AUREL VLAICU UNIVERSITY OF ARAD

International Symposium Research and Education in an Innovation Era

AUREL VLAICU UNIVERSITY OF ARAD

EDITORIAL BOARD
Editors-in-chief Adriana Vizental Cornelia Coer Associate chief editor Toma Sava ADVISORY BOARD Lizica Mihu, Acad. Prof., PhD, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, Romania I. Funeriu, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Florea Lucaci, Professor Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Laura-Mihaela Murean, Professor Ph.D., Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest/ QUEST Romania/ EAQUALS Corneliu Pdurean, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Florica Boditean, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Ioan Galea, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Petru Trchil, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Radadiana-Beatrice Calciu, Lecturer Ph.D., Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest/ QUEST Romania/ EAQUALS Onisim Colta, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Mihai Handaric, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Nicolae Selage, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania

International Symposium Research and Education in an Innovation Era

3 Edition
November 11-12 , 2010 ISREIE 2010
rd

Section: Cultural Identities and Modern Discourses

(Linguistics, Fiction and Arts, Education and Public Health, Physical Education and Sports, History and Society, Earthly and Divine Legislation) ISSN 2065 2569 Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu Arad, 2010 3

CONTENT
LINGUISTICS.13 Present-day tendencies in the Romanian language..13 By Rodica ZAFIU Subordination ratio. Linguistic tools and poetic expressivity...27 By Lizica MIHU, Bianca MIUA Surveys into the religious style (I).......36 By Lizica MIHU, Bianca MIUA Romance linguistics vs. Indo-European linguistics. Theory and method of research..49 By Voica RADU Semantic and symbolic fields in George Bacovias poetry..56 By Voica RADU On special uses of the present tense in literary texts. A Romanian-English perspective.62 By Manuela MARGAN, Claudiu MARGAN Dbts sur la langue littraire au XVIIE sicle et la politique linguistique fondatrice du classicisme franais...67 By Nicolae SELAGE Analysing slang in prison movies Rod Luries The last castle..75 By Gabriel BRBULE Genus der nomen: eine Rumnisch Deutsche kontrastive analyse85 By Alina PDUREAN Stylistic-pragmatic values of Romanian nonfinite verbal forms......90 By Alina-Paula NEMU Considerations regarding political cant.102 By Mariana-Florina BTRN

Iconic rhetoric in advertising119 By Carmen NEAMU FICTION AND ARTS...131 The childhood world Stevensons "Garden of Verses"......133 By Magdalena DUMITRANA Don Quijote i ficiunea iubirii..141 By Florica BODITEAN Womans morality and emancipation as reflected in the 19th century Romanian prose....155 By Alina SIMU Slavicis ethos rendered through lexical units....163 By Adela DRUCEAN I.L. Caragiales folktales and the spirit of the Balkans...168 By Adela DRUCEAN Value and compromise in Cella Serghis literary destiny..176 By Lavinia IONOAIA The idea of a modern novel..186 By Clina PALICIUC Leonard Cohen The Dark Messiah of Canadian literature.192 By Diana Otilia POP Martin Amis, life and work. A tentative overview200 By Odeta Manuela BELEI Anstze zur literarischen Moderne in sterreich. Besonderheiten der Jahrhundertwende 1900209 By Petra-Melitta ROU

Extra-conjugal love: Concubinage and adultery in the middle ages..216 By Teodora ARTIMON Games, mimics and practice seen through Pieter Bruegel.221 By Teodora ARTIMON Identity in art. A hermeneutic perspective.227 By Clin LUCACI, Diana BOTA, Florea LUCACI Aspects of the relationship between folk art and fine art256 By Diana BOTA Nicolae Chirilovici (1910-1993). Biographical and artistic aspects....263 By Onisim COLTA Sculpture and architecture, category boundaries....281 By Delia BRNDUESCU Art, craft, tradition288 By Claudiu Emil IONESCU Regional centre for consultancy and clothes design...300 By Lacrimioara Simona IONESCU EDUCATION AND PUBLIC HEALTH..307 Quality Assurance & Teacher Development through Class Observation..309 Laura MUREAN, Radadiana CALCIU Suggestopaedia understandings and misunderstandings...317 Magdalena DUMITRANA Peer mediation. Conflict as an opportunity of change......322 Catarina MORGADO, Isabel OLIVEIRA Innovatory trends in Romanian education and research..330 Cornelia COER

Advantages of a structuralist approach to teaching Romanian as a foreign language.338 Ada ILIESCU Esthetic education artistic education, essential component of the multilateral personality....351 Elisabeta Margareta LINGURAR, Mariana NAGY Teaching, language and communication...357 Adriana VIZENTAL The Notion of transversal psychology....371 Gheorghe SCHWARTZ Romanian education for health in the 21st century...378 Mihaela GAVRIL-ARDELEAN Screening and prevention of professional diseases..384 Mihaela GAVRIL-ARDELEAN Obesity in Arad county. prevalence and risk factors...387 Dana NEGRU, Gabriela TARLE, George RADULESCU, Laura NICOLESCU, Daniela POPA PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS395 General concepts relating to selection in bodybuilding...397 Viorel Petru ARDELEAN The fitness group activities instructor..405 Francisco Jos Ascenso CAMPOS, Ricardo Jos ESPRITO SANTO DE MELO The management of performance in sports by value analysis. an ergonomic perspective412 Ioan GALEA Study of the pilates technique effects over the body sculpture.............421 Gabriela ISTVAN

The role of motivational factors in the development of basic training in the game of football for children aged 7-12430 Gabriel Roberto MARCONI Development of coordination in masculine artistic gymnastics, junior gymnasts IV, level 1 and 2.436 Lucian POPA Biological response of training in athletics sprints...442 Sorin ROTARU System optimization and natural selection..448 Ovidiu ERBAN Doping. A temptation of the present-day sports......455 Caius MIUA, Dan BANCIU, Ioan GALEA
HISTORY AND SOCIETY. EARTHLY AND DIVINE LEGISLATION..459 Mortality in Arad City in the first half of the 20th century....461 Corneliu PDUREAN

Civil Law and changes made by the new Civil Code in the Civil Law in their preliminary title...512 Petru TRCHIL The Life and Its Story in the Old Testament...520 Mihai HANDARIC The Evil and the Christian theological discourse533 Pavel RIVIS TIPEI, Iosif RIVIS TIPEI

Lower Mure Valley from the conquest of Dacia by the Romans to the Marcomanic wars in the light of numismatic finds..467 Daniela Aurelia BUDIHALA Soviet 'patterns' for the serbs living in Romania 1948- 1950 Kulturny uputnik (The Cultural Adviser)..487 Miodrag MILIN The public servant. Challenging in the Court of Justice the evaluation file of the employees professional performances and skills498 Eugenia IOVNA Case law, precedent, and law-making in the English legal system..507 Nicoleta Florina MINC

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Linguistics

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 13-26

Linguistics formulate n mai multe versiuni: degradare, boal, stricare1 etc. A deplnge degradarea limbii e, ns, o tem pe care o gsim n diferite culturi, n orice secol, la fel de frecvent i de repetitiv ca tinerii din ziua de azi i evocnd un mit al epocii de aur2. Ca tema s fie tratat raional i ntemeiat istoric, ar trebui stabilit dac ntr-adevr limba a fost, n trecut, mai puin degradat, mai sntoas. De cele mai multe ori, reperul e neltor: vorbitorii se raporteaz la o imagine idealizat sau parial, confrunt realitatea de azi cu un ideal sau cu un eantion de limb (propus de coal, provenind din teatru, din autorii clasici etc.). Variaia i schimbarea lingvistic sunt fenomene fireti, descrise cu obiectivitate de lingviti, dar percepute n manier preponderent negativ de vorbitorii obinuii. Atitudinea acestora fa de limb are explicaii psihologice: nimnui nu-i place s participe la un joc n care regulile se schimb pe parcurs. Pentru nevoia uman de stabilitate, este ngrijortoare n primul rnd lipsa controlului: resimit i atunci cnd regulile sunt schimbate, treptat, de cteva milioane de juctori (prin mod i tendinele limbii vorbite), dar mai ales cnd sunt substituite dintr-o dat de arbitri (prin modificarea explicit a normelor oficiale). E drept, exist i viziunea opus, conform creia o limb evolueaz, devine tot mai bogat, subtil, complex etc.: aceast poziie poate fi asumat la un moment dat de cei care normeaz limba (n numele unui ideal proiectat n viitor), dar e mai greu de gsit n atitudinile spontane ale vorbitorilor. Evaluarea limbii atitudinile vorbitorilor fa de limba lor: evalurile, preferinele, ceea ce ei consider bun sau ru, frumos sau urt, oportun sau inoportun contribuie la schimbarea lingvistic, ncurajnd sau ngrdind tendine deja iniiate. Atunci cnd se vorbete despre inovaii i tendine n evoluia unei limbi, referentul nu este totdeauna evident. Pentru muli vorbitori, exist doar o limb adevrat: cea cultivat, supus normelor, relativ stabil i
1

Present-day tendencies in the Romanian language

Rodica ZAFIU Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti Institute of Linguistics, Bucharest University Abstract: The condition of the language is a subject of fairly broad interest. In Romania, any discussion regarding some breaching of the norms, or the massive presence of Anglicisms or vulgar terms, is likely to stir passions. Linguistic variation and change are natural phenomena, described objectively by linguists, but perceived, in most cases, negatively by ordinary speakers. Present-day tendencies in the Romanian language are, to a large extent, manifestations of more general tendencies, common for numerous languages. Today, three global factors have an impact on the linguistic evolution of Romanian: (a) the influence of English; (b) the influence of communication by electronic media; (c) a narrowing of the gap between educated and popular language, between writing and speaking. In the dynamics of a living language, change is inevitable and, basically, inoffensive. The concern of our contemporaries, nevertheless, is important: attitudes and assessments balance out and moderate evolutions that are too fast, preserving the natural dependence on cultural factors. Keywords: language change, prescriptivism, globalization, Anglicisms, electronic media 1. Starea limbii e o tem de interes destul de larg; cel puin n spaiul romnesc, orice discuie despre nerespectarea normelor, despre prezena masiv n comunicare a anglicismelor sau a termenilor vulgari are anse s trezeasc pasiuni i s provoace judeci definitive. Domin, mai ales, sentimentul de criz i lamentaiile despre decderea limbii,

Numeroase metafore ale decderii lingvistice, comune mai multor culturi i folosite ca argumente n sprijinul unor programe puriste, au fost trecute n revist de Thomas 1991. 2 As a general rule in language matters, the past is believed to be pure and innovation is often suspected of corruption (Spolsky 2004: 22); This morbid concern for the health of English is not new (Aitchinson 1998: 15); cf. Bailey 1991, Battistella 2005 etc.

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Linguistics unitar. Restul limba popular, vorbit, spontan nu conteaz (chiar dac ei nii o utilizeaz, n diferite grade i n anumite circumstane): e o non-limb, o succesiune de greeli. n disputele pe teme lingvistice, se susine uneori c anumite cuvinte, sensuri sau construcii gramaticale nu exist pentru c nu sunt cuprinse n dicionare i gramatici. Lingvitii, n schimb, se intereseaz n mod special de ceea ce se plaseaz n afara normei: de limba vie, n schimbare, dinamic. Pentru specialiti, toate varietile limbii sunt la fel de justificate, iar abaterile fa de limba standard pot fi, de fapt, norme interne, neexplicite, ale uzului popular. n polemic deschis cu excesele normative ale cultivatorilor limbii, lingvistica descriptiv modern a exagerat uneori n direcia contrar, negnd orice valoare tradiiei normative3. Limba de cultur nu e un scop n sine, nu e singura ipostaz valid a unei limbi, ceea ce nu nseamn c i se poate nega necesitatea, justificat att n plan practic (ca instrument stabil de comunicare, ca zon de intersecie a diferitelor variante ale limbii), ct i n plan simbolic: pentru c ofer, ca i sistemul politeii sau codul vestimentar, diferenierea care confer prestigiu, prin practici plasate deasupra uzului cotidian i uneori chiar n dezacord cu acesta. 2. Starea actual a limbii romne nu poate fi neleas n absena unei perspective istorice. Romna e o limb care a primit mai multe straturi de influene slav, greac, turc etc. , normat trziu, ncepnd cu sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea, avnd variaii regionale, percepute acut inclusiv dup unirea din 1918. Romna a suferit, n secolul al XIX-lea, o transformare radical a variantei sale literare (limba de cultur), prin mprumut masiv latino-romanic; normele sale ortografice s-au schimbat de zeci de ori, n cei 150 de ani care ne despart de scrierea chirilic (multe variaii lingvistice sunt mascate de ediiile care actualizeaz n permanen ortografia, punctuaia, uneori i gramatica). Unitatea i stabilitatea sunt achiziii relativ recente i adesea e de ajuns o rapid cercetare istoric pentru a descoperi c abaterea de azi nu e totdeauna o inovaie, ci mai curnd rezultatul faptului c norma
3

Linguistics nu s-a impus niciodat cu adevrat4. n aspectul actual al limbii romne, unele note specifice in mai ales de vechi tensiuni (prea puin contientizate i rezolvate) ntre registrul popular i cel cult. 3. n ultimele decenii s-a petrecut, insesizabil, o schimbare n sistemul de codificare a limbii (cf. Gavin 1993): n perioada regimului comunist, a funcionat un sistem centralizat de normare unic, instituionalizat i autoritar; cenzura, controlul integral al comunicrii publice au creat impresia unei limbi perfecte, corecte, unitare. Dup 1989, instituiile normative (Academia, n primul rnd) au continuat s se comporte ca i cnd aceast autoritate ar fi fost netirbit, dei n prezent norma real se stabilete mai curnd prin confruntarea i concurena dintre mai multe centre de prestigiu i de aciune cultural (editurile, de exemplu, reflectnd adesea i identiti regionale). Tendinele actuale ale limbii romne5 sunt n parte manifestri ale unor tendine mai generale, comune mai multor limbi. Trei factori globali au n prezent inciden asupra evoluiei lingvistice a limbii romne: (a) influena englezei; (b) influena comunicrii prin mijloacele electronice; (c) apropierea dintre cult i popular, dintre scris i vorbit. 4. Influena englezei ca limb a globalizrii, a comunicrii internaionale, a tiinelor i deopotriv a divertismentului , e un fenomen general, care s-a manifestat n ultimele dou decenii cu mai mare intensitate n rile din Estul Europei (n msura n care acestea nu trecuser prin valul de anglicizare al arilor din Vest, de dup al doilea rzboi mondial)6. Influena englez e foarte mare n anumite zone ale limbii n limbajul informatic, economic, politic, n industria divertismentului,
4 5

One can choose to obsess over prescriptive rules, but they have no more to do with human language then the criteria for judging cats at a cat show have to do with mamalian biology (Pinker 1994: 372).

V., de exemplu, Zafiu 2009. n lingvistica romneasc, descrierea raportului dintre norm i uz i a tendinelor limbii are o tradiie prestigioas, care permite raportarea datelor actuale la constatrile din trecut: Iordan 1948, Graur 1968, Guu Romalo 1972 (reeditare n 2008). n ultimii ani, rezultatele unor cercetri extinse i detaliate asupra dinamicii limbii au fost cuprinse n Pan Dindelegan 2002, 2003, 2009. V. i Avram 2003. 6 Dintr-o bibliografie extrem de bogat a problemei, menionm volumele de referin (dicionar, culegere de studii i bibliografie) coordonate de Grlach (2001, 2002a, b).

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Linguistics precum i n limbajul colocvial al tinerilor dar destul de redus n altele (literatur, arte plastice, filozofie etc.). Reacia la aceast influen e relativ moderat: att specialitii, ct i vorbitorii obinuii critic excesul, dar accept componenta necesar a fenomenului, reprezentat mai ales de mprumutul termenilor tehnici, care denumesc noiuni noi sau prin care se evit perifraze complicate. ncercrile de restrngere a influenei engleze prin traducere, prin cutarea de echivalente (calc semantic) nu au avut succes nici la nivel oficial, nici n rndurile publicului mai larg, strnind mai curnd reacii ironice. Aceast atitudine are o ntemeiere istoric adesea adus n discuie, contient, chiar de vorbitori n experiena istoric a perioadelor de mprumuturi masive, care au fost asimilate pe rnd, fr a schimba n mod esenial sistemul limbii: influena turceasc i greceasc din secolele al XVII-lea-al XVIII-lea, ori cea francez din secolul al XIX-lea, comparabile cu anglicizarea actual, au sfrit prin a mbogi limba mai ales din punct de vedere lexical, fr a-i afecta structura gramatical. De altfel, de multe ori anglicismul de azi substituie tot un mprumut, mai vechi i asimilat ntre timp: nu se mai cere bere la halb, ci la draught nlocuindu-se un germanism mai vechi cu un anglicism recent; banii pein (turcism intrat n uzul popular) devin cash. Valoarea simbolic a anglicizrii este inevitabil: muli termeni sunt dublai de echivalentele lor semantice, difereniate doar prin conotaiile modern, actual, occidental (de exemplu, seriei sinonimice din care fac parte serviciu i slujb i se adaug job). ntre grefarea unui sens nou pe un termen preexistent sau transpunerea elementelor componente n echivalente romneti (calcul semantic sau de structur) i preluarea ct mai fidel din englez, vorbitorii prefer de obicei a doua soluie: de exemplu, termenul informatic site este pstrat ca atare, puini prefernd extinderea semantic a mai vechiului mprumut din francez, sit; mprumutul consumerism (neanalizabil n romn, n care nu exist baza consumer) este preferat de muli unui termen remotivat i transparent, consumism (consum + -ism). Exist totui contraexemple fa de tendina de a prefera mprumutul lexical ca atare: circul astzi i un numr mare de calcuri dup englez, care trec neobservate de majoritatea vorbitorilor. Ipostaza cea mai rspndit a acestui fenomen este un fel de re-mprumut, constnd n adugarea de sensuri din englez unor cuvinte (cultisme de origine latin) care ptrunseser n romn, n urm cu aproximativ un secol, cu forma i 17

Linguistics sensurile din francez. S-au grefat sensuri noi din englez asupra unor termeni ca expertiz (sensul vechi: investigare, cercetare; sensul nou: experien), locaie (sensul vechi, foarte limitat: chirie; sensul nou: plasare, poziie, loc), a aplica, a abuza, patetic etc.7 Dei produc sentimentul inconfortabil al instabilitii semantice (percepute de vorbitorii cultivai ca abateri de la logic), asemenea modificri nu sunt inacceptabile i iritarea fa de ele este excesiv: se deplnge lipsa de fidelitate fa de sensurile tradiionale dei tradiia nu e mai veche de un secol i jumtate. Inovaiile de acest tip reflect n primul rnd o ruptur, mai profund, ntre generaii: de la francofonia i francofilia cultural de acum dou decenii, s-a trecut la o aproape total ignorare a limbii franceze, la un viraj brusc spre anglofonie. Calcul funcioneaz i n sintax strident pentru lingviti, care constat schimbri de regim, construcii noi dar neobservat de majoritatea vorbitorilor (pe ct de vizibil e lexicul, care trezete mari pasiuni, pe att de discret e sintaxa). Provin din englez construcii actuale de tipul a oferta pe cineva cu ceva (la pasiv: X a fost ofertat de Y), probleme adresate, copii abuzai etc. S-a observat, totui, c rspndirea englezei poate fi interpretat i ca instrument al unei globalizri n care persist originile latine ale culturii europene8: o ilustreaz, printre altele, marca de superlativ super de origine latin i devenit, prin limbajul tinerilor, o form de acord i aprobare comun (n pronunii diferite) multor limbi actuale. Sintetiznd ntr-o form inevitabil simplificatoare un fenomen foarte complex9, putem spune c anglicismele actuale trec printr-un proces de adaptare morfologic extrem de rapid: substantivele capt desinene de plural (pluralul bodyguarzi, de exemplu, a fost acceptat de DOOM2), verbele intr n tiparul cult cu infinitivul n -a i sufixul de prezent -ez (a
n cazul lui confort i confortabil, presiunea englezei nu modific doar structura semantic (adugnd semnificaia sprijin, ncurajare, consolare) ci i, pentru unii vorbitori, ortografia: termenii apar uneori n forma (neconform regulilor romneti) comfort i comfortabil. 8 Ideea a fost lansat la noi, cu muli ani n urm, de Alexandru Graur (1972: 181-182). 9 Despre influena englez s-a scris foarte mult n ultimii ani; vezi Avram 1997, tefnescu 2001, Stoichioiu Ichim 2006 etc.
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Linguistics downloada-downloadez, cf. a focusa, a prioritiza, a emfaza, a accesa, a posta) sau n cel popular-familiar, cu infinitivul n -(u)i: a brandui (< brand), a cetui (< chat), a erui (< share). Asemenea schimbri se produc spontan i inevitabil, impuse de morfologia romnei; fr ele, cuvintele nu ar putea fi utilizate n enun. Unele cuvinte, mai puine, rmn invariabile i tind chiar s fixeze un tipar al juxtapunerii (situaie horror). Spontan i inevitabil e i adaptarea fonetic minimal i parial, care transpune sunetele foarte apropiate n echivalentele lor din romn, pstrndu-le ceva mai fidel pe cele mai ndeprtate. Aspectul ortografic al anglicismelor este conservat chiar atunci cnd transcrierea n sistemul ortografic romnesc nu ar ridica nicio problem. Respingerea adaptrii ortografice e o atitudine i o opiune cultural: transpunerile sunt percepute ca inculte i comice (fiind tocmai de aceea utilizate n registrul colocvial scris: luzr < engl. loser). Astfel, ntr-o limb care a asimilat grafic (i fonetic) multe franuzisme abajur, voiaj, ofer i chiar anglicismele mai vechi meci, gem , se pstreaz astzi formele de origine: cool, look, leadership etc. Unele anglicisme sunt deja pragmaticizate, au devenit instrumente conversaionale (aa cum s-a ntmplat, n trecut, cu turcisme ca barem, taman, sadea, sau cu franuzisme ca deja, apropo, mersi): acordul e marcat prin forma OK, o greeal prin interjecia ups, circumstanialele pe loc (imediat) i tot timpul (permanent) sunt substituite obsesiv de instant i nonstop etc. Dovada cea mai clar a asimilrii anglicismelor, a integrrii lor n sistemul limbii, e, pe lng adaptarea morfologic (prin integrarea n tiparele dominante de flexiune), productivitatea lor lexical, capacitatea de a-i dezvolta familii lexicale. Cele mai multe cuvinte intr n procese derivaionale accelerate, ca n cazul substantivului blog (a crui familie lexical cuprinde termeni ca a bloga, a blogui, a blogri, bloguire, blogist, blogherist, blogistic, bloggeristic, blogism, bloggerism, blogu, bloguor, blogrel, blogrime, blogreal etc.). n fine, exist i un reglaj intern: fr impuneri oficiale, termenii mprumutai pot fi nlocuii spontan, dup o vreme, de echivalentele lor romneti: verbul a downloada e concurat de un neutru a descrca i de o semitraducere glumea: a da jos; developper e adesea substituit de dezvoltator, e-mail de pota electronic etc. 19

Linguistics 5. A doua surs major de schimbri n limba contemporan este comunicarea n mediul electronic. Aparent, aceasta s-ar subsuma primei direcii evocate: s-a crezut, la nceputuri, c spaiul virtual va fi unul de globalizare i de impunere a englezei. Evoluia fenomenului a dovedit, dimpotriv, c internetul poate spori afirmarea diversitii: ofer spaiu de cunoatere pentru limbi pe cale de dispariie, pentru variante regionale, chiar argotice tot aa cum asigur accesul la texte clasice, la dicionare academice, ediii princeps etc. ntr-un mediu extrem de extins, internetul face posibil comunicarea transversal, la mare distan, dar se pare c majoritatea schimburilor verbale se petrec n continuare n micile comuniti, n limba sau dialectul locului. Contribuia la anglicizare este deci doar o parte, nici mcar cea mai important, a influenei noilor medii. Celelalte efecte ale internetului ar fi legate de (a) depozitul uria de informaie; (b) tipul nou de lectur n salt, superficial dar cu mai multe conexiuni; (c) accesul larg la exprimarea n scris, persistent; (d) tipul nou de comunicare scris, n condiii apropiate de ale dialogului oral, dar i cu constrngeri tehnice suplimentare. Mediul virtual asigur tuturor accesul la informaii pe care cei mai muli nu aveau cum sau nu erau obinuii s le caute. Numrul utilizatorilor care acceseaz site-urile romneti cu dicionare on-line (general, de sinonime, de neologisme, etimologic etc.) este mult mai mare dect al persoanelor care ar fi deschis nainte un dicionar. Tot aa, numrul celor care scriu pe bloguri, forumuri, liste de discuii, comentarii la articole este mult mai mare dect al indivizilor care ar fi avut acces la spaiul public (prin pota redaciei, eventual, sau prin tiprirea unui volum autofinanat) cu cteva decenii n urm. n procesul de redactare, crete posibilitatea verificrii, a corectrii, dar scade nevoia interioar de a o face (n msura n care textele se pot publica oricum). Scrisul rapid, fr recitire, aa numitul oral-scris al chatului, al messengerului sau al sms-urilor (Crystal, 2006: 31-52) influeneaz practicile curente ale comunicrii, avnd o serie de consecine, mai ales ortografice i sintactice, asupra limbii actuale. n ortografie, neglijarea diacriticelor sau ncercarea de recuperare a lor prin alte mijloace, precum i un sistem de abrevieri, stabilit prin uz, trec tot mai mult n afara spaiului virtual, ptrunznd chiar n scrisul de mn (shi = i, tzine = ine, dak = dac). Inovaiile ortografice nu sunt doar funcionale, ci mai ales simbolice, expresive i ludice: e cazul abrevierilor rebusistice (k = ka, d = 20

Linguistics de etc., dar i al scrierii cu k n loc de c sau j n loc de (kum = cum, jmeker = mecher). Regulile de ortografie i de punctuaie sunt nclcate, dar ar fi greit s credem c n comunicarea electronic spontan s-a instalat aleatoriul absolut. Se renun la virgul, de multe ori, nu ns la punct, iar punctele de suspensie devin mult mai frecvente, pentru a nota fragmente incomplete de enun, o sintax bazat pe suspensie. Primii observatori ai acestei forme de comunicare au fost impresionai i de ncercarea de a recupera contextul unei conversaii fa n fa, transmiterea emoiilor de ctre mimic, gest i intonaie prin aanumitele emoticoane; rolul acestora nu este ns att de mare pe ct s-ar putea crede i nu dispenseaz de recursul la formele tradiionale de indicare a componentei afective a mesajului. Riscul cel mai mare al acestor forme de comunicare e c separ scrisul de practica recitirii i a revizuirii, transform regulile de punctuaie n recomandri opionale i, mai ales, rspndesc un model de text destructurat, fragmentar. Deschiderea ctre oralitate permite amestecul stilistic destul de ocant specific celei de-a treia mari direcii contemporane. 6. Apropierea dintre scris i vorbit este legat de o evident democratizare a comunicrii publice n general i a scrisului n particular, consecin mai veche a alfabetizrii de mas, mai nou a mijloacelor electronice dar i a extinderii mass-mediei ctre o accesibilitate tot mai mare (ctre un public tot mai numeros). E o micare de du-te-vino, n care discursul public coboar n zona colocvialului, chiar a vulgarului, iar vorbitorii i insereaz fr reglare de registru propria voce n polifonia general. Nivelarea registrelor face ca termeni iniial argotici tun, pag, eap s intre n uzul curent, iar structuri populare s fie prezene constante (care neprecedat de pe) sau s se extind contagios (dect n construcii afirmative) n discursul public. Interferena limbajelor nu conduce totui la omogenizare, pentru c i se opun anumite tendine de sens contrar, care accentueaz diferenele de registru. De fapt, n perioada actual exist dou direcii ale variaiei lingvistice, dou tipuri de tendine: populare (spontane, vechi sau inovatoare) i culte (excese de hipercorectitudine, provocate tocmai de refuzul tendinelor populare). Uneori, cele dou tipuri de tendine sunt chiar simetric contrare: limbajul popular nlocuiete formele de genitiv-dativ flexionar prin construcii cu la 21

Linguistics (scriu la o prieten, din cauza la o vecin), n vreme ce limbajul cult extinde folosirea dativului chiar n situaiile n care normal este construcia prepoziional (de exemplu: indiferent situaiei). i n acest caz, constatm c imaginea pe care o au vorbitorii despre limb i norm are consecine asupra schimbrii lingvistice. E destul de stranie sensibilitatea excesiv a vorbitorilor actuali (culi) fa de componenta estetic a limbajului, manifestat n oroarea fa de presupuse cacofonii. De la an la an, lista situaiilor n care se percep cacofonii crete; teama de cacofonie provoac distorsionri ale enunului, apariia de combinaii nemotivate sintactic, dar care se rspndesc rapid secvena ca i , readucerea n uz a unor forme nvechite (precum). Conflictul dintre tendine se poate urmri, n mod tipic, n statutul diminutivelor, mai exact n extinderea actual a diminutivrii. Structural, romna ca i alte limbi romanice (italiana, spaniola) permite foarte uor diminutivarea, care nu e limitat la substantiv i nici la valoarea denotativ mai mic; mijloc de transmitere a conotaiilor afectuoase sau ironicdepreciative, dar i mijloc de gradare i de atenuare discursiv, diminutivarea e foarte prezent n romna popular. A fost respins de norma cult cu argumente raionaliste i estetice, dar probabil i sub influena modelului francez (Zafiu, 2010); astzi revine n for, fie prin derivate care ptrund n registrul standard (mmic, filmule, animlu), fie ca marc pragmatic de atenuare i politee (minuel, bonule, facturic). Se petrec i schimbri sociolingvistice n codul politeii: de altfel, acesta nu e foarte stabil, oscilnd permanent ntre un pol cult i unul popular, fiecare cu norme i formule proprii. Acestora li se adaug astzi alte modele, sub influene exterioare sau produse de evoluii interne, difuzate de mass-media i n mod special de mesajele publicitare: schimbrile privesc, de exemplu, raportul dintre adresarea cu tu i cea cu dumneavoastr sau ncercarea de transformare a colocvialului bun! ntr-o formul neutr de salut10. O serie de tensiuni apar i n feminizarea numelor de profesii: sistemul limbii le permite, cu mare uurin (profesoar, directoare, preedint); norma cult le respinge,
10

ntr-un clip publicitar recent, personajul masculin i salut prin formula Bun!, la prima ntlnire, pe presupuii socri; unele e-mailuri informative folosesc acelai dumneavoastr .a.m.d.

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Linguistics asociind mai departe prestigiul cu forma masculin (doamna profesor/director/preedinte). O serie de tendine morfosintactice ilustreaz latura social a raportrii la limb ca factor de promovare sau stigmatizare. Tendinele populare se manifest n marcarea puternic a categoriilor gramaticale prin modificarea formei cuvntului i prin redundan; tendinele culte reduc la minimum modificrile formale (dovedind fidelitate etimologic) i prefer non-redundana (raionalizarea mijloacelor). n romna actual, se manifest pe de o parte tendina de adaptare, analogie i acord (de exemplu, a substantivului comun massmedia, a crui ncadrare n uz ca feminin singular a fost validat de DOOM2: mass-media romneasc), pe de alta, tendina de meninere, chiar mpotriva normei, a diferenierii etimologice (statutul de neutru plural: mass-media romneti). 7. Previziunile n domeniul evoluiei limbii sunt foarte riscante; sar putea chiar alctui o colecie de umor lingvistic din profeiile care sau dovedit total greite asupra succesului sau insuccesului unei forme sau a unei tendine. n msura n care sunt preluate i rspndite de mai muli vorbitori, inovaiile din limb, chiar cele considerate greeli i criticate aspru de instanele normative, sunt explicabile i, de fapt, necesare. Moda nsi e o necesitate psihologic, aa cum sunt i clieizarea sau redundana. Jocul social al utilizrii limbii presupune totui i necesitatea rezistenei, a opoziiei fa de inovaii. Complexitatea situaiei a fost revelat, acum civa ani, de un episod semnificativ al confruntrii dintre norm i uz. Dicionarul normativ aprut n 2005 sub egida Academiei (DOOM2) a fcut, printre altele, anumite concesii uzului popular, acceptnd n limba standard cteva variante morfologice considerate nainte simple greeli. n ciuda tendinei actuale de apropiere dintre registrul popular i cel cult, reacia vorbitorilor fa de reglementrile permisive a fost preponderent negativ (cf. Vintil-Rdulescu 2006). n dinamica unei limbi vii, al crei sistem nu poate s nu rmn funcional i adaptat la necesitile comunicative ale vorbitorilor, schimbrile sunt inevitabile i, n fond, inofensive.

Linguistics ngrijorrile contemporanilor au totui rostul lor, pentru c atitudinile i evalurile modereaz i echilibreaz evoluiile prea rapide, meninnd limba n dependena ei fireasc de factorii culturali. Bibliografie: Aitchison, Jean, 1998: The media are ruining English, n Laurie Bauer, Peter Trudgill (eds.), Language Myths, London, Penguin Books, p. 15-22. Avram, Mioara, 1993: La crativit e l'hospitalit du roumain, Revue Roumaine de Linguistique, XXXVIII, nr. 1-3, p. 23-26. Avram, Mioara, 1997, Anglicismele n limba romn actual, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne. Avram, Mioara, 2003, Consideraii asupra dinamicii limbii i asupra studierii ei n romna actual, n Gabriela Pan Dindelegan 2003, p. 15-22. Bailey, Richard W., 1991, Images of English. A Cultural History of the Language, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. Battistella, Edwin L., 2005, Bad Language: Are Some Words Better than Others? Oxford, Oxford University Press. Ciobanu, Georgeta, 1996, Anglicisme n limba romn, Timioara, Amphora. Crystal, David, 2006, Language and the Internet, ed. a II-a, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. DAchille, Paolo, 2010, LItaliano contemporaneo, ed. a III-a, Bologna, Il Mulino. Garvin, Paul L., 1993, Styles of codification, n Brno Studies in English, 20, p. 17-22. Grlach, Manfred (ed.), 2001: A Dictionary of European Anglicisms. A Usage Dictionary of Anglicisms in Sixteen European Languages (DEA), Oxford, Oxford University Press. Grlach, Manfred (ed.), 2002a, English in Europe, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Grlach, Manfred (ed.), 2002b, An Annotated Bibliography of European Anglicisms, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 24

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Linguistics Graur, Alexandru, 1972, Lingvistica pe nelesul tuturor, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic Romn. Graur, Alexandru, 1968, Tendinele actuale ale limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura tiinific. Guu Romalo, Valeria, 2008 [1972], Corectitudine i greeal. Limba romn de azi, ediia a III-a, revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Humanitas (ediia I: 1972). Iordan, Iorgu, 1943, Limba romn actual. O gramatic a greelilor, Iai, Institutul de Arte Grafice Alexandru A. Terek, 1943 (ediia a II-a: 1948). Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, Nicholas Smith, 2009, Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Niculescu, Alexandru, 1978, Individualitatea limbii romne ntre limbile romanice. Contribuii socioculturale, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (coord.), 2002, 2003, Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale [I-]II, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (coord.), 2009, Dinamica limbii romne actuale Aspecte gramaticale i discursive, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne. Pinker, Steven, 1994, The Language Instinct, New York, Harper Collins. Spolsky Bernard, 2004, Language Policy, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Stoichioiu Ichim, Adriana, 2006, Aspecte ale influenei engleze n romna actual, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti. tefnescu, Ariadna, 2001, Cultural and linguistic English influence in Romania(n), Verbum, nr. 2, p. 267-294. Thomas, George, 1991, Linguistic Purism, London& New York,, Longman. Vintil-Rdulescu, Ioana, 2006, Primele reacii la noul DOOM, n Gabriela Pan Dindelegan (coord.), Limba romn, aspecte 25

Linguistics sincronice i diacronice, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2006, p. 39-47. Zafiu, Rodica, 2009, Constituirea unei norme gramaticale: relativul pe care, Limba romn, LVIII, 2, p. 285-296. Zafiu, Rodica, 2010, Evaluarea diminutivelor, n Gheorghe Chivu, Oana U Brbulescu (ed.), Studii de limba romn. Omagiu profesorului Grigore Brncu, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2010, p. 291-297. * DOOM2 = Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, coord. Ioana VintilRdulescu, Bucureti, Univers Enciclopedic.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 27-35

Linguistics proportionality ratio: dominant in literature, reflexivity goes towards zero in conventional manifestations of language- and it even completely cancels in math equations and scientific laws- in opposition to the activation of the referential capacity of the language. Also, the more subjective a language fact is, the narrower the sphere of receptors is, the more the reflex of interior life of the communication decreases, the more people understand it. The common language is subject to this tendency of reflexivity diminish, the rule saying that you have to make yourself understood covering a social area as wide as possible. Thus the result is conventionality of these manifestations. Poetry, as an example of reflexivity needs a particular audience, considered traditionally elitist, cult, refined, while prose was seen for many centuries as a genre less noble, destined to vulg. Tudor Vianu states in his previously mentioned study that every particularly reflexive communication has its risks. Defining the style of a writer as assembly of notions that he adds to his transitive expressions and through which communication gets a subjective way of being together with its artistic interest (Vianu, 1981: 17), the Romanian esthetician mentions that the styled writer is the one who makes the right balanced mixture of language tendencies, as the abuse of reflexivity leads to obscurity in literature, and the abuse of transitivity leads to superficiality and conventionalism. Considering style as a sum of subjective adjacent contents leads to an opposition between poetic language- specific, firstly, for poetry but also for artistic prose-scientific language, secondly, and last but not least common language. Insinuating in saying something else than the message about an external object represents the example of esthetic use of the linguistic tool. Solomon Marcus has a radical position related to this matter and he considers that the real opposition of poetic language, within scientific language, is the mathematical language. In Mathematical Poetry, the remarkable linguist mathematician makes an opposition between rational and affective use of language, using some series of attributes: -logical density/density of suggestion; -infinite synonymy (an infinity of equivalent clauses)/ absent synonymy (exclusive expression, non-equivalent to another one);

Subordination ratio. Linguistic tools and poetic expressivity

Lizica MIHU Bianca MIUA Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Abstract: If we compare traditional poetry to modern poetry from the perspective of the syntactic ratio, and particularly from that of the subordination ratio, we find that modern poetry seems to be clear and transparent. The examples used to illustrate this assertion show that relational elements are well represented, but they are not specific for their inherent and developed ratios. This does not deprive modern poetry of expressivity; on the contrary, it highlights the fact that the substratum carries stylistic load as well as a pragmatic attitude. Keywords: connectors, junctives, poetic discourse, style, the subordination ratio, relationship of cause-effect. Connectors and junctives have a special place within the poetic discourse which is the maximum of use liberties of the linguistic tool. Its specific discourse appears on the background of scientific language which becomes, under these circumstances, the only touchable standardillustration of a preliminary reference communication or a threshold language from which one can find and evaluate the exceptions. Such a position was expressed by Tudor Vianu in Double Intention of the Language and the Problem of Style where, following Charles Ballys approach, the Romanian aesthetician concludes the definition of style as addition, respectively as addition of an affective content to the logical core of communication. Tudor Vianu speaks about of simultaneous orientation of language facts towards the outside and the social (transitivity) and to the inside and individual (reflexivity). Under these circumstances who speaks communicates and communicates himself/herself. He/she does it for himself/herself. The language contains an individual spiritual mood and it organizes a social ratio. (Vianu, 1981:13). The two tendencies cooperate within the same message and they have an inverse

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Linguistics -absent homonymy (closing, significance independent of the person that receives it)/infinite homonymy (opening, ambiguity, variability of significance from one reader to another); -artificial/natural (admitting also constructions intentionally semigrammatical); -general, conventional, standard, objective/singular, subjective, creative language; -translatable/untranslatable due to motivation of linguistic sign; -unique significance-more expressions that are theoretically possible/unique expression-infinite significances; -transparent (language-communication)/opaque (language material); -transitive/reflexive, denotation/connotation; -logical oppositions (true-false)/except for the opposition true-false; -explainable/ unutterable. In literature, obviously, the problem of enunciations validation as true or false is not a matter to be discussed neither in prose nor in poetry since it is a well known and accepted fact that, in any of these two types of languages we do not speak about an instrumental use of language, but about its artistic function. But prose remains an opposition to poetry because of its way of discursive construction that it suggests. Thus, if from the syntactic point of view, which is the aim of our work, poetry lies within the sphere of logical relationships, prose, related mainly to the rational exercise of linguistic expression and thus close to naturalness of instrumental language, admits rational relationships as inherent to discursive display. We refer here to the relationship of CAUSE-EFFECT, expressed at the syntactic level through structures such as causality, consecution, finality, concession and conditioning. Before the generation of the 80s, poetry, especially the traditional one, used to reject the idea of explicit in expressing causality and not only, rejecting specific junctives, hiding them, as our great poets did and Eminescu particularly considered this procedure as inexpressive. Their absence offers some determinations an isolated character, apparently syntactically independent, even if nouns are included with their meaning in the whole of the clause: Un arc de aur pe-al ei umr, Ea trece mndr la vnat... (Mihai Eminescu, Poezii, p. 224) 29

Linguistics As we have noticed, in most of the cases the prepositions cu and deasupra are removed and thus, the noun determiner gets an apparent syntactic independence. Its very interesting the fact that one cannot find in Eminescus poems any conjunction or conjunctional locution specific for the causal ratio, cci, the least causal conjunction, appears a couple of times but deoarece, ntruct, de vreme ce etc appear never. Causality or the ratio cause-effect is a ratio specific for sciences and theoretically it should not be used in poetry. However, their frequency is pretty delicate and the poets avoid them using cum, unde and even juxtaposition. Cum izvornd l nconjor Ca nite mri, dea' notul... El sboar, gnd purtat de dor, Pn' piere totul, totul; (Mihai Eminescu, Poezii, p. 259) From the perspective of linguistic tools usage within the subordination ratio at the level of both sentence and clause, Mircea Cartarescu stands against the trend, as cci is predominant and it replaces almost always din cauz c and fiindc appears rather frequent. nu m prsi, cci n-a mai suporta nc-o ruptur. (Mircea Crtrescu, Cnd ai nevoie de dragoste, Disc 1, p.7) ghivece cu asparagus i cactui, rafuri de cornier nesate de carcase de televizor, casete AGFA i cabluri lucesc tulbure, mi populeaz singurtatea. cci m simt singur. (Mircea Crtrescu, O motociclet parcat sub stele, Disc 1, p.77) dar, vai! Steaua galben nu a rspuns acestei chemri cci ea iubea o strecurtoare de sup (Mircea Crtrescu, Poema chiuvetei, Disc 2, p.26) We notice, among the relational elements used to an analysis of subordination, the preference of Mircea Cartarescu to use s, ca, ca s, cnd, pe cnd, de cnd and much more rarely cum, dac, chiar dac, de i etc. Ca s te pup uneori pe pleoape i pe gene mi dereglasem ritmurile circadiene mi sfidam horoscopul Ca s-mi ating iubita i scopul... (Mircea Crtrescu, Esm, Disc 2, p.7273) 30

Linguistics dei cea mai slab, tu parc distribui petrol i celule solare cu fiecare rictus de blazare i grab dei cea mai rece, dei cea mai colocvial, tu bei cel mai mult... (Mircea Crtrescu, Sonet (tu parc ei fcut din celofan), Disc 1, p.62) The relative pronoun care is often used for introducing attributive clauses but also preceded by the preposition pe. Cine and ce are used, especially, for building rhetorical interrogations and for introducing subjective and predicative subordinate clauses. Cine appears 46 times in the poem femeie, femeie, femeie.. cine sclipete, cine e orbitoare, cine mic o botin dup alta iar prul su fluturtor i schimb culoarea dup fiecare dintre cele o sut de miliarde de anotimpuri... (Mircea Crtrescu, femeie, femeie, femeie, Disc 1, p.33) The coordination ratio is done, especially, copulatively using the specific conjunction si which appears 101 times but also adversatively using iar and dar. ah, cade soarele pe Bucureti i razele lui sunt osele i razele lui sunt degete de om i razele lui sunt portiere de Skod i razele lui sunt depourile Colentina, Niu Vasle i Vatra Luminoas The dominant emphasize of all mentioned above is the fact that the presence of the relational elements in poetry differs, visibly, between the two directions of the Romanian lyricism chosen for exemplification in our PhD theses, namely Mihai Eminescu and Mircea Cartrescu. In the classical poetry, Mihai Eminescu prefers concentration of expression through the lack of relational elements or the replacement of elements, specific for a certain type of dependence with some other unspecific, polyvalent ones (ibidem), which makes more difficult the process of syntactic analysis, the correct identification of the type of part of sentence or subordinate clause. This fact generates a liberty of possible literary interpretations: Eu pe-un fir de romani Voi cerca de m iubeti (Mihai Eminescu, Poezii, p. 53) 31

Linguistics Cnd vezi piatra ce nu simte nici durere i nici mil De ai inim i minte, feri n lturi, e Dalila. (Mihai Eminescu, Poezii, p.291) The presence of connectors is very important from the perspective of the subordination ratio, as they make it easy to notice, but in poetic works the authors prefer to disguise them as the subordination ratio mainly attracts the tendency of explicit and, in the same time, as a consequence it deepens the mystery of words and constructions. From the contemporary Romanian language and, in particular, the subordination ratio point of view this tendency makes the syntactic analysis and the clear understanding of the poetic idea transmitted difficult. But, modern poetry uses all the language resources including the relational elements, as Mircea Crtrescu, one of its most important representatives, states in Postmodernismul romanesc: The wing of the generation is, as compared to the textual one, pragmatically oriented not towards the text but reality. Numerous statements of the main representatives prove the effort of getting out of the sphere of abstractions and modernist objectivity, for a more pragmatic, more direct attitude as compared to a reality at the human scale. The new poetry is descriptive, it is successful to reality, it enumerates never endingly objects and surfaces in oral, poetic torrential works. The poems are long, disorderly, overwhelmed by images From the grammatical perspective, Crtrescus poems reveals easily the syntactic ratios developed in contemporary Romanian language and because of this, compared to Eminescu poems, they seem, at least at the syntactic level, much more obvious as message sent. As compared to traditional poem, modern poem is a clear poem from the syntactic ratio point of view and, particularly, from the subordination ratio perspective, fact proved in the examples given above where the relational elements are well represented, specific for the ratios that they present and develop, few of them being used without their specific touches. This fact does not cancel the expressivity of modern poetry, on the contrary, it emphasizes the fact that not only the substratum has a stylistic load but also a pragmatic attitude in language creates artistic attitudes.

