in Chapter 1, of what stylistics has been all about. This theoretical survey, has how been defined, be to attempts suggest stylistics also with should and concerned mainly discussed be it is, has been firstly to that'style', essentially enough things: undefinable as two in have the to though way stylisticians a position of axiomatic might expected, not promoted, it discourse, in that to where may of concepts such as enjoy a status similar academic centrality 'universe', 'beauty', or 'language'; secondly that, although 'style' has occasionally been

in its textual to creation, or sometimes as prescriptive processes, even understood as relevant in been has the theorization of stylistics. taken the yet systematically up not concept this part of After this theoretical survey, I will undertake in Chapter 3a theoretical survey of traditional, descriptively oriented stylistics in terms of my purpose-based categorization which will lead me to put forth the idea of creative stylistics.

2.1

DEFINITION

OF STYLE

2.1.0

Introduction

From the simple viewpoint of word formation, 'stylistics' can be uncontroversially defined as 'the study of style', and it seems quite natural that many stylisticians have tried to define their in defining by However, first the term a clear-cut way. when we consider the occupation

57

fields the of study - e.g. aesthetics, cosmology, psychology, sociology, various names of linguistics, etc. - we find most of their root concepts undefined or even undefinable. If there is has been initial to exceptionally stylistics present why and unjustly required an reason any definition it is possibly because, unlike many other fields, it did not arise basis, its as

for its 'beauty', a pure concern of notions as out core whereas such notion; spontaneously 'universe', 'mind', 'society', and 'language' have been objects of universal concern, and functioned as the central mystery, as the initial impetus for their respective studies, concern for 'style' was not the first cause that gave birth to our controversial discipline. As we saw in the previous chapter, stylistics arose in the context of institutional divorce of linguistic and literary studies and their subsequent specialization, and the notion of 'style' was it for its tentatively, as were convenient polysemy bridging between language and taken up literature. This historical context of its christening destined, or rather, tempted stylisticians to key fit into framework for the to the up sharpening of means notion neatly a of their search first 'back-form' An the their to cause of study. especially pathetic, almost risible concern, 'explaining' 'style Sandell's, is (consistent) is that variation among text populations in effort linguistic 'a is that nonsemantic variables', on values a consistent way of and style choosing further 'a be described (or that style may and set a profile over a of as a point as choosing' such in a space of) trait level nonsemantic linguistic variables, on which text populations differ (consistently)'. (Sandell, 1977: 15). This only replaces the ambiguity of the original concept by the unintelligible (except to him) complexity of his forced definition. for its interdisciplinarity. taken up convenient coreless was concept This is not to say that no one ever cared about'style' before stylistics emerged; indeed, it is familiar in is literary It traditional most the notions and oldest criticism. not my present one of intention, however, to go into the details of its etymology (see Lucas, 1955: 15-16) or to ideas definitions Kuentz, Guiraud 1978: 3-16; the (see and classical all of style et enumerate The fact is that the

58

Freeborn, 1996: 1-7). Suffice it to say that the concept 'style' was traditionally

adopted to

mean 'personal style' or 'individual style', very often combined with a certain author's name Shakespeare's style, Dr. Johnson's style, etc. - as a manifestation of the author's personality, it in in those the classic trichotomy of style (grand or high, where was cases used, as except in low literary style), connection or plain with some mode of writing to special middle, idea 'personal The (individual) been handed down has to stylistics, of reality. style' represent in as we shall see the next section, only as a minor model of the basic concept. A 'definition of style' here does not necessarily mean the lexicographical equation of the term with a certain group of words. What stylisticians have been so eagerly looking for is not but linguistic some equivalence simple such a model by which they can approach in a And in fact a variety

systematic way the verbal phenomena they vaguely associate with'style'.

be been have branded defective for to time only presented every as one reason or models of (defective) has these in the corpus of whole and models so swollen of style number as another, to equal or even surpass the number of synonymical definitions. As I suggested in the 'Introduction', both stylisticians and their opponents seem to have become preoccupied with the unavoidable problems inherent in the logical process of definition, do I not want to commit myself to any position on these niggling arguments. But at the and is it to talk time, advisable about the theory of stylistics without touching in any way not same I disputes style, so the over am going to survey from a critical point of view the major past on definitions of style presented so far. They are inevitably overlapping and complementary to each other rather than contradictory, and the choice of one model is a matter of emphasis and but when we sort them out according to their basic ideas, putting together convenience, (e. deviation, definitions deviance, g. synonymous and departure), we get the following six

types as'the least common multiple', as it were, of conventional definitions and classifications idiolect, style as ornamentation, style as choice, style as deviation, style as as of style: style

59

coherence, and style as connotation.

2.1.1

Style as Idiolect

This idea is a modernized version of the traditional

idea of 'style as man' or 'style as I chose the term

himself'. by Buffon's is 'Style the man principle, popularized personality',

'idiolect' at the risk of seeming too specific, rather than the more comprehensive term 'personal (individual) style', partly because it neatly stands for the textual counterpart of the old Romantic idea, and partly becauseI wanted to avoid the apparent terminological circularity inherent in the (individual) for is 'style style' which purposes of classification, often used as personal phrase broadly 'idiolect' for it. I here the term as a synonym use though This definition of style accords with the sense in which we generally use the word to refer to habits in Kasparov's idiosyncratic and style of playing chess, manners non-verbal acts certain Agassi's style in tennis, etc. - and we cannot trace the idea back to any specific stylistic theory. And it is no exaggeration to say that all style-studies of individual authors are more or less based on this idea of verbal idiosyncrasy (e. g. Quirk, 1959; Milic, Golding, series). The problem of the stylistic analysis based on this idea is that it is often too intent on the fragmentary enumeration of linguistic devices within a rather narrow range of grammatical levels, mostly lexical, and tends to fall short of overall literary evaluation. By the same token, disparagingly is in this sometimes sense style associated with 'fingerprint' attributes (see 1985; most of the titles in Macmillan's 1967; Chatman, 1972; OF LITERATURE

THE LANGUAGE

Brown, 1960, and other comments on the fingerprint analogy in Sebeok, ed. 1960: 88,427), for identification function differentiation. as a marker or only which Ullmann criticized this

60

idea saying, 'one's fingerprints do not change whereas one's style may do so; moreover, one but fingerprints one can adjust one's style to suit the circumstances; one can cannot alter one's his for it through the to of pastiche, parody a character or purposes or need portray even modify her speech (Ullmann, 1973: 64).

2.1.2

Style as Ornamentation

'Ornamentation' here is also used in a broad sense, or rather in a symbolic sense, and refers in but these the to'figures with which of speech', we usually word contexts, associate only not linguistic traits to superimposed upon a neutral way of expressing something. any generally And this notion of style is sometimes paraphrased as 'different ways of saying the same thing' (Brown and Gilman, 1960; Hendricks, 1976: 19-27). 'Style as an ADDITION' trichotomy of style (Enkvist, 1973: 15) also falls into this category. As the paraphrase above suggests, this is fundamentally an addresser-oriented idea, deeply (see 4.2). But in hand, tradition the this practice-based study of the of rhetoric other on rooted the art of rhetoric requires the adoption of certain speeches or writings, as of Vergil or Cicero, as models of evocative and persuasive presentation. This double perspective in classical in Enkvist's

in English literary leads the to practice studies, which took over this tradition as we saw rhetoric in 1.5, of evaluating the language of literature in terms of rhetorical values, very often 'conciseness', 'clarity', 'gaiety', 'brevity', 'good prescriptive measures such with as associated 'vitality', 'sincerity', etc., as replicable paradigms of good writing. sense', Lucas (1955) can

be counted as representing this idea, as well as something of the Romantic idea of style I in mentioned the previous section.

'Ornamentation'is sometimesspecified as those additional elementsin language that are 61

labelled as 'expressive' or 'affective'.

As we saw in 1.2, Bally's stylistique searches for such

literary language. he though excluded elements, The basic assumption of this 'ornamentation' idea is the dichotomy, which permeates in distinct forms linguistics (langue/parole between two and signifiant/signifie), structuralist 'constant' form, by core, a and the variable representable neutral semantic one pre-stylistic According it in becomes, framework, this to context. stylistic analysis of expressing methods 'a in isolate, describe 15) (above: Enkvist stripping we peel off, and argues, process which as the stylistic skin and meat that surround the stylistically neutral or unmarked core'. The

familiar is be here there can quite now really such a styleless, neutral core, which after question from form is distinguished its the verbal expression takes of some and yet clearly stylistic all variations? The similar problem about hypothetical constants in the bi-planar model for

in in 'norm' deviation the the the conspicuously more recurs arguments about style explaining theory. Recent studies show us that even an apparently neutral or normal expression can

to the that according context, effects or generally, a stylistic effect stems out of stylistic generate the relation between a certain expression and its context or the relevant textual constructs. Carter (1979: 26) takes the view that style is relational:

Style is not definable by referenceto either context, a single 'neutral' norm, to linguistic form or to content but to some relational construct which produces a nexus of effects Thus, dimension. neither theories of style as deviation nor theories of style within each areentirely suitable. asornamentation We will look at the problemsof the dichotomousmodel of style in more detail in 2.1.4.

2.1.3

Style as Choice

62

So long as every writer finally chooses one particular textual form to express his or her idea, it is always possible to discuss the production of stylistic features, no matter what they are, in terms of choice. Turner (1973: 21) even argues that'an element of choice seems to be basic to (see de Beaugrande also of style' and Dressler, 1981: 16). What many all conceptions theoretical works which list this definition of style in their respective classifications (e. g. Enkvist, 1964; Hough, 1969; Sandell, 1977, etc. ) do not seem to notice is the simple fact that 'choice' belongs to an entirely different semantic category from the one to which all the other belong; in they whereas are style concerned of some way or other with textual notions definition this of style gives prominence to the pre-textual creative process in the properties, is it Thus, but definitions, the merely compatible not with all other also combinable author. Fowler them to For (1966) presents make of a new some model or of style. one example, with idea idea in I this the the previous section: of style as choice of and explained a combination Style -a property of all texts, not just literary - may be said to reside in the

in the structure of a language, or in the selection of optional or variables of manipulation 'latent' features. As a theoretical prerequisite to stylistic study we assume that there are both constant and variable features within'the language as a whole'.

Or Hough (above:8-9) argues:

Whatever view we may take of its nature, it is clear that in talking about style we are talking about choice - choice between the varied lexical and syntactic resources of a language. particular The same combination of the two different ideas of style - style as choice and style as (variable) is in Ohmann's Ullmann (1966; 1971). ornamentation or also seen expressiveness drawing technically on generative grammar and measuring style in terms of its stylistics, while from deep-structural deviation surface-structural norms, is also theoretically based on the idea (Ohmann, 1959). Indeed, all the essays in Martin (ed. )(1959), choice' as'epistemic of style

63

including Ohmann's, 'start from the concept of style as a writer's conscious or subconscious by language feeling', for thought the offered a of or as the alternatives expression among choice editor asserts (xi). The two notions choice and variation (alternative) are also combined to make a theoretical framework aptly termed paradigm as opposed to syntagm. Jakobson (1960) explains the poetic function in his famous taxonomy of linguistic function in terms of the relation between

'The function axes: syntagmatic poetic projects the principle of equivalence and paradigmatic from the axis of selection into the axis of combination. ' Stylistics has often adopted this itself though two on axes, concerning mainly with the paradigmatic axis, scheme structured features is to the than the other more more relevant production stylistic supposedly of which Also consonant with the view that style occurs more on the paradigmatic axis axis. rule-bound it is the axis, generally believed that a paradigmatic model of linguistics than on syntagmatic (Hallidayan systemic-functional grammar, for example) is more suitable for stylistic analysis than a syntagmatic one (generative-transformational grammar, for example). As I have suggested above, it means almost nothing just to point out the tight link between But for key the this point of selecting choice. particular style as a an aspect of notion style and it helps is in diagrammatical to that us explain, model a clear-cut, way, the production analytical in hypothetical features Quite the process of creation. naturally, stylistic theories of stylistic diagrams (e. the the are often of choice presented notion with aid of with arrows on g. centred Enkvist, 1964; Leech and Short, 1981: 126). As the theory focuses on the process of choice, so the actual analysis it gives rise to tends to from linguistic level by level investigating to one the stylistic stages another, at each proceed in form A comparison a chosen of with other possible alternatives. good example is properties Leech and Short's analysis of one sentence in Katherine Mansfield's short story (Leech and Short, above: 126-31). They select the sentence The discreet door shut with a click' from

64

Mansfield's 'A Cup of Tea', and discuss its stylistic effects at three different levels - semantic, in the along graphological writer's comparison with other and encoding process, syntactic, have been chosen but actually weren't. What the authors are trying to might variants, which how is level fits into the that particular passage original sentence each most neatly at show is they argue, supposed to convey the elegant atmosphere of a high-class antique shop which, and the modesty of the self-effacing shopkeeper. This most brilliant analysis, however, has one fatal logical drawback which should be framework the to of this selective theory of style itself rather than to the authors' attributed inattentiveness. Let us imagine one of the possible alternative sentences, say, a semantic

bang', The door closed with a was as the original sentence, and think what will happen variant to the analysis. Do we argue that it does not fit into the context, that Katherine Mansfield is here, have definitely The discreet that door she should or poorly chosen shut with a writing click'? Probably not; in that case, with a totally different situation in mind, we would have

for irritation that the the sentence represents example, shopkeeper's at the heroine argued, browsing around without buying anything. In other words, the sentence would have fitted as 'real' into into its is the for the as the context original own, context an organic unity of neatly the meanings conveyed by the relevant sentences including the one in question. Thus, so long as we assume, as we are normally obliged to do, that the language of the completed piece of best is for the think the author can medium of conveying his or her intention, the most work the between analyses, subtlest comparisons stylistic careful as many variants as possible only amount to the tautological conclusion that the original expression is the best because the writer idea it. Thus, the of style as choice is useful, to be sure, in explaining the general chose dynamics of the textual creation, but insufficient as a model for descriptive analysis.

65

2.1.4

Style as Deviation

This is the definition we most frequently come across in the discussions about style. To list The its discourse is by frequency the the style of variations: a carried of message some distributions and transitional probabilities of its linguistic features, especially as they differ from in features the language as a whole' (Bloch, 1953: 40); 'First, style can be the those of same from DEPARTURE labelled have been NORM (style a set of patterns a which as a as seen 15); 'A further (Enkvist, 1973: has been favored by that the ecart)' concept of style, one comme is frame idea deviance, the the that style is of reference, concept of style as generative from linguistic by departures norms' (Traugott and Pratt, 1980: 31). The reason constituted is definition is framework than that the two-layered theoretical this popular any more other why 'deviation' the of concept which entails accords neatly with the dichotomous logic of

has linguistics, in the theory and practice of which played significant a role structuralist stylistics. It is generally acknowledged that the theory of style as deviation has its roots in Russian Formalist ideas, especially Shklovsky's, of 'ostranenie' (defamiliarization), which was further

developed by Mukarovsky. Havrnek, Jakobson and other Prague Structuralists under the (translated 'foregrounding' 'aktualisace' by Garvin; as of see 13). This general idea of name foregrounding has sharpened itself technically into the present deviation theory under the influence of developments in linguistics, especially those linguistic theories of Chomsky, Katz, Levin, Thorne, and Leech. For a detailed explanation of the historical formation of this theory, (1986). Peer see van Though foregrounding is, as Wales (1989: 182) explains, 'not uncommonly defined in terms of deviation', the relation between the two concepts is no clearer than their individual Short (1981) Leech define 'foregrounding' as 'artistically MOTIVATED and are. meanings

66

deviation'. couples

Simplifying

the different ideas of Mukarovsky and Jakobson, van Peer (1986) 'parallelism' as two major techniques which bring about

'deviation'

with

foregrounding.

These definitions suggest that 'deviation' should be subcategorized under

'foregrounding', though the former gets closer in meaning to the latter as it is measured more relatively and contextually. As is often the case with powerful theories with clear-cut logical structures, the deviation theory of style has a serious drawback. The problem stems entirely from the ambiguous

Is 'norm'. be invariably there definitely really a a corpus of as can and counted as concept 'norm', against which we can measure 'deviation'? The simplest way of making it as solid a is identify to as possible reference of standard it, as generative stylisticians do, with

'grammaticalness'. For example, the major stylistic feature in e.e. cummings's poem 'Yes, is a in be terms of grammatical deviation on the syntactic level. But explained pleasant country' can deviation; Louis text through sentence or can generate grammatical a stylistic effect an entirely MacNeice's 'We cannot cage the minute' (The Sunlight on the Garden') draws attention to itself by deviating from what might be called 'collocational normality'. When deviation hinges language, longer 'norm' be historical the varieties communal of or can no explained in on linguistic For be 'archaism' to static system. some example, can considered as a reference deviation from the contemporary standard of language, but 'contemporary standard' as a norm is doubly ambiguous because of the fluidity of the idea of 'contemporariness' and of the

technical difficulty of identifying the matrix corpus, especially when it is not our contemporary is The of norm more problematical and elusive in what Halliday (1971) terms notion standard. 'deflection', which draws neither on ungrammaticalness nor on communal varieties but on the language; 'norm' here of nature can only be loosely interpreted as 'normal open-ended (see Coleridge's The Eolian Harp' in 2.2.3). my argument also about expectation' For

discussion the of problems of the 'norm', see Chatman (ed. )(1973: 25-46) and extended

67

Sandell (1977: 10-12).

The problem of the norm/deviation dichotomy in this particular theory further leads us to linguistics. basic the of modern schema question Take the concept of 'grammaticalness' for

judgments The question about simplest of grammaticalness will remind us of the example. inasmuch the tautology notion: of as grammar remains descriptive, curious as modern

linguistics stipulates, grammatical rules are supposed to be extracted from the whole corpus of individual speechesand writings in a certain language community. We should recall how much depends informant informant in judges the on grammar check, which each generative of his her linguistic to expressions according certain of or own personal experiences. acceptability In short, the Saussurean dichotomy between langue and parole, or Chomskyan dichotomy between competence and performance implies an eternal definitional circularity between the respective pair notions. When Chomsky dismissed the completely grammatical sentence

'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' as unacceptable according to the trickily mock-scientific he did his 'selectional 'performance' that restriction', not realize of giving that particular of rule in a new context generate would which the selfsame expression makes perfect senseas example dichotomous The framework clear-cut at the base idea of modern linguistics simply a parody. does not work in handling the dynamism of discourse. So it is with the dichotomy between deviation and norm in stylistics; the partition between them, if any, is permeable and constantly to the change of context. according moving Hence the idea of contextual deviation, or in Levin's words, 'internal deviation' (Levin, 1965) from the norm set up within the text. Riffaterre considers the production of a norm or he 'micro-context' text (from the reader-responsive point of what a or calls a within norms Thorne interesting is (1965), It that to note which is a manifesto of generative stylistics view. and therefore concerned mainly with the grammatical/ungrammatical idea: similar distinction, expresses a

68

What has been suggested here is that this account of grammatical deviation should be light in is in kinds discourse the the that there of of observation a certain considered tendency for deviations of the same type to occur regularly throughout the same piece. Admittedly part of the excitement I receive in reading a sentence like He danced his did ... immediate English. its from Standard But it breaks the that the realization rules of comes total effect is controlled by the fact that the kind of irregularity it exhibits is regular in the In fully it the that some poem. poems even sentences which appear of seems context kinds in discourse of other would be ungrammatical there, or that they grammatical in fact not represented in the standard grammar. exemplify structures Or Simpson (1997: 54) argues: Deviation in language remains deviant for only a limited period of time, and when desruptive patterns become established in the text they begin to assume a kind of norm of their own. Once this 'norm of oddity' is established, the way is prepared for a further type of stylistic exploitation. For example, in the famous scene in Oliver Twist of Oliver's initiation into the group of

English deviates his from lower-class the standard slangs and underworld norm of pickpockets, jargon, symbolically representing his moral incorruptibility.

2.1.5

Style as Coherence

The idea of coherence, like that of choice, is more or less inherent in all definitions of style. For example, the general concept of idiosyncrasy I discussed in 2.1.1 implies the existence of distinctive features in of pattern coherent writing, playing chess, or whatever. But the some idea gets more conspicuous as we expand the purview of stylistic study to larger corpora such

69

historic, or communal styles. as generic,

Seen from the viewpoint of text production, style as coherence is a requirement for or a prescriptive standard of conformity. Every student of science must learn to write his or her

dissertations in scientific style. Style manuals help us conform our writing to some specific legal, epistolary, academic, etc. - style. The concept of register is based on the idea of lexicoWhen Chapman (1973: 11) a generic within or communal coherence corpus. argues semantic his directs performance towards a particular style, he is adopting a register' , that'[w]hen a user he is considering style from a socio-linguistic point of view as a corpus with its own coherent linguistic system. Even an author's personal style sometimes becomes a model for conformity; for for is individual devices in the original text example, a parodist, not matters stylistic what but the overall coherent pattern of idiosyncratic traits. Chatman (1972) quotes two passages from two different parodies of Henry James's later style, and finally applies the results of the in is, to the their that assessment checklist of a success as mimicry, of the degree of analysis their stylistic conformity to James's texts. The idea of style as coherence is very often discussed in opposition to that of style as deviation (Hymes, 1960; Todorov, opposition 1971), no doubt because of the superficial lexical

between 'coherence' and 'deviation'.

True, the concept of 'norm' entails

'coherence', and therefore 'coherence' can be a parameter opposed to 'deviation', but there are deviation in kinds For text. of patterns certain of example, e.e. cummings's coherent also by the coherent occurrence of grammatical deviations (see also poems are characterized Thorne's argument in the citation in the previous section). This point can be generalized to the literary in Chapman (above: 13-14): style, as seen about argument While other styles show recurrent features, literature is distinguished by what can be described overall as pattern. The text will show selection and arrangement of items that contribute to the total effect; elements that would be absent or incidental in other styles are

70

important for the fulfilment of purpose. Poetry shows such patterning devices as metre, rhyme, assonance, alliteration; arranged. prose may contain similar devices, less regularly

Both types of literary discourse will have careful and often unexpected Figures of rhetoric will give unusual

selection of words and syntactic constructions.

distinguishing items. We two to the therefore third to certain may add a prominence devices in literature the the which use of special suggested previous chapter. marks of heighten the effect of linguistic acts through patterning. Since the recognition of coherence or pattern is only attained through contact with a large idea for is length the text, style viewing units of as coherence more suitable of substantial of text macroscopically rather than for analyzing the stylistic effect of some particular

For example, this idea cannot capture a single-shot or in passage. a particular expression deviation. unpatterned

2.1.6

Style as Connotation

This is originally

Enkvist's terminology

by which he means some textual phenomenon

'whereby each linguistic feature acquires its stylistic value from the textual and situational Hickey (ed., 1989: 6) also adopts this notion: 15). 1973: (Enkvist, environment' As we have already hinted, one of the concepts that occupies a central place in many definitions of style is that of connotation, with its related notions of expressive or emotive features. This concept derives from the idea that every semantic unit - word, phrase, literal, has denotation) basic (its a primary, meaning or referential and sentence, etc. figurative indirect have more or other meanings (its connotation). may

Connotation as opposedto denotation normally refers to the additional associativemeanings 71

(for example, the word 'rose' conveys the connotation of 'passionate convey words or phrases love' besides the denotation of the flower we know by that name, or'home' is a dwelling-place but level, its 'domesticity' denotative its suggests or symbolizes at connotative or'warmth' at level), but in our present context it may also mean discoursal meanings which cannot individual back be lexical in to the traced the relevant sequence of connotations necessarily Other instance, For the completely grammatical and seemingly sentence non-rhetorical words. flies clustered and swarmed at the edge in the opening paragraph of Katherine Mansfield's The Stranger' describes the way the passengers of the liner gather on the deck, and at the same time from their the viewpoint of the people waiting to meet the of movement visibility poor suggests them (for further analysis of the metaphorical structure of the first paragraph of the story, see Saito, 1990; see also 4.4.11). Corresponding to the general trend in post-structuralist criticism towards the deconstructive in hidden it, is behind text the power search of structures recent stylistics getting of reading in ideological interested lurking in be the text, meanings more which can classified as more and discoursal connotations falling into this category of style. Take the following sentence in one The Conservatives for last Labour breaking its example: night accused of pledge newspaper that no one earning less than about 22,000 a year would be worse off under its "Shadow Budget" plans, by proposing to abolish incentives for taking up private personal pensions ' At hit 4.5 (17 March this 1992) no the million people. stage election campaign could of which Budget' 'Shadow it is is intended the to, no will or whether will not work as sure actually one But by how the prospect seems. negative using the phrase'accused Labour of breaking matter its pledge', the writer is no doubt trying to make it seem as if Labour's breaking the pledge is a fact, while tactfully avoiding a declarative tone. In other words, the sentence implies a rightbe sufficiently cannot which wing author, revealed by the other ideas of style we have

72

lines, (For on similar argument an see also Carter and Nash, 1990.) surveyed. As I suggested in 2.1.0, choice of one idea of style in preference to others as an analytical is model a matter of emphasis on some specific aspect of style rather than technical assessment, here is the than in any other definition, for the idea of style as this case obviously more and connotation is doubly narrowed down, in a clear-cut way, from the overall linguistic

be by covered should which our discipline. First, connotation occurs mainly on the phenomena level idea for that the tends to the other levels, so of word-choice, exclude concern semantic Second, the concept is by definition only the hidden and graphological. phonological especially half of the whole meaning. This idea of style, therefore, cannot capture, for example, the brought about through the tension between denotation and connotation (e. g. effects stylistic ). double etc. meaning, pun,

2.2

DEFINITION

OF STYLISTICS

2.2.0

Introduction

The preceding sections should have done something to show that style can only be defined, if at in model exploitable some specific analytical situations, that is, as a minor all, as a grammatical concept with some contextual restrictions but not as a basic concept for constructing a If discipline define thereon. to we are stylistics, as we have been long required to substantial for an academic formation and citizenship, we have to search elsewhere for a set of more be it Let made clear again that the definition we are searching for is not a tangible notions.

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but lexical find in dictionary its equation which a a or will place comfortable simple synonymy for building basis discipline. the up system our of philosophical Let us begin by making sure of what is fundamentally agreed about stylistics: that it is language from literature, in to the point of view of way or other or and/or some related linguistics literary to and/or situation, criticism. academic Although, as I suggested earlier,

those two disciplines do not necessarily have a firm grip of their objects of study in terms of definition, they are institutionally well established, and we have a general understanding of

it is by begin that to they so not unreasonable about, setting up scaffolds, which are all what due between in for be them the construction of stylistics. course, or on removed may The following three sections look at the arguments which try to define stylistics as a branch literary branch bridging interdisciplinary linguistics, the criticism, of as a and as an principle of In doing, fields these sections will also show that the traditional definitions of so two of study. latest based discipline the the that the tacit and most eclectic, are even assumption on stylistics, is concerned in some way or other with ready-made texts, as it were, texts which have already been created, and not with writing in progress. In Chapter 3 and 4,1 will redefine stylistics idea to the of applicability creative writing. additional with

2.2.1

Stylistics

as a Branch

of Linguistics

Linguistics here theoretically refers to a generic idea which subsumes all the studies primarily forms language the structures and with of and discourse. Therefore, to define concerned is linguistics branch it to of categorize a as with phonological, morphological, lexical, stylistics discourse analysis, textlinguistics, studies, syntactic sociolinguistics, etc., though this

definition historically was sought quite often in reference to structural linguistics.