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Linguistics Bibliografie: * * * Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Editura Academiei Romne, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan, Bucureti, 2009. * * * Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al Limbii Romne, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti, Bucureti, 2005. * * * Gramatica limbii romne, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, vol. I Morfologia, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1966. * * * Gramatica limbii romne, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, vol. II Sintaxa, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1966. * * * Gramatica limbii romne, I - Cuvntul, Editura Academiei Romne, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti, Bucureti, 2005. * * * Gramatica limbii romne, II - Enunul, Editura Academiei Romne, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti, Bucureti, 2005. Avram, Mioara, Evoluia subordonrii circumstaniale cu elemente conjunctionale n limba romn, Editura Academiei RPR, Bucureti, 1960. Avram, Mioara, Gramatica pentru toi, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997. Boditean, Florica, Poetica genurilor literare, Editura Mirton, Timioara, 2006. Borchin, Mirela-Ioana, Lingvistica n tiina secolului al XX-lea, Editura excelsior art, Timioara, 2002. Bulgr, Gh., Limba romn. Sintax i stilistic, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1968. Bulgr, Gh., Studii de stilistic i limb literar, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1971. Chomsky, Noam, Sintactic Structures, The Hague, Mouton, 1957. Constantinescu Dobridor, Gh., Sintaxa limbii romne, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1994. Coteanu, Ion, Gramatica. Stilistic. Compoziie, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1990. Covrig-Nonea, Ion, Noiuni de compoziie i stil, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1970. Dragomirescu, Gh., N., Mic enciclopedie a figurilor de stil, Bucureti, 1975. 33

Linguistics Drincu, Sergiu, Ghid ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic, ediia a II-a integral revizuit i completat, Editura Amphora, Timioara, 2006. Drincu, Sergiu, Punctuaia de baz n limba romn, Editura Amphora, Timioara, 2008. Funeriu, I., Principii i norme de tehnoredactare computerizat, Editura Amarcord, Timioara, 1998. Funeriu, I., Reflecii filologice, Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, 2008. Gencru, tefan, Sintaxa limbii romne, Editura Promedia Plus, ClujNapoca, 1997. Graur, Al., Gramatica azi, Editura Academiei RSR, Bucureti, 1973. Graur, Al., Puin gramatic, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1987. Guillermou, Alain, Essai sur la syntaxe des propositions subordones dans le roumain littraire contemporain, Paris, 1962. Guu-Romalo, Valeria, Corectitudine i greeal (Limba romn de azi), Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1972. Iordan, Iorgu, Stilistica limbii romne, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1975. Iordan, Iorgu, Robu, Vladimir, Structura gramatical a limbii romne. Sintaxa, editura Junimea, Iai, 1983 Irimia, Dumitru, Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997. Mihaela, Manca, Limbajul artistic romnesc n secolul XX (1900-1950), Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1991. Marcus, Solomon, Poetica matematic, Editura didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1966. Mihescu, N., Dinamica limbii romne literare. Vocabular. Sintax. Stil, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1976. Mihu, Lizica,, Miua, Bianca, Limba romn i Noul DOOM n norme i grile, Editura Palimpsest, Bucureti, 2010. Mihu, Lizica,, Mihilescu, Dumitru, Limba romn. Repere teoretice. Exerciii, Editura Palimpsest, Bucureti, 2008. Mihu, Lizica, Corectitudine n vorbire i n scriere, Editura Dacia, ClujNapoca, 1999. Mihu, Lizica, Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Multimedia, Arad, 1996. Nagy, Rodica, Sintaxa limbii romne actuale. Uniti, raporturi i funcii, Iai, 2005.

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Linguistics Oprea, Ioan, Pamfil, Carmen-Gabriela, radu, Rodica, Zstroiu, Victoria, Noul dicionar universal al limbii romne, Editura Litera Internaional, Bucureti, 2006. Pan, Dindelegan, Gabriela, Elemente de gramatic. Dificulti, controverse, noi interpretri, Editura Humanitas educaional, Bucureti, 2003. Popescu, tefania, Gramatica practic a limbii romne, Editura Tedit FZH, Bucureti, 2001. Stati, Sorin, Bulgr, Gh., Analize sintactice i stilistice, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1970. Tohneanu, G. I, Studii de stilistic eminescian, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1965. Tohneanu, G. I, Dincolo de cuvnt. Studii de stilistic i versificaie, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1976. Tomescu, Domnia, Analiza gramatical a textului. Metod i dificulti, Editura ALL Educaional, Bucureti, 2003. Tomescu, Domnia, Limba romn. Gramatic, Editura ALL Educaional, Bucureti, 2001.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 36- 48

Surveys into the religious style (I)

Lizica MIHU Bianca MIUA Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Abstract: If style represents a collection of specific linguistic practices for a certain field of human activity, it results that in the original ecclesiastic texts and in the translations, as well as in the performance of the Holy Liturgy, there are linguistic and stylistic acts that entitle us to plead in favour of positioning the religious styles in line with the other four functional styles of Romanian language. Keywords: style, word, living word, the language of ecclesiastic translations, the language of ecclesiastic books, ecclesiastic Romanian language, conservative, religious style, functional style. If style represents a collection of expression particularities, both oral and written, of a speaker or category of speakers, it ensues that its specificity relies on an individual level thence an individual style or by the convergence of some common features, it comes to characterize categories of individuals thence the so-called group, collective or supra-individual styles. As early as 1941, in The Double Intention of Language and the Issue of Style (Stylistic Studies: 1968: 33), Tudor Vianu considered style as the expression of an individuality, in the tradition of Vossler, who believed that style is the individual use of the language. If idiostyles (individual styles) are the specific modality of using linguistic means by individual producers, supra-individual or socio-styles are classified according to the category (or group) of speakers they refer to, in the presence of complex criteria, consistent with the environment where communication is produced, as well as its object and purpose and the effect engendered by its reception. According to I. Coteanu (1961: 53), the style of a language is the comprehensiveness of language methods, meant to express the content of ideas in a certain field of human activity.

35

Linguistics In the sphere of literary language the functional stylistic structure comprises four styles: 1. belletristic or artistic; 2. scientific or technicalscientific; 3. formal-administrative or judicial-administrative; 4. publicistic or journalistic. Some linguists argue in favour of a fifth style, namely the current conversational style, while other specialists emphasise the existence of informal, sports, epistolary styles, along with a middlestandard style, a neutral style that can be considered a reference for all other styles, described hereafter as deviations. The idea of the existence of more than four styles is comprised in their very definition: the totality of particularities exhibited by the language used by a social group, a professional category, a literary or scientific genre (Iorgu Iordan: 1956: 23). Iorgu Iordan adds to the literary or artistic; scientific and technical; journalistic styles three other styles, namely the formal, oratorical and familiar styles. Referring to the study of styles, Gheorghe Ivnescu considers that, as far as linguistic stylistics is concerned, there must be a re-evaluation of the stylistic concepts of Antiquity and of the 17th and 18th centuries as, the linguist says, antiquity and classicism stylistics has identified and defined the fundamental styles that remain valid for all ages, valid because they are determined by the fundamental intellectual-emotional attitudes of the humans towards the reality they are conveying through the work of art (1989: 230-232). To the extent to which the functional styles represent the aspects endorsed by common language according to the speakers and the purpose of communication, we may identify a religious style characteristic to religious communication, with its own rules of organizing the utterance, with distinct words and phrases and fixed constructions. Mihai Eminescu wrote as early as October 10th, 1881 in Timpul: The Church have created the literary language, have consecrated it and gave it the standing of a hieratic and national language (Gh. Bulgr: 1976: 142). With the advent of extensive translation of sacred books into Romanian, our language joined the company of sacred languages such as Latin, Slavic and Greek. The language and cultural unity, the unity by blood were complemented in the religious life by the unity of faith expressed by the Logos. But the authority of a word lies not in itself but in the incarnated Logos, in Gods Word, in the tribute paid to God through the Word. 37

Linguistics Constantin Noica used to consider words not only as conventional signs but also a means of expressing the Romanian existence. Let us not forget that before everything else there was the Logos: the Logos that emphasises the originality of the Romanian perspective on the world. The Logos referred to by Father Dumitru Stniloae means spirituality and communion in the Romanian Liturgy. That is why for Constantin Noica though buried into forgetfulness, words are alive (1987: 8). Referring to the word in orthodox spirituality, Dumitru Stniloae identifies the word-prayer, the greeting-prayer, the word as foundation of the liturgical language, but not as information. A word-communication. A living word that builds up. Romanian has the value of a liturgical language. The divine revelation is conveyed, preached and kept through the Logos. The emphasis made by Father Stniloae is enlightening in this respect: I believe that Orthodoxy has supported the beauty of the humankind. I believe that Romanian, like no other language, has an impressive spiritual sweetness. Slavic languages do not have something similar as Slavic remained a unifying language for all the peoples that used to live separately. Greeks too, were left with a Liturgy in old language, an idiom that has not kept pace with peoples language. Something miraculous and unique happened in our case: Orthodoxy was translated in all services of the Church into the peoples language and entered, along with the spirituality of these words, their everyday lives (quoted in Maria Ivnu: 1996: 66). As Marcu Mihail Deleanu points out in a recent study, the authors of literary language treatises do not account for the existence of a religious style, not even for the time when the literary language was reduced to the language of ecclesiastic translations or the language of documents, private or formal letters (1999: 14-15). Phrases such as the language of ecclesiastic translations were used when the emergence of the scientific style is invoked, along with the language of ecclesiastic books and ecclesiastic Romanian language. If style represents a collection of specific linguistic practices for a certain field of human activity, it ensues that in the original ecclesiastic texts (Psaltery, Homilies, Canons, Sermons etc.) and in translations, as well as in the performance of the Holy Liturgy there are language and style acts that entitle us to plead in favour of the positioning of the 38

Linguistics religious styles in line with the other four functional styles of Romanian language. Thirty-five years ago, in a study published in The Mitropoly of Banat, a priest pleaded for the freshening of the ecclesiastic language as the ecclesiastic language is a time-honoured document and speech act of our people in a certain period and not an object in a literary museum, something consigned to the chancery or a fetish but the linguistic progress must be acknowledged, so that every single edition of any ecclesiastic or ritual book should thereby represent a step forward (Petru Bogdan: 1964: 547-561). Without doubt, the ecclesiastic language must be accessible to the followers, but archaisms grant colour to the biblical text and a certain magic atmosphere, underpinning the idea of continuity, of sacred, devout keeping of faith, as conveyed in the holy books. That is why we cannot fully accept this plea of the aforementioned father, since the language of ancient homilies is not outdated or impenetrable, as language cannot be considered obsolete, nor should its archaism be deemed maniacal. Melchisedecs the bishop of Roman opinion is also arguable, as in his Molitvelnic (prayer book) named The Oratory he emphasises that time has come that progress in language culture should apply to ecclesiastic literature as well, ridding it of unaesthetic and barbarian archaisms and suggesting the introduction of neologisms. The same bishop of Roman, Melchisedec, properly recommends in his Project for the Review of the Ecclesiastic Language presented to the Holy Synod in 1880 plenty of moderation in order not to sink into extremism both regarding old and new terms (Petru Bogdan: 1964: 547-561). We should also mention the fundamental contribution to religious literature of Nicolae Cartojan in The History of Old Romanian Literature (1980), but we shall not insist on it for obvious reasons, as we are interested in issues connected to language and biblical texts. With reference to the theological language (1981: 140-145), Ion Coteanu emphasises that it represents an exegesis of the biblical text, revealing its presence in homilies or the interpretation of the Gospels, in liturgies, prayer books, octoihs (chant book, from Gr. oktoihos or eight tones). We should mention that until the 8th century, when Antim Ivireanul produced original sermons, the text of the Homily was almost completely observed. Gradually, the present (in its generic sense) grows 39

Linguistics distant, obviously, not dramatically, to the text of the Homily, acquiring an ecclesiastic rhetoric capable of revealing the theological and moral meaning of the Bible, where comparisons are present in abundance (see Antim Ivireanul: as the Sun does not abandon Earth out of love, God does the same with humans quoted in Ion Coteanu: 141), the symbols suggested through allegories, the rhetorical imprecations (O, ye mad and shallow mind; Alas, flattering world in Ion Coteanu: 142-143), and, sometimes, even a polemic register. The lexis of the religious text is conservative as Onisifor Ghibu notes because Church itself is mainly conservative, and preserving over the ages a specific terminology, from one edition to the other, is the result of the humbleness before the word, here the Word of the Lord (M.M. Deleanu: 1997: 36). Coresis efforts whose books circulated in all areas where Romanians lived and meant a new stage in the confirmation of the unity of the Romanian language and later the efforts of other translators of ecclesiastic texts to clear the constructions and vocabulary (Gh. Bulgr: 1966: 11) did not spoil the pious and humble spirit, on the contrary, they have kept the ineffable flame of the Word burning. We therefore consider that it is safe to speak of a religious style, with specific vocabulary, morphology and syntax. As far as the vocabulary of Romanian language is concerned, we should emphasise that the fundamental, intellectual vocabulary of Romanian language, i.e. the semantic core of any minimal intellectual activity presents both lexical structures of biblical origin and a theological terminology made up semantic-lexical units originating in the Holy Bible. Generally speaking, we should bear in mind that the Romanian language owes a great deal to the Christian semantic universe. Words such as: biseric (church), duminic (Sunday), Dumnezeu (God), Rusalii (Pentecost), altar (altar), credin (faith), cretin (Christian), cruce (cross), Sfnt (Holy) are reputed for their Latin origin. As far as the name of the Saviour is concerned, it was probably preserved for a while as Gsu Cristu, which was later on replaced, under the Slavic influence, by the current name of Iisus Hristos. The author of the Biblical Lexicology, Eugen Munteanu refers to the inconsistency between orthography and the confessional motivation (2008: 487-494) of the name of the Son of God, Iisus Cristos, occuring with a single or double I (Iisus/Isus), with 40

Linguistics an H or Ch (Hristos/Christos) or even with a double I and Ch instead of H (Iisus Christos). Eugen Munteanus plea is in favour of Iisus Hristos, an orthography in line with the etymological and traditional criteria (Greek-Slavic etymon and therefore, under no circumstance should hybrid combinations such as Iisus Cristos, Iisus Cristos, Isus Hristos be accepted. It is commonplace that proper nouns of foreign origin are written in current Romanian orthography as in the language of origin only when in the Romanian usage there is no accepted form (Molire, Racine etc. instead of Molier, Rasin etc.). The renown linguist Alexandru Rosetti in his History of the Romanian Language. From the Beginnings to the 17th Century (1978), when referring to the influence of southern Slavic languages upon Romanian, identifies a Christian and ecclesiastic terminology of Slavic origin, which we shall only mention here and deepen in a future study. As well, we should also acknowledge here the presence of Christian terms in Romanian onomatology. (see Simona Goicu: 1999). Florica Dumitrescu, in Contributions to the History of Old Romanian Language (38-47), when considering pre in the Accusative and the language of the texts translated from Slavic in the 16th century, mentions that translators have not provided a servile translation, but conveyed the meaning through a preposition inexistent in the Slavic text (some examples from the Psalms: c sfrimu-ne cu mnia ta(for we breathe our last with your anger); cu spatele sa umbri-te-va(with his back shall he give you shade) sau cu arme cungiur-ne(surround us with weaponry). As far as the Accusative case is concerned, this was either translated in a synthetic manner, as in Slavic, or with a preposition (e.g.: era(u) venii ctr Marta i Maria s mnge ale de fratele ei (they had come closer to Martha and Mary to embrace her brother) the absence of the preposition pe; Iar de va huli pre duhu sfnt (And if one shall commit blasphemy against the Holy Spirit); izbvete pre noi(deliver us); Da-va frate pre frate pre moarte (man shall give death to his brother). We bring up the opinions of Sextil Pucariu, Liviu Onu and Florica Dimitrescu on the preposition pre, emphasising that this preposition is not to be found in the most recent translation of the Bible (2008), where pe is preferred instead: Cercetat-ai pmntul i l-ai adpat pe el, bogiile lui le-ai nmulit(Thou visitest the earth and waterest it; Thou greatly enrichest it with the river of God) (Psalm 64: 594); S nu-i omori pe ei, ca nu cumva 41

Linguistics s uite legea Ta i Risipete-i pe ei cu puterea Ta i doboar-i pe ei, aprtorul meu, Doamne (Slay them not, lest my people forget; scatter them by Thy power and bring them down, O Lord our shield.) (Psalm 58: 592). The same preposition pe instead of pre can be found in The Bible or The Holy Scripture (Biblical Institute Publishing House: 1988) and in The Bible or The Divine Scripture of the Old and New Testament in the translation of Gala Galaction and Vasile Radu (1988). However, if we google Orthodox Bible on the internet, without a clear publishing date we will come up with a version that uses the preposition pre. There are numerous examples, to mention only two of them: nva-voi pre cei fr de lege cile tale( Then will I teach transgressors Thy ways) (Psalm 50: 14) and Striga-va ctre Mine i-l voi auzi pre el (He shall call upon Me, and I will answer him) (Psalm 90: 15). The translators of The Bible and The New Testament vacillate between pe and pre, probably due to their endeavour to have a language of the biblical text that should come closer to the spoken language, probably in order to make the message accessible and to convey it in an unmediated manner to the contemporary follower. The religious vocabulary comprises an impressive number of Greek origin words, which pervaded into Romanian through Slavic (Bulgarian), such as: anafur (host), arhimandrit (archimandrite), a blagoslovi (to sain), catapeteasm (iconostasis), cdelni (incensory), clugr (monk), chilie (sanctum), chivot (tabernacle), coliv (kollyva), cristelni (baptistery), crsnic (sacristan), duhovnic (confessor), evanghelie (Gospel), hram (titular saint), icoan (icon), iconostas (iconostasis), a ispi (expiate), liturghie (liturgy), maslu (holy oil), mnstire (monastery), mitr (mitre), mitropolie (mitropoly), mitropolit (metropolitan), molitv (prayer), molitvelnic (prayer book), monah (monk), naos (nave ), odjdii (vestments), epitrahil (stole/epitrachelion), patriarh (patriarch) and patriarhie (patriarchy), potir (chalice), pravil (canon), praznic (feast day/repast), prohod (dead office), pronaos (narthex), protopop (protopope), psalm (psalm), psaltire (Psaltery), rai (heaven), schit (skete), sfnt (saint), slav (praise), smirn (myrrh), stare (prior), stran (lectern/stall), tain (mistery), troi (crucifix), rcovnic (cantor/vicar choral), utrenie (matins), vecernie (vespers), vldic (sovereign/bishop) (Goicu, 1995: 223-232). 42

Linguistics The religious style is characterized by the particular frequency of verbs, occurring in ante-position, at the beginning of the communication: Luda-Te-voi, Doamne, din toat inima, spune-voi toate minunile Tale (I will praise Thee, O Lord, with my whole heart; I will show forth all Thy marvelous works); Veseli-m-voi i m voi bucura de tine; cnta-voi numele Tu, Preanalte (I will be glad and rejoice in Thee; I will sing praise to Thy name, O Thou Most High) (Psalm 9: 1-2). We should also point out the post-position of the personal pronoun in other psalms as well, but we shall mention only a few examples here: Zisa cel nebun n inima sa: Nu este Dumnezeu. Stricat-s-au oamenii i uri s-au fcut ntru ndeletnicirile lor. Nu este cel ce face buntate, nu este pn la unul (The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God. They are corrupt; they have done abominable works; there is none that doeth good.) (Psalm13: 1) sau Scoate-m-vei din cursa aceasta pe care mi-au ascuns-o mie, c Tu eti aprtorul meu (Pull me out of the net that they have laid privily for me, for Thou art my strength.) (Psalm 30: 4) or Mntui-va Domnul sufletele robilor Si i nu vor grei toi cei ce ndjduiesc n El (The Lord redeemeth the soul of His servants, and none of them that trust in Him shall be desolate.) (Psalm 33: 21). From a morphological perspective we should also mention the massive presence of the Vocative, sometimes correlated to an Imperative: Dumnezeule, auzi rugciunea mea, ia aminte cuvintele gurii mele (Hear my prayer, O God; give ear to the words of my mouth) (Psalm 53: 2) or Judec, Doamne, pe cei ce-mi fac strmbtate (Plead my cause, O Lord, with them that strive with me) (Psalm 34: 1) or Doamne, Dumnezeul nostru, ct de minunat este numele Tu, n tot pmntul! C s-a nlat slava Ta, mai presus de ceruri (O Lord, our Lord, how excellent is Thy name in all the earth, who hast set Thy glory above the heavens!) (Psalm 8: 1), or Miluiete-m, Doamne, c neputincios sunt: vindec-m, Doamne, c s-au tulburat oasele mele (Have mercy upon me, O Lord, for I am weak; O Lord, heal me, for my bones are vexed) (Psalm 6: 2) or Doamne, Dumnezeul meu, n Tine am ndjduit. Mntuiete-m de toi ce m prigonesc i m izbvete (O LORD my God, in Thee do I put my trust. Save me from all them that persecute me; and deliver me) (Psalm 7: 1) (Ion Coteanu: 1981: 53). We may also call attention to the frequency of conjunctions in initial position, especially the copulative conjunction i (and), the adversative 43

Linguistics conjunctions dar (but), iar (as for), as well as the subordinating conjunctions cci (as), c (that), fiindc (for=because), pentru c (because): i fericit este aceea carea crezut c se vor mplini cele spuse ei de la Domnul (And blessed [is] she that believed: for there shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord) (Luke 1: 45) or i l-a ntrebat Pilat: Tu eti regele iudeilor? (And Pilate asked him, Art thou the King of the Jews?) (Mark 15: 2) or i se va propovdui aceast Evanghelie a mpriei n toat lumea spre mrturie n toate neamurile; i atunci va veni sfritul (And this gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world for a witness unto all nations; and then shall the end come) (Matthew 24:14) or Dar cu cine voi asemna neamul acesta? Este asemenea copiilor care ed n piei i strig ctre alii (But whereunto shall I liken this generation? It is like unto children sitting in the markets, and calling unto their fellows) (Matthew 11: 16) or Dar Iisus rpunznd a zis: Lsai pn aici. i atinzndu-se de urechea lui l-a vindecat (And Jesus answered and said, Suffer ye thus far. And he touched his ear, and healed him) (Luke 22: 51) or Iar acum vin la tine i astea le griesc n lume ca s fie deplin bucuria mea n ei (And now come I to thee; and these things I speak in the world, that they might have my joy fulfilled in themselves) (John 17: 13) or C ea, turnnd mirul acesta pe trupul meu, a fcut-o spre ngroparea Mea (For in that she hath poured this ointment on my body, she did [it] for my burial) (Matthew 26: 12) or Cci eu tiu aceasta, c dup plecarea mea vor intra ntre voi lupi ngrozitori, care nu vor crua turma (For I know this, that after my departing shall grievous wolves enter in among you, not sparing the flock) (Acts 20: 29) or Pentru c suntem lui Dumnezeu bun mireasm a lui Hristos ntre cei ce se mntuiesc i ntre cei ce pier (For we are unto God a sweet savour of Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish) (2 Corinthians 2: 15) or Findc pe muntele Meu, cel Sfnt, pe muntele cel nalt al lui Israel - zice Domnul Dumnezeu... (For in mine holy mountain, in the mountain of the height of Israel, saith the Lord God) (Ezekiel 20: 39). From the examples above, one may easily notice the frequency of personal pronouns, in particular, but also the occurrence of possessive and demonstrative pronouns. As far as personal pronouns are concerned, besides the stressed forms: tu (you), eu (I/me), el (he/him), we should also mention the presence of numerous unstressed forms: mi, m (me), te 44

Linguistics (you), le, li (them). In the case of possessive pronouns and adjectives, preference is exhibited for meu, mea (my), ta, tu (your), nostru (our), as well as the demonstratives acesta/aceasta (this), aceea (that), usually in the singular. From the class of interjections, frequent occurrence is apparent in the case of iat (behold), specific for the Greek and Hebrew narrative style. Thus, in the book of Job it occurs several times: Iat, tot ce are el este n puterea ta (Behold, all that he hath is in thy power) (Job 1: 12) or i iat c un vnt puternic s-a strnit dinspre pustiu i a izbit n cele patru coluri ale casei (And, behold, there came a great wind from the wilderness, and smote the four corners of the house) (Job 1: 19) or Iat, tu ddeai nvtur multora i ntreai multe mini slbite (Behold, thou hast instructed many, and thou hast strengthened the weak hands) (Job 4: 3, see also Matthew 28 etc.) The religious style as a functional style of Romanian language is maintained not only by lexis and morphology, but also through syntax and its spoken aspect, particularly through reverence formulae, cultic and chancellery terminology etc., but such issues shall be discussed on some other occasion. Gh. Chivu wonders if the style called biblical by Lidia Sfrlea in her study On the Discrimination of Romanian Literary Styles is similar in rank and position to the informal, telegraphic or epistolary speech and can be subscribed to the ecclesiastic language, to its informal version, and by that to the non-artistic register of contemporary Romanian language (Gh. Chivu: 1995: 445-453). We shall not put an end to these modest contributions before insisting on the protection of the purity of our language, because, as father Arsenie Boca said through the language we address God in our prayers, we also talk to people (in Maria Ivnu: 70), therefore our words will need the power and devoutness of faith. Either called religious or ecclesiastic style, the style of the religious communication cannot be eluded, and we therefore advise an act that is one of linguistic justice, to place it among the functional styles of the Romanian language.

Linguistics Translation notes: 1. The English translation of biblical verses was based on the 21st Century King James Version. 2. The numbering of the Psalms is different in Romanian and English tradition, as they are numbered and divided differently according to the Septuagint, respectively to the Masoretic text. Bibliography : Biblia, Ed. Institutului Biblic i de misiune ortodox, Bucureti, 2008 Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur, published under the supervision and by the care of His Holiness Father Teoctist, with the approval of the Holy Synod, Bucureti 1991 Bogdan, Petru, Limba noastr bisericeasc, in Mitropolia Banatului, An IV, Nr.9-10, 1964 Bulgr, Gh., Problemele limbii literare n concepia scriitorilor romni, EDP, Bucureti, 1966 Bulgr, Gh., Scriitori romni despre limb i stil, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1976 Cartojan, N., Istoria literaturii romne vechi, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1980 Chivu, Gh. O variant ignorat a romnei literare moderne limbajul bisericesc in Limba romn, XLIV, 9-12/1995, pp. 445-453). Coteanu, Ion, Romna literar i problemele ei principale, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti 1961 Coteanu, Ion, Stilistica funcional a limbii romne, Ed. Academiei, Bucureti, 1978 Deleanu, Marcu, Mihail, Studii de stilistic, Colecia Studii, Ed. Timpul, Reia, 1999 Deleanu, Marcu, Mihail, Stilul religios al limbii romne, in Limb i literatur, vol.II, Bucureti, 1997 Duda, Florin, Vechile tiprituri romneti n Bisericile Bihorului, Oradea, 1979 Duda, Florin, Memoria vechilor cri romneti, Ed. Episcopiei Ortodoxe Romne a Oradiei, Oradea, 1990 Dumitrescu, Florica, Contribuii la istoria limbii romne vechi, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti 46

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Linguistics Galdi, Ladislau, Introducere n stilistica literar a limbii romne, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1976 Goicu, Simona, Termeni cretini n onomastica romneasc, Ed. Amphora, Timioara, 1999 Goicu Viorica, Elemente cretine n lexicul i onomastica romneasc, in G.I.Tohneanu, Editura Amphora, Timioara, 1995a Goicu Viorica, Termeni cretini n limba romn, in Altarul Banatului, An. VI, iulie-septembrie, 1995b Iordan, Iorgu, Limba romn contemporan, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1986 Iordan, Iorgu, Stilistica limbii romne, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1975 Ivni-Freniu, Maria, Limba romn i limbajul rugciunii. Limba romn ca limb liturgic, Ed. Anastasia, Bucureti, 2001 Ivni, Maria, Consideraii teologice cu privire la limba romn, in Mitropolia Banatului, An.VII, Nr.4-6, aprilie-iunie 1996 Macrea, D., Probleme de lingvistic romn, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1961 Munteanu, Eugen, Lexicologie biblic romneasc, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008 Munteanu, tefan, Stil i expresivitate poetic, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti 1972 Noica, Constantin, Cuvnt mpreun despre rostirea romneasc, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1987 Pcurariu, Mircea, Legturile Bisericii Ortodoxe din Transilvania cu ara Romneasc i Moldova n secolele XVI-XVIII, Sibiu, 1968 Piccillo, Giuseppe, Evangheliarul de la Kaloksa, in Altarul Banatului,VIII, 4-6, aprilie-iunie,1997 Plmdeal, Antonie, Clerici ortodoci, ctitori de limb i cultur romneasc, Ed. Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti, 1977 Plmdeal, Antonie, Dascli de cuget i simire romneasc, Ed. Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti, 1981 Plmdeal, Antonie, Romanitate, continuitate, unitate, Sibiu, 1988 Plmdeal, Antonie, De la Cazania lui Varlaam la Ion Creang, Sibiu, 1997 47

Linguistics Plmdeal, Antonie, De la Alecu Russo la Nicolae de la Rohia, Sibiu, 1997 Plmdeal, Antonie, De la Filotei al Buzului la Andrei aguna, Sibiu, 1997 Rosetti, Alexandru, Istoria limbii romne. De la origini pn n secolul al XVII-lea, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1978 Rosetti, Al., Cazacu, B., Istoria limbii romne literare, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1961 Rezu, P., Teologia cretin contemporan i cuprinsul Revelaiei divine, in Mitropolia Banantului, XV, Nr.10-12, Timioara, 1965 Simonescu, Dan, Istoria literaturii romne vechi, postfa i Bibliografii finale, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1980 Staicu, Constantin, Pagini de elocin cretin, n Studii Teologice, Seria a II-a, XLIV, Nr.3-4, mai-august, 1992 Tudor Vianu, Studii de stilistic, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1968.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 49-55

Linguistics The Indo-European linguistics is being formed and inside this, as a branch, the Romance linguistics. Thus, the 19th century is the age of comparative and historical study of the languages. The year in which the comparativehistorical linguistics was born is considered to be 1816, the date when Bopps work, Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der Griechischen, Lateinischen, Persischen und Germanischen Sprache was published, a comparative grammar study that inspired the Romance linguists later. Bopp proved the relation between these languages and he founded the comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages. He also transposed the evolutionary theory of the poque at the analysis level of the concrete linguistic forms, being one of the method technicians, the method that created a new linguistics: the comparative-historical method [Oancea, 1999:25]. Jakob Grimm (Deutsche Grammatik, vol. I, 1819) introduced the historical perspective of the research, focusing in his work on the chronological evolution of a single language. Grimm studied the Germanic languages sounds, insisting upon the historical connections between these and the sound of the classical languages. Meanwhile, he demonstrated that the phonetic changes are not random, but they are made according to certain laws. August Wilhelm Schleicher is taking part from the second generation of linguists who continued the comparative study, being as his predecessors marked by the specific methods of the natural sciences. Schleichers historical linguistic theory was in accordance with Darwins theory, which dominated the second half of the century. The language was seen as a living body that had to be approached and treated by the natural sciences methods. These sciences become the epistemological pattern and, as a consequence, the Linguistics loses, for a while, its status of Humanities, being considered a natural science, because its main purpose is to reveal the laws that dominate the becoming of the languages. It is well-known that these laws exerting their action at the phonetic level are the clue for reconstructing the common Indo-European. The outstanding Indo-European grammar work Compendium der Vergleichen den Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, Weimar (1861-1862) ends the first stage in the history of the Indo-European linguistics. Schleicher is important for the history of linguistics because he creates the first explanatory model of Indo-European languages genesis starting from 50

Romance linguistics vs. Indo-European linguistics. Theory and method of research

Voica RADU Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: The study focuses on the relationship between IndoEuropean linguistics and the linguistics of Romance languages from a theoretical standpoint and from a methodological perspective. In doing so, it points out the constant interaction of the two fields. The strong interrelatedness of the two linguistics branches triggered a great variety of approaches to language research in the 19th and 20th century. Keywords: the comparative-historical method, Romance linguistics, epistemology, Indo-European linguistics, theoretical interference The Romance languages, born from Latin, took over the written language ideals of the institutionalization from the Antiquity Linguistics (the classical linguistics) and these new linguistic realities coped with the necessities of a new culture, getting through the same stages as the Latin language. The precomparative period represents the upward and difficult way of the Romance languages to get in the position of competitors with the Latin and, then, to become languages that could reach the literary language status. The entire precomparative Romance linguistics, as linguistics of the literary languages, is dominated by the major tasks of the classical linguistics: to accomplish the grammatical norms and the aesthetic ones. The 19th century is dominated by the idea that the man is a historical product, that everything that depends on man has a certain historicity, so the language has its own history, a history that doesnt reflect only the reason, because the language develops in the same way as man does, along the time. The discover of the Sanskrit language revealed to the European intelligentsia the existence of striking similarities between this one, Greek and Latin, similarities that cannot be explained genetically.

Linguistics a hypothetical common primitive Indo-European that was obtained by reconstruction. Its about the family-tree theory which illustrates the separation of the different languages from the Indo-European common trunk. The Indo-Europeanist Johannes Schmidt proposes another theory, sustaining that the linguistic innovations are spreading like the waves, radiating from different spots or, often, crossing each other. Schmidt made known his wave theory in 1872, but Schuchardt had already expressed a similar idea before. This theory founded the birth of the Indo-European dialectology. It is present, basically, at the foundation of the Romance linguistic geography. A new well-defined field was set the IndoEuropean linguistics and a specific method of research the comparative-historical method. The Neogrammarians showed up from the natural vs. conventional conflict. Their opinions were first exposed by Hermann Osthoff and Karl Brugmann in the preface of the work Morphologische Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1878. Their theories represent a real progress against the previous status of the linguistic studies, because they assert principles such as: the research of the living language; the contribution of the psychological factor to the linguistic changes, the existence of the language in and by the people who are speaking it. The Indo-European linguistics is set as a territory of concentrated forces that has as aim to clarify the matters of linguistic approach and method. Its accomplishments have a remarkable impact that generates the birth and the evolution of a new linguistic branch: the Romance linguistics. All these names, mentioned above, by their research and discoveries, contributed in a way or another to create linguistics founded on new theoretical and scientific basis. The new method of research gathers the two important perspectives of the poque: the comparative approach and the historical one. We can notice that the methods are born naturally along the history, from the relations that occurred between sciences, on one hand, and from the connection between the evolution of the general thinking and knowledge, on the other hand. So, the importance of the Indo-European linguistics consists not only in creating a new method, but in a more profound reality that of the Romance linguistics birth, founded on the start offered by the Indo51

Linguistics European linguistics. In the same time, the Romance linguistics is tributary to the Indo-European linguistics concerning the method, too, which is partially taken from it. The Romance linguistics is created as a distinct discipline by Friedrich Diez contribution who, starting from Bopp and Grimm works, publishes in 1836-1843, in Bonn, the three volumes of Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen where he applies both the comparative method of the former and the historical method of the later. The Neogrammarians theory found numerous disciples within the Romance linguists. One of the most enthusiastic followers of the new school became in a short time the real leader of the Romance linguistics in this research direction. It is Meyer-Lbke. Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen considers the phonetic level being more important against the semantic one in establishing the etymologies. By this work, as well as by many others, like Italienische Grammatik, Leipzig, 1890, Einfhrung in das Studium der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft, Heidelberg, 1901, Historiche Grammatik der franzsischen Sprache, Romanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, Heidelberg, 1911-1920, Das Katalanische, Heidelberg, 1925, Meyer-Lbke impressed a lot all the specialists in the field. Meyer-Lbkes attitude towards the linguistic matters can be understood following the way in which he assimilated Grber theory that refers to the comparative study of the Romance languages in order to reconstruct the Vulgar Latin [Iordan, 1932:27]. With particular focus on the phonetic factor, Meyer-Lbkes research insists excessively on the Romance languages comparison one of the indirect sources of the Vulgar Latin that abounds in Vulgar Latin forms reconstructed by him. The abuse of the reconstructed forms will be criticized by A. Meillet just because the mother language of the Romance languages is known (Vulgar Latin that is another hypostasis of Latin), unlike the Indo-European linguistics, the Slavonic studies, the Germanic linguistics in which the only way to get to the common language is its reconstruction by comparing the related languages. This aspect of the Romance linguistics is of great importance for the historical linguistics and, in the same time, for the general linguistics. This was the perfect framework to check the efficiency of the fundamental method: the comparative-historical method [Oancea,1992:97]. 52

Linguistics Concerning the theory and the method, the Indo-European linguistics brings in addition the two explanatory models of the language genesis, by Schleicher and Schmidt, who have different visions: the first of them elaborates the family-tree theory and the second one uses the image of the troubled water hit by a stone, in order to represent his wave theory. A generally accepted contribution of the Romance linguistics is represented by the birth of the linguistic geography that has premises in Neogrammarians theory. Though the linguistic geography was at the beginning hostile to the historical method, it brought a great contribution due to the various forms that assured the possibility to rebuild the intermediary stages. The words have their own story that has to be revealed, they are parts of the whole, not separate entities. The linguistic geography represents, in fact, the optimized form of the comparativehistorical linguistics which is not dethroned, but enriched. It is a transposition at the method level of the evolution that was marking the linguistic field. There is no study of linguistic geography, that does not mention Jules Gilliron contribution, who, together with Edmond Edmont, was not only the author of the outstanding work Atlas linguistique de la France (1902-1910), but, also, the one who succeeded to select and to formulate from the rich mapped data a series of principles meant to enlightened and to put in order the facts of language evolution. He took into account the diachronic perspective, because the horizontal language structure is the result of a stratification that implies the research from a historical point of view. The linguistic geography is initially designed as synchronous research method when the documentation stage is taken into account, stage which is followed by the elaboration of the linguistic atlases. As a paradox, the method becomes diachronic when the synchronous investigation data has to be interpreted. So, a method meant to bring a more thorough knowledge of the language sustained just the historical direction of the Romance linguistics. The linguistic geography changed radically the methodology of the Romance linguistics. By shifting attention from the study of phonetics to the vocabulary, in fact to the semantic aspect of the etymological study, were created the premises for Wrten und Sachen movement that was separately initiated by Hugo Schuchardt and Rudolf Meringer. The main idea of this theory is that the research of the words origin implies a real knowing of the referent designated by them (of material or spiritual 53

Linguistics nature), that assumed an etymological study from the perspective of civilization, ethnography and folklore. Combining this method with that of the linguistic geography led to the writing of an important work Sprach und Sachatlas Italiens und der Sdschweiz, published between 1929-1940 by Karl Jaberg and Jacob Jud. Underlining the extremely important factor of words migration, the linguistic geography studied thoroughly the vision contained in the wave theory elaborated by the Indo-Europeanist Schmidt. This was developed, in its turn, by the Romance linguist Matteo Bartoli, by applying it to the entire Romance field through a series of principles. Matteo Bartoli, together with Giulio Bertoni, founded the neolinguistic school. The linguistic school created within the Romance linguistics, the Romance neolinguistic school that brings the linguistic stratification, the existence of layers in the base language, fact unfulfilled by the comparative-historical method and Gilliron proved that language develops as a tree with branches. It is the scientific conclusion reached both the Indo-European linguistics (with the comparative-historical method) and the Romance linguistics that brings its contribution and innovation, building by the same method, fact that established strong connections between the theoretical and methodological structure of the two linguistic fields. The 20th century confirmed even by the Romance linguistics that there is a necessity of comparative study, a study that has to be done not only genetically, but also from a typological point of view. In the same time, the 20th century Romance linguistics showed that the comparative study has not to remain the only research interest of the language. Developing new methods of studying the Romance languages, the Romance linguistics will separate itself from the Indo-European linguistics, getting autonomy and becoming the most advanced linguistic discipline at the beginning of the 20th century. New dimensions of the linguistic phenomenon will be opened, such as the aesthetic or the emotional one, by Vossler and Bally, both of them students of IndoEuropeanist linguists (Lbke was a neogrammarian and Saussure an Indo-Europeanist). Linguistics widens its object of study, a fact that led to Romance linguistics separation from the realities which generated its birth. The Romance comparative-historical linguistics cannot be 54

Linguistics conceived besides its theoretical and methodological relationship with the Indo-European Linguistics. Bibliography: Iordan, Iorgu, 1932, Introducere n studiul limbilor romanice. Evoluia i starea actual a lingvisticii romanice, Ed. Institutului de Filologie Romn, Iai. Idem, 1962, Lingvistica romanic. Evoluie. Curente. Metode, Editura Academiei, Bucureti. Oancea, Ileana, 1992, Romanitate i istorie, Tipografia Universitii de Vest, Timioara. Idem, 1999, Lingvistic romanic i lingvistic general (Interferene), Amarcord, Timioara. Robin, Robins, Henry, 2003, Scurt istorie a lingvisticii, Polirom, Iai. Reinheimer, Rpeanu, Sanda, 2001, Lingvistica romanic, Editura All, Bucureti. Sala, Marius, 1988, Vocabularul reprezentativ al limbilor romanice, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti,. Tagliavini, Carlo, 1977, Originile limbilor neolatine, Editura tiinific, Bucureti.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 56-61

Semantic and symbolic fields in George Bacovias poetry

Voica RADU Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: The paper aims to analyze the usage of colors in Bacovias poetry taking into account the symbolism and the semantic fields generated by the poems. The dominant colors in the writers poetry grey, violet, red and yellow are discussed from a lexical and semantic point of view, but also from the perspective of the subjective symbolic perception of the reality they generate. The most important themes of Bacovias poetry death, solitude and love are in correspondence with the semantic fields created by the significance of each color. The symbol carried by the color generates wide semantic fields at the level of the entire poetic discourse. The statistical method used brings new data concerning the general view of the poems discussed by identifying the predominance of the colors that correspond to a certain semantic field. Keywords: color, symbol, word, semantic fields, poetry, statistics The painting of the words, or coloured audition, takes it as you want. Synesthesias represent the linguistic correspondent of the mixtures of substances in a magicians pot, in an alchemists alembic or in the chemists retorts: amalgam of semantic features, result of interference, overlapping, dislocation and recreation of some semantic and symbolic fields: triumph of mutual contamination [George Bacovia in Alexandra Indrie, 1984:190]. Bacovia represents the highest peak of the Romanian Symbolism, being placed, by his real value, above the Symbolism and above any literary current, in universality. erban Cioculescu states about Bacovia that he is a playful artist, a poet of a great artistic force, of a huge power of composition, the single poet with mastery in transposing the message in color and sound. We tried to describe this alchemy of Bacovias poetry in a study which is placed mainly at the word level: the semantic analysis opened the stylistic and the

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Linguistics symbolic perspective. Bacovias chromatic is vivid, the poet being influenced by Impressionist painters like Renoir or Degas. Nicolae Manolescu notices an obsession of the color in Bacovias poetry: The color is becoming more persistent and obsessive, but of a great materiality, like in the Expressionists works. Any representation is destroyed, disfigured like a face with an elapsed make-up. Violet, black, white and pink invade the things like some physical presences [Nicolae Manolescu, 1966:63]. Rather poor, the poets color range suggests the ugliness, the spleen and the awful monotony. Black expresses the exhausting state, the carbonization and the pass through inorganic. White is meant to suggest the impression of unreal, of emptiness and of inexistence. Combined, white and black become the chromatic expression of absolute mourning: Copacii albi, copacii negri/Stau goi n parcul solitar:/Decor de doliu funerar Violet suggests hallucinations, alienation state; yellow the illness, the physical degradation, death and grey the mineral creation, the inorganic. Red is chosen not to express life or vitality, but the sight of death: Ninge grozav pe cmp la abator/i snge cald se scurge pe canal There is a vampire insisting on a single dominant color which is squeezed of all its creeps. The monochromic images create the atmosphere of mental tension. The theme of Black: Carbonizate flori, noian de negru... Sicrie negre, arse, de metal. Vestminte funerare de mangal, Negru profund, noian de negru... Vibrau scntei de vis...noian de negru, Carbonizat, amorul fumega Parfum de pene arse, i ploua... Negru, numai noian de negru... (Negru)

Linguistics The theme of Red: Cu lacrimi mari de snge Curg frunze de pe ramuri, i-nsngerat, amurgul Ptrunde-ncet prin geamuri. Pe dealurile-albastre, De snge urc luna, De snge pare lacul, Mai ro ca-ntotdeauna. La geam tuete-o fat n bolnavul amurg; i s-a fcut batista Ca frunzele ce curg. (Amurg) And for the chromatic dictatorship of Violet: Amurg de toamn violet... Din plopi, n fund, apar n siluete: - Apostoli n odjdii violete Oraul tot e violet. Amurg de toamn violet... Pe drum e-o lume lene, cochet; Mulimea toat pare violet, Oraul tot e violet. Amurg de toam violet... Din turn, pe cmp, vd voievozi cu plete; Strbunii trec n plcuri violete, Oraul tot e violet. (Amurg violet) The semantic fields are observed in connection to the symbol of each color from the rainbow of Bacovias poetry. The universe of the discussed poetry, expressing the existential anguish of the modern poet, is founded on a thematic that will be discovered not only in the symbolist symbol, not only in the specific synesthesias, but in rich semantic fields full of significances.

57

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Linguistics Analyzing George Bacovias poetry at the lexical level, we started from the symbol which can be found in color, too and this led us to establish some semantic fields that are extended at the entire poetic text. The dominant semantic fields in Bacovias poetry are the following: death, solitude and the one of love. We have focused our attention on 160 poems included in George Bacovia, Plumb, the 1975 edition and on several creations like Pastel, Igien, Nocturn, Veritas which are included in a distinct edition of the same volume. Death is the best represented semantic field (57%), followed by the one of solitude (30%), while love (13%), suffocated by anguish and death, has a more discreet representation, taking into account the presence of sickness, the lack of vitality. The percentage was established after counting, in the mentioned texts, 160 words and structures for death, 84 for solitude and 35 for love. Our investigation took into account the color that is found, of course, in symbol and in the semantic fields, too. On the same set of poems, we identified the degree in which each Bacovias color contributes to the created universe and we noticed that the units frequency (words and structures) is represented by the following data: white (87), black (60), grey (28), violet (36), red (39) and yellow (37). In percentages these data mean the following: white (29%), black (21%), red (14%), violet (13%), yellow (13%) and grey (10%). The overlapping of the data that we obtained by the statistics method surprised us, because, as it is the general perception of Bacovias poetry, we would have expected (being influenced by prejudices, superficial approaching and general clichs) that the 57%, representing the death semantic field, to be found in the percentage got for black or grey, for instance. Paradoxically, the correspondences (as dominant percentages) between colors and semantic fields are the following: white (29%), black (21%), red (14%), violet (13%), yellow (13%), grey (10%) the semantic field of death (57%), the semantic field of solitude (30%) and the semantic field of love (13%). So, the dominant chromatic is sublimated in white and black non-colors that are highly expressing death and solitude. So, in Bacovias poetry the light is decomposing only in red, violet, yellow and grey and to these colors are corresponding the semantic fields of solitude and love. White and black cover the whole universe of despair: white + black = 50% that corresponds to that 57% of the death semantic field. Red, violet and grey own similar positions, but violet, obsessively 59

Linguistics used in his poetry, is so well-balanced, compared with the famous Bacovias grey that is found only 10%. The ontological solitude (30%) is found in red (14%) + violet (13%) = 27%. Love (13%) is found in that 10% represented by grey, as it may be noticed from Plumb ars poetica where grey is the dominant color: Dormea ntors amorul meu de plumb, because it isnt about a love of joy, but about a love turned from death. We consider that such a linguistic investigation correlated with the symbolic level perspective can open a way of analysis completing the stylistic one and establishing these semantic fields and their correspondences with the Bacoviapoetry colors succeeds to clarify and to get closer the mysterious universe of his creation. The attentive observation of these aspects revealed us an unexpected symmetry of Bacovias poetry, which, due to precision, that is specific for all the perfect universes, was transposed by us inclusively in figures, with no intention of suppressing the ineffable of a world that is inaccessible for the profane. The percentage of the semantic fields in Bacovias poetry, obtained by analyzing 160 poems included in the mentioned editions of the volume Plumb, can be represented in the following diagram:

13%

Death 30% Solitude 57% Love

The semantic field of death: 57% The semantic field of solitude: 30% The semantic field of love: 13% 60

Linguistics Bibliography: Bacovia, George, 1965, Plumb, Editura pentru Literatur, colecia Biblioteca pentru toi, nr. 288, Bucureti. Bacovia, George, 1995, Plumb, Colecia Pagini alese Literatura romn, Editura 100 + 1 GRAMAR, Bucureti. Bidu-Vrnceanu Angela, 2008, Cmpuri lexicale din limba romn. Probleme teoretice i aplicaii practice, Editura Universitii, Bucureti. Gheerbrant, Alain, Jean, 1993, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. 1, Ed. Artemis, Bucureti. Manolescu, Nicolae, 1978, G. Bacovia, Dicionarul Scriitorilor Romni, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti. Manolescu, Nicolae, 1966, George Bacovia, n vol. Lecturi infidele, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti. Vasilu, Livia, 1995, W. Porzig i cmpul semantic: cteva note marginale, n Analele Universitii din Timioara, XXXIII.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 62-66

On special uses of the present tense in literary texts. A Romanian-English perspective

Manuela MARGAN Claudiu MARGAN Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Present tense occurs in literary texts not only with a present moment reference, but also with past or future reference. Though not restricted to narrative discourse, such special uses of present tense can be better identified and emphasised through literary contexts. Our approach here is a comparative one, addressing issues such as the gnomic present, historical/narrative present or future time reference in Romanian and English. Keywords: time reference, gnomic present, historical present, narrative discourse, dramatic discourse Introduction A treatment of the present tenses in Romanian and English begs many questions regarding the grammatical structures and categories involved, but also establishes interesting semantic correlations between the tense systems of the two languages under scrutiny here. We shall not focus on the variations of tense and aspect which complicate the comparative approach as our purpose here is to exemplify only the past and future referentiality of the Present in Romanian, on the one hand, and of the Present Simple and Present Progressive in English on the other hand. Present Tense with past reference Present simple tense may occur in the narrative discourse with a past reference, a situation commonly described by grammars as the historical present. This particular usage is common in both Romanian and English languages, providing more dynamism to the narrative. Some novelists, Howard Jackson states, use simple present verb forms instead of simple past forms at climaxes in their story, as a way of marking a sequence of

61

Linguistics events as climactic (1990: 90). Thus the reader is involved to a greater extent and feels that the events narrated are placed in an obvious immediacy. Let us exemplify this situation with an extract from Salman Rushdie, East, West and one from Dora Pavel, The Captive: He [Columbus] walks beyond fatique, beyond the limits of endurance and the frontiers of self, and somewhere along this path he loses his balance, he falls off the edge of his sanity, and out here beyond his minds rim he sees, for the first and only time in his life, a vision. (East, West: 129) El [Columb] umbl dincolo de limitele oboselii, dincolo de limitele rezistenei i ale frontierelor sinelui, i, undeva, n drumul su, i pierde echilibrul, pierde contactul cu limitele raiunii, i acolo, dincolo de puterea minii sale are, pentru prima i singura dat n viaa sa, o viziune. mi fac loc ntr-un grup de pacieni postai dinaintea unei ui ntredeschise, observ c nici unul nu-ndrznete s priveasc nuntru, nu ndrznesc s se priveasc nici ntre ei, i, dintr-o dat, n comparaie cu necazul lor, al meu mi pare cu totul nensemnat. (Captivul: 188) Im wedging myself in a group of patients stationed before a halfopen door, I notice that none of them dares look inside, they wouldnt dare look at each other, and, all of a sudden, as compared to theirs, my troubles seem trifling. The historical present means using the present in order to express actions, events occurring before the moment of speaking, i.e. situations where a past tense should normally occur, which can be explained by the permanentization of certain events in the past or the intention of the speaker to provide more dynamism to the communication, giving the impression that the respective action could happen right before our eyes, at the moment of speaking (Iordan et al.: 228) and therefore this particular usage of the present is called by some linguists the dramatic present or narrative present: Acum, cnd scriu, dac ncerc s m concentrez asupra chipului ei (...), l vd numai cum apare ntr-un diapozitiv color, pe care i-l fcuse vara trecut la mare. Acolo e uimitor de frumoas. Poart o cma subire, brbteasc, n carouri, i prul lung, drept, doar uor buclat, de 63

Linguistics culoarea stejarului, l are pieptnat cu crare ntr-o parte. (Nostalgia: 106) Now, when Im writing, if Im trying to focus on her face (...), I can only see it as shown in a colour transparency that she had been taken the summer before at the seaside. Shes amazingly beautiful in it. She wears a mens light checked shirt, and her long straight hair, only slightly wavy and oak-tinted is side-parted. A further usage of the present is called in certain grammars the gnomic present, being characteristic for those situations where the forms of the present express a fact that is generally valid for all times, including the moment of speaking (Iordan et al.: 227): ELEVA: Zpada cade iarna. Iarna e unul dintre cele patru anotimpuri. (Cntreaa cheal: 57) THE STUDENT: Snow falls in the winter. Winter is one of the four seasons. The present may be also contextualised as an eternal present, describing a permanent periodicity and being told apart from the gnomic present through the fact that within this periodicity the moment of speaking is only incidentally included: the particular significance of the eternal present does not necessarily imply the co-occurrence with the moment of speaking (Iordan et al.: 227): DL. MARTIN: Tavanul e sus, podeaua e jos. (Cntreaa cheal: 43) DL. MARTIN: The ceiling is up, the floors down. Present Tense with future reference Using the present with future reference is a characteristic of the spoken language, but obviously this usage is not restricted to oral production. The dissolution of the temporal boundaries in this case can be explained by an anticipation: the readiness to perform the action, the absolute conviction that the action will take place etc. determine the speaker to present it not as something about to happen henceforth, but as happening at the very moment of speaking (Iordan et al.: 228): Lord Warburton is coming tomorrow. (The Portrait of A Lady: 113) Lordul Warburton sosete mine. 64

Linguistics As we have stated before, a future event may be conveyed both in Romanian and English through a present tense. This usage involves a higher degree of certainty attached to the future action, be it a present tense simple in English for scheduled actions in the future, which are often independent of the intention of the speaker, or a present progressive for planned actions in the near future; both could be conveyed in Romanian by a present tense: Shes coming down to dinner at eight oclock. (The Portrait of A Lady: 28) Ea vine/va veni la cin la ora opt. Conclusions The present may express an event which is not necessarily connected to the present of the moment of speaking, but can establish past or future relations, referring not only to a situation placed outside the concept of time, but to a regular or durative activity placed in a recent or remote past, to a contemporary or simultaneous present, or to an immediate or remote future (Mircea Mihai Zdrenghea: 1978: 53). The literary texts may help, in our opinion, the foreign language teacher to emphasise grammatical structures in a situational context that is most often self-explanatory. Bibliography: Comrie, Bernard 1993. Tense. Cambridge University Press. Constantinescu Dobridor, Gh. 1996. Morfologia limbii romne. Bucureti, Ed. Vox. Cornilescu, Alexandra 1995. Concepts of Modern Grammar. A Generative Grammar Perspective. Ed. Universitii Bucureti. Cowper, Elizabeth 1998. The Simple Present Tense in English: A Unified Treament. in Studia Linguistica, Vol. 52, No. 1, Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, p. 1-18. Gleanu-Frnoag, Georgiana and Comiel, Ecaterina 1998. Gramatica limbii engleze. Bucureti, Ed. Lucman,. Housen, Alex 2000. Verb Semantics and the Acquisition of Tense-Aspect in L2 English. in Studia Linguistica, Vol. 54, No. 2, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, p. 249-259. Iordan, Iorgu et al. 1967. Structura morfologic a limbii romne contemporane. Bucureti, Ed. tiinific. 65

Linguistics Irimia, Dumitru 1997. Gramatica limbii romne, Iai, Ed. Polirom. Jackson, Howard 1990. Grammar and Meaning. A Semantic Approach to English Grammar. London and New York, Longman. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1994. A Communicative Grammar of English, Second Edition. London and New York, Longman. Zdrenghea, Mihai Mircea 1978. Towards a Semantic Interpretation of the Present Tense in Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai, Philologia, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, p. 53-61. Zdrenghea, Mihai Mircea 1979. Some Observations on Tense Contrast in English and Romanian in Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai, Philologia, Vol. XXIV, No. 2, p. 48-55. Zdrenghea, Mihai Mircea 1985. Values of the Present Tense in Collocations with Definite Time Adverbials in Studia Universitatis Babe-Bolyai, Philologia, Vol. XXX, p. 54-60. Crtrescu, Mircea 2000. Nostalgia. Bucureti, Humanitas. Ionescu, Eugen 1970. Teatru, vol. I, Cntreaa cheal. Bucureti, Ed. Minerva. James, Henry 1995. The Portrait of a Lady. New York, W.W. Norton & Co. Pavel, Dora 2006. Captivul. Iai, Ed. Polirom. Rushdie, Salman 2002. East, West. Stuttgart, Philipp Reclam.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 67-74

E

Linguistics l'exemple de Montaigne, il a forg sa doctrine en marge des textes qu'il lit ou crit. Il y est guid par un souci de correction et de puret linguistique qu'il partage, en accord avec l'volution littraire et philosophique du temps, avec les deux lites du royaume : le magistrats rudits et la noblesse forme par les jsuites. L'poque tait propice : dgote de l'esprit d'aventure et soucieuse d'quilibre y compris dans le domaine littraire la socit cultive tait prte la rigueur adoucie par les amusements lgants. La rvolution que Malherbe propose est d'ordre rhtorique : l'invention cde le pas la disposition et l'locution. L'inspiration ne livre qu'un matriau ( les belles feuilles toujours vertes ); or en faire des couronnes (Ode la reine) ncessite une technique, un dveloppement ordonn, l'lgance et la justesse des termes. La doctrine de Malherbe est un stocisme littraire qui, par un effort asctique entend discipliner la cration. Le premier effort porte sur la langue : Malherbe rejette l'aristocratisme de la Pliade et fait de l'usage de la Cour mais aussi de la Ville la rgle. La posie nationale doit tre comprise par les gens du peuple, non pas vulgaire, mais simple. D'o la suppression des archasmes, des nologismes, des provincialismes; le refus des omissions de l'article, du pronom sujet, la prcision des termes, l'adoption d'un ordre naturel des mots, vitant l'anacoluthe et les ambiguts. L'effort porte sur le style : images brves et motives; sur la distinction du propre et du figur; sur le refus de l'hermtisme mythologique et le respect des biensances. Un dernier effort porte sur la versification, o la difficult devient principe euristique : la recherche d'une rime rare est de nature faire natre une nouvelle pense. En prosodie aussi, la rigueur est l'ordre du jour : refus du hiatus visuel et phonique, d'o le rejet des cacophonies. Pour le rythme, Malherbe prconise la stricte rglementation des pauses, le refus de l'enjambement, l'exigence d'une csure nette, refus des rimes intrieures et des vers lonins. Pour la rime enfin, refus des rimes plates et refus de l'identit lexicale ou grammaticale des termes (les noms propres, le simple, le compos, les mots de mme suffixe, tels pire et empire). Le primat accord la logique apparente la posie un art du discours : une expression prcise correspond une syntaxe rigoureuse, dont la strophe est le cadre gnral et le vers l'unit smantique de base. Les particules logiques doivent exhiber les articulations d'une pense dont les 68

Dbts sur la langue littraire au XVII sicle et la politique linguistique fondatrice du classicisme franais
Nicolae SELAGE Universitatea Aurel Vlaicu Arad Abstract : In the second half of the 17th century, France consolidated internally and increasingly influential externally pursued a policy of active linguistic purification aimed at eradicating from the language all popular elements. The rigorous social order is thus mirrored not only in the perfect symmetries of the Versailles gardens, but also in the elevated language canons, the exemplary literature and the meticulous Cartesian thinking. The results of this policy are doubtlessly spectacular. Nevertheless, by ignoring deliberately the natural laws of evolution and tendencies of manifestation of the language, they deprived writing, for over two centuries, of essential segments of the language spoken inside the Hexagon. The task of rehabilitating those segments will fall upon the shoulders of the Romantics, the Realists, and of engaged journalism. Keywords: language, policy, romanticism Le point de vue habituel que la postrit a port sur l'oeuvre potique de Malherbe (Brunetire : Ce n'est pas un pote, mais un versificateur Il n'est pas question de l'admirer ) n'est pas en mesure de nous expliquer l'influence considrable qu'il a eue sur l'volution de la langue cultive et de la littrature franaise au XVIIe sicle. Ses gots, sa curiosit intellectuelle sont plus troits que ceux de Ronsard, mais il a mis toute son nergie formuler une doctrine potique et l'illustrer par son oeuvre. En imposant au travail potique une discipline fonde sur la clart et la logique, il transmet la langue franaise ce qui, dans l'hritage humaniste, va permettre l'panouissement de l'poque classique (DELF, 2001 : 10701071). Avant Richelieu et l'Acadmie franaise, Malherbe devient le lgislateur des lettres : il inaugure le sicle des rgles et pour ce faire, il n'a pas eu besoin de rdiger une grammaire ou un art potique.

Linguistics mouvements (objections, rfutations, interrogations) sont nettement souligns. Ronsard et, avec lui, toute la Pliade pensent que la posie n'est rien si un dieu ne l'anime, que le pote n'est rien si un enthousiasme, si une fureur divine ne l'a saisi. Certains de ses contemporains font de cette fureur le gage d'une vritable condition de la connaissance et du pote un privilgi du savoir et de la dcouverte spirituelle, d'o le statut particulier qu'il rclame pour le pote dans la socit, seul capable de mobiliser les nergies de la cit et de conseiller les rois, par son sens de l'Histoire et par les mythes collectifs qu'il est capable de retrouver ou de crer. Mais pour cela il fallait encore forger l'outil, la langue, et ne rien ngliger des ressources prsentes ou des possibilits encore caches de celle-ci. On fait appel aux dialectes, aux vieux mots pleins de sve qu'il ne faut pas laisser se perdre; pour combler les lacunes du franais, on fait appel sans rserve la drivation mais aussi aux emprunts et aux imitations tires des langues techniques, des langues anciennes. Pour la syntaxe et le style, il enjoint ses contemporains puiser chez les anciens les tours, les figures, tout ce qui peut enrichir et assouplir le franais, et ne prendre pour limite que les exigences de l'harmonie et de l'expressivit (Du Bellay, 1974 : 16-17). Contre cette doctrine de l'inspiration enthousiaste, Malherbe prne un esprit d'artisanat mthodique; tandis que Ronsard raillait l'ignorant versificateur attach, selon Rgnier, proser de la rime et rimer de la prose , Malherbe se veut tout juste un excellent arrangeur de syllabes , un artisan comme un autre, sans rien de mystique en lui; sa posie produit plutt de l'art et du labeur que de l'inspiration. Malherbe va plus loin encore et se range du ct des modernes, en essayant de librer la langue et la posie de la tutelle des anciens ou des modles espagnols et italiens. En cela il participe aux mouvements d'affirmation et de cohsion nationale qui se forment autour de Henri IV et se raffermissent sous Richelieu. L'oeuvre de Malherbe illustre bien le lent progrs des tendances nouvelles qui se font jour dans la posie du dbut du sicle classique. Il ne peut se librer d'un coup des vestiges du pass, d'une certaine esthtique baroque dans ses premiers vers, de l'emploi des adjectifs ou des symboles rudits qui effleurent la Pliade, de certains thmes galants invitables dans les pomes ddis ses protecteurs. Mais peu peu l'harmonie et la rigueur voulues s'instaurent dans la posie officielle, amoureuse ou 69

Linguistics religieuse qu'il crit. Quel qu'en soit le registre, sa posie a une ambition : la grandeur. Le ton, le style et les thmes convergent pour produire une commune impression de dignit, ralise en premier lieu par un mouvement de gnralisation et d'abstraction qui confre l'vnement (exploit guerrier ou mort d'un tre) sa valeur intemporelle. L'usage mtaphorique, proche du symbole, de la mythologie, confre noblesse antique et dignit culturelle; l'intervention des personnages mythologiques donne l'action une grandeur pique et sa parole a la solennit du lyrisme collectif, capable de prter voix la nation qui apostrophe son roi ou s'adresse Dieu. Exaltant l'idal de paix et de prosprit, la posie de Malherbe concide avec les aspirations nationales et la politique royale. Ainsi, tout en annonant l'avnement d'un age d'or, la solennit de ses paroles, renforce par des arguments stociens, invite la rsignation et l'effort, car la menace des troubles appelle la lutte et la paix est une conqute qui se renouvelle constamment. Toute sa posie dgage une dynamique vigoureuse, une potique de la tension, les articulations d'un discours oratoire autant dans sa forme que dans sa vise didactique. Pour la clart et la vigueur, l'antithse devient une figure cl, tandis que l'hyperbole, forte par sa densit mme et tendue vers l'loge, exprime l'essence suprme des tres. La vigueur rythmique vient appuyer la rigueur dmonstrative, l'lan initial est suivi d'lans de reprise. cette scansion s'ajoute souvent la contrainte musicale : le rythme de la strophe et du vers doivent alors concider avec la mlodie, d'o de nouvelles exigences de rgularit et de symtrie. Ainsi Malherbe joue en expert des rythmes et des vers mls qui peuvent surprendre aujourd'hui encore. Globalement, son oeuvre semble avoir tout sacrifi dans son souci d'illustrer une doctrine. Nombre de ses contemporains et surtout les romantiques ont port des jugements svres sur une posie marque au plus haut degr par la pauvret des sentiments, son artifice mthodique et la froide lucidit dont elle procde : un beau bouillon d'eau claire (Mlle de Gournay). Mais c'est prcisment l'ide de posie qui oppose Malherbe et ses mules ou ses critiques, au sens o Valry oppose le classique au romantique. Face certaines logorrhes potiques assez communes en son sicle mais aussi, plus tard, chez Voltaire et ses contemporains, Malherbe prne l'ordre et la patience. Au-del du classicisme historique, il incarne une tentation permanente de la posie franaise : la sduction de la perfection formelle, d'o l'hommage de 70

Linguistics Chnier, de Baudelaire, de Valry, de Ponge. Ce fou de la raison a sa grandeur et on ne peut pas ridiculiser son clat, sa violence, sa haute tenue, sa plnitude formelle et la parfaite architecture de ses vers (DELF, 2001 : 1073). On peut comprendre maintenant pourquoi Corneille et Racine, pour n'en citer que les plus illustres de ses jeunes contemporains, ont revus soigneusement leurs ouvrages pour en faire les chef-d'oeuvres bien connus, et Nicolas Boileau ait fix ainsi les rgles classiques qui vont dominer deux sicles de littrature et de rhtorique potique en France. Une juste situation de l'oeuvre de Malherbe dans un contexte ainsi largi aux exigences non seulement artistiques mais galement sociales et nationales de son poque est seule de nature nous permettre une meilleure comprhension des raisons qui ont fait chouer les prises de positions hostiles sa potique. Car il en a connues des plus virulentes parfois, et de la part de potes se rclamant de la Pliade (Mathurin Rgnier surtout) ou d'autres tendances artistiques, et de la part de lecteurs aviss ou attachs la posie de Marot et de Ronsard. Nous nous proposons justement de signaler une prise de position qui surprend pour une double raison. D'abord parce qu'elle vient de la part d'une femme contemporaine de Malherbe, ensuite parce que les objections qu'elle oppose au pote officiel de la cour royale constituent une vritable rvlation de vision et de modernit aux yeux des critiques et des linguistes franais actuels. Il s'agit de Mlle de Gournay qui jusque rcemment jouissait d'une considrable renomme uniquement pour avoir t la fille d'alliance et l'ditrice de l'oeuvre de Michel de Montaigne. Rappelons les faits : issue d'une famille noble mais sans fortune, Marie Le Jars de Gournay (1566-1645) est une autodidacte qui, en dpit de sa condition fminine, assume sa passion pour la culture et l'rudition avec un courage bien rare son poque. Trs jeune encore, elle dcouvre avec enthousiasme les Essais de Montaigne, lui crit et veut le connatre. De cet attachement spirituel il en rsulte une amiti qui remplit les dernires annes de la vie du philosophe d'un bonheur inespr son ge et d'une admiration sans bornes pour les qualits intellectuelles de cette jeune femme. Il n'hsite pas confier Mlle de Gournay la prparation des futures ditions des Essais et elle jouera un rle important dans la postrit du philosophe et dans la diffusion d'une oeuvre dont la valeur n'a cess d'tonner et de grandir au fil des sicles. Frue des auteurs grecs et 71

Linguistics latins mais aussi de la langue et de la posie franaise, elle s'engage sans complexes dans les disputes artistiques de son temps, crit des posies, des traits de morale, de langue et de potique, des recueils de souvenirs et de rflexions centres sur les questions littraires (DELF, 2001 : 1237). Aprs trente pages novatrices intitules galit des hommes et des femmes, parues en 1622, et qui font aujourd'hui l'tonnement et l'admiration, en 1626, en pleine querelle des Lettres, elle fait paratre sa somme de plus de mille pages, L'Ombre, qu'elle a consacre la langue franaise. Si l'on ajoute les traits qui font suite, sur la traduction et la posie, Marie de Gournay devient une vritable thoricienne de la langue, aux propos ambitieux et synthtiques. Un long chapitre de cet ouvrage s'appelle La dfense de la Posie et des Potes , faisant suite un autre, intitul Du langage franais . Mentionnant l'troit cousinage de la Posie, du Langage et de la Grammaire, elle labore une vritable thorie du langage qui intresse particulirement aujourd'hui. une poque o l'attention tait focalise sur les questions de la langue, Mlle de Gournay est capable d'une hauteur de vue suffisante pour intgrer sa vision la dimension dynamique du langage, une dimension qui va disparatre progressivement du paysage intellectuel franais durant le XVIIe sicle. Elle sait que c'est avant tout un rapport au langage, et non la langue, qui fait la posie. Qu'est-ce que parler franais? Celui-la seul le sait faire, qui peut rendre la langue sienne dit-elle. Autrement dit, il est vain de chercher dans la posie une image de la langue. On ne lit pas Tasse ou Arioste pour connatre l'usage ordinaire, la proprit, les articles, les particules et les superstitions de la langue italienne, nous assure-t-elle. Il est vain de vouloir emblmatiser la langue potique pour en faire un symbole de la langue en gnral. La vraie posie, pour elle, est fureur apollinique . Elle rappelle qu'Horace dniait le nom de pote celui qui ne s'exprime qu'en langage commun. La posie est une autre langue, spare de l'usage. Et ce genre de posie grammaticale, que l'on commence promouvoir en son temps (lisez : Malherbe), ne peut donc avoir aucun rapport avec la vraie posie. Ce qui devient insupportable ses yeux c'est la prtention affiche par la nouvelle cole de vouloir isoler, par le biais de la posie, une essence de la langue qui serait sa vrit dans l'usage. Le plus grave lui semble la prtention de ces potes grammairiens, autoproclams savants en langue, de faire une synthse de la langue de la posie et de la langue de la prose. En choisissant un mauvais prototype de langage, ils 72

Linguistics esprent attacher l'locution du pome au joug de la prose triviale. La ruine de la posie est alors garantie. Mlle de Gournay observe que tout ce qui fait le sel de la posie, sa vigueur, sa capacit transcender le langage ordinaire, les mtaphores, les proverbes, les traits comiques, les emprunts, tout devient suspect. Au dialecte mou et miell , qui est en train de se mettre en place, cette farouche protectrice de la posie voudrait une langue violente, une nonciation forte et puissante Que d'autres y cherchent s'ils veulent le lait et le miel, nous y cherchons ce qui s'appelle l'esprit et la vie . La vie, ajoute-t-elle, car toute langue qui manque en son dbit de ce rayon cleste, qu'on appelle puissante dextrit, souple, agile, affile, est morte . (citations apud Rey, 2007: 626-627) Pour elle, il en va du salut du franais une poque de tentation puriste. Du salut de la posie surtout, langage des Muses, qu'elle dcrit en termes grandioses et inspirs. voquant ce qu'elle appelle la langue, elle y voit comme une sdimentation indfinie des discours qu'elle a pu former, comme la somme de ce qu'en ont fait les esprits puissants. Cette somme n'est jamais un tout arrt, identifiable : elle est toujours en mouvement, toujours tendue vers l'avant par le mouvement mme de l'esprit humain. C'est pourquoi il n'y a de langue que dans le prsent, qu'aucune langue n'est stable et que la force du langage est prcisment dans cette l'invention permanente. Ce qu'elle reproche aux nouveaux grammairiens c'est bien de chercher interrompre ce mouvement, l'immobiliser, pour en faire un objet spar, ce qui sera l'objectif des classiques et de leurs partisans jusqu'au XXe sicle. La posie contient prcisment l'essence du langage en ce que celui-ci est force, mouvement, expression, perptuel dpassement de luimme. C'est sur une philosophie profonde du langage que Marie de Gournay fonde sa vision de la langue, philosophie que ses adversaires n'ont absolument pas perue. Il est vain de vouloir faire en sorte que la langue s'autoreprsente en littrature : c'est sa relation l'expression qui fonde le langage. Ainsi, le rapport entre la littrature et la langue est mis en question en des termes tonnamment modernes, riches de rsonances, tandis que la continuatrice de Montaigne passe pour ridicule et vtuste. Quelle force, quelle profondeur de vues, quel anti-conformisme rsolu dans ses thses qui tiennent cette femme qui se croit avoir une obligation religieuse de protger la langue franaise, l'cart de toute mesquinerie dans les dbats ! C'est la plus belle voix qui se soit oppose aux puristes au tournant dcisif de la langue franaise, o l'on va privilgier la langue et la 73

Linguistics grammaire par rapport au langage. Pour le moment, elle est perdante, mais pas inconnue ni ignore de ses contemporains. Elle reste associe, distance, aux travaux de la nouvelle Acadmie Franaise, mais son influence va diminuant. Un demi sicle plus tard, Pierre Bayle, l'auteur du Dictionnaire historique et critique, paru Rotterdam en 1697, rend justice sans rserve Mlle de Gournay et son combat acharn contre l'appauvrissement de la langue franaise : Tout bien considr, cette demoiselle n'avait pas autant de tort que l'on s'imagine, et il serait souhaiter que les auteurs les plus illustres de ce temps-l se fussent vigoureusement opposs la proscription de plusieurs mots qui n'ont rien de rude et qui serviraient varier l'expression, viter les consonances et les quivoques. La fausse dlicatesse, qui on lcha trop la bride, a appauvri notre langue (Bayle, 1820 : 190). Mais la rcupration intgrale de son admirable hritage spirituel ne fait que commencer. Bibliographie : Bayle, Pierre, Dictionnaire historique et critique, Nouvelle dition, tome VII, Paris, Desoer, Libraire, 1820. Source http://gallica.bnf.fr/ Brunot, Ferdinand, La doctrine de Malherbe d'aprs ses commentaires sur Desportes, G. Masson, Libraire-diteur, Paris, 1891. Source http://gallica.bnf.fr/ DELF = Dictionnaire des crivains de langue franaise, (sous la direction de JeanPierre de BEAUMARCHAIS, Daniel COUTY, Alain REY), Larousse/ VUEF, 2001. Du Bellay, Joachim, La dfense et illustration de la langue franaise, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1972. Desplantes F. , Pouthier, P., Les femmes de lettres en France, Slatkine Reprints, Genve, 1970. Source http://gallica.bnf.fr/ DHLF = Dictionnaire historique de la langue franaise, (sous la direction d'Alain REY), Le Robert, Paris, 1998. Rey, Alain, Duval, Frdric, Siouffi, Gilles, Mille ans de langue franaise. Histoire d'une passion, Perrin, 2007.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 75-84

Linguistics A very important issue in my analysis is represented by the original quote with slang and its meaning. Further on, I have tried to explain why the conversational interactans used slang in the particular situation, what made them resort to slang and not to informal, formal or standard language. Thus, I have started from the assumption that people use slang either to induce friendliness or intimacy. They might be also determined to use slang in order to show that they belong to the same group. Slang also serves social functions, setting and proclaiming social boundaries. It also permits speakers to assert membership of identity. It also rejects the power dimensions associated with formal language. More than that, sometimes the very situation requires the usage of slang as the conversationalists purposely diminish the formality of the conversation. The use of slang renders a formal conversation informal. The part dealing with the Conversational Analysis & Power & Politeness Strategies has been devised taking into account the following linguistic features: The Conversational Analysis perspective, the type of power involved and the Pragmatic perspective and the Politeness strategies. Viewers all over the world have the impression that slang and the way slang is used in movies, in our case a prison movie is the same with the real slang used in a prison environment. This was my starting research point. Consequently, I have tried to see whether slang and movie slang are identical. The conclusion has been obvious: slang in movies is different from the slang used in prisons. And the explanation is quite simple. I have showed that context, the socio-cultural context plays a very important part in shaping the way people communicate. Thus, without having a very deep knowledge of the environment of the prison, it will be impossible to decode the message when the people use slang. My possible analysis grid aimed at showing that movie viewers would not be able to understand anything that goes on on the screen, they would not be able to feel the thrill of the movie, of the action when the characters would choose to use real slang. Accordingly, the slang language that directors choose to use in their movies is slang that is to be found in everyday conversation, and not real slang, slang used by real inmates in real prisons. 76

Analysing slang in prison movies Rod Luries The Last Castle

Gabriel BRBULE 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia, Romania Abstract: The present paper deals with the way slang is used in prison movies, with a particular focus on Rod Lurie's The Last Castle (2001). This essay discusses slang from the perspective of issues related to the literature that focuses on Pragmatics with an emphasis on Conversational Analysis elements. My work is structured according to the following landmarks: Summary of the movie, Context of the slang expression that is to be analyzed, The slang expression(s) divided into the original quote with slang and the meaning, Slang usage and Conversational Analysis & Power & Politeness Strategies. Keywords: conversational analysis, slang, politeness, context, power 1. Introduction. Slang in prison movies Starting from the assumption that slang is an utterly important linguistic tool that plays a very important part in movies dealing with prison life, I have structured my paper according to the following basic parts: Summary of the movie, Context of the slang expression that is to be analyzed, The slang expression(s) divided into the original quote with slang and the meaning, The Slang usage and Conversational Analysis & Power & Politeness Strategies. It is natural that the analysis should start from a general presentation of the movie. This is due to the fact that one may find it utterly difficult to understand the general context of the/a movie unless one has a frame where he/she may place the body of language that is to be analyzed and focused on. Moreover, apart from the summary, one also needs to be given the context of the slang expression in order to understand it.

Linguistics 2. Analysing slang in Prison movies 2.1. The Last Castle release data Directed by Rod Lurie Produced by Robert Lawrence Written by David Scarpa Starring Robert Redford, James Gandolfini, Mark Ruffalo, Steve Burton Music by Jerry Goldsmith Cinematography Shelly Johnson Editing by Michael Jablow Distributed by DreamWorks SKG Release date(s) North America:October 19, 2001 Running time 132 mins [available online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last _Castle]

Linguistics 2.3. Analysing slang CONTEXT 1 2.3.1. Moviescript Cutbush, you believe this kid? Yeah, he seems to know his shit, you know? All right, Aguilar. I'll bite. - Bring me the right rock. - O-Okay. You need a rock with a flat edge, because-because that one's jagged. [available online at http://www.script-o-rama.com/movie_scripts/l/lastcastle-script-transcript.html] 2.3.2. Slang expression to know ones shit to know shit (from Shinola) and tell shit from Shinola tv. to know whats what; to be intelligent and aware. (Always in the negative. Shinola is a brand of shoe polish. A person who doesnt know shit from Shinola is very stupid. See also No Shinola!) _ Poor Tom doesnt know shit from Shinola. _ Fred cant tell shit from Shinola, and hes been made my boss.[Spears, 2000:242] 2.3.3. The original quote with slang the meaning The Original Quote with slang Cutbush, you believe this kid? Yeah, he seems to know his shit, you know? 2.3.4. Slang usage: The interactants use slang in this context either to induce friendliness or intimacy. They might be also determined to use slang in order to show that they belong to the same group. Slang here serves social functions, 78 The meaning Cutbush, you believe this kid? Yeah, he seems to know whats what/ he seems intelligent and aware you know?

2.2. Summary of the movie The Last Castle When three star General Irwin is transferred to a maximum security military prison, its warden, Colonel Winter, can't hide his admiration towards the highly decorated and experienced soldier. Irwin has been stripped of his rank for disobedience in a mission, but not of fame. Colonel Winter, who runs the prison with an iron fist, deeply admires the General, but works with completely different methods in order to keep up discipline. After a short while, Irwin can feel Winter's unjust treatment of the inmates. He decides to teach Winter a lesson by taking over command of the facility and thus depriving him of his smug attitude. When Winter decides to participate in what he still thinks of as a game, it may already be too late to win. [available online at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0272020/plotsummary] 77

Linguistics setting and proclaiming social boundaries. It also permits speakers to assert membership of identity. It also rejects the power dimensions associated with formal language. Moreover, one needs to take into account both the context the conversation takes place and the conversationalists. The very situation requires the usage of slang as the conversationalists purposely diminish the formality of the conversation. The use of slang renders a formal conversation informal 2.3.5. Conversational analysis & power & politeness strategies:
Linguistic features 1. CA Perspective - turn-taking Comment - the current speaker selects the next speaker. This is done by asking his interlocutor a question. The selected speaker has the right and obligation to speak. - the next speaker self-selects - question-answer - conversation end - all participants have received enough information 2. Type of Power - legitimate power - it is in the hands of the person who has the right to prescribe or request certain things by virtue of his role and status. - the speaker recognizes that his hearers have a desire to be respected. He also confirms that the relationship is friendly and expresses group reciprocity. By using a Speech act of directing, the speaker tries to make the hearers do something, that is vote for what he proposes.

Linguistics CONTEXT 2 2.3.1. Man On P.A.] Chow call. All inmates report to the mess hall. Chow call. All inmates report to the mess hall. So, tell me again. Why is it Aguilar had to die? - [Enriquez] Believe us now? - [Irwin] I believe you now. Very good. [available online at http://www.script-o-rama.com/movie_scripts/l/lastcastle-script-transcript.html] 2.3.2. Slang expression chow - Any meal is referred to as chow. Meal time is referred to as chow time. At http://members.tripod.com/afscmelocal3963/f_y_i_.htm [Cf. The Correctional Officers Guide to Prison Slang] 2.3.3. The original quote with slang the meaning The original quote with slang [Man On P.A.] Chow call. All inmates report to the mess hall. Chow call. All inmates report to the mess hall. The meaning [Man On P.A. Meal time call. All inmates report to the mess hall. Chow call. All inmates report to the mess hall.

TRP1 - adjacency pair

3.PragmaticPerspective/Politeness strategies - positive politeness strategy

2.3.4. Slang usage: The speakers use slang in this context to reduce, perhaps to disperse the solemnity, the pomposity and a possible excessiveness of the conversation. They may also be aiming at easing the social intercourse. Thus, the formality of the conversation is diminished and the conversation flows naturally. Once the conversation becomes marked [+informality], the speakers may transmit their messages freely, without any constraints. 80

79

Linguistics They might also use slang as an opposition to authority. But one may be sure that the usage of slang in this context is generated by the speakers intention to be as informal as possible. 2.3.5 Conversational analysis & power & politeness strategies: Linguistic features 1. CA Perspective - turn-taking Comment - the next speaker is selected by the current speaker. Thus he has the right and obligation to speak and hold the floor for as long as it is necessary. - both interactants have received enough information. 1. Type of Power - reward power - we might assume we are dealing with a reward power as we have a persons control over another due to his ability to offer his partner things he might want. - the speaker recognizes the hearers face. But the latter also recognizes that in some way, the speaker is imposing on him.

Linguistics And then my life's worth nothing. So, either you get me out of here immediately or you find another guy who knows as much as I do... and who's willing to spill it. Good luck. [available online at http://www.script-o-rama.com/movie_scripts/l/lastcastle-script-transcript.html] 2.3.2. Slang expression yakked - yak and yack [jAk] 1. in. to talk. _ Stop yakking for a minute. _ I need to yack with you about something. 2. n. a chat. _ We had a nice little yack and then left for work. _ Drop by for a yak sometime. 3. n. a joke. _ That was a lousy yak. _ Dont tell that yack again. Its not a winner. 4. n. a laugh from a joke. _ We had a good yack over it. _ The audience produced a feeble yak that was mostly from embarrassment. 5. in. to vomit. (Onomatopoetic.) _ Hank was in the john yakking all night. _ Who yakked on the carpet? [Spears, 2000:476] 2.3.3. The original quote with slang the meaning The original quote with slang I'm afraid that's not possible. Look, when this thing explodes, everyone's gonna know it's me who yakked. The Meaning I'm afraid that's not possible. Look, when this thing explodes, everyone's gonna know it's me who talked.

- conversation end

3.PragmaticPerspective/Politeness strategies - negative politeness strategy

CONTEXT 3 2.3.1. I'm afraid that's not possible. Look, when this thing explodes, everyone's gonna know it's me who yakked. 81

2.3.4. Slang usage: Slang is used in this context to disperse the solemnity, the pomposity and the excessive seriousness of the conversation. By using slang the speakers also make an exercise either in wit or in humor. The interactants may also want to escape from clichs and to be brief and concise. Moreover they are aiming at inducing friendliness or intimacy of a durable 82

Linguistics kind. Once the speakers use slang, the conversation becomes marked [+informality]. Consequently, they may continue without any strains. 2.3.5. Conversational analysis & power & politeness strategies: Linguistic features 1. CA Perspective - turn-taking - conversation end 2. Type of Power - legitimate power 3.PragmaticPerspective/Politeness strategies - positive politeness strategy Comment - the next speaker self-selects - the speakers have received enough information - the speaker has to request certain things/ask some questions by virtue of his role and status. - the speaker shows he recognizes that his hearer has a desire to be respected. He also confirms that the relationship is friendly and expresses group reciprocity.

Linguistics characters would choose to use real slang. Accordingly, the slang language that directors choose to use in their movies is slang that is to be found in everyday conversation, and not real slang, slang used by real inmates in real prisons. Bibliography: Brown, P. & Levinson, S. 1987Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press Downes, W. 1984 Language and Society, Fontana, London. Fairclough, N. 1989 Language and power. London: Longman. Fasold, R. 1990 Sociolinguistics of language, Basil Blackwell Ltd, Cambridge. Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1985) Language, context and text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press. Leech, G. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics, Longman, London. Richard A. Spears (2000) NTCs Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial Expressions third edition, NTC Publishing Group, The McGraw-Hills Companies. Internet resources The Correctional Officers Guide to Prison Slang available at http://members.tripod.com/afscmelocal3963/f_y_i_.htm THE LAST CASTLE summary of the movie available online at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0272020/plotsummary THE LAST CASTLE general information available online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Castle THE LAST CASTLE the script available online at http://www.scripto-rama.com/movie_scripts/l/last-castle-script-transcript.html

3. Conclusion Everybody smiles condescendingly when hearing the term slang. This means thatpeople assume that whenever one resorts to slang this necessarily implies that one uses underground language, language that would not be suitable in a formal context. They sometimes are right but there are certain instances when this is not the case. Moreover, if we take into account the slang used in prisons, people will have the certainty that we are talking about very bad language. In the present paper we aimed at investigating whether the type of slang used in prison movies is the same with the real slang used in prisons. Moreover, my possible analysis grid aimed at showing that movie viewers would not be able to understand anything that goes on on the screen, they would not be able to feel the thrill of the movie, of the action when the 83

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Linguistics natrliche Geschlecht. Diese Unterteilung gibt es in der rumnischen Grammatik nicht. Die Analyse aus dieser Perspektive macht nicht den Gegenstand dieser Arbeit. Wir wollen die Ergebnise unserer Analyse vorstellen. Gemeinsame semantische Kategorien fr Maskulina sind: a) Namen der Lndern und Gebiete. Ausnahmen sind die rumnischen Landernamen auf a, und auf Deutsch nur einige sind Maskulina: Egipt, Chile, Vietnam, der Irak, der Iran, der Sudan, der Balkan b) Flussnamen. Auf Rumnisch nur die Flsse auf rumnischer Ebene und auf Deutsch, die Flsse ausserhalb Deutscher Grenze: Olt, Prut, Mure, der Nil, der Rhein, der Neckar. c) Bergnamen: Caraiman, Negoiul, Bucegi, der Versuv, der mount Everest d) Namen der politischen und spirituellen Strmungen: absolutism, ateism, liberalism, der Absolutismus, der Atheismus, der Liberalismus e) Namen der Weine und Spirtuosen: Riesling, Cotnari, rom, der Riesling, der Burgunder, der Rum f) Namen der Automarken. Ausnahme auf Rumnisch machen die Namen auf -a: Oltcit, Fiat, ARO, der Mercedes, der Volkswagen, der Fiat g) Namen der Himmelsrichtungen: est, vest, der Osten, der Westen h) Namen der Winde: crivul, musonul, der Fhn, der Monsun i) Namen der Monate: ianuarie, martie, der Januar, der Mrz j) Namen von Mineralien und Gesteine: crbune, granit, der Quarz, der Basalt Beispiele: [...] care stric legea, mbolnvii de spurcciunea ateismului. (George Clinescu, Enigma Otiliei, p.419) [...] stark erwachte Lust, auch mal den Sden zu sehen [...] ([...] dorina puternic de a vedea i sudul [...].) (Theodor Fontane, Effi Briest, p.291) Nur auf Rumnisch finden wir folgende semantischen Gruppen fr Maskulina: a) Namen der Bume: fag, stejar b) Namen der Pflanzen und Blumen: ardei, bostan, crin, nufr c) Namne der Whrungen: leu, yen, euro 86

Genus der nomen: eine Rumnisch Deutsche kontrastive analyse

Alina PDUREAN Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad Abstract: The paper deals with a contrastive analysis of grammatical gender in Romanian and German. Though of different origin, Romanian and German share some similarities on a grammatical gender level but also many differences that favour errors. We have tried to identify both similarities and differences in order to make learners aware of these mistakes and help them in their attempt to use German in a grammatically proper manner. Keywords: contrastive analysis, gender, natural and grammatical gender Heutzutage, wenn immer mehr Rumner Deutsch lernen mchten, haben wir uns entschieden eine kontrastive Analyse des Genus zu machen. Das Genus der Substantive erhebt viele Schwierigkeiten fr Rumnische Muttersprachler, weil die Unterschiede zwischen Rumnisch und Deutsch sehr gross sind. Wir haben uns gefragt, ob diese Analyse ntzlich ist und ob sie den Lernenden helfen kann. Wir glauben, dass es viel leichter ist eine Fremdsprache zu erwerben, wenn man bewusst ist, sowohl von den Unterschieden als auch von den hnlichkeiten. Man kann die grammatische Kategorie des Genus von einer grammatischen und von einer semantischen Perspektive analysieren. In dieser Studie haben wir vor, das Genus auf einer semantischen Ebene zu analysieren. Wir haben verschiedene semantischen Kategorien in beiden Sprachen besprochen. Obwohl Deutsch und Rumnische aus zwei verschiedenen Sprachfamilien stammen, haben wir mehrere Gemeinsamkeiten als Unterschiede gefunden. Der Form nach, mssen wir anerkennen, dass die Unterschiede im Vordergrund stehen. Deutsch unterteilt Genus in zwei Kategorien: der grammatische Geschlecht und der

Linguistics d) Namen der Buchstaben: a, b, c e) Namen der musikalischen Noten: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si Biroul avea o mas simpl de stejar [...]. (George Clinescu, Enigma Otiliei, p.76) Nur auf Deutsch finden wir folgende semantischen Gruppen fr Maskulina: a) Namen der Niederschlge: der Reif-brum, der Regen-ploaia b) Namen der Jahreszeiten und Wochentagen: der Sommer-vara, der Herbst-toamna, der Montag-luni, der Samstag-smbta Wie schn dieser Sommer! (Ce frumoas aceast var!) (Theodor Fontane, Effie Briest, p.300) Semantische Gruppen fr Feminina in beiden Sprachen sind: a) Namen der Lnder und Kontinente. Auf Rumnisch, die jenigen auf -a: Germania, Frana, Romnia, Europa, Africa, die Schweiz, die Slowakei, die Europa, die Afrika b) Namen der Flsse. Auf Rumnisch, die jenigen Rumnischen Herkunft oder die Namen auf a und auf Deutsch, die von Deutschen Herkunft und Namen auf -a, -e: Dunrea, Sena, Tamisa, die Oder, die Seine, die Themse c) Namen der Gefhle und Verhaltensweisen: emoie, fric, iubire, die Angst, die Liebe d) Namen der Handlungen: btaie, eliberare, die Schlgerei, die Befreiung e) Namen der Zigarettensorten: o Carpai, die Kent f) Namen vieler Blumen: garoaf, narcis, pansea, die Rose, die Dahlie, die Nelke [...] nct teama lui Felix de a face o gaf crescu. (George Clinescu, Enigma Otiliei, p.193) Ich habe solche Angst. (Simt o astfel de team.) (Theodor Fontane, Effie Briest, p.74) Nur auf Rumnisch haben wir folgende semantischen Klassen fr Feminina: Namen der Gegenstnde: cas, mas a) Namen der Frchte: alun, cireas, prun b) Namen der Jahreszeiten und Wochentage: vara, toamna, luni, miercuri 87

Linguistics c) Namen von Handlungen, die aus langen Infinitiven stammen: cntare, fug, joac d) Namen der Sprachen: germana, engleza, franceza e) Namen der Getrnke: palinc, bere, ampanie f) Namen der Niederschlge: brum, ploaie, zpad [...] gustnd suplimentar cte un bob de strugure i cte o prun. (George Clinescu, Enigma Otiliei, p.99) Nur auf Deutsch treffen wir folgende semantischen Gruppen fr Feminina: a) Namen der Schiffs- und Flugzeugnamen: die Boeing, die Titanic, die Leipzig Die Titanic sank bei ihrer ersten Reise in 1912. Semantische Gruppen fr Neutra in beiden Sprachen sind: a) Substantivierte Infinitive: hrnitul, fluieratul, das Rauchen, das Schreiben b) Namen der Sportarten: fotbal, bridge, das Fussball, das Bridge c) Namen der Hotels, Restaurtante, Cafes, Kinos: Astoria, Lido, das Ritz, das Sacher d) Namen Denumirile unor simuri: auz, vz, das Sehen, das Hren e) Namen mancher chemischen Elemente: granit, fier, das Kupfercupru, das Waserstoff hidrogen f) Namen der Kollektiva: bnet, das Geschwtz-plvrgeal [...] i e fric s nu-i ard bnetul ascuns prin apropiere. (George Clinescu, Enigma Otilia, p.271) berhaupt all das Zuhren, es ist nicht das Rechte. (Tot acest ascultat nu este corect.) (Theodor Fontane, Effie Briest, p.274) Nur auf Rumnisch finden wir folgende semantische Gruppen fr Neutra: a) Namen der Gegenstnde: geam, scaun b) Namen der Flugzeuge und Zge: Orient Express c) Nemen der Winde: alizeu, ciclon d) Namen mancher Fische: macrou, tist Btrnul merse i ocup scaunul rmas gol lng ceilali [...]. (George Clinescu, Effie Briest, p.31)

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Linguistics Nur auf Deutsch finden wir folgende semantische Gruppen fr Neutra: a) Namen der Lnder mit einem Atributt: das wunderbare Europaminunata Europa Das wunderbare Deutschland hat viele Sehenswrdigkeiten. (Minunata Germanie are multe obiective turistice) Von was wir oben dargestellt haben, sehen wir dass zwischen Rumnisch und Deutsch viele bereinstimmungen auf semantischer Ebene gibt. Wir mssen aber aufmerksam sein, denn das Genus eines Nomens kann nicht dem natrlichen Genus nach, erkannt werden. Die Studie, mit allen hnlichkeiten und Unterschiede hat den Zweck das Lernen zu erleichtern. Der Studierende, der Deutsch lernt kann diese Kriterien folgen um besser und leichter das Genus zu lernen. Verschiedene Studien haben gezeigt, dass kontrastive Studien zwischen Muttersprache und Fremdsprache das Lern prozess erleichtern, denn meistens machen die Lernende eine Parallele zwischen Muttersprache und Fremdsprache. Bibliographie: ***Academia Romn, Institutul de lingvistic Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti, Gramatica limbii romne, vol. I, Cuvntul, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 2005 ***Duden, Gramatica, ediia a VII-a, vol. 4, Editura Duden, 2003, p.147 Avram, Mioara, Gramatica pentru toi, Editura Republicii Socialiste Romnia, 1986 Diaconescu, Paula, Structur i evoluie n morfologia substantivului romnesc, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1970 Dimitriu, Corneliu, Tratat de gramatic a Limbii Romne, Editura Institutul European, 1999 Engel, Ulrich, Deutsche Grammatik, Editura Julius Groos, Heidelberg, 1988 Helbig, Gerhard, Buscha Joachim, Deutsche Grammatik, Ein Handbuch fr den Auslnderunterricht, Editura Langenscheidt, 2001. Weinrich, Harald, Textgrammatik der deutschen Sprache, Editura Duden, 1993

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 90-101

Stylistic-pragmatic values of Romanian nonfinite verbal forms

Alina-Paula NEMU University of Oradea Abstract: As essential element of any utterance, the verb may be used to convey different stylistic effects, either morphologically by its very form or syntactically by the relationships established with other parts of speech. In this article we shall describe some expressive values of Romanian nonfinite verbal forms. Keywords: stylistic devices, Infinitive, Gerund, Participle, Supine. 1. Introduction The use of nonfinite verbal forms has the advantage of concentrating expression as they reduce different subordinates. They occur in various syntactic patterns (modifying verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns or noun substitutes) either as heads, attracting their complements/ adjuncts or as dependent terms. The infinitive, the gerund, the participle and the supine are both stylistically and pragmatically relevant, creating suggestive devices. We shall provide a few interesting contexts for each of them, likely to be complemented with other examples as well. 2. The Infinitive The conversion of the infinitive is extremely spectacular in Romanian poetry and prose. The verbal turns into noun not only by applying morphosyntactic means (assignment of definite article, adjectives or prepositions) but also by using graphic markers (inverted commas suggest autonymy). The two means can be sometimes encountered together; the short infinitive intermingles with the long one, discharging mostly the function of subject, attribute or prepositional object. Nichita Stnescu, a modern writer known for his poetic playfulness, frequently substantivizes the existential infinitive (be): mbriat cu o via/ a lui a fi i a lui fire. (Ensitteren); o stea scris A FI. (Steaua scris); suave trigonometrii/ ale divinului a fi. (La)

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Linguistics The substantivized infinitive may occur in explanatory contexts where different states are defined: A nu fi, chiar i aceast absen/ poate fi pedepsit la via/ i ca atare, condamnat la moarte,/ adic la a nu fi./ A nu fi, este condamnat prin a fi,/ la a nu fi. (Cele patru coerene fundamentale) An innovative association is the coordination of three substantivized verbals, the supine, the short and the long infinitive: Ni se face foame, mi se face de but,/ mi se face de a fi, de o fire. (Fel) The accidental conversion of the infinitive is also encountered in Emil Ciorans Amurgul gndurilor: A omor timpul, aa se exprim banal i profund neprielnicia plictiselii.; i lipsa aceasta de popas, numit a tri...; A face este antipodul lui a ti. The infinitive conveys expressive values by repetition, the verb usually having the role of subject, subject complement or attribute. Repeating a noun phrase which includes an infinitival adjunct betrays inner tension: un copil i se ducea att de departe nct sperane de-a-l vedea curnd nu-i prea putea face. Sperane de-a-i vedea fetele doar pe banii lor (Ileana Vulpescu, Arta compromisului) Sometimes verses containing identical infinitives are repeated either in the same order or conversely, creating a sort of theme song/ leit-motif: i groaza de-a fi primii, de-a fi singurii,/ de a ne inventa mereu// ...Nelinitea, groaza de a fi primii i singurii/ de a fi hymene ale universului.// i spaima de a fi singuri, de a fi primii,/ de a fi hymene.// i nevoia de a inventa stpni/ zei i flori// A inventa un ru curgnd liber/ prin aerul fr maluri.../ A inventa o floare/ al crei miros/ suntem. (Nichita Stnescu, A inventa o floare) In other contexts, repetition may turn into a polyptoton, i.e. combining different forms of the same word: Puterea de-a fi, dar mai ales puterea/ de a fi fost fiind./ Puterea de a nu fi,/ dar mai ales puterea de-a nu fi fost fiind.// A fi, e ca i cum/ nici n-ai fi fost. (Nichita Stnescu, Care este puterea suprem ce anim universul i creeaz viaa?)