74

The first action the linguist instinctively

takes when treading into an unexplored field of

definitional he linguistic is to the to try or a primary phenomena which restriction set on study first frustration happened The in development is this the to stylistics of at elucidate. going she in have define the same way as to tried seen, when style stylisticians already stage, as we have linguists the placed concepts of phonology, morphology, vocabulary, syntax, structuralist text or discourse into a clear-cut framework for classifying the chaotic linguistic phenomena of the real world. However, it is not altogether impossible to narrow down to some extent the

in linguistic first discipline terms, to we and arc examine some attempts at our going purview of from linguist's This the the stylistics subjects of of view. or point subject structuralist outlining is not to say, I hasten to add, that the basic definition of stylistics should be given in linguistic terms; I am only arguing that we can at least find some important hints for defining the in linguists' linguistically-oriented the structuralist stylistics or subject(s) of tentative arguments about the nature of stylistics. Considering the impact of de Saussure's Cours de linguistique gendrale on the stylisticians' largely

linguistics, it is linguists that took up one of the modem of quite natural some systematization Saussureandichotomies - langue vs. parole - to differentiate between the old Saussurean scope linguistic This idea the linguistics the new scope stylistics. and of as study of of stylistics of Bally in his followers, in As I in 1.2. is the practice of we and as saw argued embodied parole 2.1.4, the langue/parole dichotomy, like many other meta-linguistic dichotomies, is a circular but its imperfection, any scrutiny, there stand strict cannot once acknowledge we and notion initial be the Enkvist the to restriction to no refuting on stylistics parole. purview of seems (1973: 37-38) shows a typical error of a rigorous theoretician trapped in abstractions in identification the of stylistics with the study of parole: criticizing If langue is only observable as an abstraction from parole, and if styles are only observable as results of comparison between one sample of parole and another, how can

75

these two samples be compared without recourse to langue? That is, each sample supposedly reflects the same, underlying langue, which directs them and makes them commensurable. And if langue must drawn into such comparisons, then style must be langue to and not only to parole. related This argument is doubly wrong, or exactly, futile in one respect and erroneous in the other: first, here he is just harping on the interrelation between langue and parole which is necessitated by the initial definition; their of context for langue inevitable to the recourse second,

does it treating necessarily not mean as an object of study. commensurability This I repeat is only an initial restriction, and stylistics cannot cope with such a wide range for by idea has it linguistic to; the as are covered phenomena any of parole, nor reason of in it is individual the except not concerned, special comparative with studies, stylistic example, linguistic 'performances' or we make in everyday situations. utterances, definitional restriction comes in: stylistics is a linguistics of writing. Here the second

This time also, setting

for the present the question of whether or not stylistics is a branch of linguistics, as aside textlinguistics or sociolinguistics is, we can reasonably take up this restriction in the course of defining our discipline. Combining these two restrictive notions, we get a basic idea of

traditional stylistics as a study of parole in writing. It may seem that I am taking too cautious a step and lingering too long on safe ground well distanced from the putative object. However, as soon as we try to take a further step through how describe the difficulties loom the to to the of written nature parole, some up as specifying textual properties of the particular types of text stylistics is to be concerned with. The general in I the literature is is that previous section reaffirmed with stylistics concerned of no agreement help in this context, for, as we shall see in 2.3.2, it is impossible to define literature in terms of The above-mentioned section will look at some interesting description. linguistic rigorous literature and literary language, but for the present' parole in the of towards concept approaches

76

in doing if down is try to we are purely scope as we narrow our all we can get writing' in literature the attempts on the Though the linguistic terms. notion of sometimes recurs linguist's side to define stylistics, it should be understood as nothing other than a vaguely traditional and institutional notion. As long as the object of study remains vague, the only possible way to approach from the discipline as framework is keep the the linguistics of of apparatus established set and side of This literature. been has to the them considered analysis of what normally they are and apply Fowler, Halliday, Thorne, in Jakobson, the theories is and/or practices of attitude typically seen Ohmann, Sinclair, Chapman, and Freeman. Noticeably, since this special type of written level to of grammar - phonological, spoken parole at every corresponds parole obviously linguistic discoursal, lexical, the standard all syntactical, and pragmatical morphological, is Stylistics here be in different to considered applicable ways. slightly theories are supposed Enkvist's in discipline' linguistics 'parallel term, Ullmann to a pejorative a or, calls what as 'shadow linguistics' (Enkvist, 1971). The primary objection to the positioning of stylistics as an extended part of linguistics is (1971): by Dolezel neatly expressed The main weakness of linguistically descriptions its derivation is of oriented stylistics

(and models) of the text structures from descriptions (and models) of language. This into is does fact take text the the that an autonomous semiotic account not approach be lower (and, its that, the at only on even can explained properties only partly structure; levels of organization) by a theory of linguistics. This criticism, based on the assumption that linguistics is concerned with the micro-structures linguistic but is to language, the this applicable orientation, of particularly early stylistics of been developments has to the owing reduced of textlinguistics, semiotics and greatly problem discourse stylistics. But more serious is the basic problem of motivation for textual analysis. 77

So long as stylistics stays with linguistics, every stylistic study must be motivated by the linguist's concern for the linguistic properties and structures of the text, or for the validity of his likely for from both be In texts her the point of to sample cases, are analysis chosen method. or from literary handling that the not of and of evaluation or appreciation, methodology, of view texts is more often than not highly tentative. Considering some extra-grammatical activities on imaginative in fictional thematic messages encoding the author's part visualization a world, of borrowing from in to the texts, or and preceding and so on on reader's allusion construction, decoding them - intuitive response, inferences about the author's intention, misunderstanding, in literature linguistically in inexplicable 'conventions' which play a significant especially etc. definition is the it that present obvious rules out many possible approaches to the quite role, dynamism of the author-reader interaction.

2.2.2

Stylistics

as a Branch

of Literary

Criticism

According to Hough's interpretation of Alonso's idea of stylistics, it is'the science of literature' literature' true (Hough, 1969: 'the to 79). Todorov route a possible philosophy only of and (1971) argues that '[s]tylistics is certainly the most rigorous division of literary studies'. As we introduced Cluysenaar 'extension in 1.53, stylistics as an of practical criticism'. saw When we categorize stylistics with literary criticism, it is to be ranked equally with other literary theories such as Marxist criticism, reception theory, feminist criticism, psychoanalytical deconstructionism, new-historicism, criticism, and so forth, with its motivation primarily

for fuller literary by the requirement evaluation. And of course we know how many provided Spitzer (1948), Lodge Chatman (1972), (1966), studies stylistic avowedly etc. - not to Auerbach (1953), Watt (1960), Page (1973), etc. which are usually as works such mention

78

for literary here the sake of as stylistics criticism and classified of only works as considered literary by for the motivated works themselves, an aesthetic concern convenience, were actually deal to their appreciation. a great and contributed Since literary criticism makes a more holistic and comprehensive approach, though hoc, linguistic than the to the text theories, possible exceptions of modem with ad sometimes discourse analysis and textlinguistics, it is surprisingly difficult to find any logical or theoretical its handling in idea least to the the texts, of stylistics of as one of with respect problem, at branches, so long as the so-defined discipline can stave off sheer impressionism; even if it linguistic borrowings have interpret heavily theories, them to we on as only relies sometimes from another field. Surprisingly, I wrote, because the idea of stylistics has met a more hostile literary in (see Fowler-Bateson field in linguistics than that the the criticism of of rejection But based 1971). is in Fowler, the rejection on an ungrounded more adhominem, controversy its literary objectivism associated on and critics' part, than purely theoretical, mistrust of science literary is The incompatible that does mean with scientific criticism rigour. necessarily not and definition disproving fatal is the to but the present objection of argument that, stylistics only, for some reason or other, a great number of different theories and analyses, sometimes nonliterary, non-critical, or non-aesthetic, have been actually presented under the selfsame name. This simple disproof was of course valid the other way round as a counter-argument to the be a greater problem here, considering the initial linguisticsbut definition, to seems preceding oriented conceptualization of this discipline as well as the number of theoretical works,

including this thesis, which the definition may rule out.

2.2.3

Stylistics as an Interdisciplinary

Field

79

It was Widdowson who first defined stylistics in terms of interdisciplinarity:

By 'stylistics' I mean the study of literary discourse from a linguistics orientation and I shall take the view that what distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two and has (as yet at least) no autonomous domain of its own. (Widdowson, 1975: 3) Although this definition was propounded for the specific purpose of building up the

pedagogico-stylistic

theory of teaching literature, it will pass as a definition of stylistics in

disapproval In dictionary the of obsessional overloading of stylistic terminology with general. I definition, definitional take this entries, which seems to embrace most neatly the various new ideas and practices presented before and after it, as a basis for expanding the discipline towards the field of creative writing. Widdowson's line of definition has been followed by the practical/ Mills (1995: 4), '[sltylistics been has defined to according school as the analysis pedagogical literary its language from texts, linguistics, in order taking theoretical usually the of models of to undertake this analysis', or according to Short (1996: 1), 'stylistics is an approach to the linguistic (literary) description' texts Widdowson's definition using though of analysis in its more equivocal wording. appropriately The notion of 'literary discourse', or more specifically 'literary language', has been more and more problematized as stylistics underwent the test of post-structuralism, and has We shall is

somewhat settled at present on the open-ended cline of non-generic 'literariness'.

look at various discussions of 'literary language' in 23.2, and suffice it to say for the present here discourse' should be taken as discourse charged with 'literariness' and not as that'literary discourse in literary works. Nevertheless, 'literariness' no doubt exists more densely and

in literary in than work a any other type of discourse, so that it will be a natural purposefully corollary that actual stylistic studies should converge roughly on the institutionalized literature

80

(which doesnot mean'canonized'Literature).

The idea of a'linguistics orientation' also needs redefining. As we have already seen, many have considered that the successof stylistics depends entirely on the adaptability of stylisticians linguistics to the study of literary discourse. They have argued that literature is made of language, and therefore that, in Whitehall's words, 'no criticism can go beyond its linguistics' (Whitehall, 1951). The first half of this argument is completely right. But in the logic of

deriving the latter conclusion lurks the typical conceited assumption of linguistics that the it has for describing theories produced are universally and accurate measures any models linguistic phenomenon in the world. We took a brief look at the curious chicken-and-egg

linguistic in in terms of langue/parole dichotomy, and I of extracting methods rules circularity fallacious discuss their application to specific analyses in 2.3.4 with the example of will Stubbs's handling of Gricean theory, but here I will give a simpler example, just to show the in linguistics kinds explaining certain of of stylistic effects: uselessness And watch the clouds, that late were rich with light, Slow saddening round, and mark the star of eve Serenely brilliant (such should Wisdom be)

Shine opposite! How exquisite the scents

Snatched from yon bean-field! and the world so hushed! The stilly murmur of the distant Sea

Tells us of silence.
In reading this second half of the first stanza of Coleridge's The Eolian Harp', any reader with literary appreciation will notice the unusually frequent occurrence of the /s/ a normal sense of sound, especially towards the end of the stanza. However, there is obviously no linguistic theory that can describe, in purely objective terms, this linguistic device of what stylistics (see 2.1.4). 'foregrounding' There is no quantifying the number of /s/ sounds also calls simply

81

in in his her the notice, or words, generate mind a reader's other which or catch can can which The distant future, in time unexpectedness. when the may come, of some general sense figure out all the possible patterns of normal sound occurrences and the minimum can computer identical sounds which strike the reader as unusually repetitive. some of number But at

linguistics, language for denying is that that matter, there of no or any possible science present, describe linguistic fails those to even sometimes phenomena which bring about general

interpretive agreements. Therefore, the phrase 'linguistics orientation' in our definition should be understood rather loosely as language-based approach. The development of literary criticism after Practical Criticism is, in sharp contrast to that of linguistics, the process of subjectivizing, destabilizing, and deconstructing literary texts. And it is not so difficult to discern here the existence of another extremism. As I will argue in the idea (233), Fish's stylistics of affective section on which is based on this extremist idea of

between linguistics and literary criticism was partly caused by dissociation the subjectivism, Western dichotomous logic originating in Cartesian dualism. Discourse is a continuum of the intention, it, textual discuss the to to construct objective and subjective response and author's it have disciplines the the two the of other, cost at as of modern actually tended to one aspect do, is of necessity partial and insufficient theorization. It should be pointed out in this context that literary criticism has not questioned the extent to which the text represents the author's original intentions; indeed, literary criticism has even if it was requisite for their respective

dismissed the idea of (historical) authorship or replaced it by that of implied authorship as textual construct. With this theoretical peculiarity and partiality, which will be highlighted in contrast to the assumption of philology that the text is an imperfect representation of the intentions, literary modern theories fail to explain what readers know by author's empirical intuition. Take the passagefrom Coleridge again for example. In the preceding paragraph we

82

looked at the theoretically inexplicable linguistic feature of unusual occurrence of the /s/ sound, but this time also, any reader with a normal sense of literary appreciation will notice that the Again feeling this we sound creates and serenity. a general of silence particular repetition of link between linguistics for be the sound to the to the elucidate strong reason able expect might however, is here is What feeling, the not concerns us which, our present concern. really and the fact that, no matter how firm our intuitive agreement is about the effect of a certain linguistic device, critics no longer discuss it in terms of the historical author's literary intention.

However, any reader knows, with or without a sense of literary appreciation, that the device history; long in by the author, who so as the really existed chosen physically was actually Coleridge he knows in Eolian Harp', The the that authorship of or she reader acknowledges this empirical author thought of that particular rhetorical device at the time of creating the poem for the purpose of evoking the above-mentioned feeling. We have only stopped mentioning, implicitly literary the criticism, what readers of name under admit, or rather, we have been

literary by theorists to abandon the common-sensical assumption about modern encouraged historical authorship as a naive and unsophisticated judgment. We need to theorize the

intuitive literary design the understanding as author's, pre-textual well of original, as reader's, in order to study literary discourse in a comprehensive way. This argument leads us to examine the 'interdisciplinarity' of stylistics, which is expressed

in Widdowson's passage by the phrase 'it is essentially a means of linking the two'. What I by 1 detailed Chapter historical in means of to tried explanations of the different schools show from have I is, time to time, a general context of stylistics' theoretical repeated as stylistics of formation fragmenting by both institutional the which was necessitated specialization of and linguistics and literary criticism and the subsequent accumulation of excluded and neglected differently, Put function determined this the academic context of stylistics as a link problems. between the two neighbouring disciplines, though it has not yet superseded the recent chaotic

83

)(1994) Verdonk (eds. Sell in introduction Sell his to English and points out studies. state of function: interdisciplinary its of the narrow range
Another 'lang. -lit. ' growth area was stylistics, but it too was mostly bi-polar. With the functionalist exception of (e. Enkvist Enkvist the g. stylistics and work of 1973),

dimension, did and was often associated operate with usually a pragmatic not stylistics from Russian directly in Jakobson the formalism, literary the case of stemming with a Formaists. interdisciplinarity bi-polar (1994) Toolan tries to this with In the same volume solve problem of the following suggestion: Literary linguistics must be continually renewed and reoriented by new approaches in fields theories relevant adjacent and adjusted - particularly, new approaches in

linguistics and literary theory. Ideally, however, there should be not simply a 'taking from' these neighbouring dsciplines - uncritically, as it were - but a'talking with' them. That is, in being a testing-ground for linguistic and literary theories, the verbal analysis of literary but linguistic to texts, models, not and also ought merely adopt stylistics specific to adapt them and propose revisions, in a full dialogue with academic colleagues (the larger discourse-studying community). course of stylisticians' assimilation And that does seem to have happened in the recent models as Labovian

of such influential

intonation Gricean theory, models pragmatics, politeness new of narrative analysis, systems, and so on. I will later take a step further in the same direction and suggest that stylistics should 'adapt' for in literary use of rhetoric creation. models prescriptive

84

2.3

OTHER THEORETICAL

PROBLEMS

2.3.1

Subcategorization

of Stylistics

Strictly speaking, the two ideas of 'interdisciplinarity'

and 'subcategorization' are contradictory

function force is linking discipline longer it as a subdivided, a certain no can to each other, once interdisciplinary link is the subdivisions together to another principle set up until to any others fact it is is At time, the this an self-contradiction. undeniable same a ridiculous once again, and itself, linguistic literary developments that to of stylistics and mention of studies, not that the have increased the tasks of our discipline to such a degree that we can no longer cope with the basic in Widdowson's definition. idea the with simply expressed neatly vast range of problems With this dilemma in mind, I will approve of some of the subdivisions of stylistics propounded it is in but be dismiss that far should only possible others, made clear subcategorization and so to the the general point terms whole continuum. of emphasis within according relative Stylistics was first divided into linguistic stylistics and literary stylistics. Although I do not distinction between that the two the the which at was early stage clear made of of approve for example, the argument of Todorov and Wellek in Chatman, ed., (see, subcategorization 1971), 1 think it quite reasonable to distinguish between them according to the bipolar

distinction long is based the textual as as any or methodological on not of stylistics orientation differences but on general differences of purpose. Wales (1989: 438) is well aware of the in distinction disciplines, but between the these two still seems to confusion nomenclatural linguistic it to stylistics as 'a kind of stylistics whose focus of interest is explain think possible but literary has for the linguistic texts, refinement which potential of model a not primarily further linguistic or stylistic analysis'. Carter (1984) explains linguistic stylistics as 'the purest

85

form of stylistics in that its practitioners attempt to derive, from the study of style and language for language, the models of analysis of refinement and thus they contribute to the variation, development of linguistic theory', and literary stylistics as the discipline aiming at 'the

for fuller basis interpretation understanding, a of appreciation, and of avowedly provision literary texts' (see also Carter and Simpson, eds., 1989: 4-8). Carter goes on to explain 'style as discourse', by which he means the study of 'stylistic discourse in types', not particularly of range a wide effects in literature, and 'pedagogical

level. The former in be the categorical same can as'linguistic on classified stylistics' stylistics' in is in be to general stylistics which supposed concerned with the open-ended cline my system, I here in take literariness, that the the third only up so other as category my subcategorical of development is It British the most recent of stylistics and presumably the strongest schema. impetus to the rapid development of stylistics as a whole. We looked at the aim and practice of in 1.5.5 I do it but therefore the closely rather stylistics and not repeat again, pedagogical important thing to note here is that it was subcategorized according to its practical aims. It is surprising that stylisticians, even the fussiest about the definition of their discipline or in their textual analyses, have not paid much heed to the total disorder in the the most careful have been which notions presented and mostly acknowledged up to the present subcategorizing day (see 'Introduction'), when the simplest lexico-semantic comparison of the subcategorical modifiers have shown what was wrong about the whole bunch of newly-born would complications. Take some of the

disciplines and possibly prevented further terminological

One for is the 'generative' stylistics, which applies generative of example. oldest subcategories (and transformational) grammar to the analysis of literary discourse. We also have 'lexical' is lexical features the obviously concerned which with of the text. stylistics, Recently,

development the to of computer science, 'computational' stylistics is getting more according it be Now should noticed that the first discipline is subcategorized by its popular. and more

focuses it by the the textual the equipment, on, and second property or analytical methodology it (physical) by the apparatus uses in analysing texts. Therefore, in an extreme case, a third belong possibly might study equally to these three categories, and this means certain stylistic that they are not properly categorized. This is not to say, I hasten to add, that every stylistic study should belong exclusively to one by One (sub)categorization. I defies definite stylistics earlier, nature and said any category; as both linguistics but it is literary to contribute significantly, and criticism, the same study can likely to be more towards either of the two on the scale of purpose. The former three subdisciplines, if they can be called disciplines at all, and all the others that I mentioned in the 'Introduction', except those I have already approved of, are neither contradictory nor complebut in (what to terms unrelated each other point completely view of subcategorical of mentary, 'radical' for 'general', ), is 'new', therefore or stylistics, and cannot make an example? all after Besides, it is discipline that whole. also a obvious which employs one as any system organic itself feature concerns or only with methodology one particular of the text does not particular fulfill the original requirements of stylistic study. We do not need 'generative stylistics', but

be in taken tool generative grammar adopt as can one useful well up which a certain we may analytical context. Considering the historical formation of stylistics, even dating back to its progenitors in in Renaissance, find the times, that the addresser-oriented study of or medieval we and ancient textual creation, which will quite reasonably be covered by stylistics, has actually been given little attention except some passing glances (see, for example, Cluysenaar, 1976; Carter and Burton, eds., 1982; Carter and Nash, 1990: 174-88; Slusser and Rabkin, eds., 1992), and I 'creative it tentative of name stylistics' according to my policy of purpose-based a give subcategorization. The diminution of the concern of modern stylistics for rhetorical or can be attributed partly to the widening gap between

presentational aspects of writing

87

in literary linguistics the to the world, and and propensity of authorship partly and scholarship literary impersonal, theories to think text and autonomous of as a static, modern some have it is, be be they assumed can as regardless of the or should analyzed construct, which historical context and process of its production. Quite understandably, every stylistic study

implicit is for it from the the text that assumption, on only source working explicit, a or starts is discussion Leech it As in I to the convey. the supposed of and suggested meaning out Short's analysis of Mansfield's sentence (see 2.1.3), no analysis has ever been made to show have forms. is linguistic However, such better the poorly and writing could chosen that author is but highly in line the not only possible sometimes effective, especially of argument a pedagogy of creative writing. I take an example from a novel which I find is badly written in

In felt following I the that reading presentation. casually, vaguely stylistic sentence terms of is something seriously wrong: Grace closed her eyes, considering with relief that Rachel, compliantly squirting sunAlison's in over white splotches reddening skin, had taken up the burden of cream conversation also. (Christopher New, A Change of Flag, 1990) On reading it second time, this time with an analytical eye, I found a strange incongruity in the in begins It this completely viewpoint grammatical with the suggestion sentence. narrative (considering with relief that ... ) that the narrative point of view has shifted into the

female describe her but the character to the visual of who closed on goes eyes, consciousness details of the other character's behaviour from the omniscient point of view. Though the

logically and grammatically mean that the first character closed her eyes after quite can sentence behaviour, this particular ordering of descriptions and the use of the the other's observing (compliantly phrase present-participial embedded squirting the suggests skin), which ...

visibility of the ongoing act, prevent the reader from envisaging the scene in that logical and

88

rational way.

In order to generate a natural, congruous picture in the reader's mind, the

been for have written otherwise, example: passageshould Rachel compliantly squirted sun-cream in white splotches over Alison's reddening her had burden Grace taken the that eyes, up closed considering of with she relief skin. conversation also. This prescriptive line of argument is more valid when the author's literary intention is known, it has its in final linguistic the process of creative not got realization and still more so when into idea Chapter in 4 demonstrate I this theory a will expand of creative and stylistics writing. it further by means of creative writing in Chapter 5.

2.3.2

What is Literary

Language?

The most naive approach to this question is, as is seen in the comment of I. A. Richards, the definition Conference Indiana (Richards, 1960), the to and classification, of at virtuoso greatest in linguistic literature define terms. However, only a quick survey of literary history will to try is literature literary that self-destroying a with new pieces of work (e. g. system, show us Wordsworth's or T. S. Eliot's poems, Theatre of the Absurd, modern meta-fictional novels,

literary Therefore, it breaking ) the their conventions and of rules contemporary orthodoxy. etc. is next to impossible to give a clear outline to literature as long as new generations of writers keep on trying to outrun its restrictions. It is far easier to define it in institutional terms of

but literary in difficulties the market, still some arise as to the classification of those agreement been have conventionally works which classified as literature but were actually published

(e. Wordsworth's Prelude, the sometimes consent, their author's even against will g. without Forster's Maurice, Poe's ), in the incomplete contexts of author-reader poems, etc. of many

89

interaction. It is now commonly acknowledged that the language of literature, or literary language cannot be defined in purely linguistic terms. For example, Fowler (1966) argues: It is unlikely that any formal feature, or set of features, can be found, the presence or absence of which will unequivocally identify literature. Put another way, there is

form distinction between literature and non-literature: neither of no absolute probably these two categories is formally homogeneous. However, at the same time, there is a general observation that certain expressions, whether they belong to literary works or not, sound more 'literary' than others. For example, comparing the following two passages, nobody will deny that the second passage from a handbook on

literary first Over from Julian Barnes's Talking It than the more novel one sounds aromatherapy (1991): I think I had better start with a description of the village in which we live. It's southdepartment in Aude, Minervois, Toulouse, Canal the the the the of edge of near of on east du Midi. The village is surrounded by vineyards, although this wasn't always the case.

I began to feel happier and less worried. The money problem was still there, but from it, I felt detached it had been into balloon, though as put a which was somehow floating abovemy headeventhough it was still attachedto me by a string.
This means that the linguistic features which provoke a general feeling of 'literariness' occur irrespective of genre or discourse type. Hence Carter's question: Is there such a thing as literary language or can the same patternings of language be found discourse ? it literariness Is in types to to of a range a cline of preferable refer across ... language use?

(Carter, 1986) 90

His own answer of course is in the affirmative.

Carter and Nash (1983) had already developed literariness (medium

this, and they later came to set up the measures of non-generic

dependence, re-registration, interaction of levels: semantic density, polysemy, and displaced interaction; see Carter and Nash, 1990: 34-42). I have already argued that we should take up the notion of 'literary discourse' as a central purview of stylistics in this non-generic sense (2.23), but also that in so doing we will inevitably be concerned more with literature than with discourse. Although does this type new not change the nature of of stipulation other any definition 'literariness' linguistic the of greatly, analysis phenomenon as a ubiquitous stylistic feature, degrees in different the along cline, enables stylistics not as a special generic occurring to outgrow the institutional limitation of literary criticism and problematize the basic assumption (see Tambling, itself 1988 for literary language from literature also reconsideration of a of pedagogical point of view).

2.3.3

'Fish Hook'

No single article has ever threatened stylistics more seriously than Fish (1973). Toolan (1990: 15) points out that'the story [about the theorisation of stylistics] has seemed in danger of final helplessly Fish "hook"'. the caught stylisticians with on resolution, Stylistics seems to have

breakdown fortunately, but it theoretical is by the a escaped and survived crisis, only narrowly ignoring this severest and probably most logical attack on it or by shifting its position gradually field the towards comfortable of pedagogy, and no thorough confrontation has and evasively been attempted, with the possible exception of Toolan's counter-attack on Fish's idea of an interpretative community (ibid.: 15-20), to reinstate it firmly on a theoretical ground. This is in Fish's that this most careful stylistic and meta-stylistic analysis of to argument say not

91

instead I be before to completely refuted we set our systematization; stylistic works should in into to the take this to that reconsider article consideration order serious need we contend discipline positively. our of nature Paradoxically, Fish is completely right in his criticism about the mock-scientific, but in fact between interpretation in linkage linguistic literary description the and completely arbitrary Milic, works of generalizes: What we have then, is a confusion between methodology and intention, and it is a discern is difficult in the midst of the pseudo-scientific paraphernalia the to that confusion bear. I final bring to to to return and a paradox. my paragraph opening stylisticians While it is the program of stylistics to replace the subjectivity of literary studies with description interpretation, ignore is its techniques of practitioners what and objective is formalism, but that true the timeless meaning not property of a something objectively in finally the therefore they than of an activity context and more subjective are acquired the critics they would replace. For an open impressionism, they substitute the covert impressionism of anchorless statistics and self-referring categories. In the name of Ohmann, Thorne, Halliday and Riffaterre. After criticizing them, he

responsible procedures, they offer a methodized irresponsibility,

and, as a result, they

interpretations which are either circular - mechanical reshufflings of the data - or produce in their machinery. anything of readings arbitrary Here we come across the greatest flaw in his logic. I said that he was completely right in

linguists but linguistics-oriented his the and afore-mentioned stylisticians, criticism criticizing holds good only for those five analysts or possibly for some other stylisticians of idealistically for This is at and not all others. persuasion not to say that one must not criticize a scientific its indeed, dismiss it is to of constituents; all criticizing a certain without quite reasonable class in defects its application with a handful of examples if only the the theory after proving

92

examples are selected arbitrarily and represent the whole class uniformly.

The problem with

Fish's argument is that his sampling of targets is so partial that it inevitably brings about a favoured From his towards the outset of the the results of analysis of conclusion. convergence from ludicrously book he a on oneirocriticism, which of pseudo-scientific quotes where article, do he is firmly determined has to to caricature certain extreme with stylistics, nothing course types of mock-scientific arguments in stylistics, and therefore goes on to choose samples only from strictly linguistics-oriented stylistic analyses with egregious fallacies. His criticism is, be, it logic to the though not meant more on was an specific of effective checkup of even in than stylistics general. on an attack analysis But the more interesting paradox is that, as soon as he turns to the positive possibilities of idea his 'affective he Fish in with of already advocated stylistics', which saving stylistics (1970), he falls in his turn into another kind of extremism in emphasizing the importance, or his 'affective the contextual and subjective stylistics' replaces the of meanings; priority even for in facts textual of some extremist concern objective views stylistics with pseudo-scientific the Receptionist's concern for the reader's response, the other half of the whole of literary meaning. The sequel to the above-mentioned essay (Fish, 1980: 246-67) is far less troublesome to us, though the author sounds more confident of his anti-stylistic reasoning and seems to be trying to deliver a coup de grace on his quivering opponent. In this article, he asserts that 'the act of description is itself interpretive and that therefore at no point is the stylistician even within hailing distance of a fact that has been independently (that is, objectively) specified. ' This time is The his not wrong. problem this time is, in sharp contrast to the previous assertion again, is broadly it is his true that that so assertion not a specific attack on stylistics. one, Post-

has ideological, the us aware made criticism of rhetorical, or even fictional nature structuralist is it ecriture, now commonly and of acknowledged, especially after Thomas Kuhn's

93

examination of scientific writings, that even the most objectively oriented discourse is not immune from some ideological or interpretative colouring. warned against an unduly manipulative Although we should always be of an

arrangement of data, the superimposition

interpretive framework on description alone is not an adequate reason for disqualifying any doctrine. scientific or non-scientific

2.3.4

Interpretation

This section considers the nature and degree of literary interpretation relevant to stylistic by re-examining the assumption, which is associated, very often unfairly, analysis with

inevitably leads to the revelation of some the that text careful analysis of a certain stylistics, fixed meaning in the text, or at least narrows down to a remarkable degree the possibilities of interpretation. Before generalizing the argument, I would like to examine the analyses of Hemingway's 'Cat in the Rain' by two practical stylisticians, Carter and Stubbs, to see how 'description' and 'interpretation' are linked in their respective studies, and later to present my disagreement on interpretation 'cat' the for the issue point of the specific as material one problematizing whole of interpretation. Carter (1982b) shows a typically practical-stylistic flexibility of approach to the above-

beginning text, not with the arrangement of some rigourous linguistic apparatus, but mentioned literary intuitive observations, which then determine the choice of analytical tools for some with No them. wonder coherence resides more in the interpretation of the story than substantiating in the methods of analysis, which vary from a simple lexical comparison to an examination of thought presentation mode. Through these grammatically multi-levelled analyses, he elucidates

94

hidden the some of clarity meanings in the text: the heroine's special feelings with convincing towards the hotel-keeper, her mental rejuvenation, her husband's unchangeability, and finally, the difference of the cat in the last scene from the one she wanted earlier in the story. What last is here the conclusion about the cat, drawn from the lexical difference between me concerns 'kitty' and 'big tortoiseshell cat'. After duly acknowledging the ambiguity and indeterminacy, he argues: But what does the cat symbolise? How do we account for what the linguistic details of the text highlighted elsewhere suggest? That is, that the cat is not the same as the 'kitty' the wife is looking for. For, after all, if it is not what she is looking for, this may lead to a deflation of the wife's expectations. The linguistic texture of the story would lead us to conclude that the 'kitty' is not the same as the cat described at the end.... Though some appeal would have to be made to substantiate my impressions in some inter-subjectively valid terms, I do not see a correlation here between 'cat' and 'kitty'. To me, this is a grotesque outcome to the kind of associations aroused in me by the word 'kitty'. Following this conclusion, the last scene is interpreted in terms of the hotel-keeper's attempt'to hotel his foibles the guests'. of placate This problem of the cat is highlighted in Stubbs (1982), which, after explaining Grice's CoPrinciple, states: operative My interpretation is therefore that Hemingway implicates that it is not the same cat. He does this by inserting information which is otherwise irrelevant: that the maid brings 'a big tortoise-shell cat'. Informally, we might say that there is no reason to mention what kind of cat it is, unless this is significant, and unless we are expected to draw our own conclusions.

Though he doesnot give any interpretation of the symbolic meaningof the cat in the last scene, 95

it cannot diverge too far from Carter's as long as the existence of two different cats is a fixed premise. When I first read the story, my intuition told me that there was only one cat in the story, disillusionment inevitable symbolizing intuitive this supported reading after a girlish daydream, and my second analytical though it did not rule out the two-cat

interpretation,

interpretation. My lasting inclination for a one-cat interpretaion is mainly based on the linguistic fact that the word 'kitty' only appears in the speech of the unnamed American wife, who was big have for likely tortoise-shell to mistaken a cat a kitty, looking at the dusky and rainy quite It is from the window. widely acknowledged among detective-novel readers that upper scene information of piece any given in speech form is open to doubt. My interpretation and

by Jennings (1989) interestingly, is are supported who, an anti-stylistic scholar. substantiation There is a crucial change in the point of view from which 'Cat in the Rain' is told as final to the paragraphs. Up to this moment, we have seen things through the we get last but the sentences give us the cat as the husband saw it. He is lying on wife's eyes, the bed, and we are told that he'looked up from his book' as the maid came in, while his wife is once more gazing out of the window. Perhaps the difference between the'kitty'

and the big tortoise-shell cat can be explained by the difference in the perceptions of the two characters: the wife, anxious to find an outlet for her frustrated emotions, sees the husband, in the way; one annoyed by the intrusion and by his wife's insistence animal that she wants a cat at all costs, in another. It hardly matters whether there is one cat or two; what matters is that it looks different to the two central characters.

More convincing is Carter's argument that a pattern of disappointment is set up in the legitimately that we may and story, expect the cat to be a further disappointment. But

be it different be disappointing? The wife has seen her 'kitty' only from to cat a need a

96

in the rain, at dusk. Close to, it may well look different. second-floor widow, Paradoxically, this is a brilliant piece of stylistic analysis in itself, and in no way confirms his in important here is fact But the that the stylistics' article. more position avowed -'against this interpretation does not rule out Carter's and Stubbs's initial observation that there seem to be two different cats; the lexical difference between 'a kitty' and 'a big tortoiseshell cat' is irrespective interprets in it the text, of whether one as the existence of two cats or as certainly different ways of describing the same cat. Thus, Jennings's criticism holds good not so much for stylistics in general as for the two stylisticians' conclusive presentation of one interpretation interpretation(s). the possible the other of cost at But Stubbs's fault is a little more serious in adopting the Gricean theory as if it were a fixed linguistic Here for Jennings's hits the mark: values. practical again, criticism measure There seems to be a contradiction here. The rules that linguists formulate are

derived from the intuitions of informants about their own ultimately generalisations language. Yet Stubbs is using these rules to override the intuitions of a majority of his (only informants one third of whom were convinced of the 'two-cat' interpretation). own It seems odd that two thirds of these informants - all highly competent readers - should A the story's ending. closer look at the story shows that the informants' misinterpret intuitive response may be more accurate than the trained linguists'. I would further argue that the Co-operative Principle after all is completely unnecessary to difference lexical between'a big kitty' the the tortoiseshell cat'. But of readers and'a convince here is that this particular linguistic theory is used (or misused) to to important thing note an logic by link the between of essentially the text and the means unsubstantiatable substantiate it. This link to be because response cannot what the text is and substantiated analyst-reader's individual it to the mean possibly readers are completely different things. We should what may therefore bear Jennings's criticism, as well as Fish's, in mind as a general warning against the

97

linguistic discussing literary basis for theories and models as a of values. overestimation
To return to our main problem of interpretation. We have seen how the selfsame linguistic facts led to two completely opposite interpretations even about the central symbol of the story. This is not to say that the meaning of a text is, as Fish insists, wholly acquired in the context of interpretation is is literary It does deny that this the existence of a so acquired, and not reading. fixed loaded facts Put the other way round, the selfsame textual textual with meanings. certain facts, which can be described in an objective way, are capable of creating different

interpretations. And stylistics is concerned not so much with drawing all the possible literary interpretations out of the text but with making sure that any interpretation is justified by the textual evidence.

2.4

SUMMARY

This chapter has reviewed the theoretical problems concerning stylistics with special attention first The definitions. looked its section to various at how stylistics initially had been defined ideas into to of style, which various were roughly six types: (1) style as classified according idiolect, (2) style as ornamentation, (3) style as choice, (4) style as deviation, (5) style as (6) style as connotation. and coherence, It also investigated the conceptual problems,

these types, thereby defining the of and each with pointed out general problem of associated it fuction for to as the theoretical basis of stylistics. An important thing to style strictly enough in is here the definition, that, this stages earlier of p, ocess of stylistics was concerned note functions the and prescriptive rhetorical with of style, but that these came to be ruled out partly in the later theorization of stylistics.

The second section looked at how the definition of stylistics had been sought in its 98

disciplines linguistics literary the to criticism. pre-established of and relevance

It classified

into branch (1) linguistics, (2) definitions three types: of stylistics as a of stylistics various literary branch interdisciplinary (3) criticism, of as an a and stylistics as stylistics field, and

inadequate first integrated into definitions be two the the third, more that could suggested definition. comprehensive It also tried to suggest that the idea of interdisciplinarity might be

combined with that of rhetorical prescriptivism to produce a more creative, more addresserdiscipline of stylistics. oriented The third section reviewed other theoretical problems which have made the positioning of difficult. stylistics It argued that (1) stylistics has been inappropriately subcategorized

has lost in its intradisciplinary links, thus to and notions a certain arbitrary coherence according but that (2) it is not as fatally flawed in theoretical terms as Stanley Fish has claimed, it far does (3) beyond its too that territory not go provided into the field of subjective

interpretation. It also touched upon the inevitable question in stylistics of what literary language is, and defined this by means of the idea of non-generic'literariness'. Based on these arguments, Chapter 3 will undertake a rearrangement of various stylistic demonstrate disciplines the (linguistic, the traditional three way of and stylistics principles literary, and pedagogical), newly defined, work differently approaches. in combination with cognitive

99

CHAPTER 3

REARRANGEMENT
THE PRINCIPLES

OF

OF STYLISTICS

3.0

INTRODUCTION

We have seen the historical background and developments of stylistics (Chapter 1) and the diversity of stylistic theories and their respective problems (Chapter 2). These historical and theoretical surveys suggest (1) that stylistics initially emerged as a mediator between linguistics historical in literary the and theoretical process of the dissociation and respective criticism and disciplines, (2) two those that its theoretical complication lies largely in the of specialization defined been has it and subcategorized according to arbitrary notions, and (3) that way traditional stylistics has mostly worked in a descriptive way and has not yet systematically taken function This first the of tries to provide stylistics with a new style. prescriptive chapter up framework for the problem noted in the second point above. This is as a remedy subcategorical done by taking the central notion - the purpose of analytical practice - from the first point above. The chapter then goes on to make the third point clear by demonstrating the three newly-defined (linguistic, literary, traditional stylistics of and pedagogical stylistics). sub-disciplines My

demonstration of the three sub-disciplines adopts the notion of 'cognition' as a point analytical highlight in to their methodological and orientational differences and, more order of reference importantly, the difference between these sub-disciplines of traditional stylistics and the theory be which will explained and demonstrated in Chapters 4 and 5. stylistics, of creative In Chapter 2 we saw how it is difficult to systematize stylistics as a discipline partly because it is inevitably concerned with the way readers respond to a text in many different ways, intuitively, psychologically, or even imaginatively, and more importantly because it began to diversify with a disorderly set of subcategorical notions while it was still on a shaky ground. However, the simplest fact of steady accumulation of past stylistic studies is now an adequately for building up a system thereon or even necessitates a new classificatory solid ground framework to sort them out. I am fully aware of the self-contradiction in attempting at

101

diversifying stylistics with any set of classificatory notions; once divided into sub-sections, any discipline cannot serve as a mediator between others without being reunified by the aid of links interdisciplinary between the sub-sections. In other words, a bridge over of another set two different fields of study, as stylistics is supposed to be over linguistic and literary studies, in itself. be Still I entity without organic any one split would rather classify stylistics should in it leave to than a quagmire of self-generating complications in order to highlight the anew its field language for its to the and suggest a concern new of creativity of explore partiality fuller and well-balanced development. Let us begin with by now an almost axiomatic agreement that stylistics covers the vast field literary linguistics between and studies but with some possible expansion to the study primarily To discourse. field is to this re-classify stylistics of study with a set of partition of non-literary level. As I discussed in 23.1, stylistics has been the on same categorical are which notions subcategorized with confusingly arbitrary notions, neither particularly contradictory nor

irrelevant but to each other how are we to understand, for example, the mostly complementary 'new', 'literary', between relation and 'pedagogical' stylistics? This kind of conceptual

disorder may seem trivial, and my argument about its disadvantage in the systematization of but rather exaggerating, sound may when we consider how linguistics has duly stylistics developed along lines with linguistic units or textual elements - sound, meaning, affix, word, discourse text or sentence, phrase, - and constructed a number of theories and models on this basic system, and how literary criticism, despite its innate subjectivism, has formed its theories according to the methodology of reading, we will be able reasonably to attribute the theoretical confusion of stylistics to the problem of its initial conceptual set-up. The first thing we should do to rearrange stylistic principles is to choose one basic criterion in them out map a comprehensive and comprehensible manner. As we saw with which we can in Chapter 2, it is not an efficient idea to define a sub-discipline of stylistics by a linguistic

102

is it linguistic it in the is terms the to properties of analytical strategy adopts or theory, that say, for level of grammar - phonological, to stylistic effects may occur at any supposed explain, discoursal, lexical, at whatever or even or syntactic, graphological, morphological, semantic, in It is by levels that, the time. different we see as can same at no means surprising some Ohmann (1964), Thorne (1965), and Halliday (1971), such a principle with a linguistics-based definition as 'structural', 'generative', or 'functional' stylistics can only grasp a very small

important leaves dynamics the most the style unexplained of and often whole portion of interaction between style and literary values. A linguistic theory cannot stand on its own as a just be downgraded for therefore one as stylistics should subcategorizing and principle proper in its stock. strategies of 'political', By the same token, those principles 'lexical', g. e. 'social',

'psycho-', or 'feminist' stylistics - which focus on special aspects of text do not

deserve the name of stylistics, being unable to, as the discipline is supposed to, explain the Also 'radical', 'general', like 'new', the terms dynamics text. or misguiding are of whole be discounted ideological therefore than as can no more markers 'practical', which are and such. Since stylistics started, historically or theoretically, not as an autonomous discipline for I discussed in Chapters 1 'style', the textual generalized as under name of phenomena studying between linguistics literary but 2, and studies, we can reasonably categorize as a mediator and it, as stylisticians have conventionally done (see the 'Introduction' to Carter and Simpson, eds., 1989), according to the position on the axis of orientation between language and literature is for When testing the study of stylistic or purpose a certain undertaken mainly studies. demonstrating the efficacy of linguistic models or theories, or of investigating the linguistic literary is independently in text of a stylistic work evaluation, short, certain when, of structures it be irrespective linguistic linguistics-oriented, the theory should classified of as stylistics more hand, On for is it the other when undertaken theories giving a certain stylistic study adopts. or

103

linguistic evidence to some intuitive observations about literary values of the text, when it is literary by it belongs literary There is the to analyst's concern, stylistics. another motivated kind of stylistics, which stands just in the middle of the axis between the two poles and tries to in has been this them contexts, pedagogical and properly named pedagogical stylistics. merge These three names are familiar ones, which I adopt to readjust the partitions of our field of like forward I field But in idea to the to put would quite now a new expand a previously study. direction. unexplored As I argued in 2.13, stylistic analyses have been made on the tacit New-Critical assumption that the text, which conventionally is the one and only object of analysis, is the final form of the author's creation. Indeed, as long as the author's intention is unknown, we cannot help

best its intentions, the because it is text the stylistic the as manifestation of author's accepting begin 'constant' to with. only However, when we know the author's intention from the

beginning, in other words, when we have the author's intention as a'constant', it is possible to discuss what linguistic form is most suitable to realize it in the text. This line of argument in be the 'creative context especially of pursued newly-established writing' course, and should here I propose a new discipline called creative stylistics. These are the basic classificatory ideas, though overlapping by nature, according to which I attempt to locate some of the past follows: the axes on of studies purposive orientation stylistic as major

104

literary criticism linguistics STYLISTICS--------------------------------LITERARY STYLISTICS LINGUISTIC Halliday (1971) Empson (1930) Sinclair (1966) Lodge (1966)

i
Carter (1982b)

DESCRIPTIVE

Widdowson (1975; 1992) language and literary teaching

/ /

i /

---------------------`x-PEDAGOGICAL
\

STYLISTICS---------------------/ / /

PRESCRIPTIVE

i/ i/ i/
I/ IF

/ / /

creative writing CREATIVE STYLISTICS

In the following sections, I demonstrate the three types, though redefined, of traditional from Woolfs by to the cognitive passages writings reference analyzing with special stylistics In I the doing, the the try to author, agents character(s), reader. so and relevant of process has had descriptivism; traditional to that stylistics a propensity suggest even pedagogical

function), which encourages language and/or literature students to its (in traditional stylistics by deconstructing (see 33 is 4.1.2), them even texts sometimes and creatively, also read descriptively oriented in that it pays due respect to original texts as well as to students' response to them and never tries to give prescriptive modifications to either of them. However,

is by degree, to I just some prescriptive nature and stylistics place pedagogical on the pedagogy borderline between descriptivism and prescriptivism in the diagram above in consideration of its to including disciplines connection more or prescriptively expansion creative oriented possible

105

stylistics.

3.1

LINGUISTIC

STYLISTICS

3.1.1

Theoretical

Problem

from initial linguistics was made by for 1.2, departing in 1.1 the move stylistics As we saw and itself langue Although latter the to as study opposed parole. of as established when the for in looking form domain developed has the theories the parole at of of textlinguistics it discourse analysis, still keeps away from literature, presumably looking upon linguistics and basic linguistic in terms of properties and textual structures. Therefore, it as something special linguistic from derive theories the study of largely of refinement to any models and in order justification: twofold a need we literary writing, linguistics to individual pieces of writing, we have to justify, firstly, the application of to

and secondly, the move from 'non-literary'

'literary' discourse. The first justification may be provided by cognitive linguistics, which regards the rigid

in structuralist and generative linguistics - synchrony vs. diachrony, dichotomies assumed lexicon, morphology vs. syntax, semantics vs. pragmatics, rule vs. analogy, vs. grammar grammatical denotation, derivational vs. ungrammatical morphophonemic inflectional vs. sentences, homonymy vx. phonological morphology, vs. polysemy, connotation vs.

(or phonological

vs. phonetic)

rules,

vagueness vs. ambiguity,

literal vs. figurative

importantly, competence vs. performance, the generative version of the most language, and langue and parole - as 'false dichotomies' (Langacker, between opposition 106 1987: 18-19).

Linguistics has already broken down the barrier between speech and writing in expanding its domain into text linguistics, and this argument will reasonably warrant the application of linguistic theories and grammatical models to the examination of individual texts, and further, from individual Beaugrande de Dressler (1981: linguistic induction rules analyses. and of the 18) further argue that'the expanded scope of text linguistics renders it still more useful in [an literary linguistic to than the methods studies] conventional methodology of of application describing structures as such'. As we saw in 2.3.2, it is now widely acknowledged that there is no clear distinction between ordinary language and the language in literature in terms of linguistic properties. Carter and Nash's idea of the cline of 'literariness' of language is further supported by the idea discourse (see Fowler, 1981; Hodge, 1990), and there is no theoretical (social) literature as of difficulty about discussing literary works at the same level as other 'non-literary' texts so far as However, is distinction between linguistic there them are concerned. clear one properties their in terms of the overall structure of verbal exchange: in ordinary discourse the text is what the his intends her in literary discourse to convey as or verbal whereas message, addresser primary dislocated 'displaced', to use Carter and Nash's term (Carter and interactions or are verbal Nash, 1990: 41-42), out of normal relationship between addresser and addressee (no female by flattered line'Come live be be love' in John the offended or and with me, my would reader Donne's The Bait', taking it as a personal message of courtship to her); that is to say, what the is linguistically not necessarily the same as what the author intends to text literary conveys Stubbs failed is This into in to take what serious consideration presenting aesthetically. convey his 'one-cat theory' after analyzing Hemingway's 'Cat in the Rain' by means of Gricean Co(see 23.4). Principle operative Moreover, writers quite often use deviant forms of language

highlighting for the certain messages or literary elements in their texts. purpose of deliberately This is not much of a problem when we move, as in literary stylistics, from linguistic structures

107

its because thematic text to the the core, we are on same starting standing the of surface on language in form but is the the to agreement about grammatical general of rules, that say, point, discuss deviation to the other way you with round; can reference proceed reasonably cannot we for from has deviation. derive but a a propensity norm a corpus which cannot a norm Therefore, the purest form of linguistic stylistics - the discipline of testing the validity of

from linguistic the corpus of language of or theories even generalizing rules linguistic against, literature - is extremely difficult, so long as literary texts are not pieces of natural discourse but linguistic artifacts, and only possible, if at all, by being very selective about texts it tries to examine.

3.1.2

Selection of the Text and the Analytical

Strategy

As I argued in the preceding section, we cannot set up a simple equivalence between rules of linguistic structures of literary texts; although there is no clear distinction language and ordinary linguistic in terms properties, the artificiality them of between and dislocated author-reader

literary discourse crucially differentiate literary texts from others. For example, in relationship linguistic found have if some out we even pattern in Woolf's Mrs Dalloway, it does not

in be described terms pattern, which of rules a certain can and models, of represent necessarily discourse. The text may represent an the linguistic nor norm of exchange, narrative our normal literary 's Woolf writing, or a narrative pattern which she set up for this idiolectal pattern of language from be but drawn it. In about this generalization no can respect, novel, particular hasty in too (1993) a takes step applying the theory of cognitive metaphor to the Freeman King Lear. from He BALANCE there that the are argues passages analysis of and LINKS

framework in but basic the metaphorical some questions arise: whose play, a schemata as

108

Is it Shakespeare's, it? Lear's, Freeman is Is or any characters'? other cognitive metaphor human has into fictional the text the pattern of that cognition entered universal suggesting through Shakespeare as an empirical playwright? If he is only pointing out the metaphorical

his does 'cognitive' text, the the analysis not elucidate structure of metaphor pattern underlying but simply highlights Shakespeare's rhetorical device of 'metaphor' in the traditional sense of dislocated little to He the artificially attention addresser-addresseerelationship. pays the word. However, the degree of dislocation of verbal interaction varies greatly among literary texts, fictional be from dislocation to texts, here assume a able cline of more such may we again and factual to more ones, such as essays and autobiographies, where stories, as novels and short discoursal situations are less artificial and much closer to the ordinary addresser-addressee linguistic for This is therefore can reasonably constitute arguments. a corpus relationship, and from in 's Being Woolf Moments (1976), the basic passages of choosing assumption my for linguistico-stylistic her essays, autobiographical collection of analysis. Sketch of

We come across the following passages in the early part of the essay entitled'A the Past':

If I were a painter silver, silver and green. There

I should

paint

these first

impressions the green

in pale yellow, sea; and the semithat light

was the pale yellow I should

blind;

flowers. the passion of

make a picture of curved

that was globular;

transparent. were

I should make a picture I should

petals; of shells; of things shapes, would showing be large sounds sights. the

semi-transparent; but not giving

make

curved Everything

through, and what

a clear

outline.

and dim; come and

was seen would

at the

same time

be heard; from

would Sound

through

this petal or leaf - sounds indistinguishable

first these to parts of equal make sight seem

impressions.

109

I often wonder ... existence will independent

that things of our minds;

we have felt with are in fact still

great intensity in existence? be invented

have an And if so,

it not be possible, in time, that some device will

by which

we

can tap them?

These separate moments of being were however embedded ... moments about of non-being. I have already although forgotten it what Leonard

in many more and I talked was

at lunch;

and at tea;

was a good day wool.

the goodness

embedded

in a kind of nondescript

cotton

What I attempt to observe in these passages is the special cognitive way in which the author forms her images For this purpose I draw on the the and the of past. looks at world around idea of cognitive linguistics, which'is concerned with human concepts as the basis of meaning, basis imagery the truth-conditions the as meaning; of of with role conventional than with rather figuration language; with in cognition and in thought and speech; and with grammar as

(Turner, 1991: find 20). linguistics I extremely cognitive useful as an phenomenon' symbolic guistic literary discourse 1 for tool and studying most suitable among ni analytical theories to be

is it it more concerned with contexts of situation than universal grammatical since tested against rules. Weber (ed. )(1996) places 'cognitive stylistics', though improperly named in my

his historical latest full the the of the survey of end with applicability recognition at of opinion, linguistic theory to stylistics: The other theory of potential use to stylistics is cognitive linguistics and the associated by George Lakoff, Mark Turner and Mark Johnson (Lakoff developed theory metaphor Shakesperean by Donald Freeman to (ch. 1989), 16). texts Like applied and et al.