Linguistics The infinitival subject or direct object can sometimes develop into an anaphora by reiterating the same verb at the beginning of a metrical or syntactical unit: A mirosi o floare este/ un fapt de mare ruine...// A mirosi o floare e ca i cum/ n necunotin de cauz ai viola/ nsi cauza. (Nichita Stnescu, A mirosi o floare) When the subject or direct object is a multiple one and occupies a frontal position, it is repeated by a demonstrative pronoun from the series asta, aceasta, acestea (this, these) or even by a noun and represents a type of cumulative (compendious/ globalizing) anaphora, the anaphoric substitute with neuter meaning reproducing by a unique expression several different referents [GALR, II, 2005: 658, 659]. When multiplicity is achieved by coordinating the infinitives of the same verb, each with its direct object, the demonstrative actually reproduces more referents not only one: A te sui, n adevr, deasupra nourilor i a nu te alege, mai la urm, dect cu un zmbet de mil din partea capetelor rotunde [] a te entuziasma naintea unei flori rsrite pe margini de prpstii, a rmnea petrificat sub farmecul melodiilor vzduhului i a codrilor frmntai de vnturi; a plnge cu roua care murmur toate acestea sunt, desigur, lucruri de mare pre.; A repeta n gnd un ntreg capitol de gramatic naintea lunii pline, care plutea vistoare n adncimile albastre ale spaiului; a atrna cte un punct de exclamaie de fiecare stea tremurtoare, a-i lrgi, ca o pasre de noapte, pupilele [] i a nu te alege, mai la urm, dect cu ce se alege o bufni iat, desigur, starea cea mai de plns, n care se poate afla cineva. (Calistrat Hoga, Pe drumuri de munte); A nelege oamenii, apoi a nelege lucrurile, pe urm a nelege ideile, aceasta e, de sus n jos, scara nelegerii. (Nicolae Iorga, Cugetri); A rmne singur cu ntreaga iubire, cu povara infinitului erotic iat sensul spiritual al nefericirii n dragoste. (Emil Cioran, Amurgul gndurilor) The infinitive is also used with stylistic function of anadiplosis, being repeated at the end of a metrical or syntactical unit and at the beginning of the next one, creating thus symmetry: A tri fr-a iubi/ M mir ce trai o mai fi!/ A iubi fr-a simi/ M mir ce dragoste-o fi!/ A simi fr-a dori,/ M mir ce simire-o fi/ A dori fr-a jertfi,/ M mir ce dor o mai fi! (Nicolae Vcrescu, A tri fr-a iubi); 92

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Linguistics A iubi nseamn tot aa de puin a dori, precum a dori nseamn tot aa de puin a iubi. (Nicolae Iorga, Cugetri) When a certain structure recurs at the end of a sentence it becomes an epiphora. In some relative constructions the infinitive is omitted expressing inner tension, translatable into despair: A sruta, credei-m, a sruta,/ dar nu am cu ce,/ credei-m,/ nu am cu ce! (Nichita Stnescu, Fr de metamorfoz) Another hypostasis of repetition is chiasmus, a form of reversed parallelism, in which the infinitives behave as adverbial modifiers of opposition, expressing an antithesis: Cci toi se nasc spre a muri/ i mor spre a se nate. (Mihai Eminescu, Luceafrul) With antithetic meaning occur the infinitives of purpose in the following dictum: Dac-am ateptat pentru a ne nate o eternitate, trebuie s-ateptm alta pentru a muri. (Emil Cioran, Amurgul gndurilor) Based on enumeration, infinitival coordination may appear in almost any syntactic position (subject, complement, attribute, object, relative construction or adverbial), marked by parataxis or binding: A tri i a muri: dou semne pentru aceeai nchipuire.; A avea adncime nseamn a nu mai fi amgit de separaii, a nu mai fi rob planurilor, a nu mai dezarticula viaa de moarte.; n ultim analiz, scepticismul nu izvorte dect din imposibilitatea de a te mplini n extaz, de a-l atinge, de-a-l tri.; Dar pentru a te purifica de motenirea omenescului tu, nva a obosi, a dizolva, a corupe moartea din tine, de la rspntiile tale. (Emil Cioran, Amurgul gndurilor); i n-ai tiut a-i scoate-n cale/ i-a-l prvli de moarte, ura. (Tudor Arghezi, Psalmul de tain); Stau, Doamne, cu o sabie n mna dreapt/ i n mna stng stau, Doamne/ cu un bici./ Dar nu mai am ce tia/ i nici ce bate. (Nichita Stnescu, Singur vedere); Totul pentru a mbria,/ amnunit, totul,/ pentru a pipi nenscutele priveliti/ i a le zgria/ pn la snge/ cu o prezen. (Nichita Stnescu, A aptea elegie) Enumeration of suspended (independent) predicative infinitives generates a true lyrical scene. With Adrian Punescu, an entire poem unfolds over 25 verbals; almost every verse begins with an infinitive, the poetry itself turning into a manifesto. The advantage of using them is given by their general character, the action being relatable to anyone, 93

Linguistics unlike the use of the subjunctive, the infinitives optional variant, which would point to an agent known by the speaker: A nu mai vedea femeia iubit/ Cnd tonuri de mov se-amestec-n cer,/ A fi un copac, cnd frunze se-agit/ i dreptul la somn prin moarte i-l cer.// A trage-n perdea cu ochii, privire,/ A fi vinovat de suflet prea mult,/ A nu-ngdui ca toi s se mire/ C nu i-a rmas nimic din tumult.// A da telefon cu fise de ghea,/ S-ntrebi la spital de nu eti n el,/ A fi consternat c eti nc-n via,/ A rde-ntr-un fel i-a plnge la fel.// A face-n neant cetate de paz/ i-a pune-n fereti anun c o vinzi;/ A crede n lmpi ce venic fileaz,/ A crede-n argint c zace-n oglinzi.// A fi cltor pe unde nu-i voie,/ A fi amendat pe sens interzis,/ A-i da un ocean de lacrimi lui Noe,/ A trece i a rmne n vis.// A nici nu pstra nimic pentru tine,/ Dect un racord la tot ce a fost./ A spune mereu, mi-e bine, mi-e bine,/ i ru doar att, c n-am nici un rost.// A nu ti de fapt pe unde i-e casa,/ A fi peste tot fiind nicieri,/ A rentrupa pe Cenureasa./ A ti c nimic din cea fost s ard/ Nu arde acum, la vreme de ploi,/ n somn a striga chirurgul de gard. (Moment de cumpn) The infinitive from compound verbal forms (future and present conditional) may occur in inversion, especially in poetry, giving the impression of an archaic prayer: Crpi-voi pe-ntuneric mantaua vieii mele./ Drept mulumire ti-voi c cerurile reci/ Vor strecura prin guri lumina unei stele. (Tudor Arghezi, Nehotrre) Inverted conditionals are encountered in main clauses with injunctive-optative value (expressing curses and imprecations), the short infinitive being separated from the auxiliary by a clitic. Caragiales sketches are full of oaths like trsni-te-ar Dumnezeu (confound him!) or fir-ar a dracului (damn it!). Defilam, defilndu-ne n minte toate njurturile i blestemele posibile... sri-i-ar i trsni-i-ar i arde-i-ar, usca-i-ar i rmne-i-ar picioarele ontoroage... (Petru Popescu, Supleantul) Thematization is a pragmatic mechanism by which infinitives may be placed at the beginning of an utterance, though they usually follow the head, in order to focus on them as conveying some new information. Any part of sentence can be therefore topicalized, being often situated at a significant distance from the word it determines: 94

Linguistics De-a fi-nflorit numai cu focuri sfinte/ i de-a rodi metale doar, ptruns/ De grelele porunci i-nvminte,/ Poate c, Doamne, mi-este de ajuns. (Tudor Arghezi, Psalm); Ce mnca vd eu bine c ai... (Ion Creang, Povestea lui Harap-Alb); ns aripele-i albe lumea-a le vedea nu poate... (Mihai Eminescu, nger i demon); i snge din sngele ei i carne din carnea ei am mprumutat, i a vorbi de la dnsa am nvat. (Ion Creang, Amintiri din copilrie); C cu poht i voin/ A rbda este dator. (Alecu Vcrescu, Cine are piept s poarte) In some situations, the verbal head of the infinitival construction is omitted, being contextually inferable, which gives the relatives a special use [Diaconescu, 1977: 154]. Accordingly, it is the speakers choice to recover a subjunctive or an infinitive, the two of them being in free variation: Da nu se poate s se culce n odaie, n-are unde, nu se poate... Cum n-are unde? Dac n-a avea loc jos, o culc alturea cu mine; ei, cum n-are unde? (Calistrat Hoga, Pe drumuri de munte); Smaranda, care nu ducea o via monden, fiindc n-avea cu ce, i nici tragere de inim pentru aa ceva, l poftea la mas cu ea... (Ileana Vulpescu, Arta compromisului) In utterances containing the negative modal a avea (have) and a relative pronoun/ adverb one deals with lexical/ lexicalized ellipses [GALR, II, 2005: 751] whose result is to obtain some fixed, frozen expressions, independently used in spoken language: N-avei cum/ cu ce/ ncotro/ pentru ce. 3. The Gerund Expressing the action in progress, the gerund is broadly used not only in literature but also in scientific writing for its dynamism. Modern poetry and prose granted this verbal a privileged position. It can be easily proved by such poets like Nichita Stnescu or Mircea Crtrescu and by novelists like Mircea Nedelciu in whose short stories there is an abundance of gerunds. It is widely known that Eminescus youth poetry is full of gerundial adjectives, which color the things, objects or human beings described. Here are some gerundial personifying epithets: Noaptea vine-ncetior/ Cu-a ei umbre suspinnde/ Cu-a ei silfe opotinde/ Cu-a ei vise de amor// Iar doi ngeri cnt-n plngeri,/ Plng n noapte dureros/ i se sting ca dou stele/ Care-n nunt, uurele,/ Se cunun 95

Linguistics cznde jos.// Cnd pe stele aurie/ Noaptea doarme uurel/ Cte inime rznde,/ Dar pe cte suspinnde/ Le delas-ncetinel. (Misterele nopii); Plai rznd cu iarb verde,/ Ce se leagn, se pierde/ Undoind ncetior,/ optind oapte de amor. (De-a avea) Nichita Stnescu, a reformer of language and word by excellence, makes use of adjectivized gerunds in unusual combinations, incarnating abstractions: tlpi tropie ce m-alearg zmbinde, ctre moarte. (Autoportret de smbt seara); Aceast lumin plngnd/ haide, s-i dm lapte de capr. (Cirear) The attributive gerunds from Stnescus poetical titles are quite suggestive, as they succeed in capturing a human being or object moving: Pasre trecnd printr-un nor (bird flying), Andru plngnd (Andru crying), Prinul cznd de pe cal (prince falling down the horse), Tnr fat mergnd (walking lass). The associations between the noun and the gerund are many times unexpected as in Inim vznd (seeing heart), in which a personifying epiphet is created by selecting a sentiendi verb. In Ana Blandianas poetry certain titles contain associative gerunds: Oh, rznd (oh, laughing), Fcnd lumin (lighting). In Mircea Crtrescus poems, seemingly endless enchainment of attributive gerunds placed at the beginning of each verse is very frequent. They get to correlate in units of two, three or even four verbals. Other while, the gerund multiplies itself, occurring as a leit-motif by repetition, each time having a direct object different from the previous one: o stea gigantic arznd1 peste bucureti ca peste un arici de cristal/ vrsnd2 uruburi de foc pe taxiuri de al/ luminnd3 i strluminnd4 fiecare pal de loc, odaie i hal/ vznd5 prin locatari ca prin feliile de portocal/ vnturnd6 troleibuze, rscolind7 sertare i ifoniere/ disecnd8 pianjenii surprini pe sub tablouri/ trecnd9 prin flcri bicicletele fr roi din vitrine, ntorcnd10 pe partea/ cealalt/ viscolind11 bule lungi de lumin de-a lungul bordurilor/ trepannd12 fiecare craniu, scotocind13, smotocind14 prin cerebele, bgnd15/ un deget prin mduva spinal, ramificndu-i16 focul prin/ alveole i intestine,/ ridicnd17 asfaltul cu tot cu maini. (Mreia Kitschului); c n vid apare Regele Soare/ cu aripi de mrgritar/ aruncnd foc/ aruncnd raze/ aruncnd vpi/ aruncnd trotil/ aruncnd flcri/ aruncnd sclipiri/ aruncnd gutaperc/ aruncnd terebentin/ aruncnd hipercortizon. (Regele Soare) 96

Linguistics An interesting phenomenon is the sequence of gerunds functioning as predicative adjuncts and corresponding to distinct relations. It generates an effect of concatenation and ambiguation owing to the lack of punctuation marks: de cnd te tot vd micndu-te vorbind rznd fr rost (Gabriela Adameteanu, Dialog) The first gerund is required by the sentiendi verb a vedea (see) and comes from subordination, reducing a direct object clause; the other two have different heads and express an action simultaneous to the verb they accompany, corresponding to copulative coordination: te tot vd micndu-te, micndu-te vorbind, vorbind rznd. If vorbind and rznd had been isolated by comma, their relation with the verb would have changed: micndu-te rznd, vorbind. Gerunds reducing copulative sentences, i.e. associative gerunds, are encountered in modern literature rendering a sequence of actions (typical for the narrative foreground), subordinating them to a durative process (typical for the background). The role of the gerund is to place the action represented in the background [Zafiu, 2000: 222223]. These verbal forms often coordinate leading by accumulation to a stylistic effect of digression; the more powerful the more insistence is given to some of them by repetition: Oh, rznd i plngnd i plngnd i plngnd/ Ne ivim nentlnim ne-nmulim ne-amintim// Dar nimeni nu poate ti cnd izbucnim/ Brusc rznd i plngnd i plngnd i plngnd.// Ne salvm ne cunoatem ne-nlm ne numim/ Doar rznd i plngnd i plngnd. (Ana Blandiana, Oh, rznd); Chiar trupul meu de-atunci, rezemnduse/ pe fluturtorul aer al acestui pmnt/ cutremurndu-se, ndeprtnduse, schimbndu-se,/ trecea nelinitit n gnd. (Nichita Stnescu, Invocare); ... se strng mereu laolalt n fabrici, n birouri, n familii, n crciumi, n parcuri, pe stadioane, inndu-se de vorb i inndu-se de mini i fcndu-i tot felul de servicii i contraservicii, certndu-se i mpcndu-se i punnd la cale plini de speran viitorul lor i-al celor crora le poart de grij. (Radu Aldulescu, Amantul colivresei) In prose, due to the great number of gerunds, coordination is fragmented, being used without any attachment to a predicative verb (which occurs in a previous sentence). The chain of gerunds makes the clause develop an accelerated rhythm, especially when the provenient verbs express movement, hence the economy of expression. The distance 97

Linguistics from the predicative support grants them a certain independence. Making use of gerunds without relating them to another verb can be riskful and generate laborious statements, but this may be explainable as long as it has poetical or narrative role, that of enhancing tension and suggesting the approach to a climax. Heres an example: the young Murivale, moved by Nichita Stnescus death, hurries to the Writers Union where the lifeless body was exhibited for the public. The images alternate with an incredible speed, the character having no other purpose than seeing the matchless poet once again. To suggest this, the writer uses many gerunds crowded on a relatively reduced space: Apoi i continu drumul i el rmne nemicat n viscol, privind n urma ei cum se deprteaz i dispare. Revenindu-i apoi i pornind abtut n direcia opus. Intrnd undeva s cumpere flori (numr par) i continund s mearg prin zpad. Traversnd micul parc din faa Ateneului, aruncnd o privire statuii lui Eminescu, naintnd de-a curmeziul peluzei nzpezite din faa statuii, cu capul plecat, cu vntul n fa. Ieind la strad i fiind brusc ntmpinat de patrula garnizoanei. (Mircea Nedelciu, Probleme cu identitatea) The gerund may be part of a poetic licence when its relation to transitivity is opposed to the real one, i.e. the poet turns some intransitive verbs into transitive ones, attaching a clitic where it isnt normally compulsory. Such is the case of a zbura (fly), encountered as transitive verb only in expressions with figurative meaning: a zbura cuiva capul (kill smb.), a-i zbura creierii (blow out ones brains). The reflexive gerund zburndu-se expresses a sort of demiurgical power of the birds, able to act upon themselves and their flight, as if they had been born out of their own will: Deasupra mea psrile se ou/ zburndu-se pentru ntia oar. (Nichita Stnescu, Cirear) 4. The Participle Among qualifying determiners, adjectives proper and participial adjectives have a greater degree of expressiveness. The variable participle denotes a characteristic, but there is still a difference between it and the adjective proper: while the latter contains an inherent characteristic: frumos, prost, srac (beautiful, fool, poor), the former acquired it from a 98

Linguistics completed process: nfrumuseat, prostit, srcit (embellished, fooled, impoverished) [Grui, 2006: 155]. Some speakers point explicitly the difference between the two kinds of characteristics: Avnd n vedere faima mirilor [] te-ai fi ateptat ca mariajul lor religios s se nscrie n nota grotesc-felinian a evenimentelor mondene ce bucur tirb i poleit cu vipl acest Bucureti srac i srcit. (www.qmagazine.ro); Tnrul jurnalist din Caracal a avut ambiia s demonstreze c romnii sunt proti i ateapt s fie prostii. (codrinscutaru.blogspot.com) The participle occurs mainly as noun determiner, being specific to descriptions of nature, objects, and persons: crmizi reieite din cele apte sute sptmnale, frmntate, modelate, uscate la umbr i la soare, arse i stropite i aranjate n stiv (Radu Aldulescu, Amantul colivresei) The concentration of adjectival participles suggests complex states of mind in Ana Blandianas poems. Speaking about poetry, metaphorically called house, the poetess describes it by using many passive participles, some of them accompanied by an agent, suggesting the creation itself: Cas mpletit din ramuri de salcie/ i cioplit apoi ca Adam din pmnt,/ Cas acoperit cu-o org de papur// Cas splat de rou i tears de soare,/ Cas-nvelit, ca un zeu mic, ntr-un nor.// Cas aprat de pomi i de vie cu struguri/ i vegheat de albine, de licurici, de lstuni.// Cas zidit din litere i stlpi de silabe,/ Sprijinit-n cuvinte, suspendat de stele. (Definiie) Adjectival participles functioning as attributes or predicative adjuncts, both of them occurring very frequently, along with adverbial participles, become very fertile in creating epithets. Extremely suggestive are the participles of ergative verbs: Carbonizat, amorul fumega. (George Bacovia, Negru); Scrie toamna din crengi ostenite/ i frunzele cad ca un sinistru semn/ n linitea grdinii adormite. (George Bacovia, n grdin); Las norii lui molateci nfoiai n pat ceresc. (Mihai Eminescu, Memento mori); i fonea uscat pe frunze poala lung-a albei rochii. (Mihai Eminescu, Clin) Playing with language, Nichita Stnescu challenges the limits of the word often using non-adjectivizable participles. A merge (walk) is an intransitive verb of movement and its participle would be probably 99

Linguistics translated as which didnt take any turn (care n-a mers), a foot not yet caught into the existential turmoil. A ploua (rain) is also intransitive, the participles adjectival use occurring only in phrases like om plouat a rain-out man, a looking blue man. The verb a rgi (belch) is an unaccusative verb which cannot be adjectivized (and neither do verbs which reproduce animals sounds): La toamn, plin de peti i de nmol/ voi curge pe sub pasul tu nemers (La toamn); Frumuseea trebuie aprat cu dinii,/ cu psrile plouate din nori. (Cirear); cnd zeii cei halindu-m/ stau rgii cu stele dalbe (La plecarea ngerului) Typical for Stnescus poetry are the so called false participles, i.e. participles likely to derive from negative verbs which, in fact, dont exist [Coteanu, 1985: 129]. By enumeration, participles combine with other adjectives marked as [+ Negative]: Este surd, este chiop,/ este nemncat, este nebut./ Este nedus, este nenscut./ Este nebun, este nenelept,/ este nefericit,/ este neaprat, este nenscut./ Este netrebnic, este neghiob,/ este nefericit, este nedemn,/ este nevzut, este neauzit,/ este negustat, este nepipit,/ este nenscut./ Este nemaipomenit, este nenchipuit,/ este nevisat, este neadormit./ Este necugetat, este nevolnic,/ este nenscut. (Transparentele aripi) 5. The Supine Many adverbialized supines with negative form express comparison (maximum extent of a quantity: buntate nemrginit de mare, ochi neasemuit de limpezi, accident nespus de grav or exceeding a limit: recolt nemsurat de bogat, ajutoare nepreuit de valoroase, gru nespus de rodnic, motive nenumrat de multe, fat neruinat de frumoas) and become markers of the superlative degree. The supine from this type of constructions may also cover the semantic field of the disagreeable: durere nesuferit de mare, comportament nepermis de grosolan, moarte neomenesc de absurd, tupeu neruinat de mare, temperaturi nesuferit de sczute. It functions adverbially, conveying alethic modality, i.e. the characteristic is beyond mans imagination: neajuns, neasemuit, neateptat, nebnuit, neclintit, necrezut, nedescris, nefiresc, negrit, neiertat, nenchipuit, nentrecut, neneles, nenumrat, nemrginit, nemsurat, neobinuit, neomenesc, nepermis, nepreuit, neruinat, nesfrit, nesperat, nespus, nesuferit + de. 100

Linguistics The supine is frequently used in thematization, placing itself in frontal position. It usually reiterates a previous predication, either from a partial or a total interrogative and contributes to discoursive cohesion: Da ce-ai uitat, dragul tatei, de te-ai ntors napoi? De uitat, n-am uitat nimica, tat, dar ia, prin dreptul unui pod, mi-a ieit nainte un urs grozav. (Ion Creang, Povestea lui Harap-Alb); Vine el s doboare copacii? Nu zic , de dobort o s-i doborm noi, dar poate de mine ncolo. (Mircea Nedelciu, Dansul cocoului) References: Gramatica limbii romne [GALR] 2005. 2nd edition, Bucharest, Academy Publishing. Coteanu, I. 1985. Stilistica funcional a limbii romne, II. Bucharest, Academy Publishing. Diaconescu, I. 1977. Infinitivul n limba romn. Bucharest, Scientific and Encyclopaedic Publishing. Grui, G. 2006. Moda lingvistic 2007. Norma, uzul i abuzul. Piteti, Paralela 45. Zafiu, R. 2000. Naraiune i poezie. Bucharest, Bic ALL. Literary Sources Adameteanu, G. 1989. Var Primvar. Bucharest, Cartea Romneasc. Aldulescu, R. 1994. Amantul colivresei. Bucharest, Nemira. Arghezi, T. 1998. Versuri. Bucharest, 100+1 Gramar. Bacovia, G. 2009. Plumb. Bucharest, Litera. Blandiana, A. 1997. La cules ngeri. Chiinu, Litera. Crtrescu, M. 2003. Plurivers 2. Bucharest, Humanitas. Cioran, E. 1998. Amurgul gndurilor. Bucharest, Humanitas. Creang, I. 2009. Amintiri din copilrie. Bucharest, Curtea Veche. Eminescu, M. 1999. Opera poetic. Chiinu, Cartier. Hoga, C. 1998. Pe drumuri de munte, Chiinu, Litera. Iorga, N. s.a. Cugetri, Bucharest, Tineretului Publishing. Nedelciu, M. 1989. i ieri va fi o zi. Bucharest, Cartea Romneasc. Popescu, P. 2009. Supleantul, Bucharest, Jurnalul Publishing. Stnescu, N. 1985. Ordinea cuvintelor, Bucharest, Cartea Romneasc. Stnescu, N. 2009. Necuvintele, Bucharest, Curtea Veche. Stnescu, N. 2010. Noduri i semne, Bucharest, Curtea Veche. Vulpescu, I. 2002. Arta compromisului. Ploieti, Tempus. 101

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Considerations regarding political cant

Mariana-Florina BTRN Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: The paper discusses some characteristics of the formal language typical for the Romanian totalitarian political regime. This type of communication, known as wooden language or langue de bois (political cant), imposed itself in the second half of last century, simultaneously covering various linguistic and extra linguistic features. Some of the linguistic features characteristic of political cant are: the emergence of new words, changing the meaning of existing words, a prohibition of certain categories of words, the use of abbreviations, a high density of nouns accompanied by adjectives, an avoidance the first person singular personal pronoun, preference for euphemism, using clichs. Some of the extra linguistic particularities are: the presence of a totalitarian political regime, the existence of censorship, of state monopoly, of a perverted and false report of reality, but above all, the presence of coercion and terror. As a conclusion, it can be said that wooden language/political cant is anti-language. Keywords: communication, wooden language/political cant, totalitarian, discourse n perioada regimului comunist-totalitar, toate discursurile oficiale urmau acelai tipar ideologic al limbii de lemn (lb l). Deoarece sursele pe care se poate baza o analiz a discursului lemnos romnesc sunt extrem de variate (discurs politic, articole, literatura), m voi opri asupra analizei manualelor de Limba i literatura romn din acea perioad, identificnd cteva elemente specifice, att lingvistice, ct i exralingvistice. 1. Trsturi extralingvistice 1.1. Regimul politic. Rodica Zafiu consider c specificul limbii de lemn e dat, n ultim instan, de contextul politic, n care discursurile

Linguistics alternative nu se mai pot manifesta i ideologia oficial se impune prin constrngere1. n spaiul romnesc, lb l apare odat cu schimbarea conducerii politice. Intrarea n sfera de influen a blocului sovietic comunist a provocat schimbri majore n societatea romneasc, mai ales dup abdicarea Regelui Mihai, la 30 decembrie 1947, puteau fi puse, i din punct de vedere legal, bazele sistemului totalitar2. n 1947 sunt publicate primele programe conforme cu noua ideologie. Modificrile constau n inserii ideologice care se refer la ncadrarea social a autorilor, a textelor, la importana care trebuie acordat curentelor realiste i constructive, la reducerea la justa valoare a curentelor conservatoare i decadente, dar i la acordarea unei atenii deosebite literaturilor contemporane i progresiste, unde ca exemplu este dat literatura sovietic3. Debutul lb l este marcat de un filosovietism artificios. O deosebit atenie trebuie s se dea educaiei elevilor n spiritul dragostei fa de clasa muncitoare, de Partidul ei, n spiritul patriotismului i internaionalismului proletar, n spiritul dragostei nermuite fa de Uniunea Sovietic, eliberatoarea i sprijinitoarea noastr, bastionul pcii i al independenei popoarelor, n spiritul dragostei fierbinte fa de marele Stalin, cel mai bun prieten al poporului nostru4. Dragostea pentru Uniunea Sovietic, abandonat odat cu derusificarea5, a fost nlocuit la scurt timp cu dragostea pentru conductorul rii. n ultimii ani ai comunismului identificm o focalizare

Linguistics cultural naionalist i grandoman. Cum graniele rii erau nchise, singura posibilitatea de evadare era n propriul naionalism grandoman. 1.2. Monopolul. Dac n perioada interbelic exista o pluralitate de programe colare i de manuale, odat cu schimbarea regimului politic, sarcina de a elabora documentele necesare studierii limbii romne erau exlusiv emise de o singur i unic instan. Ministrul nvmntului a interzis folosirea unor materiale didactice mai vechi i a autorizat doar manuale ncorpornd precepte marxist-leniniste6. Astfel, statul preia controlul total asupra manualelor i materialelor didactice. 1.3. Cenzura. n foarte scurt timp, n manuale apar doar autori care se ncadreaz n tiparele ideologiei. Autorii consacrai sunt prezeni doar cu texte din care pot fi speculate trsturile omului nou, tendinele reacionare ori dragostea fa de prietenii sovietici. Pe de alt parte, opere de valoare sunt citite strict n cheie ideologic; ns prin aceat lectur nu numai c este deformat mesajul operei, dar este invalidat i lectura elevului. Sunt inclui n paginile manualelor unice i autorii contemporani care se conformeaz acestor teme specifice. Bibliotecile i librriile au fost epurate de titlurile necorespunztoare din punct de vedere politic. Nimic nu putea fi publicat, judecat sau interpretat fr aprobare7. Cenzura, prin sita creia se cern doar textele favorabile regimului i sunt interzise cele considerate a fi periculoase, i-a ndeplinit sarcinile, cu mai mult sau mai puin srguin, pn la Revoluie. 1.4. Raportul cu realitatea. Minciuna. Dei se dorea a fi prezentat n manualele colare o literatur a realismului socialist, aceasta era de fapt doar o oglind cosmetizat, o fa purtnd un strat gros de machiaj strident pentru a putea masca ceea ce exista n realitate. Mai ales n anii '50 apar o mulime de cntrei ai regimului comunist, n textele crora ntlnim: rani fericii c au scpat de jugul burgheziei (i mai ales c au scpat de responsabilitatea terenurilor i a bunurilor proprii, confiscate pentru colectiv), oameni care lupt pentru pace (rmn un mister detaliile acestei incredibile lupte), muncitori nflcrai de patriotism (cnd de fapt erau obligai a se nscrie n partid pentru a-i pstra locul de munc) ori tineri
6

Dincolo de monotonie: coduri de lectur ale limbii de lemn, n Limba de lemn n pres, Editura Tritonic, Bucureti, 2009, vol. coord. de I. Rad, p. 151. 2 Hannah Arendt n Originile totalitarismului, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994, trad. Ion Dur i Mircea Ivnescu, p. 526 face deosebirea ntre dominaia autoritar, care presupune limitarea libertii i dominaia totalitar, n care libertatea este abolit i chiar eliminarea oricrei spontaneiti umane n general. 3 Programa analitic pentru liceele teoretice, 1947. Introducere la disciplinele literare, n Alina Pamfil i Ioana Tmian, Studiul limbii i literaturii romne n secolul XX. Paradigme didactice, p. 208. 4 Limba romn, programa colar 1950-1951, Clasele V-VII. Lectur literar. Introducere, Alina Pamfil i Ioana Tmian, Op. cit., p. 211. 5 Pentru mai multe detalii, vezi Dan Ciachir, Derusificarea, n Convorbiri literare, nr. 9, 10 i 11, 2009.

Dennis Deletant, Romnia sub regim comunist, Editura Fundaia Academia Civic, Bucureti, 2006, p. 93. 7 Ibidem., p. 92.

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Linguistics care muncesc cu drag i nflcrare la practica agricol (cnd n realitate era o obligaie detestat). Termenii, sintagmele, clieele, orientrile, oamenii nii s-au mai schimbat (...), ceea ce a rmas ns neschimbat a fost minciuna care a stat la fundamentul sistemului de la naterea sa pn la moarte: cci comunismul s-a nscut proclamnd libertatea, adevrul i fericirea, dar n-a putut supravieui dect trgnd n ele cu puca8. Lb l este un instrument al edificrii unei uriae minciuni generalizate9. n acest sistem minciuna este perpetuat. n majoritatea studiilor de specialitate, manipularea este considerat a fi o trstur fundamental a lb l. Cu toate acestea, consider c nu este o caracteristic a lb l din mai multe motive. Manipularea reprezint aciunea prin care un actor social (persoan, grup, colectivitate) este determinat s gndeasc i/sau s acioneze ntr-un mod compatibil cu interesele iniiatorului, i nu cu interesele sale, prin utilizarea unor tehnici de persuasiune i distorsionnd intenionat adevrul, lsnd ns impresia libertii de gndire i de decizie10. Pentru ca oamenii s acioneze conform intereselor disimulate11 ale ideologiei nu s-a apelat la manipulare, ci la teroare, la antaj. Dovad clar n acest sent este existena Securitii. Faptul c gndirea i dorina de exprimare liber nu puteau fi controlate este susinut prin nsi existena cenzurii. Manipularea nu se poate susine deoarece era exclus din cauza obligativitii, a absenei libertii12. Oamenii erau contieni de neadevrul discursurilor n lb l, care era acceptat ca atare doar pentru c nu exista o alt alternativ. 1.5. Coerciia. Temele care puteau fi abordate, care s-au ncadrat reetei ideologice i au trecut de cenzur, trebuiau s respecte i limbajul
Ionel Funeriu, Eseuri lingvistice antitotalitare, Ed. Marineasa, Timioara, 1998, p. 62. 9 Dan Anghelescu, Limba de lemn i distrugerea moral, n Op.cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad, p. 83. 10 tefan Buzrnescu, Sociologia opiniei publice, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Buc., 1996, p. 102. 11 Majoritatea intereselor ideologice exprimate n lb l erau bine precizate, pentru ca oamenii s se comporte conform tiparului dinainte stabilit (al omului nou, evident). Singurul interes, de fapt scopul adevrat al ideologiei, de nedivulgat este de a distruge demnitatea uman. 12 Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu, Op. cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad, p. 334.
8

Linguistics specific, impus la rndul su. Coerciia face parte din resorturile intime ale statului represiv totalitar. Ea este exercitat inclusiv n vederea impunerii, de sus n jos, a obligativitii lb l, instaurat de puterea politic prin for sau cel puin prin presiune sau adoptat din team ori supunere i servilism13. Puterea impus prin teroare i mecanismele terorii au dezarmat toate redutele care susineau libertatea individului. 1.6. Teroarea. Au fost distruse att partidele de opoziie, mpreun cu membrii, ct i presa liber. S-au nchis colile strine, inclusiv cele administrate de culte. S-au fcut epurri n rndurile profesorilor i studenilor. Emineni profesori au fost scoi din faculti, iar locurile lor au fost luate de ndoctrinatori staliniti14. A nu fi cu noi nsemna a fi mpotriva noastr. Motiv pentru care, pn la urm, i studenii i profesorii au fost nevoii s devin membri de partid. Majoritatea celor recrutai considerau caliatea de membru de partid fie ca o cheie pentru avansare i privilegii, fie ca o asigurare c nu vor fi dezavantajai sau chiar arestai15. Scopul ascuns, pe termen mediu i lung, al coerciiei impuse prin teroare era de a anihila gndirea maselor16. 2. Trsturi lingvistice 2.1. Vocabularul. 2.1.1. Apar cuvinte noi. Majoritatea cuvintelor noi incluse n vocabularul uzual la limbii sunt mprumutate ori reprezint calcuri lingvistice din limba rus: stahanovist, n lumina, Agitprop (Secia de agitaie i propagand), colhoz, proletar (O deosebit atenie trebuie s se dea educaiei elevilor n spiritul dragostei fa de Partidul ei, n spiritul patriotismului i internaionalismului proletar...17), proletcultist, UTC, .a. Deoarece aceste cuvinte proveneau de la prietenii notri, aveau o semnificaie strict pozitiv.
13 14

Ibidem., p. 332. Dennis Deletant, Op. cit., pp. 92-93. 15 Ibidem., p. 89. 16 Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000, p.72. 17 Programa colar 1950-1951, Clasele V-VII, Op. cit., Alina Pamfil, Ioana Tmian, p.210.

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Linguistics 2.1.2. Cuvinte evitate i cuvinte interzise. Apelativul cel mai frecvent domn, doamn a fost interzis, fiind nlocuit cu cel de tovar. Ali termeni persecutai sunt: semantica, kibernetica, Dumnezeu (n anii '50), biseric, cruce18. Interdicia de a utiliza anumite cuvinte reflect tabuul politic. Spre sfritul deceniului al noulea exista i o list de cuvinte interzise care circula prin redacii i edituri19. Unele cuvinte au fost asociate cu ideea de exploatare (burghez, imperialist). Folosite adesea i n contexte explicit evaluative, generatoare de conotaii negative, fixate prin repetare, asociate n sloganuri, aceste modificri tematice ajung s afecteze, remodelnd-o, mentalitatea indivizilor20. Consecinele pe termen lung a acestui tabu lingvistic s-au reflectat n autocenzura impus de fiecare individ. 2.1.3. Cuvinte care sufer mutaii de sens. Anumite cuvinte dobndesc n lb l o valoare opus celei pe care o posed n limba natural21. Majoritatea cuvintelor, chiar dac nu sunt total opuse, au un sens pervertit22. Unul dintre cele mai uzuale cuvinte cruia i se schimb sensul, menionat i n secvena anterioar, este tovar. Termenul a ptruns n lexicul fundamental al limbii romne abia dup rzboi, cnd a fost impus cu fora de ideologia comunist. Formal, tovar a ajuns o gselni lexical care, pasmite, reflecta, n planul limbii, egalitatea din planul social dintre cetenii rii23. Spre exemplu cuvntul ur a primit o conotaie pozitiv24. Alte cuvinte compromise de propaganda roie sunt: adeziune, crmaci, chiabur, colectiv, constructiv, erou, glie, multilateral, neabtut, omagiu, progres, strbun25. Aceste cuvinte i multe
Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Op. cit., p.82. Valeria Guu Romalo, Aspecte ale evoluiei limbii romne, Ed. Humanitas Educaional, Buc., 2005, p. 219. 20 Ibidem., p. 232. 21 Un bogat inventar de cuvinte i expresii ale lb l a fost ntocmit de T. SlamaCazacu (vezi Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea pp. 63-70 sau n vol. Limba de lemn n pres pp. 23-29.) 22 Franoise Thom, Limba de lemn , Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005, p. 67. 23 I. Funeriu, Op. cit., p. 22. 24 Franoise Thom, Op. cit., p. 67. 25 I. Funeriu, Op. cit., p. 20
19 18

Linguistics altele26 au fost introduse n Dicionarul limbii romne de lemn. Spre exemplu, programa colar pentru clasele V-VII prevede urmtoarele : n aceste opere (ale creaiei populare) se reflect (...) ura mpotriva exploatatorilor i a aliailor lor27 Unele cuvinte, precum Partidul, din substantive comune, primesc statutul de substantive unicat. Poezia Partidului iubit de Gheorghe Tomozei28 are urmtorul final: Partid iubit, tot ie-i mulumim. Tema pe care elevii trebuiau s o rezolve la aceast lecie era de a memora poezia. Un text n care autorul i exprim sentimentele de dragoste fa de Partid nu este nici analizat, nici interogat n vre-un fel. Semn c acesat dragoste trebuie nvat, i nu simit. Toate modificrile privind schimbarea de sens a cuvintelor au fost impuse. Astfel, nu poate fi cazul unei schimbri fireti, dezvoltate n timp, n mod natural. Aceste intervenii sunt de natur estetico-ideologic, deoarece cuvintele trebuiau s ascund jalnica realitate i s reflecte lumea fictiv, mai bun a omului nou. Datorit faptului c o serie de cuvinte au fost ptrunse de veninul ideologiei, n rspr cu realitatea care se dorea a o reflecta, se observ cu uurin artificialitatea i minciuna lb l. 2.1.4. Abrevierile. Abrevierea, ca specific al lb l, a fost intuit de Orwell. Cuvintele i expresiile trunchiate au devenit una dintre trsturile specifice ale limbajului politic; s-a observat chiar c tendina de a folosi asemenea abrevieri era mai accentuat n societile totalitare. De exemplu, cuvinte ca Nazi, Gestapo, Comintern, Inprecorr, Agitprop. Iniial, aceast practic a fost adoptat, dac se poate spune aa, n mod instinctiv, dar Nouvorba face uz de ea cu un scop bine stabilit. S-a observat c, printr-o asemenea abreviere, un cuvnt i ngusteaz i-i modific subtil aria de semnificaie, pentru c majoritatea asociaiilor mentale pe care altmiteri le-ar genera sunt eliminate29. Prin utilizarea abrevierilor se face o economie de efort n exprimare, deci implicit i n
26

O alt list a cuvintelor cu sensul pervertit se gsete n Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea, T. Slama Cazacu, pp. 63-69 27 Programa colar 1950-1951, Clasele V-VII, n A. Pamfil, I. Tmian, Op. cit., p. 211. 28 n Limba romn. Manual pentru clasa a-II-a, E. Constantinescu, M. Vrzaru, E. Zarescu, E. Sachelarie, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Buc. 1983, p. 132. 29 G. Orwell, O mie nou sute optzeci i patru, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2002, p. 375.