110

Hallidayan linguistics, cognitive linguistics, too, is based on explicitly

constructivist

formal Lakoff features imitate the that correspondence rejects view reflect, assumptions. independently language. insists He there to which exists out of reality a or correspond that the coding relation between language and the world is not an objectivist one: the do language latter is the the the mirror not categories of world, of since an categories So but imposed. Moreover, to place. uncategorized categories given are not unlabelled, but structure, we need also metaphoric and category not only propositional characterize for the extension of a particular category. which provide motivation models, metonymic In other words, form-meaning correspondences are not arbitrary but motivated by,

among others, conceptual metaphors. (Weber, above: 6) Although we cannot apply this cognitive model directly to Woolf's fiction, whose discourse is dislocated from the ordinary addresser-addressee relationship, I dare to go on, though with from Mrs Dalloway to to the a passage whether analyze see or not author's steps, cautious is in the verbal artifact she created with much the world also of reflected cognition metaphorical calculation.

3.1.3

Analysis

describe Woolfs I above some of quoted The passages

earliest

memories

or 'first

is interesting is them What that, apart from the realistic description of what about impressions'. in her impressionistic have there early childhood, are some perceived expressions she must globular; semi-transparent; curved shapes; not giving a clear outline; large and

descriptions (in broad in a sense as Lakoff and Johonson, 1980 and dim - and metaphorical

111

Steen, 1994) as well - what would Sound come through and sight

was seen would

at the same time

be heard; from

sound sights; some of

this petal

or leaf - sounds indistinguishable equal parts of these first

seem to make by which

impressions;

device will being

be invented

we can tap them; These separate more moments

moments

however were cotton

embedded

in many

of non-being;

a kind of

nondescript

wool - which suggest the way the author formulates her memories and

framework. into cognitive a perceptions One of the cognitive patterns in the passages is the understanding of exceptionally vivid childhood 'moments being' in this metaphorical or of as entities; physical memories,

framework, the visualized memories have vague outlines and are embedded in a vast expanse of Another is images. link between forgotten the sound and sight. close synaesthetic vanishing or But most interesting is the cognitive metaphor expressed by the verb tap, in the sense of breaking into from its to or so as extract contents something, with opening up, piercing, implication of letting out liquid: as is also seen in the expression sound etymological through come would

this petal or leaf, Woolf imagines her memory or impression as something

her kind through to tube; this come a of metaphor reminds us of what possibly may which Michael Reddy called'conduit metaphor' (Reddy, 1979). We can illustrate Woolfs cognition follows: her as memories of

112

(q,
k

; MEMORY (MOMENT OF BEING),

I
.0

C: >
REALITY

/ F/,

_-

-, \ \

%1

\i

MEMORY J
__i

-'

ti

MEMORY

3.1.4

Testing the Idiolectal

Cognitive Model

Woolf that, we saw when recalls a certain scene or event to her mind, In the previous section is formulate the the activity mental metaphorically process of to as a memory, which tends she inseparably flowing intertwined, her in to through sound and are sight as which a an entity conduit. If this is the way she looks at the world, it is not unreasonable to assume that this Here I attempt a brief

itself have in fiction her presented writing. also might pattern cognitive Mrs Dalloway to this test of the passages assumption: opening of analysis

Mrs Dalloway

said she would

buy the flower

herself. be taken off their thought Clarissa

For Lucy had her work cut out for her. hinges; Dalloway, What Rumpelmayer's what a morning a lark! What men were coming.

The doors would And then,

fresh issued if to children as a plunge!

on a beach.

For so it had always seemed to her when,

113

with open fresh,

a little

hinges, the squeak of windows

which

she could at Bourton

hear into

now, she had burst the open air. How

the French

and plunged

how calm, stiller

than this of course,

the air was in the early

morning;

like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill eighteen open as she then that was) solemn, something awful feeling

and sharp and yet (for a girl of standing there at the at the rising, the

as she did,

window,

was about winding Peter off Walsh

to happen; them said,

looking

flowers, falling;

at the trees with standing and

the smoke until

and the rooks 'Musing

looking

among

it? 'I ' that prefer vegetables? - was

men to cauliflowers'

it? that was -

In this passage, Mrs Dalloway's memory of her own girlhood is superimposed on what is before her eyes. What is noticeable in the description of this scene is that happening really be heard) (or I in together sights, as with can seen should say, such expressions sounds come as with a little squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now; the flap of a

in her is flashback interrupted by Peter in Walsh's the which meditation or utterances: wave, 'Musing among the vegetables? '; 11 prefer men to cauliflowers'. This observation

Woolfs cognitive pattern. fits our assumption about Her 'conduit metaphor' also plays a part in this passage: the expression what a morning fresh issued if to children as children on a beach, in stead of, for example, ... fresh by children -

as if

embracing

beach, a or ... fresh as if enjoyed on

on a beach

in Woolfian discourse a vivid memory or image tends to come to people, rather that suggests by be In them. framework, this to there enjoyed the open window, metaphorical to stay than happen, functions the and mental physical actions all symbolically as a channel through which of cognition.

114

3.1.5

Conclusion

linguistic the demonstrated way have I

stylistics works with cognitive

linguistics

as its

is be (It 'cognitive thing that there such made clear again should no as analytical strategy. ) In doing, I have highlight (1) descrpitivism framework. the in tried to so of my stylistics' linguistic (2) the efficiency and stylistics of cognitive linguistics as an analytical tool in

factual but fictional, writing, the not only also can of a piece or autobiographical way explaining Creative is linguistics the pattern. exact opposite the cognitive stylistics of author's represent disciplines in the two traditional other stylistics which we will see of of as stylistics, as well literary first in it from intention(s) that the above, author's point starts an and later sections, on hand, it On looks towards textual the to creation. other cognitive prescriptively more proceeds in in for the which an author's 'creative theoretical systematizing support processes linguistics a its by degrees finally itself finds expressions and realizes as a text. language awareness' An extremely solid support will be provided, when we try to connect the idea of cognitive by Turner (1991; 1996) literary literature which is that that creation, who argues to of metaphor human mind is essentially human inevitably the the that language reflects mind and made of his discuss how English be further theory He to the cognitive study of expands should literary. 'the in science': cognitive of age pursued The sort of study to which I look forward is one that approaches language humanistically, as an aspect of what it means to be human. A human being has a human in it intelligible body if it is to human in that physical a environment must make brain a I think, of human cognition, and the source of the everyday is This the ground, survive. bring bear in is usually automatic and to we making what apparatus conceptual This be to worlds. our of conceptual apparatus seems sense everywhere unconscious language, and to constitute the basis of our in the and shape substance of our expressed

115

literature. The study of language to which I look forward would analyze the nature and its in language, its in this apparatus, expression and exploitation conceptual processes of literature. It would see literary language as continuous with common language, and

inform both that to tied conceptual common and conventional structures meaning as literary language in a continuous and systematic manner. Our profession touches home base when it contributes to the systematic inquiry into these linguistic and literary acts as human the mind. acts of (Turner, 1991: 17-18) interdisciplinary to the of as an support stylistics positioning This argument provides a great linguistic between field of study possibility and literary studies and at the same time suggests the

this theory to such a theory as creative stylistics which analytical expanding of

literary from to cognition creation. to proceed us enables

3.2

LITERARY

STYLISTICS

3.2.1

Aim

in I is linguistic for the to wrote literary as give previous section, evidence stylistics, The aim of literary is This the text. about values an of oversimplification intuitive observations some and

literary to the language. recent be reconsideration of properties according of expanded needs to in in 3.3.1, has 2.3.2 been in will comparison with what see and normally have seen As we language, literary language we understand not as something peculiar non-literary as considered

116

in but terms of a cline of non-generic'literariness'. literature to

Therefore, literary stylistics in

figure to framework stylistic range of studies a wide which attempt out the overall covers my hidden ideology, its theme, text: allusion, philosophy, and so on. message(s) of In the following section, I try to demonstrate the procedure of literary stylistics through an Woolf's in Virginia To Lighthouse investigate her linguistic dinner the to scene a of analysis devices for representing characters' cognitive process or'stream of consciousness'.

3.2.2

Intuitive

Response

What distinguishes literary stylistics most clearly from other types of stylistics is its starting linguistic have basic in the the a case of stylistics assumption we about argument: point of independent literary However, description theorization the text. or values of of possibility of

is fuller literary be theeelct, there a final stylistics appreciation of and should of some goal the beginning, justified be the intuitive through subsequent at which should reading kind of
analysis. In this study of a Woolfian passage, I also start from my intuition about her fiction writing. To Lighthouse it the that clear Let me make is not a tentative selection to show the

Indeed, is my the the my argument. of of present starting point study efficacy methodological beauty in the novel the that theme exquisite combination scenic of and intuitive assumption her meticulous linguistic manipulation, and especially that the technique of stream from stems is to the theme adopted represent effectively whole of spiritual unification at consciousness of level. linguistic the

117

3.2.3

Literary

Background

Although there is no gainsaying Woolfs linguistic craftsmanship (should I say 'craftswomanfor followers? ), have her due 'craftspersonship' token as a of respect critics not paid or ship' Recent divert discoursal Woolfian its tends to to realization. more and more criticism attention from linguistic evaluation, and now her reader's critical ear is completely attuned to her sociodomestic feminist statements, reminiscences, or cathartic confessions; recent critics political and deploringly 'raising important Woolfs Freedman points out, about questions pivotal are, as fact 3). (Freedman, 1980: the between the vision and of art' ed., place So far as To the

Lighthouse is concerned, clues to its interpretation have been very often sought in the hidden in Woolfs in her the meaningful contained autobiographical essays, and mother, portrait of design of images and symbols. But it should also be noted that she practiced here, in a highly had in Novels' (1919; 'Modern 'Modern what she preached manner, revised as experimental Fiction' for The Common Reader, 1925), her famous literary manifesto, and with greater Let us recall how she stresses the importance of 'method' in her in than other novels. success the essay: In any case it is a mistake to stand outside examining "methods". Any method is right, is right, that expresses what we wish to express, if we are writers; that method every brings us closer to the novelist's intention if we are readers. This method has the merit of bringing us closer to what we were prepared to call life itself; ... Needless to say, Woolfs 'life' is different from the kind of 'life' depicted by the eighteenthfrom by 'materialists' 'life' the the novelists, aforteori pursued nineteenth-century whom and Indeed, intended in the same essay she problematizes and thereby tries to attack. the essay was idea the conventional of 'life': 'Let us not take it for granted that life exists more to overturn fully in what is commonly thought big than in what is commonly thought small. ' When we

118

in her intention light the the we see above, of this remark extract of enigmatic consider experimenting in is fully 'what describe 'methods' 'life' to exists more which with some

in'what is commonly thought big'. Here one may distinguish than thought small' commonly firstly, her in To Lighthouse: levels different the of experiment three the creation of an

intangible world (Time Passes'), secondly, the aesthetic framework which gives a sense of importantly, (Lily's life thirdly, most vision), painterly and and enveloping the narrative

I far from larger than the claiming consciousness world. am outside technique which projects levels. However, three the these elucidate all at can methods exploited that stylistic analysis linguistically is all after each method kind therefore of susceptible some of realized, and

linguistic investigation, whether valid or farfetched. The following sections focus of the third level for the close stylistic scrutiny. Here I briefly touch upon the other two in the manner of in literary to to stylistics reference make a of as moderate so positioning criticism, conventional literary criticism. Mr. Ramsay's philosophical work on 'Subject and object and the nature of reality' well Woolf's idea of dimension the of of commonsense experimental reconsideration one represents it kitchen Lily by inviting her to to table when she is to think Andrew tries a explain of 'life'. London: Hogarth Press, Lighthouse, 1967: 40; (To to this the all page references are there not kitchen table' is a comical version of the house in Time Passes'. And this'Isfiantom edition). discussion, in British the so philosophy, as to whether an sceptical often seen Regardless of human likely be is beyond the to or not, perception more preoccupied with mind object exists intangible, the is than with regard as and what someone's'life' we normally world the tangible in his immediate By his thoughts the and experiences reality. and about same of sequence a fiction firsthand traditional the of pursues realities under the the protagonist's narrative token, 'life'. his name of The narrative of To the Lighthouse is totally unique in that it is not

lives of the main characters. In Time Passes', instead of focusing on fixed the to necessarily

119

in Ramsays depicts in Woolf house the happens the ten to course of years, a which what The intangible description long for lives the the years. many as of spacially suggests nobody lapse of time more easily and naturally than as much description of tangible situations. But at the same time, she presents the minimum information about the main characters - Mrs.

Ramsay's death, Prue's marriage and death in childbirth, Andrew's death in battle, and the in brackets, Carmichael's brief in Mr. thereby making square poems sentences reputation of the reader imagine an unbroken sequence of their everyday lives between these crucial events. By describing an intangible world which is 'commonly thought small' and embedding more imaginable lives'commonly thought big' within within its framework, Woolf projects on the

is larger he than which a'life' what screen actually experiences. mental reader's The ending of To the Lighthouse is neither an answer to a riddle nor a denouement of some Noticeably, is It the the of art an object. while narrative viewpoint accomplishment action. keeps on shifting its position throughout the story, it gets closest to the authorial viewpoint 'life' brush. Woolf herself her Lily, tries to tries to give who artist capture an with on when set to thoughts, a motley of realities, order and memories, which are piled pell-mell artistic some before her eyes, by classifying them in manifold binary oppositions: reality and consciousness, intangible, individual lives the subject and object, and vastness, and so forth. tangible and the between Lily's The appamt parallelism painterly vision and Woolf's literary enterprise further final stroke, which might stand for a tree she envisioned at the dinner (p. Lily's that suggests 32) or the lighthouse as a symbol of unity, announces Woolf's accomplishment of this onerous Forster Woolf to life In to who gave contrast priority art, sharp over synthesized the task. life between dichotomy and art into an art object which enclosed a richer life than Bloomsburian what we actually perceive. Further preliminary comments at the third level might be needed. The object of our stylistic Woolf's is technique, known 'stream narrative generally as of consciousness', analysis

120

(To Lighthouse, I Ch. 17), dinner in the the scene which selected as a microcosm of especially for Woolfs its for unity structural and also neat the novel presentation. fulfillment avowed satisfaction with its

What this scene represents at the symbolic level is the process of gradual

have Ramsay's They Mrs. 'Nothing to self-imposed mission: seemed emerged. of

flowing And the the whole of and creating rested on effort of merging and all sat separate. her'(pp. 130-31). My special concern is to examine how this motif of spiritual synthesis goes hand in hand with the linguistic devices, or even tricks, for evoking a correspondent sense in the reader's mind.

3.2.4

Linguistic

Strategies

Since the primary aim of literary stylistics is to get a fuller understanding of literary discourse, linguistic inevitably in hoc best analytical such strategies, a rather ad way, choose as we should describe the stylistic structures of a given text. My choice is, basically, a set of speech

Speech (DS), Direct Indirect Direct Speech Free Speech (FDS), Free (IS), modes: presentation Indirect Speech (FIS). I draw particularly on Mick Short's taxonomy of speech and thought Leech and Short, 1981: 318-51; Short, 1982,1996), which is an enormously (see presentation investigating for useful apparatus Woolfs narrative technique, as lexical and semantic

Henry James's Watt, for later (see 1960 Chatman, 1972), anatomizing and style are categories for latent between elucidating psychological relationships grammar characters or systemic (Kennedy, 1982). Short first illustrates the four modes of speech presentation, plus Narrative Report of Speech Acts (NRSA), Narrative Report (NR), and Narrative Report of Acts (NRA) with the following distributes them the formulation: on scale of utterance examples, and

121

(1) He said that he liked it there in Bognor. (2) He said, 'I like it here in Bognor! ' (DS) (3) I like it here in Bognor! (FDS) (FIS)

(IS)

(4) He liked it there in Bognor!

his pleasureat being in Bognor (NRSA) (5) He expressed (6) He liked Bognor. (NR) (7) John hit Mary. (NRA)
(His example of NR here is rather confusing, for it is liable to mislead the reader into believing that NR is at the same categorical level as the other six modes. We should understand NR as a concept which subsumes NRA, NRSA, NRTA, and possibly 'Narrative Report' of ) or whatever. scene, situation,

Character -4 -------------------------------------------------------------v apparently

in control

Narrator apparently
in control

FDS

DS NORM

FIS

IS

NRSA

NRA

+------------------------------Speech presentation----------------------------->

He further adaptsthis categorizationto the presentationof characterTHOUGHT, and likewise diagrams it on the same scale, though he sets the norm for thought presentation in Indirect Thought. NORM IT FDS DT
-------------Thought

FIT

NRTA

NRA

presentation ------------- ------------ >

122

The sentences (1)-(5) might serve as examples of the different modes of thought presentation if himself he he further he in (1) (2) to to to the clause said or said and reporting we change his in (5) he felt happy, and count the reported utterences as he to pleasure thought, expressed interior monologues. Here I introduce another set of stylistic terminology, viz. syntactic choice and graphological choice. The former is to ensure the accuracy of analysis, and the latter to probe into a

dimension where Short's taxonomy cannot reach. For example, for the IT sentence (8) George have her her in he two to himself we could say possible syntactic mother's presence what asked variations: (9) What could he say to her, George asked himself, in her mother's presence. (10) What could he say to her in her mother's presence, George asked himself. Viewed in the light of information structure, these three alternatives are not altogether the same, (9) and (10) being more character-centered than (8). We can accordingly construe (9) and (10) between IT FIT, but I IT logical the three intermediate to and style of as classify all avoid as an complication. At the graphological level, DS and DT can be realized in several ways, depending on the indicate The for to the DS marks normal reported choice punctuation speech/thought. of choice in (2), while DT needs no special mark as in (8)-(10) except as marks is of course quotation The for DS DT the and use nonuse of respectively quotation mark period. and are comma and in basic To Lighthouse the the graphological rules of also one In some parts, however, Woolf

for DT and omitting them for DS\supposedly with by quotation marks the using rule violates blending. I In the intention a sense of creating also treat Woolfs use of of next section, the More I her dissolving precisely, unique way their parenthesis. consider of and paragraphs device for the as a generating patterns same effects. graphological

123

3.2.5

Analysis

At the beginning of 3.23 1 briefly discussed the proclivity

of current Woolfian criticism to

in favour biographical, linguistic her topics artistry and of political, romantic of undervalue interest. The stylistic characteristics now accreditted to her narrative technique amount to what Auerbach's perspicacity discerned almost half a century ago: erlebteRede (free indirect style) These deserve 'multi-personal two representation of characteristics consciousness'. the and further comments. 'The function of free indirect style is, Guiraud (1971b: 86) explains, 'to (voice and linguistic forms) the words superimpose and combine of the narrator and his

by novelists of psychological persuasion and also considered been has It ' exploited characters. is far However, indirect free 'psychological than the style older novel'. modern of a specialty fiction - it is widely acknowledged that Jane Austen quite often used the style; Neumann (1992) dates far back into the earliest stage of British fiction - and the style per se the that style argues does not determine the nature of a novel. What is characteristic of stream-of-consciousness fiction, especially Woolf s. is a delicate stylistic gradation created by the combination of free indirect style with other styles, which I try to elucidate in terms of mode of speech/thought presentation. The 'multipersonal representation of consciousness' is typically seen in the

first half, in its least where the narrative eye shifts pointedly from one character dinner scene, at in horizontally But this the only scene, as elsewhere, moves eye not narrative to another. but in And is this vertically also the a character's vertical mind. shift characters realized among the than above-mentioned stylistic gradation. other via nothing The first two paragraphs in the dinner scene give a vertical survey of Mrs. Ramsay's basic in the up the scene: quotation marks set also graphological and pattern consciousness indicating actual utterances as in "William, sit by me, " she said, parenthesis indicating

124

in The room as actions outside

(she looked

round

it)

was very

shabby, and each

in Then the narrative eye shifts represented a separate paragraph. consciousness character's horizontally to Lily across the table. Let us examine the stylistic gradation in the following by 132-33) Shortesque (pp. (sentences the for taxonomy means of are numbered paragraph convenience of reference):

How old she looks, (1) Then when she turned

how worn to William

she looks,

Lily

thought,

and how remote.

Banks, smiling, again,

it was as if the ship had thought him? (2) with For some that

turned

had the sun struck and

its sails

and Lily

amusement

because she was relieved,

Why

does she pity him that

impression the was hall. (3)

she gave, when she told Bankes, people, (4)

his letters

were

in the

Poor William pitying by pity.

she seemed to be saying, and the lift

as if her weariness to live again,

had been partly had been stirred

in her, her resolve thought;

And it was not true, Lity

it was one of from

those misjudgments

of hers that

seemed to be instinctive people's. (5) (7)

and to arise

her own rather of some need pitiable. (6) He has his work,

than of other Lity

He is not in the least She remembered, (8) all of In a in the

said to herself.

had found if she as a sudden flash she saw her picture, middle; That's

a treasure,

that she too had her work.

and thought,

Yes, I shall put the tree further space. (9) That's

then I shall avoid that awkward been has puzzling what me. (11)

what I shall do. (10) and put it herself

She took up the salt cellar

down again on a flower to move the tree. (12)

in the pattern

in the table-cloth,

so as to remind

(1) is unquestionably DT. Sentence(2), a mixed sentence grammatically, has a tripartite 125

in first in the terms narrative mode: of complex sentence, the subordinate clause construction Then smiling ... is obviously in NRA mode, and the following main clause it again ...

in from is because if-clause NRA the the the viewpoint of the simile as presented also counts as the adverbial phrase with narrator; self-effacing because she was relieved some amusement and the adverbial clause

in the latter half of (2) represent the narrative report of, in thought and the reported

Short's terminology, Lily's Thought Act. The reporting clause Lily Why clause does she pity him?,

separeted by the NRTA part, form the mode of DT

NRTA, (2) NRA from DT. Thus (3) is triple to then to a presents narrative shift presentation. likewise divisible into two parts in terms of thought presentation as well as of subordinate construction. Considering that the impression is Lily's, the first half counts as NRTA she that

(compare its possible variants in the other modes: Yes, she seems to (FDT), Maybe does, Lily thought (DT), She looked as if she did (FIT), It seemed to Lily

(IT)). did she

The IS mode in the second half indicates the narrator's report of Mrs.

Bankes), for it makes little sense as Lily's interior monologue. (4) (speaking to Ramsay's act labelled FIT in IT their (5) respectively as syntactical complication. and spite of easily are and The FDT construction in (6) signals that the narrative viewpoint reaches the bottom of my depth. It in (7) (DT). (8) is little of psychological scale upward shifts slightly a metaphorical She the structure remembered main problematic: too had her work would that she ...

be classified as IT, though, compared with the verb 'think', which sounds neutral, 'remember' in if-clause is apparently the overtone; the expository simile as embedded takes on a slight it is Lily found "I've by that " the unlikely treasure! think narrator should a presented - so that (8) is divisible into NRTA and IT. In (9), the mode slips from NRTA (n. b. the picture is

DT to as the subject pronoun changes from she to I, thereby signalling Lily's mental vision) descent the It bottom in (10) of touches the narrative (11) eye. again sudden and another her focuses painterly vision, which is, as I argued in the preliminary section, on (FDT), and

126

in To Lighthouse the the motifs and the symbolic representation of the way central one of diverse realities of 'life' coalesce into an aesthetic whole. The viewpoint quickly rises to the in (12), is into NRA (She divided Lily's table-cloth) which consciousness of surface ... (so NRTA and ... tree), and finally propels it into the outside world at the end of the

is interrupted Building Lily's by Bankes's Short's consciousness speech. on when paragraph, diagram in the the this thought we may narrative point presentation, of view shift of of scale follows: as paragraph

Outside World
--------------NRA Surface of NRTA consciousness

'

Narrative procedure ---------------------_____________

l (3 2
1 (2)2
1 1--1 1 1

(l2)1
/ (5)-------------8)1 )8/) (9)1 1(12)2 2--- --------- ----

(3)

NORMfIT -----FIT DT Innermost vision FDT

(1

(2)3

( (6)

(10}{11)

The first sentence in the paragraph appearing after Bankes's speech slightly deviates from beginning dinner the the up at set of pattern scene: the narrative

What

damned

rot

they

talk,

thought

Charles which

Tansley,

laying

down

his

spoon precisely Lily thought

in the middle

of his plate, to her with

he had swept

clean,

as if, in

(he sat opposite

his back to the window

precisely

the middle

he determined were of view),

to make sure of his meals.

(p. 133)

127

half it latter first the Tansley of the sentence above is appears sight; This not a at paragraph, as lingering is in lines that the the eye still over narrative show same paragraph the subsequent and different ITs, Noticeably, two the two character's thoughts, representing Lily's consciousness. first What here is NRA. happens by the yet the not spiritual exchange, middle connected are further Tansley, Lily takes the the between the paragraph and of which at end harmonious, But Tansley's Lily's charm: of awareness physical symbolic shape of fact them. remained, it was almost his eyes; impossible they were to dislike blue, anyone nevertheless, if one looked the at

She liked

deep set, frightening.

The next

has between joints thought the paragraphs, paragraphs which work as speech of one paragraph, from 'secondary in 1965), deviation', Levin's Levin, (see the 'internal terms kind of another form deviation in the text, an unmarked the of quotation: vis. a graphological within set norm' He wrote month, to his mother; Tansley, otherwise shortly. he did he wrote not suppose one letter a

Mr. said

The omission of inverted commas here signals the

in Tansley's together the also to and contributes, consciousness next paragraph shift narrative (for later in the of punctuation stage example, usages marks quotation topsy-turvy the with 146), (P. DT for marks 149,151,161,166,168), for DS (pp. 135,144,164,167,168); IT (pp. 160,164), parentheses for NRTA (pp. DT (p. 162), FDT (p.

FIT (pp. 159,161),

is deviation ingenuous This device design deviation. an of graphological 163)), to the whole into the the the normal out of relationship sense of reality-consciousness reader for mystifying The flowing into beginning the gradually that are consciousness. realities of intimation outer an (For Tansley paragraph following people wanted him he was not going to talk the sort of rot these

to talk), providing

a reason for his 'shortness' in answering Mrs.

Ramsay's question, resonates simultaneously with his ill-tempered monologue cited above. foreshadow in deformation these the and complication of passages narrative pattern The slight fusion of the characters' consciousnesses at the end of the dinner scene.

128

With these small deviations, the narrative point of view still keeps on moving according to from Lily, joints, Tansley dialogues horizontal to as with actual shifts the pattern of vertical and Bankes, Bankes, back Mrs. Ramsay, to to to Ramsay, then Mrs. and so on, until again Lily to listening in disarranged to the the is whole party are paragraph where greatly the pattern Tansley's attack on the government:

...

Lily

listening; was bored, Lily

Mrs.

Ramsay

was listening; was lacking; her, Mrs.

they were all listening. Mr.

But

already

felt that something her shawl round

Bankes felt something felt that something heaven

lacking. was was lacking.

Pulling All

Ramsay

of them bending

themselves

to listen

thought,

"Pray

be " for thought, inside each may not mind exposed, the my of that feeling are this. They are outraged and indignant at all. " with

"The others about

the government

the fishermen.

Whereas, I feel nothing

(p. 146)

Here, for the first time, all the characters' thoughts are described simultaneously paragraph. And when each of them becomes aware of the difference

in one

between his the

feels that something is lacking, paradoxically, the and others', and consciousness harmony. form the begins to among whole a spiritual party: 'something'

Metaphorically

by to the outside reality tube, their pervious are concatenated a consciousnesses all speaking, It is long freely before outside. can move the eye not going without narrative through which in NR is in Time the paragraph which wholly mode, written as one-sentence a we come across fluctuation background in the the dinner against thereby out of narrative stands passes', and IT the norm: as with scene

Now all the candles were lit, and the faces on both sides of the table were

129

brought twilight,

nearer

by the candle light, round

and composed,

as they had not been in the

into a party

a table, for the night was now shut off by panes of any accurate the room, things view of the outside seemed to be order wavered world, rippled

glass, which, it so strangely there, outside,

far from that

giving

here, inside

and dry land; waterlily.

a reflection

in which

and vanished,

(p. 151)

This paragraph, placed almost in the middle of the dinner scene, marks, as the following (Some suggests sentence really hollow, happened, change at once went through them all, as if this together had in a

and they were all conscious had their common

of making

a party

island; an on

fluidity that cause against

out there), a

in Mrs. Ramsay's hereafter is turning the and point, what we which observe process narrative Take for the embraces gradually all and outside other realities. consciousnesses consciousness Mrs. Ramsay the one of examination paragraphs predominant in the second half of the close dinner scene, and compare it with the Lily paragraph we examined before as an example of the Apparently, in below includes, the Mrs. Ramsay like a stage. the early paragraph paragraphs heterogeneous far in form more elements pot, and meaning: melting

"Let

do what we enjoy us enjoy, " he said. (1) (2)

His integrity

seemed to Mrs. But how which

Ramsay quite admirable. does this affect must me? (3) which

He never seemed for a moment if you had the other

to think,

But then

temperament,

have praise,

must have encouragement,

naturally

you began (and somebody (4) to He that,

Mr. knew that she but Oh, your say,

Ramsay was beginning) work will last, Mr. clearly

to be uneasy; to want or something with

Ramsay,

like that.

his uneasiness quite showed

now by saying,

some irritation,

130

anyhow, said it

Scott irritably.

(or was it Shakespeare? ) would (6) why. Everybody, (7) Then she thought, Minta Doyle,

last him felt

his lifetime.

(5)

He

a little

uncomfortable, was fine, enjoyed was turned said

without bluffly,

knowing absurdly, (8)

whose instinct

that she did not believe Mr. Ramsay said

that any one really (but his mind

reading away But, he and Mrs. laugh about

Shakespeare. again) added,

grimly

that very few people liked there is considerable merit

it as much as they said they did. (9) in some of the plays nevertheless, for the moment realizing anyhow;

Ramsay saw that it would Minta, at himself, and would, she, Mrs.

be all right Ramsay

he would anxiety

saw,

his extreme

in her own way, see that he was taken care of, and praise him, (pp. 166-67)

(10) other somehow or ...

into is joint, (1) incorporated the consciousness the actual utterance a Instead of working as is also a tricky violation of the narrative rule Woolf laid down earlier the mode (3) paragraph. for Mr. Ramsay's the rule originally is as representing consciousness, DT adopted not of for assuming a proposition which never exists in his mind, and this pseudo-IT but stipulates, Oh, but in NRTA. Similarly, the is whole your structure of embedded structure last, Mr. work will

Ramsay in (4) is neither an actual utterance nor Mrs. Ramsay's unuttered address

in hypothetical is the thinks the one pseudo-DS husband; which a she mode her statement to The instead interruption in (4) by to marks, of make. parenthesis Ramsay an others Mr. wants intercourse between Ramsay. Mrs. Then, Mr. how a spiritual and about the the outside reality, Since from (9)? the dialogue passages (5) in quotation marks are all removed and parentheses between if being (8)-(10)), are partitions reality and consciousness removed from as ((5)-(6), in (4)' the sure not whether are we words parenthesized or context, the whole Shakespeare? was it

by Mr. himself, Ramsay, to uttered aloud or only muttered actually are or even

131

in indicates (9) his in the the narrator's report or nor whether parenthesis mind, turned over Mrs. Ramsay's insight. We should also notice the elaborate trick in (7). First, it has a

NRTA in the terms mode: structure of subordination of narrative of complicated structure (Everybody felt... ) is subordinated to that of IT (she thought... ). But what is more

depending interpreted in follows, be the two on which ways clause as can this sentence artful, the adverbial phrase without (7a) She thought, knowing without why modifies: knowing why, that everybody felt a little

uncomfortable. (7b) She thought that everybody felt, without knowing why, a little

comfortable. Commonsense choice would be (7a). However, the reader who is completely accustomed by into 's Woolf clause a reported clause, characteristic way of sliding only a reporting this time to judge is (7b) blending, her that would to process of consciousness unique as well as Sentence (what is (10) it?; what does less contains no ambiguities natural. more contextually ) (juxtaposition complication or other last modify? as well as structural somehow phrase the (But DS of nevertheless) ... and IT (Mrs. Ramsay saw that Ramsay ); subordination of ... saw ... )). At any rate,

(she would pseudo-IT ...

that see ...

) to IT (Mrs. ...

if reading at normal speed, the reader would not be able to work out all the ambiguities and in does he have to; all the narrative tricks are so this paragraph, nor complexities narrative in his illusion individual the that the the mind to consciousnesses and produce as contrived interwoven. being magically outside realities are And by hemming this multicoloured fabric

in Woolf Ramsay's Mrs. therein consciousness, creating succeeded a sense of with neatly fusion instead of confusion.

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3.2.6

Conclusion

This section has demonstrated, by elucidating Woolfs technique of representing a 'stream of literary stylistics subordinates the selection of linguistic theories (1) the way consciousness', (2) it literary describes to the the those assessment way of and values models and analytical The focus is fuller for the text. this the time of cognitive approach appreciation of on a values in linguistic interest this traditional the characters, and of presentation of the mental processes 'mind-style' (Fowler, be in 1977), the individual or self, will also renewed creative mental an by fictionalizing discourse to cross-cultural aspires sometimes stylistics, which in the text. perspective cultural own the author's

3.3

PEDAGOGICAL

STYLISTICS

3.3.1

Language

and/or

Literature?

institutional draw to been or educational has a clear line of demarcation practice normal It our literature language teaching. So the notion of pedagogical stylistics tends teaching and between language institutional in of contexts the an to raise iterature education, especially in the context

it focuses on, language or literature. the of which English question actually studies, of itself is based on the conventional idea, which stylistics has tried to this question Paradoxically, (medium) and literature (message) are two different language that overturn, things. As

I the linguistic has literary unification, the or at should say reunification, of aimed and stylistics is do different to the supposed two things stylistics the allegedly at pedagogical same studies,

133

literary leads language is directly to that basic its education and vice education assumption time; in this discipline, contributes is key-words the 'language which one of that awareness', versa, linguistic development both the to of students' greatly skills and their understanding and

Weber discourse. (ed. )(1996: 3) literary the pedagogical activities of reviews of appreciation follows: discipline as this Now, in the 1980s, and with the support of the British Council, stylisticians worked towards an integration more and more study, and

literature language and of

developed what they called'pre-literary'language-based

activities (unscrambling, gap-

filling, intertextual comparison, rewriting and other creative writing exercises). Such but improve hoped, it is the and writing reading skills, not only students' will, activities (literary different their to, and non-literary) of, awareness and sensitivity also awaken language. of uses In the following I demonstrate from using a passage activities, some classroom sections,

in The Waves. idea here Woolf, What by to contrast my we of notice should another novel deconstructing, is though that, texts to we creatively, are rather supposed use creative stylistics idea (for them the of creative reading, a general of rewriting survey see also even sometimes or is traditional pedagogical stylistics not to create any new pieces of writing the of 4.1.2), goal literary help discourse, in to to the students' the words, other students or but to sensitize literariness. language and cognition of

3.3.2

Gap-filling

for

Understanding

Discourse

Waves The consists of seemingly unrelated semi-monologic speeches The opening passage of in I full 3.3.4, be This the which quote passage, end of at might extremely by six children.

134

for its deviant for discoursal the stylistic all more pedagogical analyses, material useful in is One two the to the the way of using any passage couple of speeches possible structure. form of a pseudo-adjacency pair with an appropriate number of blanks, which students are fill in dialogue. is There the that to of utterances so pair a meaningful may make a supposed danger in adopting the gap-filling strategy, as Carter and Long (1991: 80) point out, 'that

language if [clozel but the teacher with examination', makes sure, as associate may students they also suggest, that the gaps are so made as to draw students' attention to items which 'are literaryjob'. important performing an

in the opening passage For example,the first two speeches of The Wavesmay be laid out as follows:

'I see a ring, ' said Bernard, loop ' light. of 1(

'hanging

above me.

It quivers

and hangs in a

)' said Susan, '(

). '

is the central but ambiguous topic of the first utterance, the students ring Since the unspecified to by it to the for find to the respond natural utterance ring, most referring probably asking will it. Therefore, possible answers are: 'Where information about more can't ' said Susan, 'Please describe 'Oh, '; it. really? see are you talking is it? ' said Susan, 'I it more in detail. '; ' A

'What Susan, ' ring? said

about? '; (or understanding this exchange as it ' too, said Susan, see 'Tell me

'I hope I could telephone conversation) part of a more about it next time. Anyway, I've

got to hang up now. ' and so on. Or we

in the in first this two time utterances same the way, making gaps utterance of can use another the adjacency pair.

135

'(

)' said Rhoda, '( 'I see a globe, ' said Neville, 'hanging down in a drop against

). ' the enormous

flanks

' hill. of some

fill in blanks the to try according to their sense of language based on their The students again dialogic be that the utterance verbal exchanges, so second may relevant ordinary of experiences to the first. there. '; Possible answers are: 'Tell start image an me, ' said Rhoda, ' said Rhoda, 'what 'Now you can see over relax, close your

'Let's

training,

to tell comes your what me and eyes

mind. '; and so on.

This activity is supposed to help students understand what dialogic discourse is really like in how human verbal exchanges work communication. and more generally It does not matter

imagined for the the kind presupposition students as a or natural setting situation of what dialogue to happen, or to what extent the completed dialogues are informative; the aim of this the almost automatized cognitive processesall the language is aware of to students make activity in daily through their to conversations go make meaningful users unconsciously interactions with each other. verbal

3.3.3

Imagining

Contexts of Situation

Another possible way of utilizing sensitizing

the opening passage of The Waves for the purpose of

language for the purpose of enhancing their awareness, especially students'

discourse in broader is the of to a mechanism context, them of encourage to understanding The from being the passage. original passage supernatural in some parts, it imagine a situation blank to them stages of be pegagogical early practice that at the out so advisable would

136

due description, it be though can make sense as a would possible at passage realistic remaining in it in help this later to to use exercise students understand the capability of order stages some language to create fictional worlds (see Slusser and Rabkin, eds., 1992):

'I see a ring, ' said Bernard, loop ' light. of

'hanging

above me.

It quivers

and hangs in a

'I see a slab of pale yellow, ' said Susan, '(

). ' cheep chirp; going

'( ' down. up and

'( the enormous flanks

I,

said Rhoda, 'cheep, chirp;

), ' said Neville, of some hill. '

'hanging

down in a drop against

'(
'I hear something

), ' said Jinny, 'twisted with gold threads. '

stamping, ' said Louis. 'A great beast's foot is chained.

It stamps, and stamps, and stamps. '

Some students may imagine a scene of suspense, picking hints from indefinite descriptions which suggest an unfamiliar

visual

situation -a situation, for example, in which

desert island in fashion Flies Lord a the a exploring of characters are - or others may simply imagine a picture of children playing word game. Here again, emphasis is not so much on the through they the students visualize pictures which of as on pick verbal processes verisimilitude legitimate inferences and contextualization. to from the make passage clues McCarthy and

Carter (1994) is rich in reading activities, varying on literary texts, for developing readers' discourse'. 'language as understanding of

137

3.3.4

Sensitization

to Language

of Literature

After these activities, or some other possible variant activities such as jigsaw reading, matching, basically to the students' own experiences are performed which of according all and rewriting, is It language the teacher to the use, advised original passage. would strike show of ordinary difficult students as extremely to contextualize in normal situations, thereby giving them a

deviation and encouraging them to interpret it in a new light. literary idea of general

'I see a ring, ' said Bernard, 'hanging above me. It quivers and hangs in a loop of light. '
'I see a slab of pale yellow, ' said Susan, 'spreading purple ' stripe. 'I hear a sound, ' said Rhoda, down. ' 'I see a globe, ' said Neville, flanks ' hill. of some 'I see a crimson 'I hear something tassel, ' said Jinny, 'twisted with gold threads. ' 'hanging down in a drop against the enormous 'cheep, chirp; cheep chirp; going up and away until it meets a

stamping, ' said Louis.

'A great beast's foot is chained.

' stamps. and stamps, It stamps, and

'Look at the spider's web on the corner of the balcony, ' said Bernard. it, drops beads on of white light. ' has of water

'It

here is to that the teacher should not show this passage as the thing important ensure The 'model answer' to the preceding exercises; indeed, there is no model answer to these studentIn pedagogico-stylistic exercises. centred activities, in which the process is much more

138

important than the goal, the teacher's function is much less prescriptive than in traditional language teaching, though the degree of prescriptiveness varies widely in relative terms in English: in ESL EFL the to proficiency classrooms students need students' and according English-speaking instructions, while more remedial text. the with creatively students are encouraged to play more

3.3.5

Conclusion

This section began by reconsidering the conventional

dichotomy between language and

literature and discussing how pedagogical stylistics undertakes the teaching of language and literature at the same time, and went on to demonstrate some classroom activities with special in doing them. It also suggested the through the to processes students go cognitive attention has be less in tended to than traditional stylistics prescriptive that pedagogical language

degree the of prescriptiveness varying relatively according to the students' teaching, with language. The degree of prescriptiveness here, however, is considered in target the proficiency linguistic that here have to inverse in be of proportion creativity, and we a binary opposition to between pedagogical prescriptivism and linguistic creativity. This conventional dichotomy is to be overturned by creative stylistics, which tries to provide prescriptive guidelines for creative writing.

3.4

SUMMARY

This chapter has reviewed the practices of traditional stylistics, reclassified for the sake of 139

framework In in framework, this the of new purpose-based a subcategorization. convenience four polar disciplines on the subcategorical axes are: linguistic, literary, pedagogical, and diagram in (see 105). This has demonstrated first how the the p. also chapter creative stylistics three disciplines typically work in combination with cognitive approaches. At the risk of I features follows: their summarize again, main as oversimplification

Disciplines

Purpose

of stylistic

analysis

Des criptive/ prescriptive orientation

Cognitive focus

Linguistic

Testing the efficacy

of linguistic

Descriptive

Author

stylistics
I literary

theories; investigating the li guiitic

structures of the text Ii Giving linguistic evidence for some Descriptive Character

stylistics

intuitive

observations about the

literary valuesof the text

Pedagogical stylistics Sensitizing students to language and literature Descriptive and potentially prescriptive Reader

disciplines, three the next two chapters present creative stylistics as a these to In contrast be discipline which can roughly summarizedasfollows:

140

Creative stylistics

Helping the author to be aware of his or her own linguistic creativity and realize it in the processes of creative writing

Prescriptive

Author (potentially characterand reader as well)

141

CHAPTER

THEORY

OF

CREATIVE STYLISTICS

4.0

INTRODUCTION

We saw in Chapters 1 and 2 the history and theoretical development of stylistics. In Chapter 3, framework for subcategorizing stylistics in order to get a I mapped out a new purpose-based discipline. I demonstrate Then this to the the propensities of went on way general clear view of (linguistic, disciplines traditional stylistics of three the literary, and pedagogical stylistics)

individual in the texts, with cognitive on combination using approaches, operate, especially In this chapter, I explain the basic theory of Woolfs texts. from as example writings passages be further in in demonstration the will explored of my writing creative creative stylistics, which Chapter 5. Before doing so, however, I would like to summarize my argument so far, and in development its for the two next chapters: provide signposts (a) The theoretical proliferation, and variety of nomenclature, of stylistics has made this discipline seem more complicated than it really is. (b) Nevertheless, the historical and theoretical survey of stylistics shows that the

dynamics discipline this as result a of occurred academic concerning and complication been has it subcategorized according to arbitrary notions. that also (c) The rearrangement of various stylistic theories according to the criterion of purpose highlights the propensity of stylistics for descriptivism. (d) If stylistics is to be more comprehensive and constructive in its research into the

language and literature, it should take up the idea of prescriptivism between relationship literary intentions the a writer with way specific theorize goes through the process of and to text. create a choices stylistic making (e) This theory of creative stylistics not only helps literary authors realize their intentions more efficiently but also encourages non-native English users to break down the

linguistico-cultural barrier.

143

(f)

Furthermore, it enables students of English to sensitize themselves to the target

language. The focus of this chapter is on (d).

Since stylistics initially established itself as a theoretical and institutional

link between

linguistics and literary criticism, its academic practice has almost always taken the form of linguistic analysis of completed literary discourse, irrespective of its orientational shifts between has In been words, two stylistics concerned mostly with the linguistic other those poles. form literary linguistic forms the of creation completed with possible a and of not of properties literary work in progress; creation always happens prior to stylistic investigation, and never the is (This is true in text terms of the even when a published unfinished round. way other in Coleridge's Khan', Dickens's 'Kubla The Mystery the case as of plan, original of author's Edwin Drood, or Golding's The Double Tongue, since such a text is considered to be a final form of writing when it is published as a book. ) It may seem ridiculous to problematize this focus on the completed text, but when we think about the tradition of rhetoric, one of the first that the we stylistics, can of clearly see systematic and comprehensive ancestors remotest history in human linguistic devices for language emerged as a of study verbal creation, study of 'elocution'. in or speech though mostly Reconsideration of rhetoric also suggests that the

literary works as unchanging and unchangeable objects treating legitimate of practice seemingly as started a result only of stylisticians' study stylistic of being strongly affected by the

descriptive approaches of modern linguistics to language as well as by the New-Critical belief in the sacred autonomy of text. Because of the descriptivist and New-Critical assumptions, it sometimes happens, especially based kind on comparison between the original text and its possible in the of stylistic analysis linguistic investigations theoretical the arguments that and all amount to a tautological variants,

144

jargon, is flourishes that the the though often embellished with quite of original conclusion, best representation of the author's intention; it is the best because it was not written otherwise for whatever reason, because it was the author's final choice (see, for example, the analysis of door discreet The shut with a click' in Katherine Mansfield's 'A Cup of Tea' in the sentence Leech and Short, 1981, together with my discussion in 2.13). In the conventional formula of is 'constant', by the text the to the one and only analogy use of mathematics, original stylistics, figure the the text, to unknown meanings out or of not messages say the author's we which intention. However, given the author's intention first of all as a constant, we can start from that in search of the most appropriate linguistic forms to realize it as a literary work. If stylistics is to be more comprehensive and constructive, as it ought to be, in its research into the

literature, it has to take up this viewpoint of rhetoric and language between and relationship descriptively, from than textual to examination stylistic creation. prescriptively more proceed, In the following sections, I will start by surveying the idea of 'creativity' of language, which has been drawing more and more attention in the field of language and literary studies, in order to show what is really 'creative' about creative in the contexts, pedagogical especially however, Rhetoric, the to thorny review on which, go notion and of will constitute stylistics, basis I theoretical have the important to touch upon the of part of creative also stylistics. an 'linguistic imperialism', because creative stylistics claims to topic of controversial currently English, beyond its language, or possibly any creatively other using of cultural and show a way ideological boundaries. Finally, I will present a'checklist' for highlighting and exploring our in literary the of context linguistic creativity writing.

4.1

CREATIVITY

IN LINGUISTIC

AND LITERARY

ACTIVITIES

145

4.1.1

Traditional

Idea of Creativity

in Linguistic

and Literary

Activities

What do we mean by the epithet 'creative'? When we refer to a certain work of art -a poem, a find do is 'creative', 'creative' or whatever of music, as what piece we a really sculpture, basic idea it Is it, the theme the the the or underlying process work, work? making of or about itself it Unfortunately, it autonomously, as were, art? as the way presents a piece of most of us inevitably do know and artists, not very much about what artistic creation are not practicing 'creative' is Therefore, like. the 'imagterm is synonymous quite used as with often really inative', 'original', or by implication, 'inexplicable in logical terms'. And in this context, the 'inexplicability' appreciated. We have a long tradition of Romantic belief in 'i magi nation' or 'inspiration', which comes like secret agent as a of artistic creation vanishes and unnoticed morning mist when it suddenly is finished. Romantic poets believed that their poetry was a product of the Muse, not of careful lexical, syntactic, or prosodic manipulation. 'Originality' is another problem. The synonymy of 'creativity' with the term suggests that a is index be 'creative' an of self-expression creation must and rooted deeply in the artist's truly individuality and personality, that one artist's style of creation can never be retrieved or of artistic creation has in fact is something good, something praiseworthy, or even something to be fully

This firm belief in the 'originality' by another. reproduced

in try has to been their done or that something new, own artists something ways, not compelled True, by do know other people. any thought we of very much about other people's not even in less creating processes something, or states about artists' mental states or much mental difficult It is to 'creativity' extremely seems explain what or what artistic creation is processes. is Creation a mystery. all about.

146

Or is it? William Wordsworth wrote about'the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings' Other 1800). ('Preface' Lyrical Ballads, Poems, to with of good poetry part as an essential Nevertheless, the biographical fact that he kept on revising his autobiographical poem,

The Prelude begins invocation (which to as a with an paradoxically published posthumously 'gentle breeze' as an agent of the Muse), suggests that supposedly the most Romantic, the most imaginative literary creation is not free from the technical processes of writing and rewriting, linguistic The pursuit of 'originality' involving and careful rhetorical calculations. probably behaviour innovation itself be to a great extent: at artistic an attempt patterned a must also creates - not'creatively' but purely logically binary opposition, not unlike the familiar one -a

between norm and deviation, between the convention and all the possibilities of untried artistry; is God-given but Muse-given 'originality' talent not a a relational notion, or in this respect, incorporated in the whole body and system of artistic methodology. We should also bear in 'ori ginal' are historically variable terms. 'creative' and that mind We cannot, of course, explain the individual psychology and creative processes of artists, literary fairly is have linguistic far and creation but so concerned, we good reason to believe as in degree logical idea be terms and that to of'creativity' can certain explained the a general that it may possibly be retrievable and replicable by language users. For the past ten years, literary linguistic in and activities has been explored mainly from the pedagogical 'creativity' theoretical trials many a result of pedagogical as and errors we and studies and view, point of it is possible or even advisable to read literary works that agreement have reached a general literature classrooms; that creative writing can be theorized and taught language in and creatively language playfully and creatively in our everyday that are actually using we systematically; conversation; importantly most and that 'creativity' in reading, writing, and everyday

be 'language awareness' (for an to the and explored exploited enhance can conversations introduction to its basic idea, see Lier, 1995) of language learners. In the following sections, I

147

in different (reading, 'creativity' idea these three and the aspects writing, of examine will Rhetoric, idea language together the constitute a very use, which, of with of conversation) important part of my idea of 'creative stylistics'.

4.1.2

Creativity

in Reading

The most fundamental question here will be this: how can reading be creative? For the ideas of it has been for be 'reading' to taken to other, granted seem contradictory each 'creativity' and interpretive, This has but is creative. assumption and appreciative, never receptive, that reading in the process of dissociation between authorship and readership in the formed been probably literary market. modern Nevertheless, just a brief observation of parents' story-telling at

forms in literary the which children constantly ask primitive of creation, most bedtime, one of happen next? ', 'Is he stronger than you? ', 'Is she going to die, 'What will questions interrupt ', sometimes even or Mummy? etc. the narrative to improvise some new

it, literature, least forms that of may be basically dialogic suggest or at some developments, will is, the addressee of a literary message, whether he or she is a reader That and communicative. is listener to the narrative, or a a member book, at a playhouse, of audience performing a a of a in though by the course of questions, silently, predicting asking cases of most way act creative he do in imagining the the she what or would of protagonist. place or the story, More sophisticated explanations of the active role of a reader have been presented by the Tompkins, Suleiman (see 1980; or reader-response criticism ed., and receptionist theorists of (see 23.3 1981) processing or and affective stylistics and also Dillon, 1981). Crosman, eds., literary is the that value of a text depends entirely on the way the reader reads Their basic claim Dillon's it, term: to use 'constructs' it, or

148

[The title Constructing Texts I assumes the correctness of the view of reading that developed in literary criticism and psycholinguistics in the 1970s, namely that reading involves the construction (or reconstruction) of the text read. The meaning of the text is be by it is to the extracted readers; what results when they engage page rather, not on (e. g., scan, study, reread) texts for whatever purposes they may have and with whatever knowledge, values, and preoccupations they bring to it. Thus the written marks on the page more resemble a musical score than a computer program; they are marks cuing or prompting an enactment or realization by the reader rather than a code requiring

deciphering. This view has already begun to prove fruitful both in literary criticism and in the study of reading. (Dillon, above: xi) However, the receptionist claim itself is not without its own limitations: it is one-sided, in a it is New-Critical idea inevitably to the an avowed since antithesis so of the autonomy of sense intra-textual ignores literary Nevertheless, it these reader-oriented values. completely text, and in development by the theories role significant a of played reading acting as a reminder theories of the creative aspect of reading. Creativity in reading has recently been attracting more and more attention among scholars largely the traditional, teacher-oriented not satisfied are with who teachers methods of and language and literature teaching and who have been trying to introduce more student-oriented in order to activate students' language awareness and into practice classroom methodologies literary sensitivity. Collie and Slater (1987) and Carter and Long (1987; 1991) suggest and

demonstrate many different ways of actively reading and exploring literary works by way of diagramatization, comparison, prediction, scenario-writing, etc. Collie and Slater (1993) is an the of reader-oriented 'creative' method to to reading short stories apply of an avowedly attempt Widdowson (1992) demonstrates more radically deconstructive language classroom. and

149

literature by famous (Robert Frost's 'Dust to rewriting or canonical poems approaches creative Crow', Roethke's 'Night Wordsworth's 'Solitary Reaper', ) in Theodore Snow', some etc. of All language. four draw to the these to properties of attention of poetic works, and other styles the same persuasion and orientation, are challenging, of works other many implicitly, explicitly or

the Romantic worship of Literature and its tacit claim that works of Literature are

holy texts and cannot or must not be changed in any single word or phrase.