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Linguistics gndire (scopul avut n vedere fiind anihilarea gndirii maselor)30. n manualul de clasa a VI-a din 1989, la lecia despre mijloacele de mbogire a vocabularului, la compunerea prin abreviere se ofer, printre altele, urmtoarele exemple: O.N.T. (Oficiul Naional de Turism), AGERPRES (Agenia Romn de Pres), ADAS (Administraia Asigurrilor de Stat), M.A.N. (Marea Adunare naional), tov. (tovara, tovarul)31. Acelai manual de clasa a VI-a, cu aceeai autori, dar din anul 1997, pstreaz exact aceeai stuctur a leciei, cu omiterea unor exemple care fceau referire la realitile comuniste; nu mai apar cuvintele de mai sus, ci: ROMPRES (Presa Romn), ASIROM (Asigurarea Romneasc). 2.2. Lexicul 2.2.1. Substantivul. Densitatea mare de substantive n propoziie influeneaz dinamica enunurilor. Acestea dezvolt un caracter descriptiv, stagnant. Spre exemplu, iat un fragment din introducerea-comentariulrezumat la textul oseaua Nordului, de Eugen Barbu: n aceast lectur este nfiat activitatea comunitilor n ilegalitate pentru pregtirea insureciei naionale armate antifasciste i antiimperialiste din August 1944, cnd armata romn a ntors armele mpotriva trupelor germane cotropitoare.32 Acelai text se pare c este studiat i n clasa a X-a. n acest caz, comentariile sunt oferite la sfritul fragmentului: Datorit calitilor sale artistice, romanul oseaua Nordului ocup un loc important n cadrul literaturii inspirate din lupta comunitilor romni, desfurat n ilegalitate, mpotriva armatelor hitleriste i pentru organizarea insureciei populare de la 23 August 1944.33 ncheierea comentariului este urmtoarea: n concluzie, romanul oseua Nordului este o evocare plin de nerv dramatic, emoionant a luptei poporului nostru, n frunte cu comunitii, pentru libertate i dreptate social, pentru eliberarea de sub dominaia fascist.34
Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Op. cit., p. 72. M. Butoi, Gh. Constantinescu-Dobridor, Limba romn. Manual pentru clasa a VI-a, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Buc., 1989, pp. 48-51. 32 Fragment din Cartea de citire. Manual pentru clasa a VI-a, Lucia Atanasescu, Ed. didactic i pedagogic, Buc., 1977, p. 74. 33 Fragment din Limba i literatura romn. Manual pentru clasa a X-a, Emil Leahu, Constantin Parfene, Ed. Didactic i pedagogic, Buc., 1985, 259. 34 Ibidem., p. 262.
31 30

Linguistics Propoziie/ fraz 1 2 3 Substantive 8 10 11 Adjective 8 7 6 Verbe/Predicate 1 p.n i 1 p.v. 1 p.v. 1 p.n. Total cuvinte 30 35 32

Putem observa numrul relativ mare de substantive; acestea sunt grupate n jurul a doi poli: noi, comunitii i ei, imperialitii, n regim dihotomic. Toate substantivele sunt infuzate de miasma ideologic. 2.2.2 Adjectivul. Aproape fiecare substantiv este determinat de cel puin un adjectiv. Polaritatea instituit de substantive este accentuat de determinani: dominaia este ntotdeuna fascist, trupele germane sunt ntotdeuna cotropitoare, iar armata comunist este ntotdeauna antiimperialist, antifascist. Calificativele se aeaz parc singure, urmnd o schem rigid, lng substantivele de rigoare. Practic, era imposibil s existe o expresie precum comunist cotropitor, deoarece era imposibil de trecut dincolo de graniele ideologiei. Dezertorii au pltit scump neascultarea lor. Caracterul antitetic (pozitiv-negativ) al adjectivelor este evideniat i prin prefixul anti, pentru a nu lsa prad incertitudinilor poziia oficial, ideologic. O alt particularitate a adjectivelor este frecvena cu care se folosesc gradele de comparaie, cu deosebire superlativul. Portretul de Alfred Margul-Sperber este unul dintre cele mai frumoase elogii lirice aduse mreiei omului35. Superlativul mpreun cu alte adjective, prin folosire curent i prin referirea la orice i oricine, i pierd din for; nltor, desvrit, nalt, impetuos, strlucitor sunt cuvinte care se devalorizeaz astfel ca semnificaie, iar calificativele abundente devin previzibile prin repetabilitate36. 2.2.3. Pronumele. Prin dispariia pronumelor la persoana nti i a doua plural, concomitent cu rspndirea pronumelor (adjectivelor pronominale) la persoana nti plural se dorea s se accentueze unitatea
35

E. Leahu, Constantin Parfene, Limba i literatura romn. Manual pentru clasa a X-a, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1985, p. 218. 36 Mihaela Albu, Realismul socialist i limba de lemn n critica literar a anilor '50, n Op. cit., vol. coord. de I. Rad, p. 168.

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Linguistics poporului, a partidului37. Participarea unanim, prin pronumele de persoana nti plural, este remarcat i de Monica Chiva38: ne nvluie, ne ntmpin, vom observa. Efectul cel mai important al absenei pronumelor la persoana nti singular este anularea individualitii, a responsabilitii. Cnd nu exist posibilitatea ca cineva s-i exprime gndurile personale, nseamn c acestea trebuie reprimate. Un elev model era figura tears care se pierde n generalitatea lui noi. Adic omul nou era o fiin fr indiviualitate, n ciuda falsului umanism afiat. Absena persoanei nti singular reprezint uciderea n efigie a raiunii i a demnitii omului, datorit anulrii individualitii. 2.2.4. Verbul. n fragmentele citate anterior verbele predicative sunt relativ puine. Practic, comentariul aferent textelor literare penduleaz ntre pasivitatea-descriptiv sugerat prin verbe copulative ori verbe la moduri nepredicative (exist o preferin aparte pentru infinitivul lung, care prin schimbarea valorii gramaticale devine substantiv) i vebele predicative, de cele mai multe ori mobilizatoare. Iat cteva exemple de verbe la moduri nepersonale: nlcrimat, prsit, rvit (participiu, care prin schimbarea valorii gramaticale devine adjectiv), jeluind, nedumerind (gerunziu). Specific lb l este folosirea construciilor impersonale, ns n manuale se regsesc mai puin, deoarece exist ntotdeauna un autor, un text la care se face referin, de exemplu: se tie, se constat, se poate vorbi. Modul imperativ este cel mai des folosit n cerinele adiacente textelor. Aceste exerciii, puine dealtfel, n comparaie cu comentariul alturat fiecrui text, cer memorarea poeziilor sau identificarea elementelor realiste. Prin aceste strategii se urmrea depersonalizarea intenionat a elevului. 2.3. Figuri stilistice. Datorit faptului c figurile de stil sunt puse strict n slujba ideologiei, scopul lor estetic este subminat i diluat. Utilizarea lor are un scop practic, cu o tripl funcie: persuasiv (ncearc s obin aderena receptorului), pedagogic (permit ilustrarea ideologiei pentru a fi mai bine
37 38

Linguistics reinut) i lexical (contribuie la mbogirea vocabularului i la mascarea lacunelor de limbaj)39. 2.3.1. Epitetul. Ariditatea de substan a comentariilor necesit condimente specifice; unul dintre cele mai la ndemn este epitetul. Deoarece textele din manual sunt alese dup criterii ideologice i doar mai apoi estetice, comentariul textului este ndulcit, aproape pn la ngreoare, cu epitete: o generaie excepional de poei, cmin fericit i panic, ritual secret i fascinant, srutul cast, senzualitate aprins, trecutul e ... reinterpretat creator, descriere nvpiat, poetul vizionar. 2.3.2. Inversiunea. De obicei, inversiunea se folosete pentru a sublinia anumite caliti, trsturi. Ca orice lucru, folosit prea des, i pierde semnificaia de insolit, pe care ar fi avut-o iniial. Iat cteva exemple: mare poet, o poezie a marilor ntrebri, mare evocator, o nalt idee, frumoasa poem, frumoase versuri, neateptate mpletiri lexicale, mari personaliti. Observm c predomin caliti precum: frumosul, mreul. Prin aceste expresii, devenite locuri comune prin repetare, se ilustreaz de fapt dorina de grandilocven; ascunznd ns acelai coninut ideologic. 2.3.3. Metafora. Paul Cernat40 remarc abundena metaforelor organice i naturiste. Obsesia germinaiei i a naterii indic un fond arhetipal de tip rural i pgn, gata s se lase fecundat de smna mitologiei comuniste. Acelai autor susine c avem de-a face cu un tip de poezie n care orfismul capt funcie patriotic i revoluionar. Din prea mult zel, uneori se ajunge la comic involuntar: Explicaia const n faptul c, n broatele poeziei lui Arghezi, se potrivesc cele mai diferite chei, fr ca vreuna s descuie toate uile, Datorit folosirii frecvente, anumite metafore sunt catalogate ca fiind muribunde41, devenind n timp simple cliee. Dou exemple concludente sunt: Luceafrul poeziei romneti i Ceahlul literaturii noastre. Figuri de stil remarcabile n
39

Franoise Thom, Op.cit., p. 43. Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Op. cit., p.81.

Nicoleta Mihai, Limba de lemn a lui Gheorghiu-Dej, n Op. cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad, p. 218. 40 Op.cit., p. 322. 41 Franoise Thom, Op. cit., p.77.

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Linguistics textele critice n care au aprut prima dat, exprimnd aprecierea (...), ele devin, prin abuz, nite formule stereotipe, uscate, chiar ridicole uneori42. Printre reminiscenele greu de nlturat se gsesc metaforele cu care este supranumit Eminescu. 2.3.4. Hiperbola. Mreaa societate comunist prefer elogiile n descrierea realizrilor sale, dei n discursul de ntmpinare adresat elevilor de clasa a X-a, Ceauescu afirm: Sntem revoluionari i nu dorim opere care s nfrumuseeze realitatea (...) Dimpotriv, considerm c o astfel de prezentare idilic este duntoare pentru dezvoltarea spiritului i a combativitii revoluionare a omului socialist43. Gigantismul e cosubstanial imaginarului comunist44. Se observ n toate manualele din perioada comunist preferina pentru calificative hiperbolizante: cea mai masiv oper de recuperare a urtului, poemul social cel mai de seam ... este Cntare omului, granioasa adunare popular, 2.3.5. Antiteza. Acest procedeu este intens folosit n special n prima parte a dominaiei totalitare, cnd se dorea o difereniere clar fa de trecut i n plan discursiv. Se face astfel o difereniere clar ntre scriitorii progresiti i scriitorii reacionari. Iat o retrospectiv asupra perioadei interbelice:Tendinelor umaniste, democratice, dominante n epoc, li se opun forme de ideologie rasiste, fasciste, reacionare. Datorit folosirii n exces a figurilor stilistice, acestea i pierd vitalitatea n cadrul lb l. Din acest motiv se observ un fenomen de tergere a diferenelor din limbaj, de tvlugire stilistic45. 2.4. Alte aspecte lingvistice 2.4.1. Maniheismul. Opoziia fundamental care st la baza ideologiei comuniste este cuplul reacionar- progresist. Citatele discutate anterior (4.2.1.) reflect fidel poziiile divergente ale celor dou tabere. O serie de alte cupluri antitetice, precum: form-coninut, obiectiv-subiectiv,
Valeria Guu Romalo, Corectitudine i greeal. Limba romn de azi, Ed. Humanitas, Buc., 2008, p. 215. 43 n Limba i literatura romn. Manual pentru clasa a X-a, Nicolae Manolescu, Nicolae I. Nicolae, Ed. didactic i pedagogic, Buc., 1982, p. 3. 44 P. Cernat, Op. cit., p. 329. 45 Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Op.cit., p.72.
42

Linguistics ntreg-parte, formeaz maxilarele idologiei46. Dumitru Irimia deosebete dou variante ale lb l: o variant de expresie pozitiv, n funcie encomiastic i una de expresie negativ, n funcie distructiv47. Oricare cele dou variante de expresie sunt ns purttoare a miasmei ideologice. Aceste dou opiuni ilustreaz registrul maniheist la discursului n lb l. Textul despre literatura postbelic are urmtorul titlu: LITERATURA ROMN DE DUP REVOLUIA DE ELIBERARE SOCIAL I NAIONAL, ANTIFASCIST I ANTIIMPERIALIST DIN AUGUST 194448. Delimitarea ntre cele dou tabere este clar. Posibilitatea unei opiuni de mijloc nu este posibil. Scindarea ntre cele dou lumi (i opiuni) este definitiv i irevocabil. 2.4.2. Eufemismul este procedeul prin care era denaturat realitatea, pe lng miciunile propriu-zise. n exemplul Tudor Arghezi a continuat s scrie, cu rar contiin de artist cetean, pn cnd a nchis ochii49 se observ faptul c n momentul respectiv, Arghezi era ntr-un con de lumin favorabil. Eufemizarea devine o caracteristic a lb l doar n momentul n care este impus i nu exist alte variante ale aceluiai discurs. 2.4.3. Monologul. Solilocviul este forma de discurs specific lb l, specific mentalitii totalitare. Voga dialogului, n schimb, care promoveaz tratativele reprezint modul de gndire propriu societilor democratice50. Toate manualele din perioada comunist reprezint un adevrat monolog. Orice text este escortat de prezentarea general asupra epocii, de biografia autorului, mpreun cu ntreaga sa creaie, dar mai ales de comentariul complet. Astfel, elevul nu are nici o ans de a spune prerea sa. Datorit faptului c reprezenta poziia oficial, comentariul era nsuit ca atare de elevii srguincioi i doritori de note bune.
46 47

Franoise Thom, Op. cit., pp. 109-110. n Panait Istrati fa cu limba de lemn, Op. cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad, p. 206. 48 N. Manolescu, N. I. Nicolae, Limba i literatura romn. Manual pentru clasa a XII-a, Ed. Didactic i pedagogic, Buc., 1985, p.107. 49 E. Leahu, C. Parfene, Limba i literatura romn. Manual pentru clasa a X-a, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Buc., 1985, p.126. 50 Valeria Guu Romalo, Op. cit., p. 229.

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Linguistics La sfritul leciilor, puinele cerine se refer a a identifica anumite idei din comentariul adiacent. Chiar i atunci cnd se cer a fi comentate unele fragmente din operele literare, exist ndrumri care s ghideze gndirea elevului, nu cumva acesta s poat nelege altceva, diferit de ideile formulate deja. Alctuii o compunere, dup preferin, dezvoltnd unul din urmtoarele enunuri, pe care vi le propunem: Satul i ranul n viziunea poetic a lui G. Cobuc i O. Goga sau Aspecte ale patriotismului n poezia lui G. Cobuc i O. Goga. Este de remarcat generozitatea autorilor, care las la libera opiune a elevilor subiectul compunerii (cnd, de fapt, ambele teme au fost atinse n comentarii anterioare). 2.4.4. Clieul. O caracteristic a lb l este utilizarea n mod excesiv a unor cuvinte i expresii, care n timp i pierd mobilitatea, devin rigide, asemeni ideologiei al crui sens l poart. O serie de automatisme verbale au fost identificate de Monica Chiva, n 1994, n manualele colare (att n cele din perioada comunist, ct i n cele postdecembriste): a lupta, a milita, a nfrunta (cuvinte care aparin unui registru de lupt), activism, nencetat, nflcrat (redau voluntarismul i nflcrarea), s amintim, s afirmm, vom observa (ilustreaz participarea colectiv), adjectivele la superlativ, termeni din domeniul biologiei, .a51. Motivul pentru care aceleai cliee se regsesc i n manualele de dup 1989 este faptul c structura i coninutul au rmas aceleai (s-au eliminat strict cuvintele care fceau referire la ideologie). n prezent, cnd exist o palet larg de manuale alternative, i implicit de abordri ale materiei, nu mai putem vorbi de existena clieelor n manuale. Cu toate acestea, mai exist exprimri lemnoase att n exprimarea profesorilor, ct i a elevilor. Acest fapt consider c se datoreaz nu manualelor, ci comentariilor aferente textelor literare. Dup apariia manualelor alternative, care nu mai ofereau un suport de interpretare elevului, au aprut o mulime de cri52 n care
Apud. T. Slama-Cazacu, Op. cit., pp. 77-78. De exemplu: M. Boatrc, S. Boatc, G. ovu, Limba i literatura romn. Antologie de texte comentate clasa a VII-a, Ed. Cartea colii, Buc., 1997 (cu echivalente i pentru celelalte clase), C. Stoleru, Literatura romn. Comentarii literare i teste pe baza textelor din 20 de manuale alternative (Bacalaureat 2003), Ed. Pestalozzi, Buc. 2002, M. H. Columban, I. Pop, C. Radu, Limba i literatura romn. Modele de rezolvare a subiectelor pentru examenul de Bacalaureat 2008, Ed. Art Grup Editorial, Buc., 2008.
52 51

Linguistics erau analizate dup acelai tipar, operele literare. Comoditatea profesorului de a preda dup un tipar prestabilit acelai lucru, dar i comoditatea elevului de a nu gndi el singur nelesul unui text, i n consecin, s se exprime liber, au fcut ca aceste cliee lingvistice, dar i de structur s se perpetueze pn n prezent. Importana exagerat care se atribuie clieelor mpreun cu o definiie trunchiat duce, de multe ori, la interpretri eronate. Studiul Daianei Felecan, Structuri clieizate n redactarea horoscopului53, dei este perfect valabil ca analiz, este eronat ca interpretare, deoarece susine existena lb l n textele de horoscop. n aceeai capcan, ntins de o definiei parial a lb l, se avnt, cu mult entuziasm i Oliviu Felecan, susinnd Limba de lemn n mesajele funerare de la mica publicitate54. Dei are la baz observaia asupra clieelor din proiectele de cercetare filologic, interpretarea55 lui Ionel Funeriu se fundamenteaz pe o definiie cuprinztoare i coerent (lb l deine monopolul discursiv, este omipotent ntr-un sistem opresiv, a reprezentat triumful ideologiei asupra spiritului). Astfel, demersul su iese din tiparele exempelor menionate anterior. Trsturi axiologice Miza adevrat pentru care s-a impus lb l era de fapt crearea omului nou, programat s gndeasc, s simt i s se comporte conform ideologiei. ns, n ciuda tuturor msurilor luate, omul nu a putut fi programat s gndeasc i s simt aa cum i se comanda. A putut, i a fost obligat s se comporte ntr-un anumit fel i s vorbeasc n lb l. Omul nou, pionul model al lumii totalitare, era creat printr-o violent pedagogie concentraionar, n care individul este controlat, determinat, prbuit (prin educaie, propagand, represiune, cenzur i teroare) n bolgiile unei condiii infra-umane56. Prin aceast discrepan ntre esena i aparena limbajului se contureaz caracterul baroc al lb l. Faptul c individul nu a contat niciodat ntr-un sistem totalitar este susinut la nivel
53 54

Op. cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad , pp.263-276. Ibidem., pp. 280-292. 55 Ibidem., pp. 294-302. 56 Dan Anghelescu, Limba de lemn i distrugerea moral, n Op. cit., vol. coord. de Ilie Rad, p. 86.

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Linguistics discursiv prin eliminarea persoanei nti singular. Adevrata esen a omului nou ar fi trebuit s fie docilitatea, ascultarea oarb. Cum acest lucru era greu de obinut altfel dect prin lobotomizare, s-a apelat la mecanismul pervers al umilirii, al ngenunchierii fiinei interioare prin teroare, antaj i prin obligativitatea de a vorbi n lb l. Consider c impunerea lb l este varianta soft a experimentului Piteti, a mecanismelor opresive ale sistemului totalitar. Lb l este cel mai monstruos instrument de distrugere interioar, n primul rnd fiind vorba de o distrugere moral, deoarece sunt mai discrete i mai greu de reperat ravagiile produse astfel, prin deliberata distrugere a minilor i a sufeltelor57. Sinceritatea discursului n lb l era anulat. Astfel, cuvntul nu mai este vitaminizant, ci dimpotriv, toxic. Lb l este un instrument de parazitare a contiinelor, un logocid58. Lb l tratat ca un simplu fenomen de deviaie stilistic ar eluda esenialul59, i anume c mizele sunt mult mai profunde; ele se ntrevd dincolo de aspectele descriptive, n distorsionarea axei verticale pe care ar trebui s o aib orice limb, orice cuvnt. Astfel, att trstuile lingvistice, ct i cele extralingvistice, ale limbii de lemn contureaz un univers lingvistic srac, previzibil, n opoziie cu rolul constuctiv al limbajului. Scopurile finale ale impunerii unui asemenea mod de a vorbi, prin interzicerea exprimrii libere, deci a individualitii, contribuie la rspndirea unui antilimbaj, al alienrii i al terorii. Bibliografie: Arendt, Hannah, Originile totalitarismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994; Buzrnescu, tefan, Sociologia opiniei publice, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1996; Ciachir, Dan, Derusificarea, n Convorbiri literare, nr. 9, 10 i 11, 2009; Deletant, Dennis, Romnia sub regim comunist, Editura Fundaia Academia Civic, Bucureti, 2006;
Ibidem., pp. 86-87. Ibidem., p. 77. 59 Ibidem., p. 77.
58 57

Linguistics Funeriu, Ionel, Eseuri lingvistice antitotalitare, Editura Marineasa, Timioara, 1998; Guu Romalo, Valeria, Aspecte ale evoluiei limbii romne, Editura Humanitas Educaional, Bucureti, 2005; Guu Romalo, Valeria, Corectitudine i greeal. Limba romn de azi, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008; Orwell, George, O mie nou sute optzeci i patru, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2002; Pamfil Alina, Tmian Ioana, Studiul limbii i literaturii romne n secolul XX. Paradigme didactice, Editura Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2005; Rad, Ilie (coordonator), Limba de lemn n pres, Editura Tritonic, Bucureti, 2009; Slama-Cazacu, Tatiana, Stratageme comunicaionale i manipularea, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000; Thom, Franoise, Limba de lemn, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005.

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Linguistics becomes credible, according to the well-known dictum: I only believe what I see with my eyes. The visualizing of an idea is very important for the advertisement creator, truth that makes Franois Brune [F. Brune, 1996, 151] to cry out: envision, envision, it still remains something. W. Kroeber-Riel thinks that only 5% from the advertisement information are caught and remarks the image tendency [See also Emmanuel Pedler, Communication sociology Bucharest Cartea Romana Press, 2001, p. 157: For its different characteristics, the image can say many things in the same time, being capable of triggering variable interpretive and contradictory emotions] to replace almost completely the oral elements. The major concern of the advertisement creators is to make their advertisement product to be (quickly) noticed and (easily) caught. The use of the image becomes, hereby, the solution. In comparison with the orally manifestation, our mind can analyse the images much easier, in fractions of seconds. A second would be enough only for getting over one word, whereas from 1.5 to 2.5 seconds you need for getting over and memorize an image. Therefore, images have been called cannon balls training the brain [W. Kroeber-Riel, 1993, 107] and, like the words, they can argue, rise questions or create fictions.[Linda M Scott, 260].The global significance of a visual message is built through the interaction of different types of signs: plastic, iconic, linguistic. The image plays an important role in the economy of the advertising speech, if we take into account also the statistics, which tell us that we catch only 20% from what we hear, 30% from what we see and 50% from what we see and hear at the same time. In the written press Michael Schudson notices - bigger advertisements have a bigger effect on consumers than those of smaller dimensions; coloured advertisements are more easily caught than those in black and white: those with images or short texts have an advantage towards those without illustration and a very long message. [Michael Schudson, 1993, 84.] The emancipation era of the visual field labelled the advertising speech too, from the exclusive dominance of the word, to an imperialism of image in the linguistic speech, through the obsessive option for the chromatic codes (see the colours which give the brand to products, like the Shell yellow, pink for Wizz Air, light blue for Air France company, red for McDonalds, red-green for Moll gas stations etc.), typographical codes (with emphasis rhetorical effects of the object, of dimensions operation, 120

Iconic rhetoric in advertising

Carmen NEAMU Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: The chief endevaour of advertisers is to make their product easily noticed and remebered. Thus using images becomes the solution because, compared to verbal communication, our mind can analyze images much more easily, in fractions of a second. Because few of the newspaper readers actually go through the entire text of an advertisement, the design of an advertisement is of a different nature, preparing the reader for a visual reading experience. This implies a visual design for the copy, too, which should support the argumentation. This paper discusses patterns used in magazines (optimal frame, chromatic code, mood, graphics, visual metaphors etc.), analyzing first level iconic signifiers or connotations carried by the second level image reading. Finally, some considerations are made regarding images used in perfume advertisements (ads that in most cases exploit communication via image, rather than via persuasive linguistic message), as well as the image of the type face (font size, height, type). Keywords: advertising discourse, iconic rhetoric Word and image are like chair and table: if you want to sit at the table, you need both said Jean-Luc Godard, in Anisi parlait Jean-Luc , Fragments du discours dun amoreaux des mots, Telerama, nr. 2278, 8/9/93, referring to the relation word-image, which complete one another, interact in a happy way. What is seen more often and better is overrated, acting on our sensibility. [Jean Luc Godart, Legibility studies show that only 3-5% from the readers of a newspaper or magazines integrally go over the text of an advertisement. This outcome develops a series of characteristics of the construction of the advertising text, preparing for the reader, as J.M. Adam and M. Bonhomme noticed a visual path of reading. This approach involves an organization or a visual construction of the statement, which emphasizes the argument. Thus, what it is shown to us

Linguistics of volumes) and of morphologic codes (in joking and semiotic sense of appropriation of objects and of their service, by minimizing the human component, reduced at the simple role of spectator). Clifford G. Christians, Mark Fackler, Kim B. Rotzol and Kathy B. McKee [2001, 174] stick at some of the common dimensions of orally advertising expression. Chosen models - must be memorable: they are usually beautiful, muscular, graceful, lovely, just good for you to wish to be like them; Framework - its splendid or less attractive, on how the argumentation for sale requests. Its thick enough, just fanciful, exotic or with sand; elegant or classic and flat; Well-chosen to awake the consumers mood; Colours - present the unclean face in dull colours, whereas the revitalized hair shows up in vivid colours: In the advertisement, there are preferred colours that stir emotion, stirring colours; Mood - exuberant/thought-provoking or sad/dull (at least until the use of product from the advertisement); It must be artistically harmonized with the music and framework; Graphical image - photos, images aspire to a superlatively achievement; The assembly must be clear, the retouching insightful; Furthermore, there must be an sensitive affinity of the chosen type of music with the required mood. In Rhtorique de limage [Roland Bathes, 1993, 1417-1429.] Roland Barthes speaks about the existence of three advertisement levels where there is an interference between: the linguistic message (the brand name, in the example given by Barthes, Panzani pasta and the verbal comment), the denotative iconic message (the photographic image of the object, redundant when reported with the real object; in Barthes example, the box with pasta in a fishing net next to various fresh, juicy vegetables) and the connotative iconic message (symbolic, of all the associations that make the image of the product). The advertising image is a system made of two sub-system perceived simultaneously: the denotation level and the connotation level. Here it is Barthes explains a Panzani advertisement: packs of pasta, a box, a bag, tomatoes, onions, hot peppers, a mushroom, everything coming out of a half-opened bag, in shades of yellow and green on a red background.

Linguistics The dominant connotation is that of Italianisation, deriving from the sound structure of the name Panzani, but also from the option for the red, white and green, the colours of the Italian flag. The fresh vegetables and the traditional way of going to the market add the naturalness connotation, while the pagination of the consecutive elements of the advertisement adds the pictorial aesthetic connotation. Barthes considers these systems of connotation as the ideology of the society, associated with the rhetoric field of expression. In other words, beyond the literal or denoted message emphasised by description, there is a symbolic or connoted message linked to the pre-existent knowledge that is shared by the one who make the announcement and the reader (...). In the visual message we will distinguish figurative or iconic signs that in a coded way, give the impression of resemblance with reality, juggling with the perceptive analogy and the representation codes inherited from the representative western tradition. [Martine Joly, 1998, 57] We could understand the term rhetoric as a way of persuasion and argumentation (like inventio and like elocutio style or adaptation of the images figures. Regarding rhetoric, as inventio, Barthes admits the images specificity of the connotation: rhetoric of the connotation meaning the ability of provoking a secondary meaning starting from a primary meaning, from a full sign. [Martine Joly, 1998, 14] Umberto Eco [Umberto Eco, 1998, 57] distinguishes five levels of codification of the advertisement message: iconic (similar to the Barthesian iconic), iconographic (based on cultural traditions and genre conventions, similar to the Brathesian connotative iconic), 122

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Linguistics topologic (of the visual style figures), topical (of the premises and themes of argumentation, such as the one of quality in the variant Everybody uses product X and the theme of unique quality of the product Only X removes any spot), entimematic (the actualized narrative structure, eventually based on a mystery or theatrical coup for emphasizing the argumentative efficiency). Jacques Durand [Jacques Durand, 1970] notices how the publicity uses the entire panoply of the rhetorical figures which were before considered appropriate only to the spoken language: collocation figures and paradigm figures. We can distinguish visual metaphors in the advertising speech, consisting in the replacement of the commercial subject cigarettes for example with a cowboy, in a sunset (see the advertisement at Marlboro), two alpinists reaching the top of the mountain (Camel), a man possessing a grain, in the middle of winter (Hollywood) or a eagle flying over New Yorks high buildings (Winston). Through implicit comparison, the cigarettes are attributed the qualities of the objects (force, life pleasure, friendship, joy, self control, freedom, freshness, energy, etc.). We can remark visual motives which represent the needs and wishes of the consumers, the images translating concepts such as freedom, adventure, sensuality, security, harmony, fulfilled family, youth, social status, luxury etc. The maximum exploitation of the image in the advertisement, to the detriment of the linguistic message, can be interpreted as means which gives force to the product. It is gambled on what is not told, on the implicit. Instead of developing an argument through explicit affirmation, the image will develop it in secret, gambling on the knowledge of the public purchaser, creating, in this way, a feeling of complicity between initiates. The argumentative demarche in the construction of the advertisement is not reducible to the following text: I tell you that X is the best detergent or Y is the best drink and Z is the best perfume. On the contrary, an argumentation is as more successful, as more indirect it seems, as more it leaves the impression of a free choice from the interlocutor. In other words, paraphrasing Tadeusz Kotarbinski from Treaty about well done thing, we could say: What is well done in the advertisement is indirectly done. We encounter rhetoric of the obliquity, in which the 123

Linguistics indirect approach is preferred in order to avoid the imposition in front of the other, aggressing his subjectivity. The publicity has to delete the boredom of daily purchases dressing in dream products which, without it, wouldnt be but what they are. Look at MARLBORO, it is a cigarette which at the first smoke transforms you into a cowboy. Here is the magic of our art. In every consumer there is a poet who sleeps. The publicity must wake him up. Our job is to make the smoke enter through one side of the tunnel and see a locomotive coming out on the other side. [J. Seguela, 1985, 254-255] In the case of the well known commercial at Marlboro we could find a series of iconic significations, to which significations at a first level correspond, as well as connotations at a second level. The commercial to Marlboro cigarettes is not one gambling on the power of persuasion of words. The Marlboro man himself is one of few words. He shows neither sophistication, nor wisdom, but he is rather strong, the quiet type with confidence in his own resources () Like a Zen master, he speaks only when it is absolutely necessary () Marlboro isnt a game for kids. Its a tough cigarette, for strong men, confidents in themselves. [Simon Chapman and Garry Egger, 1983, 176-177.] The table below synthetically presents the iconic significations and the codification levels which we encounter in the commercial to Marlboro cigarettes.

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Linguistics Iconic significations First level significations Connotations to the second level Horseback riding, nature mastery, manhood The figure of a man at sunset man, cowboy force, firmness Sombrero man piece of clothing adventure Boards forming a fence part of a reservation the west Empty fence animals, transhumance freedom Smokers can confirm: Marlboro cigarettes have nothing in common with raising cattle or riding in the sunset. The cowboy serves as an icon for a commercial concept, the Wild West, which represents the adventure, freedom, strength. So, the Marlboro cigarettes consumer and the advertisement dont have in common the form, the cowboy lifestyle, but the pretext of freedom, independence, adventure. The "smell" of the image The perfumes advertisements gamble in most cases on the communication through image and less on a linguistic, persuasive message. Being a luxury product, the motivation of its purchase must be more complex symbolized than any other product of stringent necessity and due to the need to materialise an invisible concept, the smell. Thus, the brand image will give personality to the product, which being olfactory impossible to represent, will be present, together with the bottle, near the potential buyers. The public adherence is born trough a narrative procedure [Einstein would have replied to a mother who wished to guide her son towards the scientific career that the fairy tale must be a text approached. The affirmation does nothing more than to confirm the value of accelerator of the imagination which this form of narration assumes.] through the presence of a history (story or histoire) perceived mostly visual, in which the receptors are presented a STORY [How to inform the consumers about a new perfume, a new dish, a new drink, a new fabric, when the information must pass a sensible experience which no message can communicate? In all the cases, the message will have to be mostly metaphorically rather than argumentative, more suggestive than explanatory It is exactly the charm and quality of the story that will open someones appetite to try the product in order to learn, to know it. In this 125

Linguistics scheme a must have must be respected: the pretty story must be thought, built in such a case that it will entirely be attributed to the product, Claude Bonnange, Chantal Thomas, 1999, 42] In this way we are invited to belong to a group and to adopt a particular life style. In Limage publicitaire des parfums, M. Julien [M. Julien, 1997, 38-48] stablishes some types of characters present in the advertising communication in the case of perfumes: the sensual, the elitist, the romantic and the eccentric. We could say that in the case of perfumes advertising, the creators fully exploit the erotic and sexuality classes, preferring images with women and men in sensual postures, straight glances, bared shoulders, half-opened lips. The colours from the images are warm, the creators preferring images with sexual connotations (see the presented images, in which the characters appear with the eyes opened, suggesting the ecstasy). The commercial creators who prefer the image of the bottle are doing anything else but to explain visually the perfume, the bottle being the first element that tries to transmit an olfactory concept. A sober bottle, without any other design adds, place the product beyond the time. The colour contrasts (bottle- content), offer the wordless image, distinction and elegance. A repetitive image from the commercials for perfumes is also what sends to sensuality, to the couple passion. The attraction between the man and the woman, the body position, one of visible pleasure, the dressing details (lingerie or nude) are percussive images for the commercial creators and the purchaser public. Not even the visual hyperbole is overlooked by the commercial creators, who want to emphasize the product, by always valuing it positively. The rhetoric of the advertisement image is considered by Jacques Durand, one of pleasure research: The function of the rhetoric figures in the advertisement image is to stir the viewers pleasure: on one hand to relieve, for a glance, of the physical effort demanded by the inhibition or a rejection and on the other hand, allowing him to dream of a world where everything is possible. In the image, the rules are the ones of the physical realitythe image which is rhetoricized by an immediate reading, is related to fantastic, the repetition- doubling, the hyperbolegigantism, ellipsis- levitation, etc. [Any advertisement which is created ad recorded in a professional studio, conceived, elaborated and produced under a rigorous control in order to be broadcasted, in a repetitive manner, within some advertisement programs, at one or more radio stations, TV, 126

Linguistics and so on, Marian Odangiu, Daniela Ficart, Violeta Avram, 236] The great advantage of the image in the commercials is that the image has the power to stock the reality of our wishes much better than the words. We could call the images stores of emotions. With a proper image, the experiences, the desires come to your mind, making a connection with the product from the commercial. The experts in marketing have discovered that the first impression of the reader is always an emotional one and only a positive impression will convince the reader to search for rational information. The commercials dont have to convince the receptor that the product is useful but more to transmit an emotion, to impress him, showing him a new design or selling him a new lifestyle [See also: David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising New York, Vintage Books, 1985, p.15,: Give the people samples of Old Crow. Then give them Old Crow, but tell them its Jack Daniels. Afterwards ask them what drink they prefer. They will think that the two drinks are different because they feed with images.]: free time, a happy family, a nice house, luxury, a healthy environment. Rarely, the information about the product shows up between the lines. The detergents commercials rely heavily on the modern, happy families, having fun in a luxurious house, with a beautiful view. The fact that all the members of the family have so much free time available should persuade us that the X product, the dirt enemy, does the entire cleaning job and it does it quick. Then, the stereotype views, always green, the house yard, all make a reference to the ecological standards and to the economical efficiency of the promoted product. The commercial speech has its images organized on well established rules, so that the message reaches efficiently and convincing its target. Georges Peninou [Peninou, 1970] speaks about privileged configurations that can be found in the commercial image, like: the focalizing construction, the axial construction, the inside construction, and the sequential construction. The focalizing construction consists in force lines (colour, lighting, shapes) which converge to a certain point of the commercial, the place of the commercialized product. The sight is attracted by a strategic point of the commercial where the commercialized product lies. The axial construction distributes the product in the sight axe, in general right in the center of the commercial. We are speaking about the insight construction, when the product is integrated in a scene of a 127

Linguistics perspective dcor and lies in the top of the scene in the foreground. The sequential construction makes that the view go through the commercial, reaching eventually the product, often situated for the reading from left to right, down, on the right.(see the Z graphical construction, the most often used). Letters with signification Like the speaker, who long time ago, would use the gestures and the mimics for his speech, the commercials make use not only of words, but also of images, page settings, colour etc. These additional elements carry out significations that can strengthen or contradict the meaning given by the commercial words. In this way, connected with the images rhetoric is also the words image or the way they are presented in the commercial. The colour, and the words set up in the page, the height, and the thickness of the letters (they often appear big and bold for the brand, and with thick capital letters for the notes; with thick and smaller capital letters for the addresses, etc), all these elements create a visual attraction that organizes the path of the look which leaving a certain point is then directed to come back at the same point. The choice of the type of the letters has also a plastically importance. The words have an immediate understandable signification, this signification being completed, colored, and shaded right before being perceived by the plastically aspect of the letters (orientation, shape, colour). Greg Myers compared the choice of the messages from the commercials with scrabble (where if you make up words with the letters Q, Z, X, Y you receive 4,8 or 10 points, whereas for the words made up with E, A, S or T, the number of the points is smaller, reaching even one point). In the commercials, the unusual letters draw the attention more quickly, that is why it is preferred name of products like: Biotex, Ajax, Radox, Dulux, Lux, Lucozade, Edulcolax, Jazz(software), etc. Names that are difficult to pronounce in Romanian are not a good choice for the products. Tnuva is just one of them. Perhaps the most appropriate example of commercial text in which only the type of the letters expresses the exactly message of the commercial is the following: It is. Are you? Independent. This is the commercial with the most troubling decoding if we think about the reaction that the ellipsis aroused in this case. The text was advertising for the The Independent daily newspaper, the letters bodies for the word 128

Linguistics independent being the same with the ones from the title of the English newspaper. Greg Myers [Myers, 38; The teacher of applied linguistics, Guy Cook, cites the published results from the Campaign magazine (from 21 December 1990) A graphologist analyses some important advertisements form the current journals. The conclusion of the study is that the advertisements translate sentiments, the ones from Coca Cola, for example, transmit warmth, affection, and those from Ford enterprise, and speak about the respect of tradition. Of course, such an approach is very questionable because it implies much subjectivity. It may be true or not, admits Guy Cook, but the literary dimension of the advertisement remains an open issue.] tells how the Londoner homosexual communities have ordered special buttons on which it was written the commercial text, without any connection with the newspaper that they read. In this case, the commercial has been assimilated exclusively as a text, loosing it initial function for which it had been created. (Translation: Narcisa irban, Ph.D.) References : Bathes, Roland, Rethoric de limage, in Eric Marty, (Ed.), Roland Barthes oeuvres completes, Editions du Seuil, 1993. Bonnange, Claude, Thomas, Chantal, Don Juan or Pavlov. Essay on advertisement communication, Bucuresti, Ed. Trei, 1999. Brune, F., Happiness as a must, Bucharest, Trei Press, 1996. Chapman, Simon and Egger, Garry, Language, image, media, edited by Howard Davis & Paul Walton, Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited, 1983. Cook, Guy, The Discourse of Advertising, London and New York, Routledge, 1994. Durand, Jacques, Rethorique et publicite, in Communications 15, Lanalyse des images, Seuils, 1970. Eco, Umberto, Semiologie de limage dans la publicite, in Communications, 1998. Joly Martine, Introduction in image analysis, Bucuresti, All Press, 1998. Julien, M., Limage publicitaire des parfums, Paris, Ed. Harmaton, 1997. Kroeber W.-Riel, Strategie und Technik der Werbung, Stuttgart, 1993. Myers, Greg, Words in Ads, Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc., 1994. 129

Linguistics Odangiu, Marian, Ficart, Daniela, Avram, Violeta, Publicitatea audio. Curs practic de strategii creative, Timioara, Ed.Hestia, 1997. Ogilvy, David, Ogilvy on Advertising New York, Vintage Books, 1985. Peninou, Georges, Physique et metaphisyque de limage publicitaire, in Communications, 15, Seuil, 1970. Scott, Linda M, Images in Advertising. The need for a Theory of Visual Rhetoric, in Journal of Consumer Research, nr.21 (September). Schudson, Michael, Advertising, the Uneasy Presuasion. Its Dubious Impact on American Society, London, Routledge, 1993. Seguela, J., Le Saut creatif, Ed. J. C. Latters, Paris, 1985.

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Fiction and arts life. Or, to accept a more logical affirmation, that the child from these verses is Stevenson himself. The question has its importance, because the final message of the volume depends on this answer. Perhaps many of the small poems were written for or about a certain child, known by Stevenson; there is no doubt that he liked the children, a testimony being his marriage, his wife having three children from a previous marriage. But the volume, in its integrality, offers another answer also, that enlightens many of the adventurer writers emotional experiences. The childhood poems are gathered in four groups, each of them having a certain specificity: A Childs Garden of Verses, The Child Alone, Garden Days i Envoys. Out of these, the first group seems to be interested in child, his/her games, the world seen through a childs eye. The small joys of the childhood (the psychologists understand how important they are for a childs normal development) are noticed with acuity and with understanding and are expressed in simple verses, of a full of love humor: It is very nice to think The world is full of meat and drink (A Thought) ................................................................................................. Every night my prayers I say, And get my dinner every day; And every day that Ive been good, I get an orange after food. (System) ................................................................................................ The friendly cow all red and white, I love with all my heart: She gives me cream with all her might, To eat with apple-tart. (The Cow) Other lines express the observations that children make in the small world of their experiences: Whenever Auntie moves around, Her dresses make a curious sound; They trail behind her up the floor, And trundle after through the door. (Aunties Skirts) ...................................................................................................................... 134

The childhood world Stevensons "Garden of Verses"

Magdalena DUMITRANA University of Pitesti Abstract: This paper focuses on a less known part of L.S. Stevensons writings, the one containing childhood verses. Considered to be verses for children, addressed to children, therefore not very important, these little poems actually reveal a whole world of sensibility and love within which Stevenson places the most authentic part of his personality. Apart from this, by directing his attention towards children, through these verses Stevenson displays a deep psychological and educational intuition. Keywords: childhood, poetry, memory, Stevenson 1. Who is Stevenson? In the world literature, Robert Louis Stevenson is the symbol of the adventurer-writer: travel novels, adventures novels and even a sciencefiction book are the writings characterizing Stevenson in the anyones mind. The most known titles, Treasure Island and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, seem to constitute the essence of the Scottish writers work That is why the surprise is quite big when we find ourselves in front of his poems for children and this surprise could be double when we find out that the author of the playful verses did not have children of his own. Therefore, who was? How many facets of his personality are expressed in a type of another of his literature, for not speaking about his fundamental restlessness, urging him to travel continuously and which brought him an early end on one of the Samoan islands. Amazing enough, one could find an almost satisfactorily answer in his volume, A Childs Garden of Verses. 2. What is the Garden of Verses? At the first sight, this is a book containing sprightly poems for children. At the second sight, one can notice that it is a book written at the first person: all the verses express directly, what the child sees, what he feels, what he knows and tells. One could think that Stevenson, even if he did not have his own children, proves a special intuition of a childs inner

Fiction and arts The world is so full of a number of things, Im sure we should all be as happy as kings. (Happy Thought) ...................................................................................................................... Up into the cherry tree Who should climb but little me? I held the trunk with both my hands And looked abroad on foreign lands. (Foreign Lands) Play is a constant presence, obviously, in the whole this sequence, as well as the relation of the young child with the other children, in the play.. We are in the role play phase and of the fight for the: We built a ship upon the stairs All made of the back-bedroom chairs, And filled it full of sofa pillows To go a-sailing on the billows. [.............................................] We sailed along for days and days, And had the very best of plays; But Tom fell out and hurt his knee, So there was no one left but me. (A Good Play) ...................................................................................................................... When I am grown to mans estate I shall be very proud and great, And tell the other girls and boys Not to meddle with my toys. (Looking Forward) It is interesting as affectionate and paternal he establishes the social rules that a child ought to observe: A child should always say whats true And speak when he is spoken to, And behave mannerly at table; At least as far as he is able. (Whole Duty of Children) Also, as the child grows, there are poems announcing the entrance into a fantastic world, personages marching in the front of the eyes, images of some other lands, the animism- as the shadow lives its independent life. 135

Fiction and arts In this collection of the poems, usually the writer conserves his adult status; an adult who loves children, observes them attentively and play with them, convinced that childhood must be the kingdom of the happiness. However, from time to time the impression that the child from the poems is the writer himself makes noticeable its presence. But only in the second collection of verses, The Child Alone, the impression gets stronger as the reader notices a slipping toward the fantasy of the inner world. It is significant the fact that the first poem of this second cycle is called The Unseen Playmate: When children are playing alone on the green, In comes the playmate that never was seen, When children are happy and lonely and good, The Friend of the Children comes out of the wood (The unseen playmate) The childs activities are sources for the stimulation of the imagination: The picture-book for the younger ones: All the pretty things put by, Wait upon the childrens eye, Sheep and shepherds, trees and crooks In the picture story-books. (Picture-Books in the Winter) and the story book within which the older childrens fantasy plunge: These are the hills, these are the woods, These are my starry solitudes; And there the river by whose brink The roaring lions come to drink. ( (The Land of Story-books) The symbolic play and the construction play in which the things get a different shape and a different name: I call the little pool a sea; The little hills were big to me; For I am very small. I made a boat, I made a town, I searched the caverns up and down, And named them one and all. (My Kingdom) 136

Fiction and arts Again, in a significant way, the cycle of the verses is ended with a poetry of a pure fantasy, generated only by the childs imagination: I have just to shut my eyes To go sailing through the skiesTo go sailing far away To the pleasant Land of Play; To the fairy land afar Where the little People are; (The Little Land) The next cycle of the poems seems rather an intermezzo than a continuation in the same poetical disposition. The child grew-up a little; among the games-more seldom now, he looks at the world around, watches the flowers, the trees, insects and birds. Adults are only a few (the gardener in the poem with the same name and Uncle Jim from Historical Associations) and their role is one of guidance and of construction guiding the child in the World and in the construction of the World. With this cycle, actually we came out from childhood. We should expect that the next sequence to be one of the adult, of the grown-up. But it does not happen that way- for Stevenson has leapt from childhood, directly to the world he had been imagining for such a long time. 3. Envoys This is the title of the cycle of small poems of the childhood. It contains letters of the childhood memories. They are addressed to his two cousins, Willie and Henrieta, to Minnie, all of them former playmates; they are addressed to Auntie, chief of our aunts (To Auntie), who is present also in the other cycles. His mother receives a small poem of four lines in which his son offers his poetry together his entire childhood: You too, my mother, read my rhymes For love of unforgotten times, And you may chance to hear once more The little feet along the floor. (To My Mother) No doubt, these verses are farewells addressed to the shadows of his childhood. But it is not only that, not even far, just a simple regret for a period of the innocence. It is a definitive farewell before a no return journey. 137

Fiction and arts The last two poems are strange but explanatory. The first one, To My Name-Child, is the will which the child Louis has left to all the children of which name is and who will discover surprisingly when finally will learn to read, that their name is already written. And even if the small Louis children from England will be to young to understand the words, still, many other children from all over the world, will know the little Louis from the book: Ay, and while you slept, a baby, over all the English lands Other little children took the volume in their hands; Other children questioned, in their homes across the seas: Who was little Louis, wont you tell us, Mother, please? It is as the adult Louis, declining his body and name of grown-up, seems to spread himself embodying his child soul in every child as he offers his own childhood, the body of his childhood as an object of sacrament to every child of the world. The reward that he asks for is small: And that while you thought of no one, nearly Half the world away Some one thought of Louis on the beach of Monterey! The same perpetuation of his childhood, the same longing to be kept in the memory, not in the adults memory but in the childrens one, is extended in the last poetry of the volume, To Any Reader: As from the house your mother sees You playing round the garden trees So you may see, if you will look Through the windows of this book, Another child, far, far away, And in another garden, play. More than any of his writings, this book is what Stevenson wishes to leave after him, it is his will. Its beneficiaries are the children, all Louischildren and all the children with other names, from anywhere. They are the 138