4.1.3

Creativity

in Writing

I argued in 4.1.1 that literary creation is not altogether a mystery. Of course, there always will be some part of creation that cannot be explained even by the artist him/herself, but literary be fails through language to the realized a process with system of writing, of as creation never be this can and explained or even taught theoretically. Nash (1992: 133) inevitable its resource, argues: As a first contribution to this vast theme, I make the following proposition: that if be taught, have that composition cannot can, and we certainly may access to creativeness The through the study of compositional mysteries skills. making of the simplest creative for the exercise of complex imaginative text call can expository in composition; creativeness powers. There is

whence it is not unreasonable to assume that there is

in free fantasy that the and creativeness, apparently play of may be governed composition by principles as firm as those that guide the construction of mundane expository prose. Nash idea demystified theorizes 'creativeness' in composition this this of Based on assumption, in reference to the four aspects of the compositional faculty: repertoire, storage, selection and 133-141). Carter and Nash (1990: 203) also argue: (ibid.: prediction

150

Creativeness is not a rare endowment granted only to a few. Everyone is in some in is, that to conceive new things and, some particular respect creative; able, and measure by the command of particular materials and particular techniques, to bring those things into tangible being. Of all available materials for the exercise of creativeness, the word, is in least the the tractable. commonest and yet ways written, many or spoken As creative writing has been recognized as a subject of academic study and pedagogical books have been the teaching on methods of of writing creative published a number practice, (e. g. Nash, 1980; Kress, 1982; Graves, 1983; Krashen, 1984; Perera, 1984; Harris and Sanderson, 1989; Kroll, ed., 1990; DeMaria, 1991; Harris, 1993). Noticeably, these books the process of writing, considered as a process of enhancing students' on stress put more language awareness and literary sensitivity, than on its result in the form of a created text. For 45) argues: (above: Harris example, For a fortunate few, writing is a quickly achieved objective. Most of us, however,

find that writing is full of starts and stops, punctuated by long pauses for reflection or by the need to regenerate concentration. The work may also require a lot of reworking or feel before we at all satisfied with the result. revising The last twenty years have seen great steps forward in our understanding of the in be harnessed that and our these writing realization of processes to help can processes learner writers. We are also beginning to realize that the development of certain ways of is task behaviour important the whole of writing writing an aspect of approaching teaching successful writing. fully I in later explain as sections, is different from this kind of teaching Creative stylistics, firstly, it suggests its own methodology in although two respects: method is more goal-oriented; it processes, about writing

and secondly, it is meant basically for writers, not

in is primarily to create their own works of whose writers, aim writing professional necessarily

151

literature, rather than to learn language or literature.

4.1.4

Creativity

in Conversation

languages literary distinction between 23.2, in traditional the have and non-literary As we seen between language literature in the been studies and about recent relationship has problematized is Carter Nash (1983; 1990: 16-17,29-60) there that '1'). suggest a cline of and (with a small non-generic'literariness' from the lower degree of its appearance in ordinary language to the The idea of 'creativity in conversation',

higher degree in more calculatedly artistic writing. most explicitly

is Carter discoursal in McCarthy (1995), a counterpart of and presented

be linguistic to property measured on a cline: a 'literariness' and also Everyday conversation reveals uses of language that are strongly associated with criteria for 'literariness', that is, with the uses of language that characterize texts held by be'literary'. to communities speech members of given different in is from I hasten 'creativity to that of idea conversation', completely add, Their of innate linguistic to of grammatical according our sentences Chomskyan rule-bound'generation' indeed, it challenges the generative theory about universal syntactic rules in that it competence; focuses on context-bound word plays which speakers actually perform spontaneously and in their everyday conversations at various grammatical levels. unconsciously Carter and

further (1975), Widdowson that there is also a (above) to with suggest, recourse McCarthy in density literary textual the text, this patterning and maximized and, on semantic of cline language in conversations leads to to the students creative that sensitizing use of assumption, literary competence. their improving

152

4.1.5

Cognitive

Development

or 'Creative

Language

Awareness'

Carter and McCarthy's pedagogical suggestion can be reformulated and transformed into one of building for basic up a theory of creative stylistics: we can develop our the assumptions in speech into a more sophisticated form of creative literary linguistic creativity everyday writing. The crucial function of a writing methodology, therefore, will be to help a writer

in her his Harris (1993: textual 78-79) creativity own construction. or used the term recognize 'cognitive development' to refer to the process, which his methodology is designed to help, of pupil-writers' increasing realization of what they really want to create. I would refer to a

her his by language 'creative the I term or of creativity awareness'; recognition prefer writer's development', 'cognitive implies Harris's latter the the practical processes of to since term this pre-writing conceptualization and the temporal development of textual design. Creative

theorize textual to creative tries construction as a mechanism of combination and stylistics linguistic from different rhetorical and choices of grammatical categories, and patterning least level, is theoretical at at a concerned, not with the temporal ordering of writing therefore drafting, like Its is writing, and to provide a basis, which revising. primary concern processes form in 4.4 in the of a'checklist', for highlighting and exploring our'creative I will map out in the context of literary writing. language awareness' mostly

4.2

RHETORIC

Rhetoric is a notion of considerable significance in terms of meaning, history, and practice, and

153

therefore cannot be properly discussed in a single section, or in less than a book if it comes to that, nor do I intend to go into any detailed discussion of its multi-dimensional problems (for a introduction general to the history and theory of rhetoric, see Bitzer 1963; Dixon, 1971;

Kennedy, 1980; Vickers, 1988; for a survey of 'the great tradition' of rhetoric, see Bailey, ed. 1965). Instead, I would like to adopt the notion in my theory of creative stylistics insofar as it descriptive to the mainly countermove approach of traditional stylistics. a supports Rhetoric started far back in ancient times as the art of persuasive oration, and was already Socrates by Plato, basically it the time 'mother the of and condemned who as established well of lies'. Their attitude, in which right rhetoric is seen as 'the art of winning the soul by

discourse, which means not merely argument in the courts of justice, and all other sorts of in but 'always intrinsically being private conference as well', as councils, public honorable',

based (Phaedrus), be being truth to upon more romantic than that of seems and also as Aristotle, who gave a systematic account of it in The Rhetoric. describes the classical course in rhetoric: I had listened also to the traditional precepts for the embellishment of discourse itself: that we must speak, in the first place, pure and correct Latin, secondly with simple lucidity, thirdly with elegance, lastly in a manner befitting the dignity of our topics and with a certain grace; and on these several points I had learnt particular maxims. Moreover I had seen art called in to aid even those qualities which are peculiarly the endowment of delivery I had for taken a taste of certain the concerning example, and memory, nature: involved though concise, which, much practice. rules In InstitutioOratoria Quintilianus presents a classification of three different styles of speaking the plain, the intermediate, and the grand or forcible - which is later formulated into the trichotomy of style (plain or low, middle, and high or grand) by Latin scholars and applied to the analysis of exemplary pieces of literary writing especially by Vergil. In DeOratore Cicero briefly

154

Rhetoric changed its form through the Renaissance until it was understood as a standard of decorum. Then, long and after a period of underdevelopment, though with propriety stylistic some illuminating work done by Hugh Blair, George Campbell, S.T. Coleridge, Herbert

Spencer, J.S. Mill, rhetoric revived in our century together with poetics. This revival was increasing have linguists, the the seen, with part of stylisticians, on we concern as associated, literature is (as language literary the with systematic study and symbolically scholars of and Booth's book Rhetoric between Fiction), in the title the of with of relationships rather or shown 1936). Ullmann (1966: 130) explains this revival as the replacement Richards, (see them also by stylistics as new rhetoric: of traditional rhetoric

The disappearance of traditional rhetoric hascreateda gapin the humanities,and stylistics has already gonea long way to fill this gap. In fact it would not be altogether wrong to describe stylistics as a 'new rhetoric' adapted to the standards and requirements of in field. linguistic literary the the scholarship as well as contemporary
The development of theories and methodologies in language and literature teaching during brought has this traditional notion into renewed prominence as one of the ten years the past dimensions be for In important to this context, rhetoric explored purposes. pedagogical most has been discussed and examined as a technique of creative writing (Nash, 1980; 1992), as a history (Leith 1989), Myerson, dynamism of and culture as a principle of dialogic and whole 1994), discourse (Myerson, literary or as a mechanism operating through the of reasoning between its text the three agencies, the speaker(s) or writer(s) or maker(s), the across exchange 1992). In the 'Introduction' (Andrews, the and subject-matter reader, or ed., audience Andrews (ed.)(ibid. ), the editor argues: It is illuminating and indeed energizing to conceive of rhetoric in this way because not only does such a conception - taking in as it does a great deal more than 'style' - link itself in an unbroken tradition running back to Isocrates and beyond (and no doubt to to

155

other theoreticians and practitioners of the art in other cultures), but it also enables us to kind dig in to the archaeological of which any communicative act unearth way a conduct is shaped in the present. At any moment the way in which a situation is framed in terms broad (in language the sense) can be explored. of Wales (1995) further looks to the moral claim of rhetoric for a theoretical support in putting forth her idea of 'ethical' stylistics - 'a discipline which has the public authority to make judgements about correctness and incorrectness, good and bad, right or wrong' - though she be [as ' It be that'[a]n stylistics ethical might not so after radical rhetoric] all. will worth admits Poetics Linguistics Association has The here New Rhetoric' the that and chosen as mentioning the central topic of their 1997 conference. In all of these recent studies on rhetoric, the notion retains its original sense of addresseroriented verbal creativity, communication. controlled by and expressed through the established code of

I take up this sense of rhetoric as one of the basic premises of creative

from intention design (roughly inventio starts a writer's to which or equivalent artistic stylistics, in classic rhetoric), goes on to the arrangement of themes, motifs, and other basic material (dispositio), then to the selection of appropriate modes of expression out of the relevant code (elocutio), and finally gets to the construction of text. The idea of persuasion in rhetoric is also useful to creative stylistics, for any piece of implicitly, initially the than to experience the persuades reader, writing more explicitly creative Lodge (1992: x) discusses the rhetorical aspect of fiction, one of the major in text. the world genres of creative writing: I have always regarded fiction as an essentially rhetorical art - that is to say, the novelist or short story-writer persuades us to share a certain view of the world for the duration of the reading experience, effecting, when successful, that rapt immersion in an imagined Gogh Van in his painting "The Novel Reader". that caught so well reality 156
I

Cockroft and Cockroft (1992) use the term literary persuasion, as opposed to functional 'the dramatists by techniques to to to seek which and poets refer prose-writers, persuasion, imaginative discourse' It is (4). truth their this the and emotional of significance us of convince literary persuasion that creative stylistics is designed to help authors to perform with its prescriptive guidance. This idea of prescriptivism will need more explanation. In traditional stylistics, we have been have linguistic to that textual the obliged assume, and structures of a given or assumed, intended is because be, literature the there them to what author are simply no reason to work of believe otherwise. Therefore, if we find a contextually unnatural word or phrase in a literary it intentional deviation to to generate a certain effect rather than as regard an text, we are advised it is that to a wrong choice. say simply However, when the author's intention is clearly

known, we will be able to argue that a certain form of expression is better than others for is in a certain passage and therefore is not it, the that author writing poorly or realizing intention in an efficient way. In the same way, if the literary values of a her his or conveying by linguistic descriptive device, been to have means a analyses certain of stylistic attributed text by device. In to that this expect gain a adopting similar value or effect reasonably we can Cockroft (above), basically more descriptive than prescriptive in their Cockroft and sense, devices for literary persuasion, may possibly provide an efficient the rhetorical of explanation tools. set of rhetorical

4.3

LINGUISTIC

IMPERIALISM

has imperialism conventionally been a topic in general discussions about language Lnguistic EFL ESL but in in the than and contexts rather we need to touch on the stylistics, teaching

157

his language be for that stylistics can of creative user, really creative any regardless problem so It be background. her the to would commonly acknowledged worthwhile confirm cultural or idea of English linguistic imperialism in order to make the point of this section clearer.

According to Phillipson (1992: 47): A working definition of English linguistic imperialism is that the dominance of

English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of inequalities between languages. Here English cultural and other structural and structural financial (for institutions, broadly to material properties example, allocations) and refers immaterial to cultural or ideological properties (for example, attitudes, pedagogic

linguistic English imperialism linguicism, is is defined of which one example principles). legitimate, 'ideologies, to structures, and practices which effectuate, and are used as division (both immaterial) unequal material and of power an and resources reproduce between groups which are defined on the basis of language' (... ). English linguistic imperialism is seen as a sub-type of linguicism. As I argued in Chapter 1, the whole discipline of stylistics has been highly activated by the development to of a pedagogical stylistics present efficient methods of which purports rapid literature literary language From linguistic through texts. and the late of analysis teaching branch of stylistics has expanded itself, as we saw in 1.5.5, into the this 1980s, special domain of second or foreign language teaching. highlighted What these expanded activities have

is fact the that what this discipline after all

has been doing in the name of

is literature the English language teaching English through actually of and stylistics pedagogical its heavily English that least worldwide the popularity relies globalization of and on at stylistics, Anglo-American imperialism of result a rather than on the theoretical efficacy of the partly as linguistic This itself. process of discipline globalization by itself is a sufficient ground for disproportionate emphasis on English as'a world (or international) language' the reconsidering 158

in the foreign language teaching, but bringing stylistics into this context may make the problem ideology-bound linguistic for literature is the and one most cultureof much more complicated, its the teaching the on as cultural understanding employment material necessitates and activities, imposition Anglo-American backgrounds, leads its the to which of possibly students' part of ideologies and value judgments upon the pedagogical activities. True, no language teaching can be culture- or ideology-free, but pedagogical stylistics is capable of tightening the languageESL and EFL contexts, thereby solidifying, in link the culture irrespective of, or possibly

liberalistic intentions, ideological for linguistic the stylisticians' grounds against pedagogical imperialism. This is not to say that we should dismiss pedagogical stylistics as useless or imperialistic I teaching, back the traditional to am grammar nor relatively culture-free method of and go in in Some for non-English-speaking changes curriculum. countries people radical any arguing level English French, in downgrading to the the of same as studies curriculum even suggest German, or Spanish studies, or more drastically, the replacement of English by some other language like Esperanto, Ido, or Volapk, but the practical advantage of universal supposedly has become English too great to be ignored. I would rather argue that, if we learning and using learn English, importantly neither as the language of Britain, the United teach to and try ever States, and any other English-speaking countries nor as the most excellent world language, but be happens for international for to the language the communication most useful code which a as from it do learners. its the cultural viewpoints of present, we should In the contexts of ESL and EFL pedagogy, it has been a normal practice to model the target English in linguistic their speakers the native actually and cultural way perform skills on activities. In other words, in studying and teaching English as a second or foreign language,

been have required to conform to the linguistic code of English as well as to the always learners English In for English in Japan, speakers. native of classrooms example, cultural code

159

teachers, irrespective of whether they are native or non-native speakers, have tended to express Japanese disapproval typical of way of self-expression strong through understatement,

be through to even sometimes or silence, students and encourage more attuned to equivocation, the English culture and more verbally communicative than their own culture normally requires have Hence be. a traditional way of teaching English through English (including to we them American) literature on the basic assumption that to learn a language is to learn a culture, of is However, English literature in the try to most eloquent representation. when we use which the contexts of cross-cultural communication, the simultaneous and overall switching of both the linguistic and cultural codes not only requires painful efforts on the part of non-native forming into impression but mislead possibly native speakers a wrong may of nonspeakers English societies. I would rather argue that, if non-native learners of English are to take pains in making themselves understood linguistically, they should also take pains to make themselves understood culturally as well, by transforming, if necessary, the peripheral part of the

language, within the limitation of universal comprehensibility, to fit into the cultural structure they are most comfortable. which with Having said that, I am well aware of the problems for non-native speakers of English in English in basis, a cross-cultural communication native speakers with on an equal performing justifications texts, aesthetic creating and to of would some need speak not in expanding the

domain of stylistics into creative writing by non-native speakers. A minor justification may be Joseph Conrad, English learning by the twenty the of who at started age example of and given inheritors the became of of the Great Tradition of British fiction. later one His literary

is it impossible, that theoretically difficult in fact, though not suggest extremely to achievements in language. But justification texts a secondarily the acquired significant more aesthetic create fact by that the different be a number of provided post-colonial writers, with cultural will levels different of English language acquisition, have produced literary at backgrounds and

160

works, or'written

back' in the terminology of Pennycook (1994), in varieties of English or It is possible, of course, to discuss the differences of language

Englishes. different many

Commonwealth find between but I it the the and non-English-speaking countries, situation theoretically and natural more more convenient to assume, in the whole context of what

Pennycook (above) calls'the worldliness of English', a cline of proficiency in English(es) from language situation non-native of the most elementary acquisition to the creative mastery of the language(s). This assumption makes it possible for any creatively-motivated user of English to I in English, demonstrate 5, beyond in Chapter the cultural and text as will produce a ideological boundaries of this language.

4.4

CHECKLIST

FOR CREATIVE

LANGUAGE

AWARENESS

4.4.0

Introduction

This section provides a checklist of creative stylistics, with which an author can make sure of his/her creative language awareness and literary intentions and systematically proceed from the his/her final stage of literary representation. to the conceptualization of of stage work embryonic The items in the checklist are so arranged that they may build up from the more general to the does but this the for arrangement not necessarily chronological mean the order specific, more follow. to author

4.4.1

Intention 161

Every piece of creative writing has at its very basis the author's intention to express something, literary by kind meaning of way of writing. to convey some Put the other way round, without

intention, in happens; literary the case of automatic creative even no writing ever the author's is initial intention be there it if the of someone, author, creative, always an called can writing, into be Therefore, here first to the action. prerequisite confirmed the process whole who puts
is:

(would-be)author is readyfor literary creation and hassomethingto write about. The -

4.4.2

Message, Theme,

or Motif

intention I hasten is is the to which, process creative confirmed, add, next Once the author's but literary for theoretical, temporal completely creation quite actual often starts or practical not from an already narrowed-down theme, or even from some specific technical or textual details, in later is how this to to to checklist to to write, what as opposed make sure come are which later. be examined write, which will When the author is creatively inclined, he/she is trying to convey some idea(s) - literary listener, ). The (reader, to the addressee etc. theme, motif author or may audience, message, horror Bildungsroman, historical Gothic-style story, a a an absurd a romance, to write seek beautiful landscape description. Or for he/she sylvan a poetic elated envisage may play, or may ideas death. Irrespective life level the philosophical about of and profound to and present want degree of thematic cognition or conceptualization: The author must be aware of what he/she is trying to write (about). -

162

4.4.3

Text Type

This idea has been traditionally its implication type', with

treated under the name of 'genre', but I prefer the term 'text of textual construction, to the pre-

of covering all possibilities

framework 'genre'. However, for list the the of and as a guideline author, established notion literary help: (epic, lyric, ballad, be traditional different types writing will poem of some of of ), drama (tragedy, history, ), haiku, (fiction, poem, prose etc. etc. novel comedy, sonnet, ode, SF, fantasy, Of ), novella, story, etc. and essay. course short(-short) non-fiction, metafiction, follow line fit into have does to this to of conventional classification not one of a the author forms, but framework in he/she is literary basic to to the what order give going to conventional write:

his/her literary for intention. The text type choose one particular realizing should author -

4.4.4

Setting

and Characterization

With the possible exception of those texts which consist only of ideas - religious, metaphysical, literary basic text or whatever artistic, or authorial a needs presentations, cultural, a political, for happen to time, situation, actions etc. around a character or characters, who place, setting beings, insects, beings, human dolls, be animals, plants, spiritual or even automata. may These two elements are quite often fixed automatically when the author becomes aware of his/her message, theme, or motif, but the author should make sure of them separately, so as to his/her literary framework him/herselfby the of creativity, asking clarify

is the basic setting of his/her literary discourse, and what kind of (or What where) 163

asan agentof action(s)? character is needed

4.4.5

Narrative

Structure

and Point

of View

The actual or 'empirical' author cannot speak in the text, nor can he/shechoose an empirical his/her listener The has the to adopt a of receiver as author audience, or message. reader, for him/her discourse textual to the who as a construct, addresser conveys whole personaor an in in (as 'Sir' in Tristram Shandy, 'Lady' 'Madam' the case of and an addressee,specified Coleridge's ode on 'Dejection', or '(dear) reader' in many Victorian novels), unspecified, or 'implied' as another textual construct. This whole framework of messagetransmissioncan be follows: diagrammed as roughly

audience I the empirical author the addresser- discourse-. the addressee the empirical reader listener TRXT - TEXT

(It is a normal practice of modern critical theories to assume such outermost intratextual Implied Author/Reader, Virtual Author/Reader, Author/Reader, Model Ideal or entities as Author/Reader, but they have no place in my framework, because they only make sense in descriptively oriented reading theories and do not help an author map out a plan for literary creation. )

This of course is an oversimplification, and the intratextual addresser-addressee relationship discourse: type the to of one of the characters may tell the story of his may vary according in The Rime (as of the Ancient Mariner'), or to the general to adventure another character
164

in The Catcher in the Rye); an omniscient narrator may just in the text; (importantly, as public describe the whole action impersonally, that is, to the unspecified addressee; the discourse may is in Chinese-box relationship narrative structure which addresser-addressee one require a framed inside another (as in Frankenstein, Wuthering Heights, or The Woman in White; for a 17-25). 1994: Eco, Chinese-box illustration structures, narrative see of clear The function of narrator (one type of addresser) is quite often confused with the textual is be but distinguished: though they should clearly a point of view element of point of view, is identified the the with observation, addresser, especially one addresser's who sometimes is being described. different the to take which view according scene points of may omniscient, Genette (1980: 186-189) also points out the necessity of distinguishing the two ideas (mood his in terminology): voice and However, to my mind most of the theoretical works on this subject (which are mainly from between I here what a regrettable confusion call suffer mood and classifications) between is the the character whose point of view orients question who confusion a voice, is different the the narrator? - or, more and very who perspective? question the narrative simply, the question who sees? and the question who speaks? The choice of the point(s) of view is, as Lodge (1992: 26) points out, 'arguably the most important single decision that the novelist has to make', and one of the most difficult elements illustrates lazy or inexperienced writer has in 28) (above: typical Lodge a a handle. problem to handling it: A story - let us say it is the story of John, leaving home for the first time to go to University, as perceived by John - John packing his bag, taking a last look round his bedroom, saying goodbye to his parents - and suddenly, for just a couple of sentences, is his because thinking it the told mother what about merely event, seemed to the are we bit information in interesting to that of put at point; after which the narrative an writer

165

is Of John's from that there says a rule or regulation point of view. course, no on carries done but if it is its the chooses; not point of view writer shift whenever not novel may involvement, the to aesthetic plan some or principle, reader's according "production" of the meaning of the text, will be disturbed. the reader's

Thus, the authorhasto make sure: from is to Who of whom, what point view? speaking -

4.4.6

Tense, Aspect and Time-Shift

Time in literary discourse does not always stay within one continuous sequence; it often goes However, have different between forth time unfortunately, we number a of points. a back and limited number of tenses and aspects - present, past and future tenses, and progressive and for has Therefore, the temporal time-shift to the or author references. make aspects perfective I lexical tenses the this and would aspects, of with aid of what call set and of most 'time-shift markers' in order to make a suitable time arrangement for his/her graphological include 'now', 'had' 'then', 'at that (Lexical time-shift markers verb, auxiliary as an discourse. include italics, time-shift markers spaces, paragraphing, asterisks, graphological time', etc.; etc. ) The normal tense of fictional writing is the preterite (past tense), partly because, as Lodge 'anything that has been written down has by inference already 135) out, points (above: happened', and partly because the conventional narration in the preterite is established as a dominated in the the text, the self-effacement of narrator who gradual once speaking result of ('What I future Now, is tense listen to tell am going of so-and-so. a story you or the present there lived a beautiful princess.... '). Recently, however, some Once time, a upon carefully.

166

been have Robert (e. Coover, Pinocchio experimenting with present-tense g. narration novelists in Venice; William Trevor, Felicia's Journey; and Helen Dunmore, Burning Bright). This

is in for a sense quite reasonable, once the dominant present-tense narrator has experiment himself, in as many of the modern novels, there is no reason to set the completely effaced his intrusion, for it be far tense and aside will more convenient to adopt it from the present beginning, with the past tense and the past perfective aspect available for describing the past in Thus: the story. actions and events The author must arrange the time sequence according to his/her literary intentions and textual designs, using time-shift markers, as necessary, such as 'had' (as auxiliary verb, indicating the shift to the past in the story), 'now' (as a marker to indicate the return to the lexical time of narrative), or sequence other or graphological signals. main

4.4.7

Syntactic

Choice

idea the or to refer to the sameevent or situation, a lot of different syntactic To express same long/short, declarative/interrogative/ active/passive, possible affirmative/negative, are choices imperative, periodical (left-branching)/ loose (right-branching), simple/compound/complex different forms, in if truth though syntactic referentiality even and equivalent value, sentences inevitably conveyinformation in different ways.
Syntax has to allow a certain principled combination of lexical items when language is function, the Jakobson, 'projects to poetic which, the principle according performing primarily from into the (Jakobson, axis of selection the 1960). combination' of axis of equivalence be subordinate to phonological or prosodic choice if the text requires even Syntactic choice may is the in case often terms of sound structure or rhyme. The with as poetry, more symmetry,

167

is important forms, here but the the thing to of any possible sentence note author may choose

that:
be consistent with other intended textual Syntactic to must choices conform or (phonological, prosodic, semantic, etc. ) designs.

4.4.8

Lexical

Choice

first from Katherine The Stranger': Mansfield's 'It for the short sentence story Take example little crowd on the wharf that she was never going to move again. ' The pronoun the to seemed 'she' refers, it turns out later in the text, to the boat, or liner, which stays motionless on the for The the the the the of of waiting passengers. return choice people expectation water against first for, is in the the confusing, very rather sentence of story without any of this pronoun female The the to normally understand we a pronoun as referring character. context, preceding 'It boat little have to the the that the seemed wharf written, crowd on was never author could liner '... The the to or was never move again'. original sentence to again', going move going in in the to the alternatives two are referring given possible same situation context; these and 'she', 'boat', 'liner' are referentially three the words and words, other particular context. However, they have different stylistic equivalent in this

values: 'she' suggests some

boat has become in familiar the to the too the which an object people on context preceding 'boat'is image to be the otherwise; a neutral conveying simply to visual word, referred wharf implications; informative, 'liner' is additional any that the more suggesting without vessel of a is luxurious. for possibly and is passengers ship The stylistic effect of the original choice

fact that, as is revealed later in the story, the people on the wharf have been the to correlates in for hours. liner than to two for come more the waiting

168

As in the case of syntactic choice, lexical choice may sometimes controlled by pholonogical is designed function. to or a passage a sentence perform poetic a when choice Take for

'I like Ike'. Ike Dwight being D. Eisenhower, famous slogan political of a nickname a example the slogan had following paradigmatic choices in the same syntactic structure (subject - verb object):

SYNTAGMATIC AXIS I PARADIGMATIC AXIS

I

like love

Ike Dwight Mr. Eisenhower

We Americans

In the context of this electional Eisenhower', 'We like Dwight',

campaign, all the combinations

of items ('I love Mr. equivalent.