Fiction and arts only ones which have the capacity to know him, they are the only ones in the memory of which he wishes to remain because the childrens memories are the only receipt of the life continuity. Lets not misunderstand this. Stevenson was not an infantile, an adult who does not want to grow-up and who tries to escape from the inexorable process of aging by living in an ideal construct of childhood. No, he even specifies- the child from this book there is no more: He does not hear; he will not look, Nor yet be lured out of this book. For long ago, the truth to say, He has grown up and gone away, And it is but a child of air That lingers in the garden there. To Stevenson, the image of the childhood is not an eye back but one up. A child of air, a metaphor of the spirit, a metaphor of the fantasy, but interesting, it is not a phantasm of escaping but always is the Creators fantasy. The childs imagination in the stevensonian poetry is one of the construction of the world, in its objects but mainly, in its accompanying emotional experiences. The farewell from the final of the collection is addressed not only to the childhood, but to the earthly life in what it has more beautiful-the happy child. At that moment, Stevenson had less than ten years of life ahead and very likely, he cast intuitively a look at the landscape of his life. Significantly, in these last years he wrote poetry mainly. Another essential element in Stevensons writings that cannot be discussed extensively here, is the motive of the island; the island as such, appears in many texts, with a more or less important role. In the cycles of the poetry dedicated to the childhood, the island, the miraculous land, takes another content and another name than in other pieces of writing here it is the Garden. A close place, isolated but at the same time open to all the beneficial experiences, the place of the childs safety, more specific, the place of the emotional security. The garden, as a last and blessed refuge, takes the place of the island. The island is the place of the adventure, the garden is the place of the pleasant rest. Conscious or not, metaphorical or in the concrete reality, 139

Fiction and arts Stevensons world, with its child/adult interplay, takes finally, the shape of a garden. And the salute brought to the garden constitutes the opening of the next volume of poetry, the one of the adult world: Go, little book, and wish to all Flowers in the garden, meat in the hall, A bin of wine, a spice of wit, A house with lawns enclosing it, A living river by the door, A nightingale in the sycamore! (Envoy, from Underwoods) 4. Closing It is amazing how the readers perception about an author can be changed on the basis of a minor work, a writing that passes usually, unnoticed. The writer of the adventure and travel novels, a restlessness man who finds the garden of his life very far from his birth land the one, on an island, can be suddenly seen as the poet of the sensibility, naivety and imagination of the childhood. But lets not mislead ourselves. The world of the childhood as appears in Stevensons verses is not the world of a child as such. It is a metaphor of the aspiration and wish to realize at least in an imaginary world, the return in the Garden of Eden. Lets close therefore wit the same question from the beginning: who was Stevenson? But the answer, is it really so important? Finally, as he says, what is left is the child of air. References: Stevenson, R.L.,A Childs Garden of Verses, Reading: Penguin Books, 1994 Stevenson, R.L., Underwoods, http://www.poetryloverspage.com/poets/stevenson/collections/underwoods. http://www.poetryloverspage.com/poets/stevenson/envoy.html

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 141-154

Fiction and arts ei, despre cum te poate nnebuni o asemenea convenie, dar i despre cum poate da ea unei viei banale un sens nalt. Sigur, ne gndim la faptul c romanul cavaleresc e combtut n forme, nu n fond, c formele prea vehiculate se perimeaz i devin abloane, dar spiritul ce le-a nsufleit e fr moarte. Don Quijote spune unul dintre cei mai profunzi cunosctori ai operei lui Cervantes, Martin de Riquer satirizeaz crile de cavaleri, nu cavalera; neverosimilul eroism din romanele fabuloase, nu eroismul real ca acela dovedit de Cervantes la Lepanto [2007: LXX]. n aceste condiii, ar fi de ateptat ca i imaginea femeii s penduleze undeva ntre formele acestea caduce i o esen suprauman, supratemporal, ce poate nruri ns manifestrile umanului n sens ascendent. Don Quijote ofer imaginea unei viei construite prin imitaie, dar numai aspectele exterioare sunt imitate, coninutul lor este, evident, autentic, ca orice esen. El face ce tie c trebuie s fac, ce fceau toi cavalerii rtcitori, ntre care modelul imbatabil e Amadis de Gaula, dar acest ce trebuie se suprapune paradoxal peste ce simte, nct distincia dintre form i fond se anuleaz n capul su i rmne de demontat doar pentru narator/cititor ca teorie a inadecvrii la realitate. Cci chiar formele sunt cele ce trebuie schimbate, adic percepia fenomenalului, nu viziunea de ansamblu proiectat asupra lui. Tot paradoxal, n acest personaj iluzia i contiina conveniei coexist, nsi luciditatea alimenteaz voit fantasmele. Nebunia lui don Quijote a fost considerat drept un joc acceptat pentru a face suportabil existena. Pe marginea convertirii nelepciunii n nebunie, ca expresie pancultural a unui spirit carnavalesc, gloseaz strlucit Anton Dumitriu n Cartea ntlnirilor admirabile. De asemenea, Cervantes datoreaz mult lui Erasmus, care fcea elogiul nebuniei, adic al pasiunii exaltate ce te dedic unor scopuri mai nalte dect clipa de fa, cum datoreaz i ideii recurente n Spania secolului de aur despre visul trit ca via i viaa luat ca vis. S-a mai spus despre jocul lui don Quijote c se afl n afara antitezei nebunie - nelepciune i s-a argumentat c reproduce toate reperele depistate de Huizinga n comportamentul lui homo ludens: liber, dezinteresat, cu durat limitat, cu o ordine prestabilit [Bloom, 1998: 108]. Secretul jocului st n mediere, spune Ren Girard n cartea sa Minciun romantic i adevr romanesc, adic n existena unei a treia instane, ce se aaz ntre subiect i obiectul dorinei sale, n cazul de fa modelul cavaleresc, care se impune spre imitare pentru ca el, subiectul, don Quijote, s accead la inta transcendent, idealul afirmat rspicat de 142

Don Quijote i ficiunea iubirii

Florica BODITEAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: This study deals with the role the fiction of love plays in Cervantes's anti-chivalric romance, Don Quixote. The most complex character of the work, Dulcinea, appears as a great absence. In a Renaissance spirit, the novel denounces through her one of the most significant breaches in knightly literature, i.e. the heroes inability to experience erotic love; at the same time, it illustrates the force of the ideal in the construction of the hero's being. Keywords: chivalric romance, parody, eros, the imagined woman Despre rostul nchipuirilor Odat cu literatura Renaterii cade i ultimul meterez al eroicului i al gravitii epice sub asaltul manifestrilor spiritului burlesc, ce induce o atitudine sceptic exprimat n forme ironice, comice, caricaturale, parodice. Toate acestea, semnalele unei viziuni aflate ntr-un proces de laicizare, ale unui sistem de valori ce caut transcendentul n imanent, fundamentnd o religie a omului. Un spirit care-i nsufleete pe intelectualii epocii, unanim apreciat drept consecin a sentimentului superioritii sigure a omului asupra tuturor manifestrilor vieii pe care le domin ca un stpn [Dumitrescu-Buulenga, 1975: 85]. Epicureismul e filosofia subteran a acestei burle generice, ce nlocuiete sobrietatea prin rsul sntos, afirmnd valorile vieii, iar luomo piacevole, pe care Dante l-ar fi hrzit Infernului, e cel mai mare nelept n materie de tiin a tririi, una violent senzual. Pulci, Boiardo i Ariosto, prin poemele lor eroi-comice zdruncin teribil imaginea lumii consacrate de Cntarea lui Roland, pentru ca, odat cu Don Quijote eroismul i literatura eroic medieval s i exhibe mecanismul de funcionare, mainria, tehnicitatea, ca o plan de anatomie cu un trup deschis i pielea atrnnd pe alturi. Romanul lui Cervantes dezvluie un drum nfundat i cere epicului de dup el alte ci de acces. De aceea, supratema va fi convenia literar sau despre pericolele i avantajele

Fiction and arts attea ori: eu m-am nscut pe lume s nltur nedreptatea. Efectul acestei dorine triunghiulare, o dorin potrivit Altuia, este c, de ndat ce intermedierea modelului se face simit, sensul realului e pierdut, judecata e paralizat [Girard, 1972: 25]. Avem aici un caz de mediere extern, ce se va regsi ulterior i la Flaubert, Doamna Bovary fiind asocierea constant, don Quijotele feminin. E vorba, n ambele, despre un mediator ce rmne exterior universului eroului, un mediator livresc, la distan apreciabil de subiect pentru ca cele dou sfere de posibile s nu fie n contact, dar invers dect la Stendhal, Dostoievski sau Proust, unde imitrile urmeaz modele proxime. ntr-o atare mediere care i declar modelul, subiectul pstreaz fa de el o admiraie reverenioas, se declar vasalul lui fidel. Resentimentul, ura, rivalitatea nu ncap n aceast relaie nonconcurenial. n amndou cazurile, efectul medierii este acela c ea confer obiectului o valoare iluzorie, suscitnd dorina de a-l poseda. Diferenele dintre quijotism i bovarism sunt ns un argument mult mai tare pentru a desfiina funciar o asemenea apropiere vehiculat enorm i trebuie invocat aici n primul rnd opoziia dintre un fenomen individualist i unul complet dezinteresat, ca i aceea dintre slbiciune i trie interioar. Are nevoie don Quijote de acest mediator? Da, el, mediatorul, e mai mult dect un simplu impuls, e motorul propriei viei. n lipsa lui Amadis, resorturile interioare se prbuesc i fostul cavaler moare din melancolie. Nu dintr-o cauz exterioar. Pentru c binevoitorii si prieteni au voit s extirpe quijotismul, n loc s-i corecteze erorile i s-l ndrepte, spre eficacitate, spre folosul vieii. Afirmaia lui Girard cum c mediatorul, Cavalerul, figur epic a imaginaiei, prezent exclusiv nuntrul contiinei personajului, mrturisete indirect c autonomia metafizic a fiinei e imposibil, tern, nesemnificativ, se adeverete n acest caz, fr s autorizeze ns generalizrile pe care autorul studiului le face. Se adeverete pentru c suntem unei faa unei viei construite exclusiv pe imitaie. Viaa cavalereasc nsi, a artat Huizinga n Amurgul Evului Mediu, se constituie pe imitaie, o imitaie a eroilor din ciclul lui Artur sau a eroilor antici, aici ns ea merge pn la copierea fidel. Cnd imaginea Cavalerului se clatin sub lovitura imparabil a altui cavaler, bacalaureatul Sansn Carrasco, viaa revine la linia orizontului i declin spre moarte. O fabul despre condiionarea dintre a tri i a aspira. 143

Fiction and arts E nevoie de o Doamn Iat-o pe Dulcineea, personajul feminin de prim rang n scenariu devreme ce nu poi fi autentic cavaler rtcitor fr o Doamn, fr s fii ndrgostit. Altfel, zice don Quijote, el n-ar fi dect un bastard care a intrat n fortreaa cavalerei nu pe poart, ci pe creasta zidurilor. Rangul ei social nu exist n nomenclatorul cavaleresc, ranca fiind doar obiect de glume licenioase i de manifestri instinctuale, cum ne spun, printre altele, nuvelele lui Boccaccio sau ale lui Chaucer. Nu tie s scrie, nici s citeasc i toat relaia ei cu Cavalerul Tristei Figuri se rezum la priviri cuviincioase din partea lui, n cele maxim patru ntlniri, n doisprezece ani, pe care le-au avut. Aceasta, pentru c Aldonza Lorenzo, pe numele ei adevrat, merit o atare atitudine reverenioas, merit s fie stpna ntregului univers, crescut fiind de ctre mama i tatl ei ca o floare de ser, n mare grij i izolare. Aa o recomand don Quijote lui Sancho, care replic cu o anume admiraie neascuns: O cunosc prea bine zise Sancho i pot zice c zvrle drugii la fel de bine ca l mai voinic flcu din tot satul. Pe Ddtorul cel viu, e-o fat pe cinste, vnoas i vrtoas i brbat, de-l poate scoate din noroi pn-n barb pe orice cavaler rtcitor sau gata s-o ia razna i care i-ar lua-o drept stpn! Oh, pui de lele, ce tare-n vn mi este i ce glas are! Pot spune cntr-o zi s-a urcat n clopotnia satului ca s-i strige pe nite argai de-ai ei care munceau pe-o prloag de-a lui taic-su i, cu toate c erau la mai bine de juma de leghe de-acolo, au auzit-o de parc ar fi fost la poalele turnului. i partea ei cea mai bun e c nu-i deloc sclifosit, ba are chiar porniri de tlani: cu toii se hrjonete i de toate face nebuneli i haz. [] i ard de nerbdare s-o pornesc la drum fie i numai ca s-o vd, c de mult vreme n-am mai vzut-o i s-o mai fi schimbat, fiindc boiul femeilor se stric din prea mult mers la cmp, n soare i-n aer liber. Robust, prea nalt (m ntrece cu peste o chioap, spune Sancho), for fizic brbteasc, grosolnie, uurtate. O fiin funcional, bun de munc, eficient, nicidecum decorativ sau graioas, doar strict natural i mult prea concret pentru a putea inspira chiar i pe cel mai puin pretenios pretendent. La toate acestea, el, cavalerul, rspunde cumva pocit c pentru ce vrea el, Dulcineea din Toboso valoreaz ct cea mai nalt prines de pe pmnt, cci nu pe ea o vede n ea, ci o fiin imaginar aa cum imaginare sunt toate Amarilisele, Filisele, Silviile, Dianele, Galateele, Filidele care 144

Fiction and arts populeaz crile vremii. C este ea sau alta, totuna, cci, spune el, mi-o reprezint n nchipuire aa cum o doresc, att n privina frumuseii, ct i a nobleei, i nici Elena nu i se apropie, i nici Lucreia n-o ajunge din urm. Imaginarul se dovedete a fi fr limit, dac bate detaat modelele consacrate de frumusee i de virtute. Suntem n plin iluzie contient, n plin substituie voit ntre via i ficiune. O ficiune compensatoare, att de necesar, nct ea are dreptul s compun o nou mitografie. Cci lumea lui don Quijote e exclusiv n alb i negru, ori aa, ori invers, nu exist toleran, doar lucruri nltoare sau de repudiat i de corectat pe loc. Din cotidianul gri se trece brusc la idealitatea naripat, ca n aceast descriere a Dulcineei pe care cavalerul i-o face lui Vivaldo, gentilomul venit s asiste la nmormntarea lui Grisstomo. Fiina pe care i-o va prezenta don Quijote ca Doamn a inimii sale aduce, prin efervescena comparaiilor, nici mai mult nici mai puin, cu descrierea miresei din Cntarea Cntrilor: prul i e de aur, fruntea cmpii elizee, sprncenele curcubee, ochii sori, obrajii trandafiri, buzele corali, perle dinii, alabastru gtul, marmur pieptul, filde minile, albimea ei zpad, iar prile pe care cinstea le-a ascuns vederii omeneti sunt astfel, dup cum gndesc i mi nchipui, nct consideraia discerntoare le poate doar proslvi, nicidecum compara. Deci frumusee vizibil desvrit, de-a dreptul imposibil de reperat n realitate (supraomeneasc, de vreme ce-n ea ajung s se adevereasc toate atributele imposibile i himerice pe care poeii le dau doamnelor lor), mister i virtute calitate obligatorie, proclamat de don Quijote de cte ori are ocazia. S-ar mai aduga exigena de neam bun, discutabil n acest caz, dar pe care eroul nostru l cosmetizeaz senin: neamul Toboso din La Mancha este unul modern, ce poate drui obrie generoas celor mai ilustre familii din veacurile viitoare. Portret ideal, fcut, ca i picturile lui Arcimboldo, din ingredientele livreti de cel mai mare pre, portret standard care merge pn la emacierea i dispariia fizicului n alegorie pur. Un procedeu de altfel specific literaturii cavalereti care, prin excluderea oricror note individualizante, tinde ctre dematerializarea personajelor i transformarea lor in simbol. Ar mai fi adugat ceva despre funcia Doamnei ca s se vad exact rolul ei dublu, nu numai de ideal cast, ci i de nger pzitor n viaa unui cavaler rtcitor. n aceeai discuie, la observaia lui Vivaldo, cum c prea se ncredineaz cavalerii iubitelor lor naintea luptei, n loc s se ncredineze lui Dumnezeu, de parc ele le-ar fi chiar Dumnezeul lor, don 145

Fiction and arts Quijote nu are alt argument dect obiceiul; tot el spune c, ncredinndu-se iubitei, nu nseamn c renun s se ncredineze lui Dumnezeu, doar amn asta pentru un alt moment al luptei. Iar cnd Sancho, obsedat de fantasma unei viei de lux, l someaz s se nsoare cu pretinsa prines Moimiomiona Doroteea, Cavalerul nfuriat i vorbete despre vitejia Dulcineei care se folosete de braul lui pentru faptele ei de vitejie: Ea lupt n mine i nvinge n mine, iar eu n ea triesc i respir i am via i fiin. Transfer spiritual total ntr-un qui pro quo al perechii desvrite. Personajul romanului cavaleresc, spune de fapt don Quijote, nu e unul singur, cavalerul, ci e perechea. n volumul al doilea, el va mrturisi ducesei c e ndrgostit cumva din obligaie i c nici nu conteaz dac obiectul dorinei exist sau nu i n afara lui. Doamna o condiie derivat din nebunia cavalereasc, pe care nu el a inventat-o, ci alii naintea lui: Dumnezeu tie dac Dulcineea exist sau nu pe lume sau dac este imaginar sau nu e imaginar; acestea nu sunt lucruri a cror cercetare s trebuiasc a fi dus pn la capt. Nu eu am zmislit-o i nici nu am nscuto pe doamna mea, dei o contemplu aa cum i se cuvine unei doamne nzestrate cu toate nsuirile ce o pot face faimoas n toate colurile lumii, cum ar fi frumoas fr pat, grav fr trufie, ndrgostit cu virtute, recunosctoare din curtenie, curtenitoare din bun cretere i, n sfrit, nalt prin neam, deoarece asupra sngelui nobil strlucete i troneaz frumuseea cu mai multe trepte de perfeciune dect n frumoasele de obrie umil. Ce e Doamna? Un stindard obligatoriu, purtat cu mndrie. Ce e iubirea? O simpl form declarativ. Uzul, att e tot ce a rmas din vechile structuri erotice i agonistice ale cavalerismului. Iubirea stagneaz la nivelul retoricii miestrite, nici vorb de sentiment, nici vorb s-l putem bnui pe don Quijote cum c ar fi ndrgostit. Deci i Doamna poate fi oricine, poate arta i se poate purta oricum. Despre cavalera rtcitoare se poate spune la fel ca despre dragoste. Ea face toate lucrurile egale, zice don Quijote. l face pe el egal lui Sancho, pe care-l mbie la masa lui, altfel srccioas, o face pe Dulcineea egal oricrei precedene ilustre. Nu nfirile, nu conjuncturile, nu formele conteaz, ci spiritul care le anim. Aparenele sunt rezultatul unei vrjitorii pe care cineva o pune la cale ca s-i rd de oamenii bine intenionai, vrea cavalerul s cread. Simple avataruri ignobile ale unei realiti eterne, ce st n mintea lui pe muchie de cuit, gata 146

Fiction and arts s cad cnd pe o fa, cnd pe cealalt. Trebuie doar s vezi ce vrei s vezi i treci rapid de la profan la sacru printr-un simplu exerciiu de imaginaie. Asta izbutete i imaginaia, face ca lucrurile s fie egale, egalizeaz realitatea cu fantezia, ntinznd-o, dup plac, pe un pat al lui Procust care reflect msura propriilor visuri. Tema realitii oscilante este tema nivelului de profunzime al operei, tema n care aparena i esena se lumineaz pe rnd n funcie de fusul orar al imaginaiei. De aceea personajul are crize ale noiunii de real, cum spune Clinescu, i, evident, din punctul lui de vedere, crize ale noiunii de irealitate, cum este marea dram a vieii sale, descoperirea Dulcineei n persoana unei rudimentare rnci. Spuneam mai nainte c de jocul acesta dintre forme i fond nu scap nici imaginea femeii construit undeva la intersecia dintre ce este i ce semnific, dintre uman i etern, dintre imanent i transcendent, dintre poemul naripat i proza burlesc. i da, ntr-adevr, o astfel de femeie e Dulcineea, o idee, un spirit, o imagine, care poate cpta orice aparen profan i, de vreme ce esena ei e dinainte lmurit, poate s nici nu existe n realitate, important e c exist n mintea eroului i joac rolul pe care trebuie s-l joace: Marea Doamn a Inimii, cea prin care eu triesc. Dulcineea e marele personaj absent n roman, nimeni nu o ntlnete n prezentul narativ, tot ce tim despre ea e relatat, colportat, inventat, idealizat. Sau, cnd ntlnirea nu mai poate fi amnat, cum se ntmpl nainte de cea de-a treia plecare a lui don Quijote, atunci se apeleaz la substituia ei cu o ranc ntlnit ntmpltor. Dac don Quijote nu ar accepta sugestia lui Sancho, cum c Dulcineea e vrjit, tot restul romanului ar fi anulat, cci anulat ar fi nsi motivaia aciunilor lui. Cum observ Auerbach [1967: 372], cumplita decepie datorat pierderii brutale a iluziei ar fi n stare s nnebuneasc un om pn la patologicul pur, ceea ce ar nsemna o teribil deturnare a sensului nvestit n personaj, sau ar putea s-l trezeasc definitiv. Nu se ntmpl nici una, nici alta. Motivul vrjii i permite lui don Quijote s rmn Don Quijote i reprezint soluia narativ a continuitii romanului. Vraja este, de altfel, procedeul constant al ambelor volume, folosit ns n scopuri diferite: n primul, ea servete transfigurrii realitii profane n direcia dorit, spre sacru, n cel de-al doilea e o form de aprare a iluziei sacralizate de invazia profanului nud [Ivanovici, 1980: 78]. Maleficiile vrjitorilor sunt invocate dintr-o astfel de 147

Fiction and arts reacie de aprare, pentru ca personajul s evite mcar eecul idealului, dac eecul realului e total. Castitatea lui don Quijote merit sau neputin? Iubirea pentru Dulcineea e, dintre toate sloganurile cavalerei, cel mai trmbiat. Iubirea de Dulcineea sau iubirea de iubire? Cci nu poi iubi ceea ce nu exist i ceea ce nu cunoti i, mai ales, nu poi iubi fr motiv. Don Quijote crede c are un astfel de motiv, esena i mobilul sentimentului declarat fiind excelena Dulcineei n materie de frumusee. Numai c frumuseea neobiectivat nu poate fi iubit, e ca i cum ai iubi concepte. Ele nu pot rscoli fiina. Marea limit a personajului rmne neputina de ai tri iubirea, ceea ce vine din neputina de a-i concretiza obiectul iubirii. O rigiditate sufleteasc ce a fost interpretat drept semnul limpede al decadenei, mrturie revelatoare pentru o epoc sectuit de valorile umane [epoca medieval, n.m.], n care formalismul i convenionalismul ptrund pn i n cele mai intime planuri ale omului [Musta, 1991: 45]. Sterilitatea i asceza medievale, propovduite de biseric merg aici pn la consecinele lor ultime, imaginnd sublimarea erosului fizic ntr-unul metafizic prin negarea unuia dintre parteneri. Or o atare situaie presupune infirmitate, nicidecum sfinenie, aa cum nu lipsa adversarului, ci numai prezena lui efectiv poate da cuiva certitudinea forei sale. Don Quijote e nu numai emblema imposibilitii de a tri iubirea, ci i aceea a neputinei de a tri n limitele naturii umane nsei, de a-i accepta fireasca pornire spre mplinirea individual. De dou ori, pe tot parcursul aventurilor sale, cavalerul ia viaa n piept i vrea s stabileasc puni reale ntre el i aleasa inimii. Aflat n Sierra Morena l trimite pe Sancho cu o scrisoare la Dulcineea, prin care i transmite ct ptimete de dragul ei. D indicaii clare cu privire la loc, la familia ei i promite recompense lui Sancho numai s se achite cu bine de aceast nsrcinare. Fragmentul iese din sfera fictivului, nu pare deloc ilustrarea unui topos literar, ci expresia unei dorine foarte precizate. Acum don Quijote e obligat s deschid o parantez n propria ficiune i s recunoasc n faa lui Sancho c Dulcineea e de fapt Aldonza Lorenzo pe care scutierul o cunoate prea bine. Secvena o pregtete pe cea a ntlnirii efective: nainte de plecarea n cea de-a treia cltorie, don Quijote vrea s-o vad, cu propriii ochi, pe Dulcineea, iniiativ uimitoare pentru un om care 148

Fiction and arts concede c Doamna poate s nici nu existe n realitate. Dedublarea sa ontologic, om inventat, cu nervii i venele hrnite de culturi foarte diferite, de la cea medieval, cavalereasc, pn la cultura Renaterii, dar, n acelai timp, om real i autentic cu identitate, vrst, fizionomie [Cabas, 1971: 223], genereaz firesc dedublarea Dulcineea Aldonza Lorenzo, femeia livresc i cea real. Surpriza cea mare apare atunci cnd don Quijote, nu Alonso Quijano, merge s-i ntlneasc iubita, care nu poate fi dect Aldonza Lorenzo, nicidecum Dulcineea. Inserie grav a imaginarului n real, curaj smintit i aductor de dezastre dac n-ar fi fost intervenia salutar a lui Sancho care i prezint o ranc ntmpltoare drept Dulcineea i i sugereaz ideea vrjii. Secvena e totui bizar n ansamblul romanului i ne ntrebm firete care-i este rostul. De ce simte eroul nevoia binecuvntrii efective a Dulcineei dac binecuvntarea aceasta oricum exista n planul imaginar, singurul care conteaz pentru el? Se pare c are dreptate Clinescu cnd vorbete despre crizele noiunii de real pe care le triete Cavalerul. Iluzionarea sa, ca s funcioneze, are nevoie de un minim suport real, de un minim combustibil, dup care se dezvolt de la sine, prin nmuguriri succesive. Ne putem ntreba de asemenea dac iubirea lui declarat pentru Dulcineea, al crei prototip real este o ranc de care fusese cndva ndrgostit, dei, de bun seam, ea niciodat nu tiuse i nu bnuise, nu e un produs de compensaie, o publicitate extrem a unui sentiment condamnat s rmn ascuns, ignorat. Cnd o caut ns pe aleasa inimii n Toboso, rmnem stupefiai, cci don Quijote declar ca n-a vzut-o n viaa lui i c s-a ndrgostit de ea doar din auzite, datorit marii faime de care se bucur. Aceasta din urm e ns, clar, Dulcineea, nu Aldonza, e adic produsul literaturii, al poeziei trubadureti. Don Quijote nu iubete pentru c nici o micare nu vine s tulbure vreodat apele calme ale sufletului su. Chinul ndrgostitului i este cu totul strin, incandescena nu exist n acest sentiment pur teoretic i, de aceea, egal cu sine. Nu exist oscilaie, pentru c nu exist via n aceast iubire-formalitate. Un personaj complet lipsit de vreun conflict interior, fr psihologie, fr dileme, fr crize de contiin. Dialogul cu sine e desfiinat, reflexia anulat, pentru c a fost premergtoare deciziei de a mbria o astfel de via. Pornit cu toat energia fiinei sale spre o int prestabilit, care nu admite nuane, reformulri sau ajustri, e sortit 149

Fiction and arts dezastrului cnd verdictul realitii nu mai poate fi amnat. Libertate total versus supunere total, semn clar de automatism i ntr-o direcie, i n cealalt. Lui don Quijote i lipsete tiina negocierii. Ori vrsta de aur, ori cea de fier, ori viaa, ori moartea. Iar aprehensiunea pentru vrsta de aur se coreleaz spune Marthe Robert, care citete romanul printr-o gril psihanalitic, cu sentimentul paradisiac al copilului, dat de posesiunea unei lumi unitare, necivilizate n sens mitic, adic inocente, nescindate n nici un fel, cnd posed nc n exclusivitate o mam fr so, un pmnt cu sacru trup, pe care brzdarul viril nc nu l-a silit [1983: 194]. O explicaie posibil pentru inapetena sexual a personajului i pentru refuzul de a tri iubirea individual ca iniiativ a Tatlui creator i ca un mod de a intra n Istorie i n Civilizaie n favoarea unei iubiri universale, singura lege capabil sa apere armonia i unitatea desvrit a mitului. Altfel, iubirea sa, att de etalat i doar etalat, iese de sub toate condiiile stabilite de analitii sentimentului. Iat cteva puncte capitale care ar fi mrcile inconturnabile ale recunoaterii adevratei iubiri, dup Ortega y Gasset: legea iubirii e nu doar a fi, cum lui i este suficient, ci a aciona ctre obiectul dorit, a fi alturi de el ntr-un contact i o proximitate mai profunde dect cele spaiale [Ortega y Gasset: 26]. Astfel, nu exist iubire fr instinct sexual [Ortega y Gasset: 26]. Iubirea e un fenomen de esenial alegere, aici e fixaie instantanee asupra singurului obiect cunoscut, nici un examen al calitilor nu intervine n selecia lui, doar amintirea firav a unei aspiraii nemrturisite. Iubirea, mai spune eseistul spaniol, se nate nu din frumuseea teoretic, perfect, ci din graia expresiv a unui mod de a fi, din ntruparea a ceea ce fiecare dintre noi credem c e frumusee, n sensul platonician de optimitate, i nseamn a te pronuna rspicat pentru un anume tip de umanitate. i pentru a se nate, ea are nevoie s se fixeze n prealabil asupra obiectului, punct n care se deosebete radical de pura voluptate, care i poate preexista. Dulcineea ns se nate din spuma mrii i, dac e i ea o form de voluptate, atunci e voluptatea iluziei. Apoi, iubirea are nevoie de o permanent confirmare din partea celuilalt; nu i pentru don Quijote care cere confirmri doar nvinilor, absolut formale, cum c Doamna inimii lui e singura fptur desvrit de pe pmnt. Mai important dect toate, verdictul c tipul uman pe care-l preferm n cellalt schieaz profilul propriei noastre inimi [Ortega y Gasset: 62], c n alegerea amoroas se reflect fondul 150

Fiction and arts nostru cel mai autentic. Or Alonso Quijano o prefer pe Aldonza Lorenzo, o figur att de banal din universul cunoscut, de aceea don Quijote trebuie s o creeze pe nalta Dulcineea, evadarea lui din normal, vulgar, cotidian, rutinier. Numai procesul imaginaiei ne poate spune ceva pozitiv despre acest personaj, alegerea lui rmne dezolant. n concluzie, spune Ortega y Gasset, n ciuda a ceea ce se crede n mod obinuit, iubirea e un sentiment foarte rar, nicidecum demotic, dac e separat de formele de pseudoiubire, precum ardoarea senzual sau afeciunea, cu care se confund adesea. E de-a dreptul un talent, ca talentul artistic, ca bravura. Nu oricine se ndrgostete, iar cel capabil nici nu se ndrgostete de oricine [Ortega y Gasset: 146], cci pentru un proces complet e nevoie de cumularea a trei componente. nti sunt condiiile de percepie, adic a fi capabil de a o vedea pe fiina care urmeaz a fi iubit, ceea ce e propriu doar sufletelor poroase, cu o curiozitate existenial i o dorin arztoare de via (le petit bourgeois nu se poate ndrgosti autentic). Apoi, condiii de emoie, prin care rspundem noi nine din punct de vedere sentimental la acea viziune a obiectului iubirii n virtutea unor caliti care-l fac vrednic de a fi iubit. n fine, i decisiv, condiii de constituie, inerente sufletului nostru, singurele care-i dau msura ntreag, cci chiar dac celelalte dou operaii ce in de percepie i de sensibilitate se desfoar corect, tot se poate ntmpla ca sentimentul respectiv s nu ne smulg sau s ne invadeze sau s ne structureze ntreaga persoan, ntruct ea este puin solid i elastic, dispersat sau fr resorturi viguroase [Ortega y Gasset: 147]. Abia aceast din urm condiie d iubirii capacitatea s creasc i s devin plenar, i confer calitatea sa specific, pentru c ine de complexitatea i de acuitatea intelectual a celui ce iubete. E calitatea de talent sui generis care admite toate gradaiile pn la genialitate, calitatea de creaie, de trire logoid, nzestrat cu sens, cu nous, tocmai pentru c este profund fundamentat n adevrul fiinei celui ce iubete. Trebuie s recunoatem c Dulcineea, poate cel mai dificil de neles personaj al romanului, e preluat ca mit, dar recreat mereu i mereu, cu concursul fanteziei i al reveriei, de mintea acestui nou Pygmalion. Un proces care vorbete nu numai despre voina personajului de a-i asigura scenariul cavaleresc perfect, ci i despre voina de ndrgostire sau, cum spune eseistul spaniol, despre deschiderea spre existen, pe care o dein 151

Fiction and arts doar anumite fiine. Numai strict la acest prim nivel al condiionrilor l putem pune n relaie pe don Quijote cu Dulcineea ca expresie a iubirii. Cci emoia nu poate fi suscitat de nite caliti-concepte, iar cnd acestea capt ntruchipare, cnd pretextul real al Dulcineei i apare n fa n persoana unei rnci, dezamgirea e total. De asemenea, complexitatea sufleteasc a personajului a devenit univocitate decis sub impactul lecturilor, iar obiectul alegerii amoroase, prototip convenional. Iubirea lui don Quijote, de care critica a fcut att de mult caz, atribuindu-i merite nebnuite, nu e iubire autentic, nu e nici sublimarea iubirii, e o form goal, o ficiune frumoas ca i iubirea cavalereasc de altfel, dar nici mcar att, pentru c i lipsete chiar i realitatea obiectului. Dulcineea este Gloria, spune Unamuno [1973: 132], setea de nemurire ca sublimare a instinctului erotic, pentru a se putea zmisli astfel fii spirituali. Aa se explic nfrnarea i neprihnirea cavalerului pe care fiii trupeti l-ar fi abtut de la isprvile lui vitejeti. Laitatea n faa oricrei iniiative de a o cuceri pe Dulcineea (nu pentru acest scop merge el n El Toboso, naintea celei de-a treia expediii) se convertete ntr-un curaj nebun n lumea exterioar. El crede c o cucerete cucerind lumea pentru ea. Scenariu cavaleresc, n care numai iubirile nefericite dau roade n spirit, sugereaz Unamuno. Numai c, interpretarea transcendent a iubirii rmne, n eseul su, n limitele donquijotismului constant, care mprumut perspectiva personajului central. n afara lui, n cervantism, nu-l vedem pe don Quijote nici fericit, nici nefericit din pricina absenei Dulcineei. Nefericit doar din pricina vrjirii ei, pentru c elementul necesar scenariului s-a alterat. i Harold Bloom vede n don Quijote un caz tipic de via netrit [1998: 108-109], un individ cast, care i-a petrecut, pn la cincizeci de ani, viaa ntre zidurile casei, nconjurat de o menajer, o nepoat, un ajutor la cmp i doi prieteni, preotul i brbierul satului. Eroismul su absolut, curajul su nebun, care depete n mod convingtor curajul oricrui erou din literatura occidental, n-ar fi altceva dect o sublimare a energiei sexuale, iar ncnttoarea Dulcineea emblema gloriei ce trebuie atins n i prin violen [Bloom, 1998: 111]. n numele ei i pstreaz cu ndrjire castitatea, pentru c dragostea este numai un mijloc de transcendere, nu un scop, nici mcar o trire n sine. Importante sunt armele, nu literele, nici femeile. Dar femeia lui, ca i Beatrice a lui Dante, e nu doar pilonul lumii 152

Fiction and arts sale, ci i oglinda n care i poate fi citit propriul chip. Ea ne reveleaz profilul unui om pentru care iubirea e stare a fiinei, e iubirea de ideal, de tot ceea ce este nalt, frumos i nobil. Bibliografie: Auerbach, Erich, Mimesis. Reprezentarea realitii n literatura occidental, n romnete de I. Negoiescu, Prefa de Romul Munteanu, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, 1967. Battaglia, Salvatore, Mitografia personajului, traducere de Alexandru George, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1976. Dumitriu, Anton, Cartea ntlnirilor admirabile, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1981. Bloom, Harold, Canonul occidental. Crile i coala epocilor, traducere de Diana Stancu, Postfa de Mihaela Anghelescu Irimia, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1998. Cabas, Juan, Istoria literaturii spaniole, traducere, studiu introductiv, note i O privire asupra literaturii spaniole actuale de Doina Maria Pcurariu, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1971. Clinescu, George, Scriitori strini, antologie i text ngrijit de Vasile Nicolescu i Adrian Marino, prefa de Adrian Marino, Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, 1967. Cervantes, Miguel de, Don Quijote de la Mancha, traducere din spaniol, cuvnt nainte, cronologie, note i comentarii de Sorin Mrculescu, studiu introductiv de Martin de Riquer, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2007. Dumitrescu-Buulenga, Zoe, Renaterea, Umanismul i destinul artelor, ediie integral revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1975. Dumitriu, Anton, Cartea ntlnirilor admirabile, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1981. Girard, Ren, Minciun romantic i adevr romanesc, n romnete de Alexandru Baciu, Prefa de Paul Cornea, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1972. Huizinga, Johan, Amurgul Evului Mediu. Studiu despre formele de via i de gndire din secolele al XIV-lea i al XV-lea n Frana i n rile de Jos, traducere din olandez de H. R. Radian, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2002. Ivanovici, Victor, Form i deschidere, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1980. 153

Fiction and arts King, Margaret L., Femeia Renaterii, n Omul renascentist, vol. coordonat de Eugenio Garin, traducere de Drago Cojocaru, prefa de Maria Carpov, Iai, Polirom, 2000. Martin de Riquer, Cervantes i Don Quijote, studiu introductiv la Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quijote de la Mancha, traducere din spaniol, cuvnt nainte, cronologie, note i comentarii de Sorin Mrculescu, Piteti, Editura Paralela 45, 2007. Musta, Ioana, n preajma lui Don Quijote, Bucureti, Editura Roza Vnturilor, 1991, p. 45. Ortega y Gasset, Jos, Studii despre iubire, traducere de Sorin Mrculescu, Bucureti, Humanitas, [s.a.]. Pavel, Toma, Gndirea romanului, traducere din francez de Mihaela Manca, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008. Rileanu, Petre, Corabia lui Ghilgame. Eseuri, Bucureti, Editura Militar, 1990. Robert, Marthe, Romanul nceputurilor i nceputurile romanului, traducere de Paula Voicu-Dohotaru, Prefa de Angela Ion, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1983. Roznoveanu, Mirela, Civilizaia romanului. Arhitecturi epice, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1991. Unamuno, Miguel de, Viaa lui don Quijote i Sancho, n romnete de Ileana Bucurenciu i Grigore Dima, Prefa de Andrei Ionescu Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1973. Vianu, Tudor, Studii de literatur universal i comparat, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romne, 1963.

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Fiction and arts condition has been world-wide noticed: The 19th century exiled women in their private environment, brutally, as it had never happened before. Woman, having become the symbol of frailty which needed to be protected from the exterior world (the public) will gradually become the symbol of the private. Women had to be isolated in private spaces given exactly their biological weakness; the private itself, privacy, in itself, had revealed its frailty when facing politics and the public transformation of the revolutionary process. Man had the care of public life; woman, on the other hand, was the centre of her home and family. It was firmly believed that man and woman were created to occupy different realms of activity. It was a law of nature, confirmed by habit and conveniences. Each sex, naturally different, had its own qualities and every attempt to escape from its sphere was doomed to failure. (Aries, Duby, 1995: 45-49) Many female characters were created especially to illustrate, slightly anticipatively, the immense power of womens desire for emancipation. There are some voices of the future, like the character Zoe from one of Bolintineanus novel, who, directly, but temperately, in a controlled and rational manner, completely motivated, present the actual situation of the women at those times. Other voices, obedient, stay anchored in the habits of the past. Woman manifests herself in numerous spaces, where she can express her personality or she can stage her machinations. The theatre hall serves to create love connections. The ball serves for the same purpose; it is the huge scene of mask games, travesty, and sentimental intrigues. The loge, the room, the parlour, the garden are spaces of seclusion, spaces of mystery, of the secrets told on the quiet. The writers of the 19th century were closely preoccupied with the description of those spaces in their writings, they themselves having frequented or admired such realms of life. A reputed man of culture, Mihail Koglniceanu also wrote about the art of the parlours. It is evoked in rich details, sometimes with slight irony, bonhomie, a certain reconciliation of the author with the human nature. Here women find a good realm to take their purposes a step further, to plan their machinations attentively. The lady of the house, the hostess, who is also an entertainer, has a special power, trying to control and impose her ideas upon the guests. Avoiding upsetting the lady of the parlour is an art. Alecu Russo attributes the development of the society, the movement of the world itself to women. From his perspective, they are in all countries 156

Womans morality and emancipation as reflected in the 19th century Romanian prose
Alina SIMU University of Oradea Abstract: Even if studies related to 19th century Romanian prose are sometimes eclectic, the female character benefited from a much greater focus, equaled maybe only by that granted to the historical character. Generally, these studies describe the relationship between the female character and the environment she lives in, womans social role in the patriarchal society, the winning of independence, woman as individuality in relation with two major family events: marriage and divorce, the right to education, political and judicial freedom. Then the female character is analyzed in relation with the public space and the private one. In the 19th century she is seen at the ball, the theatre, walking or on a trip, at church, playing cards or on the hippodrome, in the garden or in the imperious setting of a library. Keywords: female character, vernacular prose, Romanticism, melodramatics, morality, emancipation Romanticism manifested itself in its rather mild, domestic, even intimate aspects in the Romanian literature of the 19th century. Developing its Biedermeier phase, it displayed characters from the exterior, with their manifestations, gestures, reactions, exclamations, against the social background, all in the virtue of pure melodramatics. Women are spectacular figures, Romantic characters caught in the games of love, dominated by one state of mind only, or by antithetical ones. Their psychology is often deficient, the writings in prose do not insist on the internal mechanism of the characters. Woman is seen from myriad perspectives in the Romanian 19th century prose. There are no major differences between the Romanian women and those in Western Europe. All of them have relatively the same status, social differences being clearly preserved. Most times they dwell in suffering, lack of consideration, both at the level of their professional life, and their family and social life. This leveling of the European womans

Fiction and arts the mobile of the revolutions, especially as concerns fashion. That is why, in our case too, ladies have changed the Greek costume, beautiful, rich and grand. This is valid for all walks of life, for societies who are in favour of progress, are willing to evolve again, but also for those who are traditional, who keep the old habits alive. Woman is vividly portrayed in the so much controversial prose Duduca Mamuca. It is B. P. Hadeus short story that was later turned into a rather mild writing, called Micua. In both cases, the female character at those times shocked from several perspectives. She is depicted as the ingenuous young woman, who falls into a mans romantic trap. A commoner named Toderi, he seduces the young lady and has her fall into another mans arms. He often proves to be a misogynist, women being presented in frivolous, erotic, bourgeois hypostases, voluptuously practicing the games of seduction. Hadeu cultivates the figure of the young lady, of the child who allows to be easily taken into the games of seduction. She often goes beyond the imposed laws of morality, as perceived at those times. Micua, Miss Maria, the sixteen-year-old girl is an actress to be, recently appeared on the theatre stages, waiting for the applause of the public that favours young ladies. She is an artist in her early years, enjoying the exuberance of youth. Costache Negruzzis prose abounds in female characters that strive between the urges of their hearts and morality. A young woman falls in love with a cynical Don Juan, her love is deceived, and there comes revenge, which fails lamentably, then suicide. It is an epic pattern that characterizes most of the romantic writings of the 19th century, not only in The Romanian Countries, but also in the European literature of the time. In fact, Romanian writers are fascinated with the European poetry and prose, so much as to translate their books, or sometimes to copy from them extensively, or to use their narrative patterns into local writings with vernacular themes. A high sense of melodramatics pervades those writings. In the short story entitled Zoe we find a frail girl, possessive in the games of love. She does not restrain herself from repeatedly expressing her feelings towards Iancu, she indulges in the love smoke as she indulges in the smoke of the cigarette among which Zoe could be seen like a goddess among clouds. The narrators commentary is subtly inserted, having a double role: that of oversizing the image, but also that of granting a slightly comical touch to the scene depicted. The pathos of love comes from vivid 157

Fiction and arts dialogues at the beginning of the short story. The characters are dominated by theatrical gestures. Zoe is the young lady in love, capable of doing everything for genuine feelings. The scene where she appears for the first time in the novel is imperious, rich in details: the clothes, the hair, the idle position urges the narrator to say: She was a really beautiful girl, the young lady! In the development of the short story, the character reveals itself under the same domineering umbrella, that of sentimentalism. Zoe is not a character, described in her dynamics; she is rather a theatrical individual, dominated by gestures, reactions, professions of love. The young ladys allusion to marriage is promptly rejected by Iancu, a moment which unleashes loves crisis and the wish for suicide. The female character is predictable. For the author, the moral traits are of no interest, but the exuberance and the despair of individual feelings. In Negruzzis prose there can be noticed the passage from indirect exposition to the direct one through dialogues, monologues, indirect address towards a fictional speaker or interior monologue. The technique of the counterpoint also intensifies the effect. The authors insertion in the text is very frequent; it starts with a retrospective look on the young ladys life, occasion on which the narrator does not forget to say that this is a very true story. Thus, the narrator wants his writing to be real, lifelike, and liable to be taken seriously, capable to circulate in different environments and to stir reactions. Women do not represent only important characters in the 19th century prose, but also faithful readers of the novels and short stories. The development of the prose itself is stimulated by a public who used to read with much interest, a public slightly bourgeois, lacking solid education, a little bit grandiose, wherein women represent a high-percentage. (Cornea, 1980: 270) In the short story called O alergare de cai, unwilling to lose the so-called sympathy of the female readers, the narrator confesses: Undoubtedly I praise all the young women and I do grace to the old ones, in remembrance of their old beauty; but with all obeisance I ask the ladies who are not going to be that slim, to forgive me if I prefer the tall and thin ones. This is a mistake that my taste makes itself guilty of. There is much sycophancy in the Biedermeier prose, wherefrom the mark of artificiality. Soon Zoe finds another man to comfort herself. His promises are easily believed, thus the young lady fantasizes about a future marriage. But 158

Fiction and arts she remains gullible in her dreams, hence an air of melancholy makes her more interesting, but her heart can not live without love. She becomes the pray of some unbearable nightmares: a fantastic fear surrounded her with fierce projections. The poor girl felt the blood in her veins. Imaginary projections, counterbalanced by states pf passing out are part of the romantic scenery. Zoe ends up tragically, shooting herself, leaving the guilt of betrayal in love to Iancu B., who goes mad. We can naturally discuss about types, characters created beforehand. Zoe belongs to the category of girls who commit suicide out of love, but she is not easily classifiable, put into a hierarchy. In Dimitrie Bolintineanus novels the female character is much more complex. Woman is the key element through whom the rise and fall of the male character occurs. But she is not a replica of him; she is a genuine force in the novel. Despite that, Dimitrie Pcurariu maintains that the characters are antithetically created, the author works, we could say, with two colours: white and black, without ever combining them to get intermediary nuances. Characterizations, especially of women, are flat, uniform, using general and almost identical epithets. (Pcurariu, 1969: p. 118) In the novel Elena we notice a predilection towards the analysis of the states of mind, of the love psychology, towards the detailed depiction of the female soul. Elena, as Nicolae Manolescu puts it, is one of the superior beings who prove aristocratic discretion: There was in Bucharest a girl, a marvel, perfection in all aspects. Youth, beauty, spirit, upbringing, delicate feelings, she possessed them all in the highest point, she was one of those rare beings, maybe unique, whom God makes from time to time to be born in certain societies. Elena is the landlady of the manor house in Fneti and the hostess of mixed-up society. She allows time and patience for the people sentimentally and intellectually inferior to her, she listens with pleasure to the contradictions between Alexandru and the others, and his courageous answers agree with the young womans principles: There was a soul who understood him: Elena. His words touched the heart of this woman. The relationship is subtly contoured in the atmosphere dominated by piano music and lectures from Balzac. But what on the inside is love, commitment becomes adultery and lack of morality on the exterior. Elenas guilt as a mother and wife easily slide into her soul. Gradually, the womans drama is unleashing. Although she divorces, she does not get rid 159