'Americans love Ike', etc. ) are referentially

However, the particular combination of 'I like Ike' will be most preferable as a slogan because Jakobson follows: (1960) value, its which explains as special phonological of The political slogan "I like Ike" /ai layk ayk/, succinctly structured, consists of three diphthongs three /ay/, each of them symmetrically followed by counts and monosyllables /.. l.. k.. k/. phoneme, one consonantal The make-up of the three words presents a

in first diphthong in the the two the phonemes consonantal no around word, variation: final in dominant A /y/ the third. consonant one and similar nucleus was noticed second, by Hymes in some of the sonnets of Keats. Both cola of the trisyllabic rhyming words if fully included in the first one (echo rhyme), /layk/ - /ayk/, a paronomastic image of a feeling which totally envelops its object. Both cola alliterate with each other, and the first is included in /ay/ /ayk/, the words two image the alliterating second: a paronomastic of by beloved The loving the enveloped the subject object. secondary, poetic function of of

169

this electional catchphrasereinforces its impressiveness and efficacy.

In ordinary situations we do not pay much attention to stylistic differences between the referentially equivalent lexical items in the same paradigm, because they do not make a

However, literary difference. a writer should care about a multi-levelled combination pragmatic Thus: items. lexical of fill in a lexical slot in a text, the author should compare referentially In to order equivalent lexical items and choose one that most lightens the textual cohesion and coherence with its phonetic, phonological, connotative, or other values relevant to the context.

4.4.9

Phonological

Choice

This idea will possibly be more important in poetic writing than in fiction writing, and covers the whole idea of prosody. It can also happen, however, that one piece of prose is

phonologically or phonetically preferable to others, even though their stylistic values are almost Short (1981: 130-31) show how the sentence The discreet door clicked Leech and the same. less is preferable than the original The discreet door shut with a click', phonologically shut' though they are semantically and syntactically equivalent. Leech and Short (above: 132-33) discuss the phonological also potentials of the written word and also the possibility of

by Thus: the potentials exploiting variations. means of graphological positively The author should pay attention to the phonological whole prosodic structure of the discourse. values of sentences and to the

170

4.4.10

Graphological

Choice

Graphology takes care of paragraphing, italicization,

capitalization,

hyphenation, spelling,

in how language indention, display the the to text visually. etc. short, of arrange and spacing, It is through this process of graphological choice that the whole text is finally realized on the '[g] is Although raphol ogi cal variation a relatively minor and superficial part of style', as page. Leech and Short (1981: 131) explain, it can indicate a special idiosyncratic way of speech (as in the case of Dickens's rendering of his characters' idiolects), an emphasis on a certain textual key in Agatha Christie's (such elements of novels), a change of the scene as mystery element (see 4.4.6). In time-shift the view, or a point of most cases, the standard or neutral way and/or do, but his/her display the try to the will author visual should textual realization of exploit of literary ideas by thinking:

be by What will attained effects graphological variation? extra -

4.4.11

Metaphor

and Symbolism

In the classical framework of rhetoric, metaphor is one of the linguistic or verbal devices for by it to something more effectively comparing something or efficiently, especially expressing for detailed lexical (like, than; marker of comparison a explanation of the a or as, else without Chapman, is 1973: 76-77), the metaphor, common see word of although range sometimes wide for including term the tropes set generic of a comparative simile, metonymy, and as used synecdoche. Metaphor may happen as an ad hoc figure of speech at the sentence level as in Ile knelt down and the arrow of the sun fell on him (William Golding, Lord of the Flies) or Grief was

171

Copernicus). This lodged Dr Banville, heart in (John type the rodent grey squat a the shape of important but in be lexical the the taken terms are more care of choice, may of metaphor of for Take larger literary discourse. again, example, the units of types of metaphor which govern from Katherine Mansfield's The Stranger': opening passage It seemed to the little crowd on the wharf that she was never going to move again. There she lay, immense, motionless on the grey crinkled water, a loop of smoke above her, an immense flock of gulls screaming and diving after the galley droppings at the just flies little down little You the and walking up could see couples parading stern. dish on the grey wrinkled tablecloth. Other flies clustered and swarmed at the edge.

Now there was a gleam of white on the lower deck - the cook's apron or the stewardess bridge. black Now ladder to the tiny the on a spider up raced perhaps. In this context, the fourth sentence Other flies clustered and swarmed at the edge refers to the from the though, the the uneasily separated at ship, edge of motionless gathering passengers be image in it it the called not other a metaphor, no since would reader's provokes context, flies, implication indication It real of of than without rhetorical swarm any analogy. or a mind in it here the to the grey crinkled whole structure connecting sense of metaphor makes only flies down little dish, the walking the the up grey wrinkled tablecloth. and and water, Furthermore, once the 'fly' metaphor is established in this particular context, it is next black 'insect' in into tiny the metaphor, a spider, which as an realized noun phrase expanded framework in between the the one of crew as of analogy newly established we now recognize insects and passengers. And this insect metaphor, with its connotation of suggests the poor visibility 'smallness',

of the ship, which agrees with the epistemic word perhaps at the of perception on the part of the

fifth the sentence, representing the unreliability end of

little in first the is the the the crowd on wharf point with whom of view sentence, onlookers, set.

172

Metaphor may be used as a principle of symbolism, as an extension of the above-mentioned in level, Riffaterre's the the together text semiotic pulling at whole network, metaphorical terminology (Riffaterre, 1978), as opposed to the mimetic level. For example, 'coal' in D. H. Lawrence's 'Odour of Chrysanthemums' connects other key elements in the story such as locomotive the miners, engine, the hearth, and fire, in its metaphorical and symbolic Generally

(when life it is it is burning) burning). death (when not of and representation

heavily for its discourse types than more of relies on realizing semiosis other speaking, poetry literary values. When the text is supposed to mean on completion more than its mimetic or literal representation: form a consistent structure and that they the should arrange metaphors so may author thereby convey the extra symbolic meaning(s). (Cognitive metaphor has no place in this checklist, since it is our unconscious ways of

be for the technique to this world, and not a stage creative at of writing; selected understanding 3.1. ) metaphor, cognitive see of an analysis

4.4.12

Cohesion,

Coherence,

and Overall

Textual

Patterning

These elements - close textual connections in terms of lexical items, semantic density, syntax, this structures, rhetoric, or at any whatever occur stage of phonological may checklist, motifs, but are most clearly seen and therefore most effectively adjusted at the final stage of

draft Therefore, finished: the is the when of work conceived composition. look in it is the if text should over to the terms of author coherent cohesive and see lexico-semantic, syntactic, phonological, rhetorical, or thematic structures, and adjust the 173

relevant elements, if necessary, to make it more artistically displayed.

4.5

AUTONOMY

OF TEXT

In our daily conversations it sometimes happens that an utterance means, at least to the it it intended than, than, the to more or even other something addresser convey; what addressee, laughter be with an accidental or pun echo preceding utterance(s) may or of some may provoke irony. a poignant as misunderstood These kinds of discrepancy between the intended and

interpreted meanings or of contestation of meanings occur partly because of the addresser's handling language inefficient because largely) imperfection (or the of and partly of or careless This is even more the case with literary discourse which is full of linguistic semiosis. of intentional polysemy, ambiguities, double meanings, indeterminacy, open endings, and other And it is discussed I in 4.1.2, true, his her that the also nuances. as reader, with or suggestive interpretive inclination, plays an important, even creative role in reading. Then, how are we to evaluate the additional meanings and values a reader picks out of the text not through simple legitimate inferences? but through misleading The autonomy of text is the premise of New Criticism, which started, partly under the influence of Richardsian Practical Criticism and T. S. Eliot's critical theory, as a reaction to the literature. historical study of On the assumption that 'the students of the future must be

literature, and not merely about literature' (Ransom, 1937), New Criticism to study permitted formulated strict rules which prohibit readers from measuring the values of literary works by ('intentional intentions fallacy'), from taking into account the emotions provoked their authors' by poems ('affective fallacy'; for detailed explanations and illustrations of these two 'fallacies', from 1954), looking information for Wimsatt, interpretive or to ed., any an extra-textual see 174

believed domain have literature, Critics is New that the text or more of an autonomous support. less its linguistic than nothing construct. and more poetry, or of specifically Creative stylistics may seem to stand in direct opposition to New Criticism prioritization of the author's intention as a basis for literary creation. in its

However, these two

different two with aspects of literature, one with creative writing and the theories, concerned Indeed, but the to are not each reading, contradictory other. critical complementary with other does In the text. stylistics not other words, when some rule out autonomy of creative theory of inclination, for lexical ideolectal patterns, phonological repetitions, preference stylistic effects the they type or whatever author's of metaphor, recognition, are generated without certain a literary On least features, the the text. the values, of completed as or at stylistic count still may happen intended it hand, that sometimes may messagesare not conveyed to the reader the other designs. In its defects inadequate textual text the to or awkward with all such cases, still owing discourse, field of is an autonomous unless the author intends it to be an object of further Creative stylistics after all is designed to help improvement. prescriptive and revision remedial faithfully, literary intentions their motivations creative as and realize authors effectively artistically, and

it but is concerned only with the processes of textual creation; the as possible,

description of the completed text lie entirely in the domain of the other schools of and evaluation traditional stylistics. In the next chapter, in demonstrating the practice of creative stylistics, I map out my writing judge how successful the completed text as a literary work is it to the to but reader up all plans, it holds intentions. my original and to what extent

4.6

SUMMARY

175

This chapter has established the basic premises of creative stylistics.

The first section (4.1)

linguistic literary ideas help that the and of creative creativity can and argued stylistics reviewed be his her'creative language The to aware of writer or awareness'. second section a would-be (4.2) took a look at the classic and modernized ideas of rhetoric, one of the ancestors of introduce, into The in to or rather re-introduce stylistic order prescriptivism studies. stylistics, imperialism linguistic (43) issue touched the on controversial of third section in order to

highlight the cross-cultural function of creative stylistics. The fourth section (4.4) provided a language their stylistics, with which of creative authors sure creative of can make checklist from the embryonic conceptualization of their works to proceed systematically and awareness literary However, final the text completed through the awarenessrepresentation. of stage the inevitably from different the to will mean reader something what the author checking processes initially intended. Creative stylistics justifies this disparity between the author's intention and last interpretation, the as section (4.5) argued, by incorporating the New-Critical the reader's idea of the autonomy of the text into itself, which allows stylistics to abandon the completed interpretation. the of to processes text In the next chapter, I will apply this theory of creative stylistics to my own creative writing how it works through the processes of stylistic choices. demonstrate and

176

CHAPTER

PRACTICE

OF

CREATIVE STYLISTICS

5.0

INTRODUCTION

The previous chapters have established the ground for expanding the theory of creative fully descriptively disciplines the complements which oriented of traditional stylistics. stylistics, This chapter demonstrates the machinery of creative stylistics through the processes of my own literary writing and also suggests the possibility of applying this discipline to linguistico-literary teaching in the EFL contexts. The primary aim of creative stylistics is to explore the possibility of applying stylistics to is getting more and more recognition and popularity as a recently which writing, creative Thus, basic for in its the study. material academic argument my of actual application subject below is not any ready-made text but a process of creating a text, more specifically my own it. The for discussing the story and short processes of a realizing reason writing my of plan is, firstly, literary is intention that the I my experience own only creative cognition writing own for the present, and secondly, that I find it convenient to demonstrate the for know certain function a non-English-speaking to the of writer cross-cultural suggest processes of creative instead And by intuitively of starting stylistics. responding to any particular piece of creative is literary the normal practice as of literary work, stylistics, I will start from bits and pieces of in my writing plan and then go on to put them together with due stylistic themes and motifs literary organic entity one of to meaning. choices makeup In the following sections I am going to describe the processes of my writing a short story Zen Buddhist training. monk's young a about They will be described not exactly in the

but to a theoretical order of stylistic selections and check items, according order, chronological logical clarity, so that the description may look more like a checklist for creative for arranged important list items least in some of a the whole theoretical checklist - since I at or stylists, important in, items so not to, this are as or relevant particular work of mine - than such omitted

178

in discursive written notebook writer's scribble. Under each heading I try to explain in a poor I have linguistic form and not others. Some sections take terms chosen why a certain stylistic comparative approaches to my stylistic selections, but I will not list up all the possible have because I is the chosen partly could choices crucially determined by range of alternatives limitations importantly, because 'possible' ideolectal (as the and partly, and more many of my do fit 'probable') into the story without altering its massege to alternatives simply not opposed to a greater or lesser degree. I am rather more concerned with the systematic presentation of my language awareness. creative In disclosing my literary intentions, I also seek to overturn the Romanticism of Literature. Generally speaking, traditional stylistics has presented itself as an antithesis to the Romantic insisting fully Art, literature that we cannot appreciate across the 'sacred' veil of of worship justification as a and, mystification for its analytical practice, that literary values are immune Creative stylistics

from any degradation through the whole process of linguistic scrutiny.

idea of de-mystification of literature a step further by looking at this anti-Romantic advances literary creation not as a product of imagination or inspiration, much less of Muse, or the Wordsworthian 'spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings', but as replicable processes of different levels (sec stylistic textual choices calculated at and grammatical also meticulously 4.1.1).

5.1

CREATIVE

PROCESS

5.1.1

Intention

179

This is not a stylistic choice but the starting point of creative writing.

With the possible

to writing, any creative writing something write about presupposes automatic of exception idea, feeling, landscape, etc. - as the initial incentive. In the case of my short story, my to represent in

English in is Japanese intention to use a way, or more specifically, primary

English the Zen idea of nonverbal transmission of the truth in some symbolic way in terms of hasten I (Let to development that add young monk. skipped the a novice me of the mental inclination because the message, theme, and motif of my story had creative of my confirmation initial conceptualization. ) The act of verbally focused the the time been at enough of already but itself I is like the conveyance of meaning a self-contradiction, would nonverbal representing by Buddhist inexpressible idea the the salon this only suggesting supposedly problem to solve linguistic forms of description. by of enlightenment -

5.1.2

Setting

Characterization and

The differentiation of this item from intention, message, theme, or motif is merely theoretical; it the theme first idea tied I of story, closely up my was with my conceptualized general when Buddhist Zen to its novice young monk enter asking a permission monastery, setting -a of long Since for Zen school of to is the he to enough attain spiritual enlightenment. stay where basically for daily hundreds of has the same and routine work continued Buddhism activities does not have to be specified, or even should remain the temporal of story setting the years, favour in the the to of general end sense of universality and eternity. unspecified

5.1.3

Narrative

Voice and Point of View 180

These two textual elements, quite often treated confusedly as one thing, should be clearly distinguished; for example, the story of Hemingway's The Killers' is narrated from the

be in Adams, Nick the boy third the the person, cannot who, appearing named of viewpoint discussion about narrative voice and point of view, or voice and mood in further (for narrator Genette's terminology; see 4.4.5). Since the protagonist of my story is a novice Buddhist monk and the theme is his spiritual be his. As regards the narrator, there are roughly three the view should point of enlightenment, tell (1) the who can everything, narrator see and omniscient choices: potentially who narrator omniscient can see everything (2) the selectivestays with one

but persistently

last (3) first-person (in this the the case only, narrative and narrator perception, character's identical). the view are of point voice and In my story, it will be quite unlikely that the

disclosure its be disclosed; lessen thoughts of would other monks should or perceptions or devotion the they test the tension the of some parts where of religious young monk, even spoil in Zen hostility. is traditional practice monasteries, with affected as the On these grounds, the

is best first-person for The the the choice not narration, my story. one of narrator omniscient its has first-person for is the own problem reason: another narration two possibilities, other I-narrator that the tacit the assumption based on is always aware of his thoughts and

he did tell therefore to think what notice, can or or and one she unable no not since perceptions, happens Only in the the which world view unnoticed. of monk selectivethe change represent is irony its dramatic through this my which choice, can realize smooth omniscient narration, highly impersonal between descriptions psychological, subjective and objective, and quick shift ones.

181

5.1.4

Syntactic

Choice

based is in the idea of writing on the anti-Chomskyan processes creative The of syntactic choice is immune from that and that variation stylistic and a semantic change syntactic no assumption to the to suitable meaning a certain variations attach most syntactic exploit can the writer is face He his the For turned not stylistically the same sentence upward description. example, former being the the face self-centred turned His or and upward, agent-oriented more was as have impersonal, the same referential these two can although sentences and latter more objective meaning. In my story, I will seek to suggest the young monk's enlightenment as the diffusion of his for descriptions. by different two truth mimetic into using syntactic patterns the universal ego hero frequently the half the first will as the grammatical subject of a story, appear of In the is to say, as an agent of some action or thought, while in the latter half, especially that sentence, impersonal from descriptions be detached the the will made more viewpoint of the end, towards long/short and simple/compound/complex/mixed the I exploit also will the narrator. variations

longer development: the monk's mental spiritual and and to more complex represent of syntax for suggesting his mixed feelings, worldly passions, and self-centredness, shorter sentences his liberation from for them. sentences and simpler

5.1.5

Title and Symbolism

I for I the important chose story and water, symbols cloud which also took up as are The most from Zen literature by These two the originally symbols came old which represents the title. Zen be (literally to thereby of monks, homeless who came un-sui called wanderings them

182

'cloud and water'). Cloud and water also symbolize, as in my story, the Buddhist ideal of liberation from any worldly desires and commitments. In the beginning of the story, however, I use these symbols in their motionless, stagnant variations (a gray overhanging cloud, lingering snow), thereby suggesting, in contrast to their mobile images towards the end (rain, liberated is from the that the yet of not some across sky), monk scudding cloud white a river, the earthly passions. The symbolism of numbers is also exploited in my story. When a novice monk asks for he is required, as a traditional practice of the Zen training, to monastery a enter permission devotion, his demonstrating the through religious eagerness to whole Zen school, ritual of go hall for hardships by the and next in a guest room sitting at entrance for entrance, and readiness days before he is formally admitted to the monastery. Starting with for of a couple respectively I initial the the three, this number chose of which description period ritual, of entrance of the 'synthesis' interestingly in both English and Japanese, to describe symbolizes conventionally length This is further its time. to three of symbolism of expanded powers any other specified into the characterization of the Zen Master, who, being eighty-one years old incorporated and the the tradition of at once routine, twenty-seventh master monastery, represents and the and completion Zen training. of

I also adopt the conventional scheme of door metaphor - 'door', 'gate', 'key', etc. - to it, finally it. This tackling and of encountering the solving process a problem, whole represent dilemma illogical describing human the is the or even solving nonverbal of of a way symbolism cognition.

5.1.6

Graphological

Choice

183

In this story I will not exploit graphological variations so much, but in one part I will use the Him) H Buddha. This inevitably (His, Lord He to to with a capital refer practice pronoun deconstructs the linguistico-cultural convention in English and many other western languages in capitalized in the male pronoun any other parts than at the top of a sentence normally which in Christianity. God the signifies By deconstructing this convention and reconstructing it in a

different religious framework, I seek to suggest the possibility of using English in non-English (also 3.1.4). contexts see cultural speaking

5.1.7

Intertextuality

I left out this textual element from the checklist in 4.4, since its exploitation requires literary be levels basic to therefore than ought undertaken at more advanced my checklist. expertise and This element also imposes a tough condition on the reader of the text: his or her recognition of in Riffaterre's (see Riffaterre, 1978) implied text terminology or'hypogram' against the other is Thus, this condition is rather an intellectual one, and element created. this particular which literary depend intertextuality, heavily is of work pieces which on some such as T. S. this why Joyce's Ulysses, Land, Waste The or Peter Ackroyd's English Music are on the verge Eliot's intertextuality, However, literary esotericism. of when successfully exploited, may greatly

text, making it semantically denser and thematically richer with literary of a values the enhance and so allusions, on. echoes, quotations, deal is to with one of the most fundamental problems of human existence, it Since my story heavy for deciphering hidden too clever with the requirements sound codes of should not intertextuality. The only predetermined text I incorporate into my text is the well-known between Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciple

communication nonverbal of episode

184

Mahakashyapa in one of the old Buddhist Sutras.

5.2

CREATED

TEXT

Cloud and Water

SAITO Yoshiiumi

Ensho lifted

the rim

of his wicker

hat and looked

up at the long flight He raised overhanging Another

of

leading stone steps further precinct

to the ancient

gate of the monastery. mass of gray rain, but what cloud

his eyes the dark hundred be in the mountain

huge threatening a and saw buildings. It looked in a fit like

matter?

thought Ensho steps, holy embrace road outfit only straw with

of delirious

expectation,

and he would

Wisdom. of

He had walked

a long way along a rough

lingering

snow clinging monk, pain

here and there,

clad in the heavy travelling fatigue,

Buddhist of a the tingling sandals. There

but the long journey

left in him no physical

at his toes rubbed

by the thongs

of the newly-woven

He was young and resolute. figure, not even a sign of movement, hear was his own rustling So when Ensho arrived a moment to make in the cold, and the of the than he

human no was All

tranquil occasional the

precincts. chirps

he could birds. for

footsteps

of small

at the guest hall

monastery,

he hesitated

any noise to break more carefully him

silence. usual,

He took off his wicker expecting

hat and adjusted

his outfit

someone to appear

in the hallway

and notice

before

185

made any clumsy and, pulling small finally, bronze

call - mis-hitting together, from took

the bell, a firm

perhaps. grip

He took

a long breath, aimed framework, at the and

himself

of the hammer, by a wooden struck

bell, hanging

a rail

supported of hesitation,

if to stop another as the air.

upsurge

it with

all his might.

The sound pierced A grim-looking end of the

monk of great stature The him monk, with

farthest the the room at came out of and seemingly with in charge of in to was

hallway. towards

middle-aged

guests, walked each other his heavy standing, hallway

his eyes downcast, floor

his hands forked now squeaking Ensho

at the chest.

The wooden

of the hallway,

steps, was raised so that when

above the foundation monk

stone on which sat down

the middle-aged

at the edge of the at each other

flap his black elegant of an with level. the same on 'May

robe, they were looking

approximately

I help you? ' the monk said. for Zen training. it reverentially lie held

Ensho asked permission his written application with

to enter both

the monastery

hands

and handed

to the

monk, floor, room

just took a quick who bluntly and

glance at the envelope,

put it upside down on the that the monastery had no stood up

refused the request on the grounds at present. Requesting

for a newcomer

him to leave, the monk

and was gone. He kept sitting entrance, travelling through with his there, bowed in supplication head resting on his hands on the wooden platform which were through from crossed at the on his

bundle.

He sat there through

in the same posture,

the morning, the monk who

the afternoon,

all the abuse and threats monks occasionally

had turned hall.

him away and other the evening

passing in and out of the him to a

It was not until

that Ensho heard a voice directing 186

bare room for one night's frosted the ground. Still

stay, only to be turned

out of doors at dawn onto the in the same posture, through all the through hours of

he sat in the hall patiently, through the hostile afternoon,

cold

morning,

neglect

ill-treatment, and

until

he was again directed

to the same room

in the

be kicked to evening, only with with resolution

out again at daybreak.

Still he went back to the hall and let everything pass

in his eyes, took of a devoted morning

the same posture, monk. entreaty,

the perseverance On the fourth

of his silent house for till night,

Ensho was admitted monks, where

to an

empty required

room

in the lodging

travelling

he was again This was all those

to sit from morning

this time in the lotus posture. even though it was without

trying less no

than the preceding

ordeal,

harsh words, and without fight against

those hands pulling

his neckband:

this time he had to the eyes mean

the pain in his legs, against to unfold his legs and relax. screen. Just stretching

drowsiness,

and above all against of the watchful length would

temptation beyond failure.

He was aware himself at full

the sliding

He sat there for three days and three nights. On the seventh morning, he was finally room given for formal admission interview. to the Ensho with

monastery prostrated

led Master's to the was and himself before the Master, When

the first

who was sitting

in the lotus posture

his back against the

the alcove.

Ensho sat up, he saw the wrinkled a scroll, hanging right like behind cloud,

face of him, on

eighty-one-year-old was written

Master,

and

which like

the ancient

phrase ko-un-ryu-sui

[going

flowing

water]

in elegant Chinese calligraphy. the twenty-seventh you on your 187 Master entrance of this monastery. to this monastery. I am The

'I am Unkei Bantaku, sorry I cannot congratulate

training

is very hard.

Are you ready? '

The Master

said.

'Yes, I am, Holy One. '

Yes, he was ready for everything.

'Tell me, what made you come here? ' 'An earnest desire to know the meaning 'The meaning of life? ' Ensho answered. life, of place for you.

Then I am not sure this is the right '

Do you know the legend of Mahakashyapa?

'I don't, Holy One. '

'He was Shakyamuni in one of Shakyamuni's disciples His of Instead showed except Buddha's lecture disciple. One of the oldest sutras says that kept silence in front in an expectant a beautiful flower hush. and

sessions, this great Master for His holy words

who were waiting His This mouth, strange just

of opening it to them.

Shakyamuni behaviour smiled

picked

made no sense to His disciples, Master. true And Shakyamuni Do

Mahakashyapa, that ' only

who

at his

acknowledged

Mahakashyapa

had achieved

enlightenment.

you understand? 'No, I don't' The Master's assignment what

tips widened

in a benign smile.

'All right. Now,

I will give you an the question you've found is: the

so that

you may understand clapping?

it some day. When

is the sound of one hand let me know.

you think

answer,

Now, go back to your

' work. The sound of one

Ensho made a low bow once again and left the room. hand clapping? koans What was that?

He knew that it was one of the most popular but had never taken it very seriously. door and step

[Zen paradoxes]

for Zen training,

in his hung it mind, Now into the first

as the key he needed to open the first of wisdom. 188 He thought

small antechamber

about it all the time,

while Zazen

sitting training,

during

morning manual

service, labour,

while

having

a meal, but

during all

the main

during

even in dreams,

his answers, - clapping, interviews

sometimes pointing, with head. going test. left

logical everything

and sometimes he could a tinkling harder

mysterious,

and all his gestures at daily

think

of - were dismissed,

the Master, He worked

with

of the handbell than night any other Zazen,

or by a slight monk, getting

shake of the up earlier and

hard,

to sleep later

for voluntary

but he could

not pass the first training and

Some monks had even finished the monastery, many others

the elementary had with gone on

stage of their to the

more

advanced - and three

assignments, years

but he was left behind

the unanswerable

question

passed. 'Why do you not accept any of my answers, 'I have worked me. I just harder Holy One? ' Ensho asked one understand what's

morning. wrong with

than anyone else. with

I don't

can't

make any progress

this koan. Onel' No.