Fiction and arts of the guilt imposed by social norms. Illness becomes a means of redeeming inner tension. Another character who ends tragically in the 19th century Romanian prose but remains a feminine model through the outlook she develops at the end of the novel is Aglaia, the main character in an anonymous novel recently discovered. Although she faced the enclosure of freedom as concerns taking decisions, Aglaia is a character full of force. She needs to face the upbringing imposed by a foster parent, the death of her loved one, the material shortage which follows the death of her parents. In the dialogue she has in the last chapter with a woman who was simply passing by, she reveals her moral integrity and the nobility of character. Her conviction is that woman, if she has fallen once, then nothing, it seems to me, is capable to wake her up to her most sacred duties, because woman is almost always governed by feeling, which attracts, often, bad consequences on her head. This woman does not appear without a reason at the end of the novel. She is indicative of the feminine side of society, ever more emancipated, who fights for her own rights and for the equality of chances. The woman of low morals is a very widely spread figure in the Romantic prose of the 19th century. Sometimes she has the contours of a full character, other times she is only mentioned descriptively. There are other writings which depict a real show of coquetry and seduction games. Women gravitate around men, trying to win their favours through various tricks. Two popular, anonymous novels present such webs of masquerade: Catastihul amorului and La gura sobei. There is a main character George, around whom gravitate a series of women trying to win his grace. Two sisters, Elisabeta and Elena compete for his love, setting all sorts of tricks to gain the mans love. Elisabeta seems to be a master of manipulation, as she herself confesses: Arent people always what we want them to be? There is a game of dissimulation between the two sisters, Elena pretends that she does not want to win George, and her sister pokes into her affairs with lots of questions. The narrator remarks ironically: women are always two perils: the peril itself and that of not being able to see it. Elena manifest maternal solicitude in the dialogue with George, she pretends to be responsible about him, and wants to make him her prisoner, offering him, as jail, the most beautiful room her room. In expressing such favour, she does not forget the technical convincing details: she took care to soften her voice and to turn her cheeks red by 160

Fiction and arts pronouncing the last word. Later on, she projects a real show: she sacks her sister, and plans Georges seduction with great attention, but fails because George, in his turn, has his own mechanisms of relating to women, of playing with them. Maria from La gura sobei is the type of the coquette, who masters the art of making men believe that she will give up coquetry for one man only. Her role exists as long as she can manifest socially, otherwise the whole attempt of the female character is useless. A woman is a coquette because she wants others to like her. Therefore, we may say that she herself is overwhelmed by the illness called at those times the hidden malice. It is wishful thinking that transforms the individual in a puppet on the social scale and takes him away from his/her real identity. The woman enjoys being in fashion, in the centre of attention, she is as beautiful as an icon, but has the spirit of a devil. Later on, the author puts down: Well, with such women you cannot deal with them at all. The Romantic woman is a trap; she manifests her seduction power through weapons and tricks known only by her. Women are often associated with devils, narrators recurring to the old biblical story of Adam and Eve. Elegance and the need of emancipation are the major coordinates of the womens behaviour in society. They are the first who have taken the foreign customs, the Parisian and the Viennese models; they are thus the factors of cultural change in the epoch. Their role is that of catalysts. They determine the change; they set it into motion, but after that the role of society itself comes, of social and cultural movement to turn those models into genuine literary and cultural products. Bibliography: ***, (1968), History of Romanian Literature, The Second Volume, From The Western School to Junimea, Academia Publishing House. (In Romanian) ***, (1980), Catastihul amorului. La gura sobei. Dacia Publishing House (In Romanian) Aries, Philippe, Duby, George, (1995), The History of Private Life, Vol. VII, Meridiane Publishing House. (In Romanian) Ble, Dumitru, (1986), Radu Ionescu. A Son of Imagination, Minerva Publishing House. (In Romanian) 161

Fiction and arts Bodiu, Andrei, (2002), Seven Themes of the mid19th Century Novel, Paralela 45 Publishing House. (In Romanian) Bujoreanu, Ioan, (1984), The Mysteries of Bucharest, Minerva Publishing House. (In Romanian) Cazimir, tefan, (1973), The Pioneers of the Romanian Novel, Bucharest, Minerva Publishing House. (In Romanian) Cornea, Paul, (1980), The Rule of the Game, Bucharest, Eminescu Publishing House. (In Romanian) Ionescu, Radu, (1974), Distinguished Writings, Minerva Publishing House. (In Romanian) Pcurariu, Dimitrie, (1969), D. Bolintineanu, Bucharest, Tineretului Publishing House. (In Romanian) Vrgolici, Teodor, (1985), Aspects of the Romanian Novel in the 19th Century, Eminescu Publishing House. (In Romanian)

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Fiction and arts In spite of all the negative critics about his style, one can remark a permanent preoccupation in surprising a conception of life specific to countryside, using simple words understood by all the Romanians. The personal note which puts a mark on his creations is the moralizing nature illustrated in phrases such as: it is good it is not good, it can be it cannot be, it is appropriate it is not appropriate, it is right it is not right, to do not to do, to be satisfied to be unsatisfied: There were also the seven buckets with golden coins which they had to give but the dragons werent just some people who didnt kept their word and eat dirty puddings but they really had to give them away. (Spaima zmeilor), There was nothing in the world to grow quiet the strong will, so Lia kept going on, There is nothing in the world which can hold on someone who wants by all means to go forward (Limir-mprat), Well! Didnt I tell you! It is not right when the lucky ones dont take wise peoples advice (Ioanea mamei). Not only have the heroes from fairy tales guided themselves by these lexical units, but also those from novels and novellas: One should be contented living in poverty because not richness but the welfare of your home makes you happy (Moara cu noroc), I dont know how it came to me some kind of charm and I had to be like that all the time. I had fifty golden coins and I was satisfied. I wanted to come back. But I had fifty one and I couldnt come back, because I had to groan for one hundred (O via pierdut), One needs the other in this world because no one is so rich and powerful not to need others and no one is so poor and weak not to be able to help others (Vecinii, I), Dont turn day into night because you are not like that (Pdureanca) When you dont have anything to live from, nobody wants to know how you ended up there, but they all despise you (Din pcat n pcat). The frequency of these lexical units has to be explained through the moralizing spirit in which the writer was raised, being educated at the Western schools and having taken the simples people advice. The beginning of his prose, but also that of his maturity is based on stereotypes as moral dogma rendered through lexical units. These phrases contain an entire life experience due to the writers wish to improve the society. This desire was due most part to Eminescu, the one who watched over his work, made him a time table and taught him Romanian, a fact admitted by the writer himself: You he told me once have to start with Schopenhauer, pass on to Confucius, then to Buddha and then you have to 164

Slavicis ethos rendered through lexical units

Adela DRUCEAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: Being formed under the influence of the German school of thought, Slavici does not emphasize style, but rather substance, the clarity of communication. One can remark a permanent preoccupation in grasping a concept of life specific to the countryside by using simple words, understood by all the Romanians. A specific feature for Slavici is the moralizing nature of his works illustrated through general expressions such as: it is good it is not good, it can be it cant be, it is appropriate it is not appropriate, it is right it is not right, to do not to do, to be satisfied to be unsatisfied; these phrases show the right way which is to be followed, or they can suggest an impending disaster for the protagonists in case they are not respected. All these lexical units seem antithetical due to negation, but they all comprise the verb must. This is the verb which contains all the lexical units with ethical meaning, but at the same time it involves mans will. Keywords: style, moralizing nature, will, lexical unit, must Being formed at the German school Slavici doesnt put the accent on style, but more on the substance, on the clarity of communication. The writer thinks that only by expressing himself simply and naturally he can be understood: by writing I was straining every effort to be adequate both in creation and in form with the way of seeing things and according to the tastes of those whom I had in view. What followed naturally was that I worked slowly, I wanted a correct form to the smallest detail and I was struggling to choose the words and use them according to the manners of most Romanians, not only for the cultivated people who made up step by step a new language, more diverse and unfamiliar for the ordinary Romanian[SLAVICI, 2001, VI: 284]. Perhaps this attention in choosing words in his works determined some critics such as Duiliu Zamfirescu, Eugen Lovinescu or Pompiliu Constantinescu to consider Slavicis style as being of a poor quality or uncouth like N. Xenopol thinks.

Fiction and arts read something from Platos Dialogues and thats enough. Thus Slavici gets to know the Asian ideas, but also the Western ones which lay emphasis on morality that can be found in his work. Therefore he will consider Confucius above all those who gave people advice in what concerns good living [SLAVICI, 2001, VI: 658)]. In the Oriental philosophers writings he finds moral principles similar to the ones that his mother told him in his childhood: Reading Chinas history I understood better Confucius visions which matched so well with what I had learned at home [SLAVICI, 2001, VI: 659]. First of all it is all about kindness, truth, beauty, justice and other virtues which are important in the society. Confucius moral philosophy started from the principle that man is a small part from the entire nature, a microcosm, having inside the general features of Tao: order, justice, kindness, honesty. Thats why man has to be educated, trained to attain perfection, to be superior (Junzi). This perfection can be achieved only through our forerunners example. According to their example children must have a perfect respect for their parents, the individuals must respect the state, those who are alive must respect those who are dead, the emperor must respect his forerunners and he must obey to Divinity. From the little one to the bigger one they have to respect the duties according the hierarchy [ELIADE, 1999: 251253]. In other words the fundamental idea in his ethics is comprised in kindness (Jen), namely respect to man in man. In his work Ioan Slavici makes use of the main moral virtues expressed by Confucius philosophy goodness, justice, sincerity, dignity, truthfulness, frankness, honesty and the love of truth being able to affirm that the writers prose makes a panorama of mores, it builds a world in which win out those moral standards that people should respect. Being influenced by Confucius ideas, Ioan Slavici wanted to leave through his writings something important for the community. He wanted to show that the morality of people and society is the foundation which assures progress and stability for community. The world of his work is one that models. Often in his work we encounter lexical units that indicate the right way which has to be followed by the heroes or suggest the disaster to which the protagonists can end up if they dont respect them. No matter if it is good it is not good, it can be it cannot be, it is appropriate it is not appropriate, it is right it is not right, all these lexical units seem antithetically due to negation, but they all comprise the verb must. Cornel Ungureanu says that this verb is fundamental in Slavicis work, around it everything is being made [UNGUREANU, 2007: 122]. It is the verb 165

Fiction and arts which contains all the lexical units with ethical meaning, but in the same time it involves humans will, about which talked the other leading of the writer Schopenhauer. Therefore, Slavicis work is being made around must, that verb which unites two philosophical ideas the right measure and balance (the Asian thinking) and will (Schopenhauers philosophy). In other words, Slavici sets upon a traditionalist thinking, a preserver of existential values (Confucius) and the problematic perspective over life given by the German philosopher. Although these directions might seem conflicting, they become complementary in the writers case as Mircea Muthu thinks: the complex relation between Eastern and Western is an opposition, a synthesis and in the same time a complementaritys dialogue [MUTHU, 2002: 128]. Must is the lexeme of choice, it stands for what is moral but in the same time it gives people the possibility of choosing from the opportunities which are offered and it shows the right way that people follow only if they want to. In Slavicis creation the heroes that take into account this thing know how to control themselves; they know how to resist temptations because they are virtuous. The notion of virtue identifies with the permanent wakeful state against the temptations that lead you to sin. Explanatory in this way is the story called Omul cel adevrat (1923), which can demonstrate and conclude our attempt to surprise a specific feature to Slavici, meaning the lexical units that act as guidelines for man. On his way of sharing gifts on Christmas Day, Santa Claus meets an old lady who gives him a wreath for the true man. But he wanted to see what understood the old woman, who was in fact Mary Magdalene and from these words he found out that: most of the people are some kind of deformed man after time and circumstances. The true man is the one who remained such as God created him. The deformed man is that one who cannot resist temptations and the true man is that person who is full of virtues, the one who longs for perfection by killing all the pleasures. Accompanying Santa Claus in finding the true man Mary Magdalene will impersonate the temptation. In order to find the moral person, which is worthy to receive the gift the wreath, the two will go first to a notorious captain, to a famous judge, to an old scientist and then to a good hearted man known for his passion to make other ones happy. But these people prove themselves to be the deformed men, they dont fight against temptation and they violate the moral principles on seeing the beautiful Mary Magdalene. Finally they arrive at the house of a poor widow stonemason who has three children and who proves to be the 166

Fiction and arts true man. Being seduced by the beautiful woman through words like: I truly ask you to come with me and take me in a place where we can delight our lives eating and drinking a few glasses, to feel that this night is not like all the others, but arranged for cheering up our hearts, the stonemason is in a permanent wakeful state, he is guided by the lexeme must. Although inside him there is a struggle the stonemason looked again at her. He would have torn apart if he could do that, one that left with her and other that stayed, he has the power and will to refuse pleasure. Forgive me please but I cannot leave my children alone at night. This refusal makes the travelers to say He is the one! the man who deserves the wreath. The stonemason is the one who fought against temptation, a moral man who realized that a pleasure gives birth to the others. By all his writings Slavici proves himself to be an educator, a teacher for his people, one that offers the right way to achieve the wreath of virtue, like the stonemason, but in the same time he gives examples of careless individuals to the values recognized by the entire community which are discovered in the lexeme must (the verb which comprises all the lexical units with moral value such as it is good it is not good, it can be it cannot be, it is appropriate it is not appropriate, it is right it is not right, but the will too). References: Slavici, Ioan, Opere, vol. IVI, ediie ngrijit, studiu introductiv i cronologie de Dimitrie Vatamaniuc, Bucureti, Editura Naional, 2001; Cublean, Constantin, Ioan Slavici, Bucureti, Editura Recif, 1994; Dumitrescu, Adriana, Introducere n opera lui Ioan Slavici, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1998; Eliade, Mircea, Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1999; Marcea, Pompiliu, Slavici, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1978; Muthu, Mircea, Balcanismul literar romnesc, vol. II, Editura Dacia, ClujNapoca, 2002; Popescu, Magdalena, Slavici, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1977; Ungureanu, Cornel, Istoria secret a literaturii romne, Braov, Editura Aula, 2007; Vighi, Daniel, Onoarea i onorariul, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2007. 167

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 168-175

I.L. Caragiales folktales and the spirit of the Balkans

Adela DRUCEAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: Having Anton Pann`s anecdotes and fairy tales, as well as foreign collections of folktales, as a model, I.L. Caragiale gazed into the depths and delights of folk literature. These stories have eased the writer a passage from the petty world that surrounded him and, for this fact alone, towards the end of his literary career, he dedicated himself to stories of folkloric inspiration. Although he reveals with honesty his sources of inspiration and the archetypes of his tales, we cannot consider him a mere translator or writer. His characters' traits offer him the opportunity to unveil his penmanship and the vision of his unique approach. He achieved this superb development of folktales disguising folkloric archetypes with sarcasm, humor, subtle words, grandeur of a certain age and fantasy from southeastern Europe. Keywords: fairytale, fantasy from southeastern Europe, anecdote, adapted characters. Having Anton Pann as a predecessor, the creator and storyteller of oriental anecdotes and native fairytales, I.L. Caragiale went deep in the captivating folklore literature. In time, he won`t be content anymore with just his role model, but look into the foreign collections of folk literature as well. These stories have eased the writer a passage from the petty world that surrounded him, and for this fact alone, towards the end of his literary career, he dedicated himself to stories of folkloric inspiration. Although he reveals with honesty the sources of inspiration and the archetypes of his tales, we cannot consider him a mere translator or writer. The traits of his characters offer him the opportunity to unveil his penmanship and the vision of his unique approach. He achieved this superb development of folktales disguising folkloric archetypes with sarcasm, humor, subtle words, grandeur of a certain age and fantasy from southeastern Europe. In those few fairytales: Poveste. Imitaie; Mam; Calul dracului; Poveste (neterminat); Ft-Frumos cu mo n frunte; Lungul nasului. Basm oriental; Olga i Spiridu. Basm, just like Ion Creang, Caragiale brings the

Fiction and arts bizarre into our human world, only, with an oriental flavor when meeting with devils, saints and God at a crossroad is a regular sight and where the profane converges with the sacred, not from the desire to have a mythical becoming but to satisfy a healthy vigilante spirit [F. MANOLESCU, 1983: 181]. At I.L. Caragiale, the taste for the oriental is manifested just as Pompiliu Constantinescu says: in the shape of anecdotes, morality is involved in the narration and the oriental wisdom takes the picturesque of that age and language, when he`s not sneaking in allegories or the allure of 1001 Nights [P. CONSTANTINESCU, 1967: 159]. Nevertheless, in an oriental story, we can see more than just geography or typical morals, we can interpret a certain view of life that puts first caprice and worldly cravings. Thus, the mother of the two royal brothers from Poveste (neterminat) has the whim of marrying them to certain girls, only to find that the irony of fate makes her to mistake the names of the boys and switch their roles: Ler takes as a wife the daughter of the Black Emperor and Mezin the daughter of the White Emperor. Just like the emperors son from Lungul nasului. Basm oriental who has the humor of not seeing his nose after he`s being jinxed by a witch. Caragiale takes from folklore certain motifs, episodes, mystical characters, names and the style of speech. His stories and fairytales are full of emperors, empresses, ladies, many Prince Charmings, fairies and also lesser devils that walk wobbling, wabbling or hide their riches under rags. Even their names are borrowed from folklore archetypes: Red Emperor, Green Chieftain, White Emperor, Black Emperor, Ler, Mezin, Bujor (Peony), Crin (Lily), Mugur-Voevod (Bud Chieftain), FloareaDoamna(Lady Flower), Mugurel (Little Bud), Viorica-Doamna (Lady Violet) (Poveste (neterminat), Florea-Voievod (Flower Chieftain) (Mam), Ileana, Prslea (Poveste. Imitaie), Prichindel (Calul dracului), names most often inspired by flora and colors. Caragiale uses his motifs and stereotypical scenes: three young men, sons of the emperor travel trough the world to do great deeds in order to win the heart of Ileana, the child found by the emperor during a hunting party, ending with Ileana choosing Prslea. The parents oppose to such an unfitted marriage with someone of a lesser rank, forcing the youngsters to use miraculous objects: a charmed mirror, a magical flying carpet or a life-giving holy icon (Poveste. Imitaie); a greedy, evil sister betrays her brother while the emperor is gone at war; a childless empress threatened she would not eat 169

Fiction and arts bread and salt with the emperor, now gone at war, raises the child of a gypsy (Mam). Prince Charming proves to be wise at an early age: FtFrumos cu mo n frunte hasn`t even began to mumble that he already spoke wise and heart-warming words. The initial, middle and ending formulae find their place in Caragiale`s stories, but are reduces to minimum to avoid clichs, or are completely removed (Lungul nasului. Basm oriental). Even when used, there are changes so as to differ from those that appear in folktales. The initial formula from the beginning lifts you into the world of the story with a glibtongued tone and ceremonial embroideries becoming an introduction phrase: once upon a time (Poveste (neterminat)), it used to be once(Calul dracului), it was once (Mam, Poveste. Imitaie). These connecting sequences sparkle the interest and the ending formula has been, most times, removed. Stories either end suddenly or return to the initial moment, such as Calul dracului when the fairy resumes her beggars appearance, or using some character`s words: That`s it, my Floric! that`s how I see it! Each with his match!... it should be so! (Mam), either with a dialogue between the storyteller and the reader like in Poveste. Imitaie: So? asks the listener , which of the lads got Ileana? Don`t you know, says the storyteller, how all this Prince Charming stories end? Who did she love?... Prslea, of course. When he works on a foreign model, Caragiale adapts it to our Christian spirituality. For example, the fairytale Ft-Frumos cu mo n frunte is a loose and personal interpretation of Charles Perrault`s Riquet la houppe, bearing the Romanian writer`s distinct hallmark. Although the motif of metamorphosis trough love is kept, the fairytale is rewritten for the enjoyment of the Romanian people. Trough transfer, the fairytale becomes rich with southeastern Europe`s phantasm, where humor, savory and colloquial speech bond together. Unlike the original, the beginning of Caragiale`s story puts accent on physical ugliness rather than ill-nature morals: and that empress, when she was due to give birth, she bared such a horrid child at look and form, that none could reckon him a human soul. Pretending to have forgotten, the author completes this Prince Charming`s physical traits: I forgot to tell you this little one was borne with a strand of hair on his head. Not just the motif of physical unattractiveness is present in the fairytale, but also that of the mind. If ugliness takes the embodiment of a 170

Fiction and arts young lad, the intellectual flaw has to be that of an emperor`s daughter. Thus, trough the joining of the two, a Yin-Yang unity is created. The appearance of the girl, before her meeting with Prince Charming, is defined in a line from Scrisoarea V: Do not forget that the woman has a short mind and a long dress. Caragiale sees the foolishness of the girl in a comical way. The empress, seeing the awkwardness of her oldest daughter, has the reaction of a wench: Alas, my child, you`re a simpleton. The writer`s text has a jester`s tone. The encounter of Prince Charming and the princess takes place in a forest, but looks like the meeting between an educated nobleman and beautiful but nave peasant girl-like. The amusing part is given especially by the girls attitude: Alack!, Ah fie, forsooth! And how?. The proposal of the wise but hideous lad to change her status rejoices the beautiful but dull girl. In the beginning, the girl`s transformation takes place only at the level of speech. From silent, she turns talkative: After promising her hand in marriage in exactly one year, she changes completely, becoming glibtongued, and anything that crosses her mind she would speak fast, with ease and mirth. Thus, they began a long talk like any clever girl towards the man that courts her a battle of wits, he`d say a word, she`d answer two, he`d say two words, she`d answer four, and so forth. The only fantasy-like scene of the fairy tale comes last, when the girl strolls in the garden and she reckons a noise from abyssal depths, underneath her feet, reminding her of the marriage promise. If, until now, the writer led us to believe the story is happening between neighbouring countries, the noise from abyssal depths indicates that Prince Charming`s ugliness is a consequence of his origins. Folk traditions speak of this land, inhabited by sully spirits, with tails, horns and a limping leg. Only now can we understand that the deal between the two was in fact a pact with the devil and that, at their wedding day, he will come to take his payment her soul. However, this day proves to be the true moment of her transformation. She realizes that the deal can be advantageous and the princess ends up changing the one from the depths. Charles Perrault`s fairytale has a moral lesson; what makes love last is not physical attraction. Adding to that, the Romanian folktale brings a light raillery: Some say it wasn`t the hands of Fate but love alone that caused such wondrous transformations. And they say the Lady, thinking well of the man`s status, dowry and demeanor, forsook his hideousness and 171

Fiction and arts ugliness. The supernatural works only as a motivational element. It looks slightly curious, but that has a rational explanation. Caragiale transfers the supernatural into human reality. The same aspect we can see in Calul dracului fairytale, where the initial formula once upon a time introduces us to the world of stories. More than that, it has a disguising role to hide the author`s real intentions, that has to be found in the pleasure of storytelling and everything that comes with it: ambiance, local flavor, colloquial language. Besides this fairytale clich, the beginning of the story has a motif deceivingly built in: a beggar crone sits next to a fountain, on the edge of a country road and a late traveler seeks a place to sleep at night. We must follow how the author builds his narrative plot in the first part, with subtle hints: a full moon, the hag is a poor soul with no strength with green eyes. These allusions are impossible to be deciphered by the reader, for the code is missing. It quickly creates a merry scene, in which the writer integrates again the fairytale formula:once upon a time, in a faraway kingdom. Until now, the whole plot seems to have had the purpose of distracting the reader`s mind from the author`s real intention, because what comes next is really surprising. The events, gradually and unnoticeable, take in an eroticgrotesque feeling, although the game of the old woman keeps the same tone, at the border between serious and curious. The dialogue that takes place between the emperor`s daughter, hexed into a crone, and Prichindel, hosted under her cloth, is full of subtle meanings, much like the one between Mo Nechifor and Malca, from Ion Creang`s story. The old woman wants to walk and the traveler wants to ride a horse: Alas, you are a bit half-baked, methinksBut I`ll find`ya a horse in two shakes of a lamb`s tail. Ah, hither are your father`s stables, methinks you want to clap your hands and get the barbary under your nose?... I pity your master..! Nay, did I say horse? I meant horseback Alas, whatever do you mean by that? I feel sorry for you, more so that you said you know and understand many things. And this much, meseems, you can`t grasp. Next is the journey of the two. The crone lays low while Prichindel jumps on her back, suggested only by onomatopoeia, just like in Creang`s stories. 172

Fiction and arts Unlike the folklore literature, where the cursed characters are set free if they fulfill certain requirements, in Caragiale`s tale, where the devil is deceived during the night, the girls becomes an old woman. Caragiale is not interested in saving the girl. What puzzles him is the idea to fool the devil, the possibility to interpret the curse in another way, as an alibi (to live a life of two aspects). The girl doesn`t consider herself a victim of the curse. She knows she can only redeem her former appearance by deceiving the devil, and even more so, at night time. The tale`s originality is also given by Old Nick`s elevating emotions towards nature, to be able to feel human, to admire beautiful sceneries: They had a long walk and many meadows with as many flowers did they see! and so many birdsongs, some more pleasant than others, did they hear. The fact that Prichindel doesn`t want to repeat his walk with the emperor`s daughter comes as a regret for having lost some of his impish attributes, and for the weakness he showed towards the crone. In actual fairytales and folktales like Mam, Poveste. Imitaie, Calul draculu, Poveste (neterminat) the supernatural remains second as importance. Caragiale is here, foremost, a passionate observer of this world of emperors, Prince Charmings, devils seduced by ordinary lives; turning emperors into regular folks, hardworking peasants, and attentive parents; out of empresses, making tireless housewives, witty and sharp-tongued; out of princes lads in love; out of witches cunning crones. However, their behavior is observed carefully and quite close. The emperor from Mam reminds us of the usual concerns of the author`s Momente i Schie heroes, concerns such as politics. Exasperated by the empress, the nanny and their hysterical fits, he cries like a buffoon I`m losing my time trying to talk politics with such insane women. Not even the empress gets away unchecked. She gets witty with the nanny, switches from chat to insults, ending with a fistfight, until she drops tired. In addition, the nanny, ambitious, wants for her son (who became an emperors son) more than a noble girl, maybe even a princess; laments genuinely hitting with her fists over her naked bosom: It cannot be! I will not accept it, dead and buried! I will not give you, Floric, to anyone but a princess of your own standing! Don`t embarrass me, Floric, or I will kill myself! and Florea-Voievod, who became Floric, mourns striking his fists against his head: It killed nanny!. Alack!. The emperor from the tale Poveste. Imitaie, pestered in his matrimonial plans for his three sons, passes, progressively, trough all 173

Fiction and arts the shades of anger, showed by Caragiale with humor and short phrases: first, he turned really murky, then shouts back frowning and finally gets up ablaze with anger and snap! smacks Prslea so hard the entire palace heard it: get out of my sight, you snotty-nosed!. After a manifestation of such fatherly authority, fuming still, the emperor sends for his advisors. All these examples demonstrate that, in the writer`s attitude, there is a continuous swing between seriousness and comical. Beyond the immediate folkloric appearance of these tales, we find the author of Schie i Momente, the one who was so attracted to the life around him. Imitating folklore literature is one of his best ways to mirror reality. In this creation of fairytales, less approached by critics, we can recognize that subtle analyst of the human heart, the lucid observer of social and moral conduit. Sometimes, the charm and ambiance of the tale is cut short by an ironic comment. Thus, about the emperor from the tale Mam, we find out he had to go to war, just like any other emperor from a story; and in Poveste (neterminat) the ending is a humorous theory of the work`s literary esthetics: Or maybe I should do as other storytellers? Instead of telling, shortly, what misfortune befalls the empress, I should tell you what bad luck meant for an empress at that time? However, the heart of that mother, maybe resembled a high tower that a great earthquake shakes in a split of a second the great tower that until that moment lifted his golden peak above the bluish heights leaving nothing but a desolate pile of broken rocks, scattered round with but the madness of the event []. I could do it to please you; if to please words I searched around to bring you such a story. If not for the story`s only sake do I pursue words to tell you the way I imagined it, as quickly and clearly I can. References: Caragiale, Ion Luca, Opere, vol. IIV, ediie ngrijit i cronologie de Stancu Ilin, Nicolae Brna, Constantin Hrlav, prefa de Eugen Simion, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2000, 2001, 2002; Cioculescu, erban, Caragialiana, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1987; Constantinescu, Pompiliu, Scrieri, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1967; Deridan, Ioan, Nordul caragialian, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2003; Iosifescu, Silvian, Dimensiuni caragialiene, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1972; 174

Fiction and arts Negrea, Gelu, Dicionar subiectiv al personajelor lui I. L. Caragiale (AZ), Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 2005; Manolescu, Florin, Caragiale i Caragiale. Jocuri cu mai multe strategii, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1983; Muthu, Mircea, Balcanismul literar romnesc, vol. IIII, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002; Oprea, tefan, Caragiale, orator politic sau Caragiale, personaj caragialean, n Dacia literar, nr. 72 (3/2007), mai 2007, p. 2324; Tomu, Mircea, Opera lui I. L. Caragiale, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1977; Zalis, Henri, I. L. Caragiale, Bucureti, Editura Recif, 1995.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 176-185

Value and compromise in Cella Serghis literary destiny

Lavinia IONOAIA University of the West, Timioara Abstract: Cella Serghi is one of the women writers who had their debut between the two world wars and were encouraged to write and express culturally themselves by Eugen Lovinescu, the leader of the Sburtorul literary circle. Her literary destiny started when she met Camil Petrescu. Other important names in Romanian literature (Mihail Sebastian, Liviu Rebreanu) stood by her side, recommending to the public her first novel, The Cobweb (1938). This novel is Cella Serghis most popular work. After World War II, Cella Serghi had an intense and controversial activity as a loyal servant of the communist regime. In her late years she became nostalgic and revisited her youth through memorialist writings and through the novel Youth, This Sweet Burden. The critics did not view Cella Serghis work in terms of aesthetics and references to her books consist mostly of gender stereotypes of female literature. Keywords: women writers, inter-war, value, metanovel, failed literature. 1. Introduction. The context of the Literary Beginning Cella Serghi belongs to the interwar generation of prose writers, known after 1935, in a period that begins to feel the pressure of a new world war imminence. The authors literary destiny bounds to the same difficulty of inserting in the Romanian literary landscape that writers such as Ioana Postelnicu, Lucia Demetrius, Anioara Odeanu, Sorana Gurian, Henriette Yvonne Sthall, Ticu Archip etc confronted. Among the group of writers who wrote and published in this period, only Hortensia PapadatBengescu got a constant atention and it was applied differently to the proportion of the work, from the literary reviewers. The other women writers writing were subordinated to the same limited syntagms of

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Fiction and arts feminine literature, which significance (instinct, chastity, feminine mistery, feelings, lyricism and subjectivity, feminism) were described one after the other by Eugen Lovinescu in Critice and have just been combated by arguments against them by Elena Zaharia-Filipa [2004: p.514], in a trial of getting back the Romanian women-writers literature and of re-arranging them on aesthetical value criteria. Without slipping in the area of the gender issues, we can still talk about a tolerant attitude at most, towards the inter-war women-writers literature in our country, begining with the simple remark that none of them is mentioned of belonging to the first valuable line of the Romanian literature or that no woman-writers writing is studied in schools (except Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, whose writing can be tackled facultatively). Going back in time, to the inter-war literary climate, it is well-known that this one was dominated by traditionalists and modern writers, according to the direction of the Romanian culture that had to be followed: the East or the West. The centre where the expressions of modern orientation emerge is Eugen Lovinescus literary circle, Sburtorul, which is a real mentor of the inter-war literature, who imposed the urban literature, the type of intellectual as a human model and objectivity in prose writing in our country. Cella Serghi, born in Constana, goes to high-school in Bucureti, gets closer to Camil Petrescu for the first time in 1924 and only after her literary debut in 1938 (The Cobweb) knows Eugen Lovinescu and starts going to the literary circle organised in his house. 2. Cella Serghis novels. Value and compromise 2.1. Characteristics of the prose-writing Cella Serghi tackles the authenticity formula, in her writing, on a Gidian way, as she confesses. The authors books are real existence files, writen in the first person, confessions of a problematic and clear ego, the same as Camil Petrescus, the writer who, at the time, changes lots of trajectories, polarizes interests, curiosities and intelligences, as Cornel Ungureanu says. Yet, Cella Serghi sustains her differences over this quoted model, confessing [The Romanian Novel in Interviews, 1988: pp.431-437]: 177

Fiction and arts I was influnced by the writers who wrote autobiographical novels. Among them were not Camil Petrescu and Mihail Sebastian and in no way Rebreanu, who was a too big writer for mea t that time, but Panait Istrati. Prost belonging to the foreign literature was fashionable at the time. I couldnt say that he influenced me. Gide did so, because hei s a great writer who begins some of his books in a simple way, with this idea, look what I was given to live at. In some other part, the author refers to the structural difference between her characters and Camil Petrescus, telling that while his characters live and breathe culture, for her heroines this is only an aspiration which needs a search full of obstacles and sacrifices. Then, Camil Petrescu places his women in a inferior position towards men (except Madam T, a character for whom Cella Serghi represented the real model, as some critics say). In Cella Serghis case, the situation is vice versa. Beyond these differences of placing the stress , the substance of two authors novels is claimed through by the same formula of authenticity and by the literature of the experience. Another characteristic of the woman writers prose writing is confirmed again by the writer herself. Honesty is the premiss of each writing, including those realistic-socialistes (Cella Serghi believed in communism). The relationship with the reader is open and alive, her characters are complicated and deeply human and today we have acces, through virtual chat, to proofs of emerging in the writers books, of some readers (especially women readers). The introspective intelligence and the subtlety of the analysis are constant in Cella Serghis literature. At the end of a road, marked by the intensity of feeling, by anxiety states, by moral and emotional torture, the character achieves the independence and stands out for himself, as a person capable of living for other people, altruistically. Women of the authors literature illustrates such a destiny. The metanovel convention, la mise en abme de Gide, is present in Cella Serghis works, too. Ilinca, the character from The Cobweb receives her friends notebooks and she exposes them to the reader. Thats how, the substance of novel forms. Seldom, this narratar expresses her opinion regarding certain aspects from these files of existence.

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Fiction and arts Mirona also writes a novel, as well as Victor from Parallel Love and the narrative solutions regarding the characters are decided after his discussions with the author, who insinuates herself in other novels, too. 2.2. The Cobweb, the book of a life experience As the author confessed herself, the one who lighten the destiny to her, was Camil Petrescu. It was him that advised her to write, the one who realised, by talking to her on different subjects, she was gifted. Cella Serghi didnt imagine herself as being a writer ( she practiced law), because writing prooved to be something difficult for her. Her pride, but the belief too, that she had something to say, made her to wish to write only one book, where to say everything I have lived. [The Romanian Novel in Interviews, 1988: pp. 436-437]. The closeness to Camil Petrescu (whom she confesses she loved) and to Mihail Sebastian stimulated her to tell her life experience till the age of 30 in the autobiografical fiction The Cobweb, a novel that was firstly enthusiastically got, by the public. The critical reception was conditioned after the authors confession, by the fact that she belonged to Camil Petrescus group, who had many enemies in literature. The first novel was still encouraged by Eugen Lovinescu and Pompiliu Constantinescu o none hand, but, on the other hand it was totaly ignored by George Clinescu, whose novel, Otilias Mistery, appeared in the same year, as The Cobweb. This ignoring by the great critic is explained by the writer through the fact that George Clinescu felt there was a competition between their novels, by going every day to Alcalay book-shop, where the books were being sold, to ask which one was selling better. [Interviews, 2005]. The strip on the cover of The cobweb where it was writen Liviu Rebreanu, Camil Petrescu and Mihail Sebastian recommended the novel to the publishing house illustrates clearly the acceptance given to the author, by the three writers, which determined on one hand, the succes of the novel at public, but also some attacs of these writers ennemies too, as the author confesses again [The Romanian Novel in Interviews, 1988: pp. 431-437]. Beyond these appearances, the dense substance of the novel reccomands cella Serghi as an already formed writer. Diana Slavus destiny, another ego of the author is knitted in a prose of the experience, genuine and subtle, by having as a centre of making up 179

Fiction and arts the sense, love. A theme intensely literary exploited, the feeling is not turned to account on its erotic aspect, but it is dued to a close analyses, it is described by being a step by step accumulation of relevant living, disappointments and reinterpretations painfully, conformably to reality. The women in Cella Serghis prose project is an ideal plan, always atomized by the raw concrete, cowardice and unwellingness of the other. On the love level, the characterss speech becomes a resigned one, which has to be replaced by an involvement in the social level, an approach to the sufference of the people around. Besides these, the pages of pure poetry in the authors novels are those dedicated to love. Diana Slavus love stories are shaded descriptions of unwillingness. Love as an aspiration is lived by the teenager in a relationship with the painter Petre Barbu, whose presentation will guide her for the rest of her life. The mediocre marriage with Michi is compensated in the emotional level by Alexs tempestuous love. The feminine mingles through all these experiences that quizz the characters whole capacity of relating to the other through love. The Cobweb is a network of determination on different levels and tonalities of a womans life who confirms her independence at the end of the novel. 2.3. The realistic-socialist Literature For the reader who wants to understand today a time in the past marked by compromise and pacts with the communist demon, a turning back to the context of the setting up of this form of government in Romania, is necessary. The fenomenon has to be understood and explained in its complexity and keeping the account of the existence inner determination. After 1944 the romanian literature entered in a black period, talking by its historical perspective, of which only a few writings can be retrieved today. Great names of the Romanian writing, such as Mihail Sadoveanu and Camil Petrescu got involved in building the new regime. Cella Serghi got involved also in it, through her work: The song of the Factory (1950), The Walls are Falling Down (1950), Uncle Ilie finally understood (1950), The sisters (1951), The Cantemirs (1954) and through her job in the public service, too: a juridical reader at Public Working 180

Fiction and arts Ministry (1945), a literary reviewer at Arts Ministry (1945-1947), inspector at the General Direction of the Theatres (1947), vicemanager at Ministry of Culture The Protection of the artistic and literary level (1948-1949), by getting involved in the setting up of the creating houses Blceti, Pelior. In the same period she belonged to the secretary of Free Democratic University. Reediting of her novels, The Cobweb (the second one appeared in 1946 and another one in 1971), The Walls are Falling Down (the novel was rebuilt in 1965 under the name Mironas Book and in 1972 under the name Mirona), Barots Daughters in 1958, renamed in 1974 edition, Parallel Love express the wish of adapting the literature in the ideological context and the understanding of the aesthetical limits that emerged over such enslaving of literature, too. The stress falls in these writings on the part that the woman must have in the construction of socialism. The social theme is present in her successfull novels too. These novels heroines, Diana Slavu and Mirona realise, at the end of their novelistic route, they are useless after years of individual struggle and somehow, the direction of many people who suffer, to a noble cause, is suggested. Here are the last phrases in The Cobweb [2009: p.395]: Im ashamed that Ive been away of everything happens in the world for such a long time. It seems Ive lived alone, in a room with all the walls made of mirror and Ive seen myself over and over againin thousands of coppies. Meanwhile people were tortured in jails, for generous ideas, for an unchained world, by humility and needs. It has been worked in factories, laboratories, hospitals, day and night, to go further with a quarter of a step in boundlessness of life. The envolvement is more obvious in Mironas books, the character being built up to a moment, contrary to Lisandra, a convinced socialist. In this way, mirona is preocupied by her own affirmation as a novel writer and her friend fights for a cause and she is able of supreme sacrifice in behalf of its name. After returning from Paris and the beginning of the War, Mironas conscience can see the horrible conflagration and the devastating effects of the Nazi regime. The character prepares to get involved in the construction of the communist society, in an active way, through an honest openness actually, to the sufference of the masses.

Fiction and arts By talking about this part of the servitude to her literature, and being asked by Ilie rad if she had done many concessions to the political communist regime, the author said [Interviews, 2005]: Concessions? I told you I had been honest in everything I had written. But there were some commandments of time which we had to take into account. There was, for instance, a thematical plan of each publishing house, that was restrictive, somehow. You had to write about cooperativization or about school. But I had nothing in commun with agriculture! How could I write about agriculture, I, who was running if any harmless turkey was looking at me? Because the only thing I was good at was school ( I had done school and not agriculture!), I accepted to write a book about school. I was then asked to write a book about a military school in Predeal where the best pupils in the country were coming. I went to research and I was truly impressed by the conditions the children were having there, children who hadnt been allowed to go to school before and had been obliged to become sheppards. They were having a piano, they were having skis! Well, what did they expect more? And I prayed to write The Cantemirs (which appeared in 1954). The premisses of honesty in her entire writing involves to a certain moment the ideological commitement of the author on honest basis, on her human authentical structure, willing to put herself in the masses will. As many ideologies, the fascination that the communism could release in theory degenerated in practice, as the hard years of communism proved. In the same trap of ideology, but of another kind, fell Cioran and eliade, in the inter-war period. No matter what the inner will belonging to Cella Serghi would be, the entire opinion of the critics is that the aesthetical value of the prose-writing of the beginning of the communist regime was sacrificed on the socialist realism shrine and became through it a failed literature. 2.4. Getting back of the youth, the reaffirming of the feminine ego, equal with herself The authors enthusiasm of the obsessed decade is calmed down in time, Cella Serghi changing her mind about the social effects of the regime, step by step and looking for getting back in her writing portraits of people who marked her literary course in a happy way. 182

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Fiction and arts In the 70s the writer tackles more narrative formula (bildungsnovel in Gentians, 1970, metanovel in Parralel Love, 1974, a formula found in Mironas Book, confession in On the Gossamer of the Memory, 1977). The feminism reflected in Getians reveals his potential of fighting for existence; to fulfill his dream of a successfull artistical career, Rada Ionac has to make numerous sacrifices and renunciations. Not being encouraged by her parents Olga and Manole Ionac neither financialy, nor moraly, the girl has to continue her studies on her own. The authors memoirs are represented by the volume On the Gossamer of the Memory, where inter-war personalities are taken in front of the reader, personalities who put a print on the authors destiny: Camil Petrescu, Mihail Sebastian, Felix Aderca, Liviu Rebreanu, E. Lovinescu, Magdalena Rdulescu. Besides the biographical aspects, the writer reveals aspects of the creation laboratory of her most important work: The Cobweb and Mironas Book. These years, Cella Serghi writes the book for the adolescents, Looking for the Great Sheat Fish, which appeared in 1980 and whose genesis can be found in her autobiography, too [Interviews, 2005]: I was in a pioneer camp, at the sea, in 1970. I had promised the children a story and I had, in a way, the chance to meet there a relative of my husband who was working at the construction of a road. He was a very interesting man, a former landowner, a former pilot... He told me, partly, of course, the story in The Great Fish. I rebuilt it many times and it appeared only after ten years. This continuing willingness of the author to rewrite finds justification in her vision towards literature writing. Many times, the confessions in this way underline the desperate agony the creation needs. The polishing of the artistical material can be found in cella Serghis conception, every time when the writer needs it. An example of exigence towards her texts stylistics is found in her debut novel. Thats how a paragraph from the edition of 1938, p.193-194, looks like: The houses were solitary shelters, shorter than a man and crooked as some left-handed drawings belonging to children, to whom a house means a square badly made, with two small windows, whose glass was shaped into four, with a door and a chimney. Some of them were made of reed, not being painted, some others painted in yellow or that tipical 183

Fiction and arts gipsy pink,but most of them were white, that they hurted the eyes. The windows were the size of a pelargonium pot. The same text became, in the 1971 edition: The houses were solitary shelters, shorter than a man and rudimentary as some left-handed drawings belonging to children, a sort of crooked cubes, with two small windows, whose glass was shaped into four, with a door and a chimney. Some of them were made of reed, not being painted, some others violently painted in yellow, others in gaudy pink, but most of them were so white that they hurted the eyes. You almost wanted to scream: Enough, thats too much white! The small windows were the size of a pelargonium pot, a flower which did not miss in the mended or briken windows (p.222). The variation of the adjective, the detailing of the elementsof making an atmosphere can be remarked. The authors last novel publishing during her life, This Sweet Burden, the Youth, appears in a first edition in 1983. the second edition, published after the authors death, appears in 1993. Dedicated to Eugen Lovinescu, the novel is made of four parts (At a Quiet Meal, Love Letters, The Proof of the Fire and The Diary) and it represents a synthesis of all the literature constant values belonging to Cella Serghi: the love theme as a failed experience in the level of fulfilling in reality, the metanovel convention, the sea motif. The epic plot is translated here in a rich existence file in the shape of letters between the two lovers Cita and Berezeni. The same as in The Cobweb and Mirona or Gentians, the authors biography had a significant part, the real correspondance between Cella Serghi and Ion Biberi being at the basement of the book. The novel Post-Scriptum, where only a chapter, named The Movie is Performed Tomorrow, Too, was published in the Literary Talks in November 1985, got lost, and today nothing is known about the manuscript. 3. Conclusion Cella Serghis literary creation spanned over eight decades, while her writing knew maximum and minimum points of aesthetic value. She was an author of an admirable dignity, who was able to stand for her communist past, with the assumption of honesty, which sustained all her literary and 184

Fiction and arts social works. Still, some of these were and might be today controversial topics. The fact is that nowadays the books that have established Cella Serghis status as a writer are being republished and the author remakes her way in the value circuit of the Romanian literary landscape. References: Chronological Dictionary of the Romanian Novel, 2004, Romanian Academy Publishing House. Cozea, Liliana, 1994, Women-writers of the Romanian Modern Literature, Oradea, The library of the Family magazine. Micu, Dumitru, General Dictionary of the Romanian Literature, 2008, Bucureti, Encyclopedic Universe Publishing House. Sasu, Aurel, Vartic, Mariana, 1988, Romanian Novel in Interviews. An Autobiographic History, Bucureti, Minerva, Publishing House. Serghi, Cella, 2005, Interviews: including twelve letters to Ilie Rad, 2005, Cluj-Napoca, Limes. Serghi, Cella, Mironas Book, 2009, Bucureti, International Letter. Serghi, Cella, The Cobweb, 2009, Bucureti, International Letter. Ungureanu, Cornel, 1983, Anioara Odeanu, The Context of Some Novels, introductory study to Anioara Odeanu, In a ladiess Hostel. The traveler from the Night Before, Timioara, Facla. Zaharia-Filipa, Elena, Feminine Literature Studies, 2004, Bucureti, Paideia.
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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 186-191

The idea of a modern novel

Clina PALICIUC "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: The modern novel distinguishes between the objective and the subjective time. The voluntary memory operates chronologically with time and the involuntary one intercepts only the moment. Temporal dislocations go together with a multiplication of the points of view and the richness of the moment is more important than the narration of the events. Keywords: modern novel, time, technical procedure, genius and disorder. 1. Introduction. The evolution of the novel. The evolution of the novel in the 20 th century proved that the novel-essay was very successful. The new novelists become themselves the theoreticians of their own works and they practice some kind of self reflection which is the itself of the novel. Many modern novelists broke away from traditional linear narrative form; others chose to adapt it to their own ends, often to represent an individual subject struggling against ideological system. Later on, after having known all their work, we understood how profound their removal was. In the interwar period, this game with time was deeply understood. 2. The perception of the English novel Melania Livada tries to find out the secret of Ch.Morgans art and brings back the issue of philosophy in the novel, showing that the philosophical novel is the most difficult. And she says: If its ideology, artificial and dead, floats alone above live and events, if it does not have deep and organic adherences with the characters, then the novel is fade and valueless. But if the ideas and philosophy live like vivid flames in the heroessouls and only if the characters are not pretence only, this is a real novel. Meditations could degenerate in dissertations, Morgan is too much of an artist and his imagination springs from thought to dream and from dream to live and people. The author is all the time thinking like a