Please show

we true enlightenment,

the true meaning harder

of life, Holy

'You said you have worked up earlier

than anyone else. than

You simply

got

than anyone else, sat longer than anyone else.

anyone else, read more

pages of

the Scriptures ' room?

Tell me, can you smell the incense in the next the room.

The Master

nodded towards

'No. ' 'Then, open the screen and get it. ' Ensho stood up, went to the sliding inexpressible scent came from screen and opened it, when a rich, He held it in

the incense burner

on the ledge.

both hands and returned 'All right.

to his seat. the scent as precisely 189 as possible. Let us

Now, try to describe

is someone who hasn't there that suppose this particular incense is a matter of life

smelled

it, but to know to him.

the scent of

and death ' Ensho.

If you had to

explain

it, could you take the responsibility? Holy One, ' answered I can't

'No, I couldn't, 'Then you will All

understand

tell you the true meaning burner. Go back

of life, either. to your work,

I can say is to go and get the incense

Ensho. ' Ensho worked first in the sessions which monks hard, week harder than before. Even in the intensive sitting in

of December,

the hardest for

sessions in the year sleep, he did He sat there, and finally

were not even allowed night

to lie down

not forget struggling on

the voluntary with

Zazen on the stone step outside.

the question

of the sound of one hand clapping,

collapsed

day the last session. of the He was taken to the medical sleeping unknown dreamed object floating torrent river, mouth, mat. He lapsed into room delirium of the monastery and nights. fever, and laid down on a with morning, some he

struggling

days for three and three enemy dream: a strange shaped like he was standing burner,

On the fourth

on the top of a hill looking from cloud, which which came a puff

at a huge of smoke, into a a big river

an incense

into a threatening of rain, irrigating washing

mass of dark his body from stretch

suddenly

collapsed into at the

top to toe, running of land.

downhill

the limitless

In the distance, opened in him.

he saw an old wooden gate " and something after his recovery, bell summoned His turn

On the morning training. their

Ensho resumed his daily the monks

routine

of Zen for the

The morning

to the Master's

room him

individual

interviews.

came, and his voice spoke for 190

theme

of his interview, In front

that

inevitable his right smile,

question

of the sound

of one hand circle at arm's on the

clapping. length. Master's.

of the Master,

hand drew a large was presently

On his face was a calm

which

replicated

'You have got it, ' the Master except the last heaviest one. Again

said.

'And

you've opened all the other doors he able to find the key to

But I'm

sure you will

future. in the near that you the way.

I cannot work,

tell you what is inside, but I can show

Go back to your

Ensho. ' His face was itself

Ensho made a low bow and left the room for the courtyard. turned into upward. A little white cloud scudded across the sky.

It dispersed

the azure.

5.3

POSSIBILITIES

OF PEDAGOGICAL

APPLICATIONS

is it designed be for orginally writers, can applied, as well stylistics creative Although creative literature. literary language to the teaching stylistics, and of as linguistic and Here I briefly

in langauge from it by EF1. works examples classrooms my the using way writing illustrate first- and second- year undergraduate students. for the class In the first session of my writing course, after a general introduction to the idea of creative invite them to make sure of their creative motivation (which they are supposed to I writing, for kinds the to time course) of application and rough-sketches what of give the of have at they try to convey and what text types they adopt to do it (the first motif theme, or message, It is interesting, find though it that checklist). surprising, most students my not of three steps fictionalize themselves, to or to personal experiences, although they are about write interesting 191

identity in being more on the the their forced cultural of course to writing, emphasis present not literary than or cultural understanding of writing. on writing skills In the next few sessions I

items (setting the and point characterization; narrative structure and checklist the of rest explain lexical time-shift; choice; phonological choice; syntactic choice; tense, and aspect view; of textual coherence, and symbolism; overall and and metaphor cohesion, choice; graphological from including English-speaking 'returnees' lecture in since all students, style, a patterning) countries, basically non-native are users of English and therefore need some help in

by items. Then, students set to their respective those the convered notions understanding based on their initial rough-sketches as well as on what they have understood in compositions Their through the compositions of grammatical correction, go processes lecture sessions. the before improvements completion. rhetorical and modification, thematic female during the the one students submitted a draft workshop sessions, of For example, follows: her future began letter to form in self, which as a of the story

Dear K. T. thirty Hello, K. T.

years old, You become thirty years old, don't you? 10 years

from have now. passed will

I am twenty years old.

first I found the the wrong, as reader mistakes, of grammatical something from simple Apart found before long, is The I by tense. that, and out of view problem, in point terms of draft, tense, the author automatically sets the point of view on the writer of the the present adopting its been have from the naturally viewpoint of reader, since more pesented letter, which might Letters Portugese (see the (and assumption of of a novel epistolary conventional) the basic Nobleman between his Sister, Passage, Pamela, Rites ) is a that and of Love-letters etc. Nun, have happened, is being Of is to to the already reader. reported supposed the story, which 192

be from is that letterthat an the says epistolary may not there novel narrated rule no course, in has but be in future the to the told the adopting point of view, story view, of point writer's difficult is extremely tense, which to handle in fiction-writing (see 4.4.6). Therefore, I

begin follows: the story as suggested that she should

Dear K. T. of thirty

years of age, years old. That is to say, ten years years old.

Now you have become thirty

have passed since I wrote this when I was twenty

from the the story addresser's point of view. whole and rewrite
I noticed a similar problem in a male student's short story in which his persona fell in love University. found he train to the the a on way on with a girl following passage: The story begins with the

A man is sitting Tokyo University.

in a train

of Inokashira-line. daily with

He is a student of lives. He might is not be

He is not satisfied

his life. choosing with wrong daily with satisfied

He think [sic] that everyone

lives, and no one can make his life what he thinks.

This is a story of his life and love...

4.4.6, in discussed some modem novelists have been experimenting with present-tense I As here it doesnot fit in with the classic introductory remark This is a story of but narration,
Therefore, I advised the student to use the traditional past-tense narration and also to information hero with passage more the the about opening and a richer gradation of provide descriptions using different modes of thought presentation (see 3.2.4). psychological 193 My

suggestion was:

A young man was sitting University the of a student daily lives.

in a train of Tokyo.

of the Inokashira-line. He was not satisfied

He was with his turn

I might have made a wrong

choice at some important

life, thought, the young man my of for that matter,

though

he was well aware that, with their The train

other people also were not always satisfied

daily lives, that no one indeed could live as he or she wanted. into the station. slid by a girl sitting caught

He rose to his feet to get off, when his eyes were in the next coach.

This is a story of his life and love...

One of the basic claims of creative stylistics is that it enables non-native users of English to in but sometimes I find students' their language own cultural creatively contexts, the use determined degree too their to the that their much of culturally psychology, reflecting writings is following One the misunderstandings. passage, which good example discourses may cause fictitious letter to a world-famous western musician, asking him to give a in student's a appears lecture concert in Japan:

We know that you are too busy to come to Japan and give us a lecture concert. Please don't mind if your answer would be "no". that you couldn't. We are

asking on the assumption

have Japan never visited who or some other Asian countries, where modesty is Those people important hardly is this moral values, would the understand an expression of most one of 194

bridge In it is to order cultural gaps, sometimes necessary to step up to the request. enthusiastic by I did in tones, modifying culturally as understanding peculiar suggesting an point of mutual alternative passage:

We know you are very busy, but we would very much appreciate your considering our request.

Through these processes of improvements, students' drafts end up with becoming their own literary works. For example, the next draft (Text A) by one student is finally shaped into a (Text B): story short completed

TextA

THE GIFT FROM THE MOON

S.H. One day in the autumn juku from a seven as usual of 2031, rive years which I'd ago, I walked back home about school's class.

gone to after

my primary

Then I found on my way, a man sitting had been thinking I noticed haven't about something. the distance "Tadpole",

on a bench in a square, who seemed to

He seemed to be in his fifties. that he was a "Tadpole. " under Probably you

even from

ever seen a real

because the residence

small-gravity no longer

has been prohibited exist.

by a law since three

"Tadpole" so ago, years

When a man lives on the moon for many years, he comes to have a pitiable figure having a lanky body and a big head - for the small gravity on the

195

moon, word moon,

hso the word to call which laborers

"Tadpole"

had been quite at the nuclear

popular fusion

as a discriminatory power plant on the

who worked

is now controlled

automatically. time, although I lived in the center

And I saw a "Tadpole" Tokyo of

there for the first

in those days as now. I got near to the Uncle Tadpole just gazed at him for a while. and

Slowly

hoped. I to he talked me as Then soon "Go back to your tiredly husky "Dark? have watch. "Oh, light Many "What "Nobody it's already seven. I thought looking it was about five now, the because street it's along still it. many voice. What do you mean? street lamps It never get dark around here, because we glanced his home quickly, boy, or it will get dark, " he said with a

here in Tokyo, " I said.

Uncle

Tadpole

he " said, outside,

around

the square

and

lined lamps were constantly street

here and there.

" " he "we there lamps see stars. are! said, can't even many " I the to stars, see said. wants "you know, the starry is the most beautiful sky sky covered with stars thing from in my lie

" he said, "Nonsense, the world.

I wish you could

see the whole

house on the moon. looking was

It's more wonderful

than what you see on the earth. " stars. sky is uncanny. "

invisible the seeing sky up

it, " I "because to the don't said, starry see I want "No, turned " the uncle "What? ,, yes, starry uncanny. When his face to me. I went time. to my father's

hometown filled

in Nagano,

I saw a

first for the sky

Numberless 196

dots of light

the sky - it was so

I " said. eerie, The Uncle Tadpole became silent, looking at me. He had black rings around

his eyes and seemed very tired. "How " he breaking asked, old are you? an awkward silence.

"Eleven, " I answered. "Once I was eleven, " he said. I expected to do. "In those days, to work of the nuclear on the moon was the fusion power plant on of

last thing

Construction

just was the moon electricity "You there "Yes.

a pipe dream

in SF stories.

But now, over

90 percent

used in Japan is generated

on the moon .... " about that

in the power plant? work

Well, my mom and dad were talking

" Japan, I be cut power all over said. a may If the laborers on the moon really I didn't go on strike, there that will cone true, " he to war

said painfully.

At that time,

know

was a peril

of going

for the their the moon and earth between "Strike? "It

strike.

Do you want to get the wages up? " I said. "But there is a more important and

is one of the reasons, " he said. " than that. reason Tadpole? " I asked. wrong?

fundamental "What Did

is it, Uncle

Then suddenly

he turned

his face away.

I say something

The uncle kept silent for a long time, and finally said cheerily, "Go back to home quickly, dark. gets
"O. K.

boy, or your mom will

be anxious about you, even without

it

Go now. "
Tadpole! " I said and ran to my home.

Bye, Uncle

had dinner, suddenly our LCD television switched day, The next when we 197

on automatically The announcer

it was an emergency man who

broadcast. on the screen after a well-known He was

top-heavy talking,

appeared Uncle

was the very of the labor

Tadpole

I met at the square! But I couldn't

the representative

union

on the moon.

believe that

bench had the tiredly sat the who on man same he was energetic, and active so was screen He began his address. Government Therefore, happy accepted the war our "Ladies two

because the the on man -

and had not husky voice but sweet one. and Gentlemen and on the earth! the strike pleasure Today, the off. this

requirements It's

was called to inform

was also averted.

my great

"he the to earth, said pleasantly. you on all of news After talking some subjects beyond me, the uncle announced the two

requirements. "First, off laborers the wages of cut never lights on the moon any more. Second, turn

the all electric

now for one hour. " To turn off all the lights! What was he intending to

We were all astound! do? Anyway, directions turned mom

switched

off

all

the

lights

in our

house

obeying

the

of the announcer

on the screen.

And all the street with complete

lamps were also

off quite soon.

The city was covered my eyes caught

darkness. the window. I with

Then in the darkness, put

a small light -I

through

the head window out my

to be surprised

saw the whole sky filled

numberless

in Tokyo! here stars

Soon one hour outside weren't

passed, but any lights Probably everyone 198

in any houses or any street was talking with their family,

lamps their

put on.

friends,

or their

lover under the starry

sky as we were. Romances about many gods of a couple for me. under the sky separated by

I absorbed in the story which and goddesses, adventures the Milky Way. The starry

my dad told me. and tragedy

of Hercules,

sky was no longer sky, I-

uncanny

Looking wanted moon.

up at the night

and probably

everyone

to say thank

you to the "Tadpole"

- no, no, wonderful

people on the

Laborers years ago.

had lanky the moon on But since that day, nobody

bodies and big heads as before until looked down on them callin

three

"Tadpoles"

intended. the uncle as

Text B

GIFT FROM THE MOON

S.H.

in the autumn day One back juku at

of the year 2031, which after

was five years ago, I walked finishing my after-school study

in the evening, home at about seven [cram-school]. Then I found thinking

on my way a man sitting about something.

on a bench in

the square and apparently fifties. I noticed can from even

He seemed to be in his

the distance because

that

he was a "Tadpole. " in the low-gravity

No "Tadpole" area has been on the

days, these be seen

residing

prohibited

by law since three years ago.

But when people were living

199

had they a pitiable moon, low gravity on the moon.

figure Here

-a

lanky

body and a big head - owing "Tadpole,

to the

came the word

" a discriminatory power plant on time for as

name referring the moon, which

to the laborers

who were working automatically.

at the nuclear

is now controlled

It was also the first

" "Tadpole, though to a see me now. Slowly

in those days I lived at the center

of Tokyo

I drew near to Uncle Tadpole

and just

gazed at him for a while.

Then he took notice of me and talked "Go back to your tired in a said "Dark? home quickly,

to me as I expected. boy, or it will get dark quite soon, " he

husky voice. What do you mean? It never gets dark around here, because we

in " here Tokyo, I lamps said. have many street Uncle Tadpole thought looking street it took a glance five now, Many at his watch. because street it's still "Oh, it's already seven. I

was about

bright

outside, " he said, regularly along the

around running

the square.

lamps were lined "What

all the way through

the square.

a number

of lamps there

" "we the even can't see " he stars. said, are! "Nobody "What beautiful from stars " earth. " I them, to see said. wants a stupid idea! " he said. "you know, the starry sky is the most with the

thing

in the world.

I wish you could see the whole sky covered It's far lovelier invisible than what you see from stars.

the house moon. on my

He was looking

up at the sky with

it, " I to don't I No, see want said, "because the starry ,, his face Uncle turned to me. " "What? "Yes, uncanny. When I went to my father's 200 hometown

sky is uncanny. "

in Nagano, I saw a

starry

sky for the first

time.

Numberless

dots of light

filled

the sky - it was so

I " said. eerie, Uncle Tadpole became silent, looking at me. He had dark rings under his an

tired. very seemed eyes and awkward silence.

"How

old are you? " he asked me, breaking

"Eleven, " 1 answered.

"Once I was eleven, " he said. the last thing moon was just I expected a pipe to do. dream "In those days, working on the moon was plant on the of

The construction But

of a nuclear now, over

in SF stories.

90 percent

electricity

is in Japan generated used

on the moon .... " Well, my mom and dad were talking about

"You work in the power plant?

happen Japan, " I may all which over said. cut the power "Yes. If the laborers At that on the moon really time, I didn't go on strike, there that will come true, " of war

he said painfully. between

know

was a possibility

the earth and the moon in relation Do you want a raise? " I said.

to their strike.

"Strike? "It

is one of the reasons, " he said. reason than that. " is it, Uncle Tadpole? " I asked. his face away.

"But

there

is a more

important

and

fundamental "What

Suddenly silent

he turned

Did I say anything

wrong?

Uncle kept boy,

for a long time, and finally be worried, will mom Bye, Uncle

said cheerily,

"Go back home quickly, get dark. Go now. "

or your "UK.

even if it doesn't

Tadpole! " I said and ran to my home.

had dinner, day, we when The next 201

suddenly

our LCD

television

switched

on automatically appeared than

it was an emergency -

broadcast.

The top-heavy announcer,

man who

introduced the screen, on whom

by the well-known

was no other of was

Uncle Tadpole

I met at the square! But I couldn't

He was the representative

the labor union on the moon. identical roan

believe that the representative on the bench tiredly

had been the who sitting man with

because the husky

on the screen was so active but in a mellow, ringing

and energetic voice.

and spoke not in that

whisper

He began his address. Government off. approved

"Ladies

and gentlemen

on the earth!

Today,

the

of the two demands

we made and the strike It's my great pleasure pleasantly.

was called all

Therefore,

the war was also averted.

to inform

happy " he this the of news, said really earth on you of After Uncle talking about some subjects the two demands. Second, turn which

were beyond

my comprehension, on

announced

"First,

never cut the wages of laborers lights

the moon any more. now.

off all the electric

for one hour from

Here we need your help. We were all astounded!

Turn

off the lights - now! " off all the lights! in our What did he intend to

To turn off

do?

Anyway, from

mom switched the TV screen. was covered a small

all the lights

house according

to the off quite

directions soon. my

All

the street lamps were also turned complete darkness. Then,

The city eyes caught

with

in the darkness, out of it to

light

through

the window. -I

I looked

examine numberless

it more closely

and was surprised

saw the whole

sky filled

with

in Tokyo! here stars,

Soon one hour passed, but not a single light see. Probably all the people were talking 202 with

was put on as far as I could family, their friends, their

their

loves and lovers

under

the starry

sky as we were. Romances

I was utterly

absorbed

in

dad told me. my which the stories adventures The starry of Hercules, the tragedy

of many gods and goddesses, the by the Milky Way ...

of a couple separated for me. and probably

sky was no longer up at the night

uncanny sky, I-

Looking wanted moon.

everyone

under

the sky -

to say thank

you to the "Tadpole"

- no, no, wonderful

people on the

For

some time after as before. "Tadpoles"

this, laborers

on the moon still night, nobody

had lanky down

bodies and big on them, calling

heads them

But since that Uncle's to -

looked

utmost

satisfaction.

Students' writings are thus completed and put into a collection of students' creative works. final bonus is this for further to the of collection encouragement authors pedagogical An added to would-be as non-native well student-authors. as creation literary This section has suggested with some examples of my students' classroom activities the possibilities theory I the of creative stylistics which established in Chapter 4 and applying of

present section. It has also tried to suggest that, though creative stylistics is in the demonstrated primarily designed for creative writers rather than for language students, it can possibly in

(creative) language their proficiency students' as as awareness well non-native enhance its orientation and stylistic prescription. cross-cultural with English

203

CHAPTER

CONCLUSIONS

AND

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

6.1

CONCLUSIONS

In this thesisI haveundertaken:

(1) a selective historical survey of stylistics with special attention to its academic formation in the context of the theoretical dissociation between linguistics and literary 1), (Chapter criticism (2) a theoretical survey of stylistics with special attention to the way it has been defined (Chapter 2), and subcategorized (3) a rearrangement of various stylistic theories according to the criterion of purpose, and demonstration literary, linguistic, redefined and pedagogical of oriented a cognitively 3), (Chapter stylistics (4) a theorization of creative stylistics as a prescriptively oriented discipline

descriptivism the complementing

of traditional

stylistics, in terms of the cognitive

(Chapter 4), textual creation and of processes (5) a demonstration of creative stylistics through an examination of my own literary discussion further together a with of pedagogical and cross-cultural writing, 5). (Chapter from this arising issues

have I it made clear. these chapters Through (a) that the theoretical proliferation, the variety of nomenclature, and the arbitrary subhas made this discipline seem more complicated than it really stylistics of categorization is; far has only followed the course laid down by descriptive linguistics so (b) that stylistics has fully dynamic interaction literary the and not yet criticism, explored or exploited and 205

between language and literature, since it has hardly paid attention to the issue of the language; and style of creativity (c) that, in order to establish stylistics as a truly interdisciplinary field of study between linguistic and literary studies, we need to take up the classical idea of rhetoric with its idea language in function 'creative the well as as new awareness' of order to prescriptive for domain the purpose of textual creation; the stylistic study of open up (d) that, as the descriptive analyses of traditional stylistics should be retrievable, so the be for stylistics should replicable any creatively-motivated creative processes of irrespective of the kind of text he or she is trying to create; (e) that, by being replicable, the theory of creative stylistics would be extraordinarily improve in helping language both learners in to in their contexts skills pedagogical useful language literature; themselves to to and sensitize and writing and (f) that creative stylistics is designed to explore and exploit the possibilities of breaking down the native/non-native opposition in English studies and of bridging native/nonin aesthetic creation. gaps native cultural writer,

impossible is it to to give a clear definition of stylistics, because this have next seen, As we has between functioned linguistic and consistently a mediator emerged as discipline, which and bridging the between widening at relationship aims gap ever-changing and literary studies, Nevertheless, it has in literature. latter half the made progress remarkable and of our language deal in descriptive linguistic the a great literary of work accomplished analyses of and century in the teaching of language and literature. texts well as as and non-literary The next step

is towards the domains literary creation and cross-cultural take to unexplored of ought stylistics communication, and in this exploration, it will discover its new functions and possibilities,

in English studies. As long as both English language and literature continue to especially 206

in the context of the rapid globalization of English, fields their shapes change their and expand interdisciplinarity. be destined to is self-generating a principle of also stylistics Carter and Simpson (eds. )(1989: 17) review the history and predict the future course of 1960s formalism in 'if decade by 1970s the the was a stylistics, of saying, a modern stylistics decade 1980s the functionalism a of discourse stylistics, then the 1990s could and decade of in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main decade become the well preoccupation'. I would like to further extend this prediction by adding that in the 2000s

important in development is the to an part overall of play sure stylistics and, stylistics creative hopefully, in the cross-cultural communication of the world.

6.2

SUGGESTIONS

FOR FURTHER

RESEARCH

be further in on three, research creative stylistics will explored of roughly The possibilities (1) the theoretical improvement and refinement of the discipline, interrelated areas: inevitably language English literature in ESL EFL to and especially its classrooms, and application (2) further (3) the exploration of the possibilities of aesthetic creation by non-native and contexts, English speakers. be by improvement and refinement will of stylistics sought creative means of The theoretical incorporating the past achievements of traditional stylistics and relevant linguistico-literary

if modal verbs can be basic For its theory, into checklist and apparatus. example, disciplines suggestion of an underlying uncertainty, or complex sentence structures as the a as recognized impossibly Cockroft Cockroft (1992: 15) point out complex situation, as and an of reflection from Joseph Heller's Catch-22, another writer can reasonably to a passage with reference be able to create a sense of uncertainty or a complex situation by using those to expect 207

forms. In the same way, if a given textual element or rhetorical device is proven grammatical by traditional descriptive stylistic analyses to provoke a certain feeling in the reader, we can put it device into textual to element or rhetorical use apparatus and our prescriptive that particular it. In order to make this possible, we need to review or want the when we effect same generate historically it 'backwards' past stylistic of studies were, as not number re-review a vast but

from to and rhetorical points attention prescriptive what of view, special paying theoretically, have in literature, how literary linguistic techniques generated certain values or effects kinds of how retrievable those values or effects are. One technical techniques the are, and replicable is input into database as much information as possible about the to this a research of possibility between in devices relationship aesthetic stylistic and values past cause-and-effect accredited data inadequacy in form it the that the such a complement of rearrange may and literary works, This theoretical the apparatus. procedure checklist of will creative and refine checklist my stylistics And into a more sophisticated and comprehesive 'guidebook' of rhetorical prescription. system is, the more helpful it would be to

the more elaborate the prescriptive

non-native, writers. especially inexperienced, This leads me to the second argument on the pedagogical applicability of creative stylistics. but it is tightly conditioned by the illustrated theory, classroom my own application 1 of 53 In facilities I I have in the the and work; which curriculum of university adapted of the specificity fit in with our writing course, in which each teacher of English, native or to theory my own non-native, fifteen firstJapanese ten to takes care of undergraduate and year secondnormally

English by homework lectures, teaches composition way and of workshops, and students In such a course, I cannot help putting more emphasis on the importance of assignments. basic the very on and elements of writing and, importantly, being more motivation creative in grammatical instruction. However, the pedagogical emphasis may vary widely rernedial according to the degree of the students' proficiency 208 in English or that of their literary

in For in example, a postgraduate course creative writing, which unfortunately understanding. fully is in Japanese institutes higher it not yet established of would education, unreasonably and be possible to skip the initial stage of motivation checking in order to focus more on the

technical aspects of creative writing or further to exploit such elements or techniques as intertextuality, meta-fictionality, foregrounding, etc. on the assumption that the students' basic

knowledge and understanding of literature is already well established. It would be interesting, therefore, to do some research on the possible ways the checklist of creative stylistics, with due improvements and refinements, can be used at many different levels of English education. In exploring the possibilities of aesthetic creation by non-native English speakers, we will be idea inevitably English. However, I the the with more general of of globalization concerned have always been acutely aware, as a Japanese-speaking scholar pursuing English studies, of the problems of non-native speakers in using English, much more in creating literary texts in English. I have also had a mixed feeling towards native English-speakers' complaints in the letters-to-the-editor column of The Japan Times about Japanese people's careless or incorrect hand, I English: the English, them teacher on one and, as completely with a of agree of use for feel it; I hand, the responsibility much on always wonder to what extent and in other even has been English truly globalized (for those angry letters of complaint about sense what Japanese English or'Japlish', which appear quite often in the column, tend to pose, implicitly incorrect, dichotomy: the variations radical of native/non-native vs. correct right or explicitly, language I their it, have break ). In down vs. tried to thesis our this misuse wrong, of etc. vs. by dichotomy assuming a cline of proficiency in English from the elementary stage of this learning to artistic mastery, partly because it is convenient for my theory of creative stylistics to domain, but importantly the in to because cross-cultural more my own experiences I expand have found no substantial difference between English as a native language and English in the Commonwealth, or between the latter and English as an International Language, other than the

209

difference of level of language acquisition. Commonwealth, into the penetrated

Therefore, if the 'worldliness of English' has

as Pennycook (1994) illustrates with the example of

English in Malaysia and Singapore, it may well penetrate into the non-English-speaking be into full it, if in to able enter may we participation we like, by ascending to the or countries, higher stages of language acquisition and aesthetic textual creation. It would be worthwhile in far Japanese learners of English have come and to predict how far we how to this sense review itself is English by This by it fact thesis text the that may provide, merely an written a go. can Japanese,an interesting reference point for that review and that prediction.

210

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University Essays Rhetoric. New Press. )(1965) York: Oxford (ed. D. on Bailey, Bally, C. (1909) Traite de stylistique francaise. Paris.

indirect direct 'Narrative A. (1973) the of and speech'. grammar style and Banfield, Foundations of Language, X: 1-39. Unspeakable Representation Sentences: Narration A. (1982) in the and Banfield, Language of Fiction. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Editions Seuil. degre de Le de l'ecriture. Paris: R. (1953) zero Barthes, Barthes, R. (1970) Barthes, R. (1981) S/Z. Paris: Editions du Seuil. Textual Analysis of Poe's "Valdemar"', translated by G. Bennington, Reader, London: Routledge &

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