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Fiction and arts great poet and he is preoccupied by the mystery of creation and transcendence. [ Universul literar,1944 :5] After he had written about cinematographic technique, the young Eugen Ionescu discussed about the report between literature and philosophy and he did not agree with the novel where the life of ideas is not colored with emotion. Demotion of philosopher in literature or a philosopher in literature or a philosopher in critique is a dilettante. It is as bad as a literate in philosophy is. If I made a hierarchy of values, I would place art higher than philosophy. The art contains life and philosophy, all the spiritual roads. In Contrapunct, the heroes are very formal, disintegrated and representatives of the problem that sets free from the individual content and any kind of emotion so it gets farther and farther from the aesthetic plan. It would be ridiculous to pretend to a hero of a novel not to have intellectual preoccupations and it would be nonsense to take the ideas life out of the content of life. But they have to be subsumed to emotion and colored in emotion: life is emotion! [Eugen Ionescu, Lateral, in Romania literara,1932:33] Another question seems to appear, the time starting with Sparkenbroke by Ch.Morgan. May a genius be the hero of a novel? The answer comes from Mihail Sebastian in 1938 and Doina Petean in an article in 1944: Sparkenbroke- Mihail Sebastian says- is the novel of a genius. The subject takes great risks. There are all kinds of exterior signs of the genius and they make up the theatrical and false side of an extraordinary existence. There is something messy and puerile in a great man when he has the constience of his own greatness. Genius and disorder, genius and madness who can say where the borders between humbug and sincerity are? When it brings up the matter of genius, the literature remembers especially the visible signs, the exterior manifestations of a genius and it stays in the most unusual zone, the one where the exceptional man is able to simulate. Lord Spakenbroke also has this theatrical side. What makes his genius real namely what makes this genius not only a simple assertion but something vivid is the fact that we are introduced to the heros creative intimacy. We know his poetry. We know even more: the hidden, intimate, 187

Fiction and arts genuine process that gives birth to poetry, the mysterious act that leads us from thought to expression, from emotion to word. Art cannot find itself in a bigger difficulty than this turn towards itself, towards its own contemplation in order to be at the same time an instrument and an object. [Mihail Sebastian, Nota la Sparkenbroke, in Revista Fundatiilor Regale,1938:428] Doina Peteanu makes a parallel between Morgan and Maughams novels emphasizing the genius theme and she writes: ...the genius must be measured with other instruments than the common ones. If you try to apply the common pattern to a genius, it means that you do not understand anything, that you may consider him either mad or immoral and simply ridiculous. The genius is a world in itself, with perfect logics and complete consistency, a harmonic, well-organized universe. A genius is not a freak of the human beings like so many vulgar authors pretend. [Doin a Peteanu, Doua carti si cititorii lor, in Viaa,1943:629] The way the coordinates of the narrations time and space were conceived will be significantly changed in the first half of the 20 th century. The physical and social space is decisive for the character of the realist novel but it is obvious that it is a fictional space and there always is a diversion from the so much claimed precision , for instance Thomas Hardy draws attention that his Wassex is not the district corresponding to Victorian England. In the realist novel, time means chronology of facts. Even when they are retrospective, their narration is still chronological. This chronology does not satisfy Proust anymore who goes searching for the wasted time and gives the impression that that he lets himself carried away by the involuntary memory. Virginia Woolf writes down in her diary The procedure that linearly relates the even may not be the best . The modern novel distinguishes between the objective time (the one that we see on a clock) and the subjective time. The voluntary memory operates with time chronologically and the involuntary one intercepts the moment only. The modern novelist plays with time in various ways and with different effects. The temporal dislocations go together with a multiplication of the points of view and the richness of the moment is more important than the narration of the events.The complexity and the depth of the moment circumvent it from the narration and classical analysis. The 188

Fiction and arts realitys impression on the conscience becomes the criterion and from here the disorder that confused the readers used to a nice flowing of facts. Even a novelist and a relevant analyst found that this literature was chaotic, badly, built. [E.M.Forster, Aspecte ale romanului] How do these aspects in the evolution of the novel appear in the publications in Romania between the two wars? The capricious dating of the chapters in the novel Orb in Gaza have as a consequence a turbid chronology which is important for defining the characters. Many texts that discuss this novel bring up the matter of these narrative techniques which is confusing for the readers nowadays. In an article in one of the volumes called Teme, Nicolae Manolescu remembered the engineer who, exasperated by the Huxleys skips in time, rearranged the chapters chronologically. Silvian Iosifescu wonders too about this temporal disorder but he also refers to Virginia Woolf and Prousts new technique: For Virginia Woolf, the matter of time and the order overturn is related to its impressionist vision. All the associations that the mechanical memory brings back in the memory of Prousts hero concerning the taste of a cake come in a varied temporal order objectively and arbitrary. The time overturn is psychological and it is related to the literary perspective of the two writers. We cannot talk about impressionism at Huxley The apparent disorientation of the dates contrasts with clearness of the narration. It is an intercession of the moments in construction. The reason is the searching of a superior expressivity and the wish to explain the role of certain events in the heros life and transformation. [Silvian Iosifescu, Aldous Huxley si caile inteligentei, in Viaa Romaneasca, 1940:7] L.Sereanu tries to understand the effects the wtriter expected by using this unusual technical artifice: Maybe this criss cross of events is not a simple technical procedure but it is psychological. Might it be a formal symbol of souls anxiety? Isnt time disorder representative for mental disturbances? The technique in art and literature is a sign of progress and subtlety and it externalizes a certain state of mind. Huixleys work occludes a huge anxiety. [L.Sereanu, Aldous Huxley, in Adevarul, 1937:16.249] This procedure finds understanding at D.Trost but with new nuances: What strikes us at the first sight in Huxleys a last novel is the narration 189

Fiction and arts without chronology. The reader who does not expect this would consider it an authors fad. In reality, this technique allows a short novel to contain a long period in the heros lives because only the most important events are narrated. Huxleys skips in time give the novel a cohesion that would have been impossible in othetr conditions. [D. Trost, Huxley si ultimul sau roman, in Lumea Romaneasca,1937:118] On the contrary, Dan Petrasnicu considers the technique valueless and the novel is a failure. He talks about the way a writer in the middle of the 20 th century regards literature: Huxleys new novel was born under bad auspices: the writers impetrfectiopns created it and here they were amplified to the maximum. La paix des profoundeurs wants to be erevolutionary through a new technique. Who might have thought about such a clever technique but Huxley who is a refined intellectual? In fact, this technique is so puerile. After you have seen all the pictures, after you have gone through the heros lives, with comical skips forward and backwards, the novel is ready! New ways of expression-this is the greatest farce of our century. [Dan Petrasnicu, Huxley si omul modern, in Adevarul, 1937 : 16.463 ] The writer who sweeps away with a sentence all the new ways of expression forgets that when we think about our own life we fragmentary bottom it not chronologically... Before Huxley (whom she did not appreciate), Virginia Woolf played a different game: The narration stzarts in Orlando in the 16 th century but immediately afterwards we find ourselves in the 17 th and 18 th century and the hero, already old, had turned into a woman.Trying to understand these skips in time, an anonymous annalist wrote in Dreptatea: Orlando is above the genre through the power of the symbol not through the perfection of the style or the grace of the humor, not even through the mystery that charms the reader. V.Woolf suppressed time not because she wanted to give a new shape to some ordinary events but because she wanted to reproduce better the image of the spirit that lives outside time and enlivens for a moment a doll that is left after the purpose was accomplished: Poetry. [Orlando, in Dreptatea, 1929:437] 190

Fiction and arts 3. Conclusions Some of the novels commentators realized that in the new novel we do not deal any more with every little detail brought up by the narrator, buit with the emotional disorder of life. Thus, it is understood that the novelist belonging to the new generation is an artist preoccupied with the technique of the novel. When the critics wanted to intercept the evolution from the "classical" realist novel to the modern one, they spotted the essay novel that contains in its texture something of the writers erudition, ideology and his concepcion in art. The comment put the novel in the neighborhood of the essay. This kind of writer is also present in the inter-war period and it is the expression of the modernization of literature, especially of the novel. Bibliography: Blu, Andi, O perspectiva romneasc asupra literaturii engleze, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 2002 Ciocoi-Pop, Dumitru, Notes on modern British literature, vol.I, II, Editura Societii academice anglofone din Romnia, Sibiu, 1999 Drago, Clara-Liliana, Conexiuni romno-engleze i ideea de Europa, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2002 Galea, Ileana, A History of English literature: the Victorian novel, ClujNapoca, 1985 Hangiu, I., Dicionarul presei literare romneti, 1790-1990, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, ed.II, Bucureti, 1996 Stanciu, Virgil, A History of English Literature(the last decades of the 19 th century, vol.I), Cluj-Napoca, 1981

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 192-199

Leonard Cohen The Dark Messiah of Canadian literature

Diana Otilia POP "Mihai Veliciu" Highschool, Chiineu-Cri Abstract: Although unknown to many readers or music-lovers, Leonard Cohen is a Canadian literary icon, with a career spanning over the last five decades. His poetry, songs and prose represent a secular combination of spirituality, history, sly humor and beautiful imagery, deeply involving the reader and revealing an array of sometimes ambiguous feelings. His highly acclaimed collections of poems Let Us Compare Mythologies or The Spice Box of Earth, his innovative novels The Favorite Game and Beautiful Losers and his famous albums The Future or Ten New Songs approach complex themes and have consecrated him as a true master of the word and an unmistakable voice in contemporary Canadian literature. Keywords: music, love, depression, politics, lust, religious experiences, history, interpersonal relationships. Biography Leonard Cohen was born on September 21st1934 in Montreal in a middle class Jewish family. While attending McGill University, he formed a country-western trio and published his first book of poems, Let Us Compare Mythologies (1956), which drew local attention. However, it was only his second collection, The Spice Box of Earth (1961) that brought him international recognition, followed by the controversial Flowers for Hitler (1964) and Parasites of Heaven (1966). He then briefly attended Columbia University and spent a lot of his time on the Greek island of Hydra, where he was romantically involved with Marianne Jensen. The 1960s, apart from the publication of his two novels, The Favourite Game and Beautiful Losers, also witnessed Cohens knock at the doors of the American music industry. The way to success wasnt an easy one, since he was already 30 and didnt own, as it was said, a sufficiently commercial voice. However, the song Suzanne from his first album, Songs of Leonard Cohen (1967), had huge success and was only an introduction

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Fiction and arts to his following albums and successful hits. Regardless of how difficult the process of writing a song was, Cohens albums sold millions of copies and turned him into one of the stars of his age. He got married to (and eventually divorced) Suzanne Elrod and had two children: a son, Adam, born in 1972 and a daughter, Lorca, born in 1974. However, by the late 1980s, he was almost forgotten by the public and went through a few years of painful depression, but Famous Blue Raincoat, his collaboration with Jennifer Warnes got him back to the top and paved the way to his classical and ever-known albums Im Your Man (1988) and The Future (1992), which gave birth to hits such as Everybody Knows, Im Your Man, Take This Waltz, Tower of Song, Democracy or Closing Time. Reaching the age of 60 and possessing sufficient money so as not to worry about anything else, Cohen takes a few years of break from song writing and eventually joins the Mt. Baldy Zen Centre near Los Angeles, where he becomes a monk and takes the Dharma name Jikan, meaning silence. He returns from his seclusion in 2001 with Ten New Songs, a startlingly contemporary collaboration with Sharon Robinson, featuring the great hits In My Secret Life and Alexandra Leaving. 2004 saw the release of Dear Heather, a recapitulative album expressing Cohens frail old age (he turned 70 that same year) recorded with the participation of Anjani Thomas. In 2008 Cohen was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and it was also the year that brought him back to the stage, performing in front of audiences in Canada for the first time in 15 years. His 84 date concert tour led him from Halifax to Bucharest and from Dublin to Auckland, to the delight of his millions of fans around the world. Poetry and prose Despite his renowned accomplishments, Cohen is a humble man who confesses that writing isnt an easy process for him. Most of the time I detest it, he says, and credits his many successes to self discipline rather than talent. While attending McGill University and later on as well, his literary influences were Yeats, Irving Layton, Walt Whitman, Henry Miller and, most importantly, Federico Garcia Lorca. He was the first poet that ever touched me. And I remember the first lines of his that I ever read that moved me into this delicious racket called poetry. It was: "I want to pass 193

Fiction and arts through the arches of Elvira, to see your thighs and begin weeping". That line burned itself into my heart and Ive written it over and over again in a hundred songs. There is a song of his, called "Little Viennese Waltz" that I had the great honor to translate and set to music. The translation took 150 hours, just to get it into English that resembled - I would never presume to say duplicated - the greatness of Lorca's poem. It was a long, drawn-out affair, and the only reason I would even attempt it is my love for Lorca. I loved him as a kid; I named my daughter Lorca, so you can see this is not a casual figure in my life. Immediately accessible and simultaneously mysterious, Let Us Compare Mythologies, his first collection of poems published in 1956, is filled with personal and public legends presented in simple, elegant language, in the rhythms of a person whispering confessions into the readers ear: His blood on my arm is warm as a bird/ his heart in my hand is heavy as lead/ his eyes through my eyes shine brighter than love/ O send out the raven ahead of the dove (Prayer for Messiah). The poems are mainly in free verse with a conversational or singing rhythm, but also include prose, rhymes, half-rhymes and other techniques. () it is a brilliantly accomplished, moving and intriguing collection of poems, whose mythological threads develop a sweetly melancholic atmosphere you can enter into at any time. Published in 1961, The Spice-Box of Earth was the volume which established Leonard Cohens reputation as a lyric poet and remains the most popular single volume of his verse. Expressed in rich, sensuous and beautiful language, and approaching dark themes - victimization, loss, cruelty - the poems deal with the role of the poet, with his inheritance of the Jewish tradition, and of course with love. Among the best-known poems are As the Mist Leaves No Scar and the lovely For Anne, which Cohen nominates as his own favorite poem: With Annie gone/ Whose eyes to compare/ With the morning sun?// Not that I did compare,/ But I do compare/ Now that shes gone. However, the most searching poem in the volume is the darkly symbolic You Have the Lovers, which anticipates the themes later explored in Cohen's novel Beautiful Losers. In his third volume of poetry, the 1964 Flowers for Hitler, Cohen is taking a more searching and uncompromising look at the poetic substance that he exists on, at all the things that he can remember, imagine, absorb, separate, or forget. Awhile ago Cohen writes - this book would have 194

Fiction and arts been called SUNSHINE FOR NAPOLEON, and earlier still it would have been called WALLS FOR GENGHIS KHAN. The Book of Mercy (1984) is a collection of contemporary psalms that utter the passionate human cry of a man to his maker. They are brimming with praise, despair, anger, doubt, trust - spoken from the heart of the modern world, yet in tones which resonate with an older devotional tradition. For many readers, these psalms will give voice to their deepest, most powerful intuitions. Stranger Music (1993) is a collection of songs and poems, a massive record of the poets journey through beauty, through horror, through the extremes of love and despair. Love is fire the poet says It burns everyone/ It disfigures everyone/ It is the worlds excuse/ for being ugly. The Book of Longing (2006), a composite of lyrics, poems, prose passages and line drawings, brings together Cohens poems from the 1970s through 2005. The book is dedicated to Irving Layton, fellow Canadian poet and Cohens mentor, and displays the typical attitude reflected in Beautiful Losers. Many traditional Cohen themes are covered in this book, but new wrinkles are introduced with the poets recognition of his own aging and impending death, and his sabbatical as a monk in the Zen monastery on Mt. Baldy, near Los Angeles. The Book of Longing has the intimate feel of a poets working notebook or journal: My page was too white/ My ink was too thin/ The day wouldnt write/ What the night penciled in. Some of the most interesting poems offer a glimpse of Cohens life as a monk, a lifestyle which seems so contrary to his nature. The tension between spiritual matters and physical longings, between the desires of youth and the memories of old age give this book much of its energy and propel it along. Cohens first novel, The Favourite Game, was published in 1963 and was initially called Beauty at Close Quarters; the ultimate choice for the title is taken from the last sequence of the novel, an image of childhood innocence featured on the background of a violent, selfish and ugly world. Awarded Le Prix Litteraire du Quebec, the most important Canadian literary prize, The Favourite Game is a classic bildungsroman, written in the tradition of Victorian realism, with intense biographical undertones. Centered on the protagonist Lawrence Breavman, the novel is an erotic account and a careful depiction of the relationships between the characters, focusing on the cognitive process and on the contradiction between the 195

Fiction and arts anxiety of the searching quest and the shock of the discovery. Alternately depressed about the past that perished with his father's death and manic about all the young women he wants to bed, Breavman's story brims with the delightful incongruities and twisted harmonies of American Beauty. Like Lester in Mendes's movie, Breavman strives for distance from himself but can't help constantly imploding. He is both a self-mocking hero and a self-inflated villain in a story whose effect is nearly as cinematic as American Beauty. Canadas own coming-of-age novel, The Favourite Game is a praise brought to memories and also to the pain conserved by them. Regarding the literary value of Cohens second novel, Beautiful Losers (1966), the Polirom edition that I own quotes the Boston Sunday Herald Review: "James Joyce is not dead.... He lives in Montreal under the name of Cohen and sees the world through the eyes of Henry Miller." This highly experimental novel approaches the typical themes of its age history, religion, politics, sex and drugs and is a complex mixture of writing styles (letters, journals, ads) and languages (English, French, Spanish, Greek). Beautiful Losers carries two major burdens: the spiritual legacy of the first Native American saint, the Iroquois Catherine Tekakwitha, and the pan-Occidental question of how secular history relates to the divine realities we still know. The novel is sometimes coarse, rhapsodic and bitingly witty, as it explores each characters selfabandonment, whereby the sensualist becomes indistinguishable from the saint. This cosmic discourse on the fall of traditional values is noted as being perhaps Cohen's most defiant and uninhibited work, and is also one of the best-known experimental novels to be published during the 1960s. Recording career I was born with the gift of a golden voice, Leonard Cohen says, self-ironically, in one of his songs, only to admit plainly afterwards that he was never able to sing a single note correctly. However, his lack of a unique and strong voice never hindered his musical career. In the 1960s, Leonard Cohen moved to the USA to pursue a career as a folk music singer and songwriter. He befriended Judy Collins, Joni Mitchell, Joan Baez and Bob Dylan and, after performing at a few folk festivals, he came to the attention of Columbia Records producer John H. Hammond. 196

Fiction and arts Leonard Cohens first album, Songs of Leonard Cohen (1967) made him famous all over the US and the UK and brought him positive critical reviews. The importance of this album is double: it is a collection of wonderful documents of depression and resignation, but also the well from which all his important accomplishments would emerge. In the years that followed, he toured the US, Canada and Europe and released other highly acclaimed albums: the course and emotional Songs from a Room (1969), the confessional Songs of Love and Hate (1971) and the sensual New Skin for the Old Ceremony (1974). In 1974, he also started his collaboration with the producer Phil Spector and, in 1977, he released Death of a Ladies Man, an album that approached a new musical style and more complex layers of instrumentation; the 1979 Recent Songs returned to a more traditional sound with a jazz-fusion band and oriental instruments. 1984 saw the release of Various Positions, an album which included the famous and frequently covered songs Hallelujah and Dance Me to the End of Love, while the next two albums, Famous Blue Raincoat (1987) and Im Your Man (1988) marked a new and more modern sound in Cohens music and brought his songs to the attention of a younger audience. They were followed by The Future (1992), a complex album used by Cohen to criticize the American society and to prophesize on its grim future: Ive seen the future, brother:/ it is murder () The blizzard of the world/ has crossed the threshold/ and it has overturned/ the order of the soul. In 2001, he retuned to the music stage with the release of Ten New Songs, an innovative album heavily influenced by co-composer Sharon Robinson and featuring the song Alexandra Leaving, a transformation of the poem The God Abandons Antony, by the Greek poet Konstantine Kavafis. Although sung with his typical magnetic monotony, this album represents a discreet turning point in Cohens music: the artist relies more and more on other singers voices, resigning himself bitterly with his old age I am not the light of my generation, but a composer living in Los Angeles. Dear Heather (2004) is a musical collaboration with jazz singer Anjani Thomas, while the 2009 compilation Live in London is a live album of Cohens performance at Londons O2 Arena in July 2008. Last but not least, Songs from the Road (2010) is a celebration of his longeval career as a Columbia artist, containing his most famous songs from the most recent tours performances: Lover, lover, lover, Heart with no companion, Bird on a wire, Waiting for the miracle and Chelsea Hotel. 197

Fiction and arts The portrait of a Canadian artist The singer and song writer Leonard Cohen was never a trend setter or a music idol like his contemporaries Bob Dylan, Elvis Priestley or John Lennon. However, for four decades, Leonard Cohen has been one of the most important and influential songwriters of our time, a figure whose body of work achieves greater depths of mystery and meaning as time goes on. His songs repeatedly covered by artists such as Nick Cave, Ian McCulloch, Johnny Cash, The House of Love, Roberta Flack and Jeff Buckley - have set a virtually unmatched standard in their seriousness and range. They move the hearts and minds of many music lovers; they arent musical compositions, but sounding paintings that have to be treated just as a painter treats his colours: slowly and carefully binding them, highlighting the semitones and the harmony. His writing, a mixture of hushed sacred tones and offhand vulgarity expressed with occasionally breathtaking beautiful imagery and humor, managed to be both critically acclaimed and accessible to the public, especially to the young, who took it to their hearts. His songs, poems and novels celebrate the play between the spiritual, profound and historical on the one hand and the profane, petty and personal on the other hand, often within a single image. Exploring complex themes such as love and lust, ecstasy, religious orientations, sexuality and raw human emotion, Leonard Cohen can make the deepest concepts become as clear as water. Nicknamed the Dark Messiah of Canadian contemporary literature, he is one of the worlds greatest performing poets of the past century, a gifted bard who can capture our strongest emotions with his sarcasm, his cunning manipulation of words, his humour and his passion. And I missed you since the place got wrecked And I just don't care what happens next looks like freedom but it feels like death it's something in between, I guess it's CLOSING TIME (Leonard Cohen Closing Time)

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Fiction and arts Bibliography: Cohen, L., 2003, Frumoii nvini, Iai, Editura Polirom; Cohen, L., 2003, Joaca preferat, Iai, Editura Polirom; Cohen, L., 1993, Stranger Music Selected Poems and Songs, Canada, McClelland & Strewart Inc.; Mihie, M., 2005, Viaa, patimile i cntecele lui LEONARD COHEN, Iai, Editura Polirom; Doss, J., 2007, Review of The Book of Longing by Leonard Cohen, Loch Raven Review; Nadel, Ira B., Various Positions. A Life of Leonard Cohen, Vintage, Toronto, 1996.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 200-208

Martin Amis, life and work. A tentative overview

Odeta Manuela BELEI Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Experience confirms Martin Amiss continued engagement in the process of personally revaluing his fathers example. Whereas he had earlier employed parts of his novels to do so, he now utilizes a non-fiction format, which allowed new ways of expressing the tones and themes that had yet to appear in his fiction. Using the memoir format to speak candidly about relationship, reconciliation, and realignment, Martin Amis provides an insiders glimpse into his personal maturation, his literary genealogy and his acclimation to the new role of father, rather than child. Keywords: literary paternity, postmodernism, memoir, postmodernism Martins father died on 22 October 1995. For the rest of us, the surprise comes from the recognition that the death of ones father is a beginning as much as a conclusion. We rebel against our fathers, we argue with them, we deliberately misunderstand them; we proceed from the firm assumption that their opinions must be wrong and their advice bad; we do everything in our power to assert our generational difference and our personal distinctness. Then, when our fathers die, we begin to see not only how alike we were but how well we understood each other all along. For a writer, this realization will sooner or later form itself into what Wordsworth called a timely utterance.[Powell, 2008: 358] Kingsley Amis registered his fathers death in 1963; four years later he memorialised William Amis both in verse In Memoriam W.R.A [Amis, 1979: 102-103] and in prose A Memoir of my Father.[Amis, 1970: 204-211]In 1973 he used him as the basis for the character of Captain Furneaux in The Riverside Villas Murder and in 1994 he returned to him for Tom Davies in You Cant Do Both. Martins response to Kingsley Amiss death was Experience (2000) Personal Realignment: Experience At the turn of the millennium, Martin Amis surprised his readership by writing Experience: A Memoir. The book includes a series of shocks and

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Fiction and arts losses he experienced in the 1990s, culminating in the 1995 death of his novelist father, Kingsley Amis. Before his father died, Amiss ten-year marriage to Antonia Phillips had broken up; in part due to his relationship with Isabel Fonseca (whom he married in 1998); at about the same time he discovered that his beloved cousin, Lucy Partington (who had been missing since Christmas 1973) was a victim of the serial murder Frederick West. He met for the first time with his daughter, Delilah, born in 1976, who had been raised by his stepfather and only informed of her relation to Amis in 1995; and he served ties with his long-time agent, Pat Kavanagh, over the much publicized negotiations for a large advance on his novel The Information, in the process ending his close friendship with Kavanaghs husband, the novelist Julian Barnes. All of these events are treated in Experience. Just as Kingsley invoked children as a triumphant, stabilizing force at the end of The Old Devils, so too, Martin focuses on his own children in Experience, and establishes a continuity of paternal succession, materialized in symmetry of father and son. Meditating on how his children will one day have to confront the Amiss family burden fame and publicity - Martin supposes that in the arts, when the parent invites the child to follow, it is a complicated offer, and there will always be a suspicious of egotism in it. Is the childs promise a tribute to the superabundance of the fathers gift? And historically what long odds you face: theres a Mrs Trollope as well as Anthony, and Dumas pre et files and thats about it. What usually happens is that the child is productive for a while, and then the filial rivalrousness plays itself out. [Amis, 2000: 23] Experience is a stark testament to the continued presence of filial rivalry in Martins life and work. It is a meditation upon the loss of control, both in literature and in life, and an attempt to reassert control - to restrain chaos and contingency, the very thing that energize Martins novels.[Keulks, 2003: 219] Death and absence are the existential themes upon which Experience rests. Someone is no longer here, Martin remarks in the books opening pages. The intercessionary figure, the father, the man who stands between the son and death, is no longer here; and it wont ever be the same. He is missing.[Amis, 2000: 7] Later, in between discussions of Kingsleys last words and his passing, the idea reappears with significant elaboration: It is 1995 and he has been there since 1949. The intercessionary figure is now being effaced, and there is nobody between you and the extinction. Death is nearer, reminding you that there is much to 201

Fiction and arts be done. There are children to be raised and books to be written. You have work to do.[ Amis, 2000: 345] Much of the most important material in Experience emerges out of the collision between these two dynamics of children and work, and in the process of recording his impressions of his father; Martin uncovers important lessons about life and literature. In an important formulation that occurs twice in the book, Martin asserts that a writer is chiefly three things: literary being, innocent, and everyman.[Amis, 2000: 260] He relates how he discovered the unconscious psychology of his novels while reading a retrospective of his work by Maureen Freely, which noted a stream of lost or wandering daughters and putative or fugitive fathers.[Amis, 2000: 220] Along with this question, Martins definition of authorial identity summarizes all psychological dynamics of the Amis family. The first criterion, -author as litterateursummons the themes of talent and fame, the oscillation between decline and renaissance. The second oneauthor as innocent-evokes the theme of the unconscious, the nature of fate, and the passage from innocence to experience. The final criterion author as Everyman suggests numerous heightened continuities, including succession, maturity, love and death. All these continuities to create the perspective polyphony of his memoir. [Keulks, 2003: 220] Martin devotes a large part of Experience to annotate Kingsleys professional rejuvenation of spirit, his reaffirmed correspondence with love, which Martin labels the supreme value. After The Old Devils, Kingsley continued producing such works as The Folks that Live on the Hill (1990) and The Russian Girl (1992), in which love, Martin notes, is exalted not only above politics andfar more surprisinglyabove poetry: it is also exalted above truth.[Amis, 2000: 29] Prior to this reconciliation, Kingsleys professional decline sent Martin in search of a spiritual guide. As Kingsley had found in Larkin, so too did Martin discover a similar spiritual affinity in Saul Bellow. He links the first and the third criteria of Martins authorial analogy, assuming the dual roles of litterateur and Everyman. Martin functions as the innocent in this formulation, the student in search of a mentor or guide who can mediate his negotiations with death and loss. Despite Martins warning that there was of course no fathervacancy to be filled, just as Saul Bellow, with three of his own, had no opening for a son.[Amis, 2000: 258] Martin craved an emotional connection with Bellow, a supplement to Martins strained relationship 202

Fiction and arts with Kingsley: Filial anxiety, I now perceive, was metastasising within me when I went to [visit Bellow in] Chicago in 1983, I wasnt prospecting for a new father, but I wasnt prospecting for a new father, but I was seriously worried about the incumbent. His life was now steady enough, in its external dispositions. It was the state of the talent that bothered me.[Amis, 2000: 178] Twelve years later, in the midst of facing Kingsleys death, Martin turned to Bellow, in search of an assured wisdom that could dispel confusion. At the end of Experience, Martin recollects their conversation after Kingsleys death: -Youve changed since your father died, [Bellow] said. -In what way? -More gravitas, not the kid anymore. -God, no. The kid?... In the dinner I had said, as I had been meaning to say. -Do you remember I called you on the day my father died? And you were great. You said the only thing that could have possibly been any use to me. The only thing that would help me through to the other side. And I said dully, Youll have to be my father now. It worked, and still works. As long as youre alive Ill never feel entirely fatherless. [Amis, 2000: 360] Experience paints a portrait of a man attempting to live without masks, willing to speak about the importance of forgiveness, love and family life. Throughout Experience, Martin elevates children to the status of redeemers: At the birth of your child, you forgive your parents everything, without a second thought, like a velvet revolution. As in The Old Devils, children play a crucial role in Martins personal realignment. As the title of his memoir expresses, Experience is haunted by the loss of youthful innocence, a necessary part of maturation, or by physical loss, as in the disappearance of his cousin and the death of his father. In 1990, five years after the birth of his first son Louis and three years after the birth of his second son Jacob, Martin told Susan Morrison that children seem to operate as symbolic magicians, freeing their parents from the shackles of the self. Parenthood changes you so completely that you lose your point of comparison, he explained. You get out of the self a bitWhats so great about having children are that its the ordinary miracle; its the miracle that 203

Fiction and arts happens to everyone. In another interview, Martin proclaimed that children redefine everything for you. A lot of the self is lost, thank God, the internal gibber of wants and needs dies down.[Morrison, 1990: 190] In Experience, Martin continued to associate children with the dynamics of personal evolution, but given the fate of Lucy Partington, he portrays a war between the orderly cycles of generation and the discontinuous cycles of loss. Speaking figuratively about his fathers death, Martin imagines Kingsley positioned at the centre of a great circular vacancy devoid of patterns and form: When a new child is born you reel in the apparent emptiness of the street, because the world has showed up, making way for the new one, and the world has overdone it, and there is all this space to reel it. Death does not act symmetrically here. Death too creates space but isolates you and cuts you off within it.[Amis, 2000: 359] Besides the loss of his cousin and father, numerous other variations of loss appear frequently in Experience, including divorces, several relationships, political oppression, and artistic decline. Although death can never be repaid in full, in his book Martin receives psychological compensation for his losses through the discovery of his new daughter, Delilah Seale, from an earlier affair with Lamorna Heath Seale. In the midst of a memoir that begins with Martin discussing fame with his sons and concludes with journalistic irresponsibility, the dominant patterns remain those of reconciliation and recompense. Towards the end of Experience, Martins tone becomes insistent and serious, as he struggles to elucidate the moral humanism that flows as an undercurrent through the tumults of his life. He criticizes the media for breaking the story of his newfound daughter before he had the chance to explain the situation to his sons, and he turns his attention to Eric Jacobs, settling an old score by recollecting a dream about Kingsley. Martins words regarding the triumph over death appeared in his memoirs: He gave me to understand that I had all his trust - in the prosecution of his wishes, and in everything else. Because my wishes were his wishes and the other way around. Then he left, he briskly absented himself, returning not to death but to an intermediate vantage. He was resolute. This dream was all business. He came not as shade but as manager. A manger from my own unconscious, naturally. But thats all right. Because my mind is his mind and the other way around 204

Fiction and arts So it was incredibly warming to see you, Dad. And why dont you come more often like that? As a manager, and not just as a shade whom I swamp and harass and bore with obeisances. It was incredibly warming to see you, but I didnt really need the reassurance about your wishes. Because my wishes are your wishes and I am you and you are me. [Amis, 2000: 363-64] Martin Amiss Evolution as a Writer From the very beginning Martin Amiss literary sensibility was shaped by his fathers career. Martin was born on August 25, 1949, five years before Lucky Jim brought transatlantic fame to Kingsley. During the nine years he lived in South Wales; his fathers friend, the poet Philip Larkin, made frequent visits to the Amiss household and served as godfather to Martins elder brother Philip. In 1960 he spent a year in America when his father was hired to teach creative writing at Princeton. Two years later Kingsley abandoned his wife Hilly and his family for the novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard. When Martin Amis divorced his wife a generation later, also leaving behind two boys, Hilly says that she relived the misery: If anyone talks to me about divorce, I say it is the worst thing that can happen, it is horrendous, dont do it. Martin and his second wife had two daughters, but Hilly noticed that Martin looked increasingly like his father and was more easygoing and adventurous than the latter had ever been. She recalls in an article that Martin, in spite of his tumultuous life was a wonderful father, far more interested in his children than Kingsley had been. [Sands, 2006:38] This was not the first time Kingsleys abandoning his family made a formative impression on young Martin. In Experience he recounts a parentchild role-reversal: When I was a child I would sometimes hear my father in the nighthis horrified gasps, steadily climbing in pitch and power. My mother would lead him to my room. The light came on. My parents approached and sat. I was asked to talk about my day, school, and the games I had played. He listened feebly but lovingly, admiringly, his mouth open and tremulous, as if contemplating a smile. In the morning I talked to my mother and she was very straight. It calms him down because he knows he cant be frightened in front of you. 205

Fiction and arts Frightened of what? He dreams he is leaving his body. It made me feel-up late, holding the floor, curing a grown man: my father. It bonded us.[Amis, 2000: 180] During his adult life, much of Martin Amiss imaginative energy was developed in order to emerge from his fathers shadow and to become a writer in his own right. It was Elizabeth Jane Howard, not Kingsley, who persuaded Martin to turn from comic books and video games to serious reading, introducing him to the novels of Jane Austen and helping him to prepare for the university entrance exams. Once, she asked him what he wanted to be and he replied: A writer, But you never read anything, she told him. If you are so interested in writing, why dont you read? She gave him Pride and Prejudice: a somewhat risky choice, but he ended it. That was when he started to read properly she says, with justifiable pride.[Howard, 2002:358] Martin recalls in Experience that he wrote Howard to thank for her quite literary getting me into Oxford. Had you not favoured my education with your interest sagacity, I would now be 3-Olevelled wretch with little to commend me.[Amis, 2000:150] Later in Experience he writes of Howard: She was generous, affectionate, and resourceful: she salvaged my schooling and I owe her an unknowable debt for thatAs far as I am concerned she is, with Iris Murdoch, the most interesting female writer of her generation. [Amis, 2000: 215] From 1968-1971 he attended Exeter College at Oxford University, where his tutors included Jonathan Wordsworth, a direct descendent of the poet William Wordsworth, and Craig Raine, whose poetry gave rise to an influential literary movement known as the Martian School. Like his father, he graduated with first-class honours in literature. Three months out of Oxford, he was hired to write a book review for the Observer, where he appeared alongside names such as Anthony Burgess and W.H. Auden. He was hired by the papers literary editor Terence Kilmartin, I gave him a book to review, a tryout, and I showed it around. People thought it was the work of someone whod been reviewing for twenty years. [Michener, 1987:110] In 1973 Amis joined two other prestigious British journals. He became an editorial assistant at the Times Literary Supplement, and he began reviewing books for the New Statesman, where literary editor Claire Tomalin hired him as her assistant. She remembers his great agility with 206

Fiction and arts words: It was great fun to work with that. Martin could so easily have stayed on Oxford and had an academic careerHe is very, very clever and a terrific intellectual arrogance. Amis remained with New Statesman for seven years. He was named assistant literary editor in 1975 and literary editor in 1977, but in 1979 resigned to write full time. His association with The New Statesman was the most significant part of his journalistic career. It secured his reputation as a member of Londons literary intelligentsia and solidified his left-liberal political credentials. Amiss friendship with two of The New Statesmans most committed Trotskysts, James Fenton and Christopher Hitchens, formed what they called the 26 Clubs. When he left Oxford, Jonathan Wordsworth had challenged him to either produce a novel within the year or return to Oxford for an advanced degree and a career as a university don. The result was The Rachel Papers, published in November 1973, which won the Somerset Maugham Prize for the best first novel (as Kingsleys first novel, Lucky Jim, had done before it) and launched Amiss career as a fiction writer. Recalling this, Martin said: I had a huge amount of intellectual energy when I came downMy head was full of literature, and loving to write. I wrote that novel in a year of evenings and mornings, while writing quite a number of reviews and keeping a full-time job. [Synaverson, 1995: 160] In 1980 Amis resigned from his editorial position at the New Statesman to write full time, although he continued to publish non-fiction in England and America, including essays and reviews in The Observer, The Guardian, The Times, The Independent, The London Review of Books, The New York Times Book Review, The Atlantic, Esquire, Vanity Fair, New York. Martin himself later acknowledged that his family name guaranteed that he would get at least one novel in print: Any London house would have published my first novel out of vulgar curiosity. [Amis, 2000:25] His mixture of precocity, great intelligence, and wide sexual success is bound to provoke envy, Julian Barnes said in 1990. People try to write like Martin. Theres something very infectious and competitive about it. [Stout, 1990: 48] Between 1981 and 1994, Amis published four novels, four volumes of non fiction, and a collection of short stories on the theme of nuclear terror. In 1984 he married the American philosophy professor Antonia Philips, and they had two sons: Louis, born the same year, and Jacob, born in 1986. 207

Fiction and arts The Letters of Kingsley Amis, published in 2000, amply document Kingsleys resentment and envy in the face of his sons literary ascent. In a 1979 letter to Philip Larkin, Kingsley asks, Did I tell you Martin is spending a year abroad as a TAX EXILE? Last years he earned 38,000 . Little shit. He is. Little shit. Earlier letters refer to lazy Martin or Savage little Martin. One reports that Scoundrelly Mart has sold his novel to the Yanks for 3000$ advance. Pretty good, eh? And in 1984, the year Money was published, he told Larkin of course Martin Amis is more famous than I am now. [Leader, 2000: 871] Even if Kingsley Amis won the Booker Prize for his 1986 novel The Old Devils, his sons reputation eclipsed his own for the remainder of his life. Martin Amis has won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Experience and the Books Critics Circle Award for his collection The War against Clich. References: Amis, Martin. Experience, London: Jonathan Cape, 2000 Diedrick, James. Understanding Martin Amis, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995. Howard, Jane Elizabeth. Slipstream: A Memoir, London: Macmillan, 2002. Jacobs, Eric. Kingsley Amis. A Biography, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1995 Keulks, Gavin. Father and Son. Kingsley Amis, Martin Amis and the British Novel since 1950, USA: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003 Leader, Zachary. The Letters of Kingsley Amis, HarperCollins Publisher, 2000. Michener, Charles. Britains Brat of Letters, Esquire, January 1987. Morrison, Susan. The Wit and Fury of Martin Amis, Rolling Stone, 17 May 1990. Powell, Neil. Amis and Son Two Literary Generations, Macmillan, 2008 Sands, Sarah. My Life An Unfaithful Old Devil, The Daily Mail, October 7, 2006. Stout, Mira. Down Londons Mean Streets, New York Times Magazine, 4 February 1990. Synaverson, Michael. Famous Amis, Vanity Fair, May 1995.

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Fiction and arts Die literarische Moderne setzt einen Wunsch nach Erneuerung voraus und ist durch Innovation, Bereitschaft zu experimentieren und Verleugnung der Tradition gekennzeichnet. Von Silvio Viettas fnf Geschichtsmodellen ist es das dritte Modell, welches den Modernismus mit der Moderne gleichsetzt und in der Wende des 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert wurzelt, das im Mittelpunkt unseres Interesses steht. Wie Kiesel in seiner Geschichte der literarischen Moderne festhlt, orientiert sich die Moderne an den naturund sozialwissenschaftlichen Konzepten (Darwin, Taine, Marx), an Nietzsche und an der modernen auslndischen Literatur [Kiesel 2004: 22]. Vom Leser wird Offenheit erwartet, die Bereitschaft zu einer neuen, wenn auch befremdenden Weltwahrnehmung. Hermann Bahr spricht von der Moderne als Qual und Krankheit des Jahrhunderts, entstanden in Folge des Glaubens daran, dass aus dem Leide das Heil kommen wird und die Gnade aus der Verzweiflung, dass es tagen wird nach dieser entsetzlichen Finsternis und dass die Kunst einkehren wird bei den Menschen [...] [Bahr 1890: 13]. 2. Die Jahrhundertwende 1900 Eugen Wolffs 1888 erschienener Artikel Die jngste deutsche Literaturstrmung und das Prinzip der Moderne gilt als theoretische Grundlage und somit als Proklamation der Moderne im deutschsprachigen Raum. Hinzu kommt die um dieselbe Zeit entstandene literarische Vereinigung Durch. Arno Holz schreibt bereits 1885 in seinem Buch der Zeit, Lieder eines Modernen: Kein rckwrts schauender Prophet / geblendet durch unfassliche Idole, / modern sei der Poet, / modern vom Scheitel bis zur Sohle! [In: Kiesel 2004: 16]. Kennzeichnende Leitideen sind die Abwendung von dem harmonischen Schnheitsideal der Antike und den traditionellen Werten zu Gunsten der Dynamik und der wissenschaftlich begrndeten Erkenntnissen [Kiesel 2004: 19]. Dieselbe vorwrts blickende Haltung vertritt auch Bahr, wenn er feststellt, dass in [seinen Zeitgenossen] [...] die Vergangenheit noch immer [wuchert] und um [sie] wchst die Zukunft [Bahr: 1890: 13]. Vorlufer dafr findet man bereits Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts in Frankreich. Baudelaire setzt dem banalen Dasein das Bse, Hssliche, Schockierende als befremdende Schnheit gegenber [Weigmann 2003: 27]. Diese Negation des Schnen, der konventionellen sthetik fhrt zu 210

Anstze zur literarischen Moderne in sterreich. Besonderheiten der Jahrhundertwende 1900

Petra-Melitta ROU Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: When the Austro-Hungarian Empire approached its dissolution, its cultural life was booming. Vienna was not only a multiethnic, polyglot capital, but also the birthplace of enduring literary masterpieces. It is this special environment (the nationality question, the problem of centre and periphery, the authors friendship with Freud), that makes the Wiener Moderne or Viennese Modern Age so memorable and influential. Keywords: Wiener Moderne, Innenorientierung, Dissoziationsvorgnge 1. Einfhrung Die literarische Moderne ist von der gesellschaftlichen Modernisierung zu unterscheiden. Dennoch kann die sthetische Moderne durchaus als kritische Reflexion der zivilisatorischen Moderne betrachtet werden. Grob gesagt, gilt die Moderne als Epochenbegriff fr literarische Tendenzen um 1900. Becker und Kiesel sprechen vom sthetizismus der Jahrhundertwende, der durch kritische Distanz und einem Spannungsverhltnis zur modernen Lebenswelt und zum modernen Lebensstil gekennzeichnet ist. Ab 1910 sprechen die beiden Autoren von einer avantgardistischen Moderne, welche mit dem Einsatz des Expressionismus bereinstimmt, und die ihrer Meinung nach, vor allem Formexperimente fordert. Die 1920er Jahre gelten als klassische Moderne, klassisch in dem Sinne, dass das traditionelle Mimesisprinzip fortgefhrt wird. Hierfr werden Musil und Broch als Beispiele genannt, da sie das essayistische Schreiben nicht nur fortsetzen, sondern auch weiterfhren [vgl. Becker 2007: 18-19]. Es entsteht eine neue Romantradition, welche den Reflexionen den Weg ffnet. Bei der sogenannten Sptmoderne der 1950er und 1960er Jahre stellt man sich die Frage, ob es sich um eine direkte Fortfhrung der Vorkriegstendenzen oder um eine neu erfundene Moderne handelt.

Fiction and arts einer regelrechten sthetik des Hsslichen und Bsen. Zudem erscheint bereits bei ihm eine Entpersnlichung der Lyrik. Gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts gewinnt die sterreichischungarische Monarchie an Ansehen. Besonders die Hauptstadt Wien wird zum kulturellen Zentrum des Vielvlkerreiches. Michael Pollack [1998:106-107] sieht in der Explosion des kulturellen Lebens im Wien der Jahrhundertwende den Versuch, ein Gefhl von Bindung und Standhaftigkeit zu vermitteln. Alle Knste blhen auf, bringen auch spter anerkannte Namen und Werke hervor. Die Freundschaft zwischen Gustav Mahler, in seiner Funktion als Operndirektor, Max Burckhardt als Direktor des Hoftheaters, und den Reprsentanten Jung-Wiens trgt wesentlich dazu bei. Pollack sieht sie sogar als Alliierte [Pollack, 1998: 141]. So kommt es auch zur Mitarbeit zwischen Hugo von Hofmannsthal und Richard Strauss. So sind zum Beispiel Elektra oder Der Rosenkavalier vertont worden. Hofmannsthal erlangt Ruhm im gesamten deutschsprachigen Raum, da er sich auf sthetik, auf die Problematik des Knstlers und dessen Identitt konzentriert, und nicht so sehr auf jene der nationalen Identitt. Somit entzieht er sich einer Einordnung in eine periphere Literatur. Pollack [1998: 107] stellt fest, dass es Autoren wie Arthur Schnitzler, Beer-Hofmann oder Hermann Bahr gelingt, sich eine Existenz als Schriftsteller aufzubauen und von ihren Verffentlichungen allein zu leben. Dies ist auch dank des Aufschwungs der Fachpresse mglich. Bereits 1885 erscheint eine Wochenbeilage der Presse, An der schnen blauen Donau Musikalische und literarische Zeitschrift. 1891 wird das Junge Wien gegrndet. Zwar knnen sich die Mitglieder zuerst nicht genau einordnen und so vereinigen sie sich 1892, nach der kurzen Existenz der Modernen Rundschau, mit der Berliner Freien Bhne fr modernes Leben. Die neue Zeitschrift nennt sich nun Freie Bhne fr den Entwicklungskampf der Zeit und soll den sterreichischen Schriftstellern das ermglichen, was der Modernen Rundschau nicht gelungen ist, eine breite Leserschaft anzusprechen [vgl. Dagmar Lorenz, 1995: 48]. Die Grostadt erscheint als wesentliches Thema und trgt dazu bei, dass diese, Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts aus Berlin ausgehende Bewegung, eine naturalistische Moderne ist. Erst jetzt merken die sterreichischen Autoren, dass sie in der neuen Zeitschrift kaum etwas Passendes publizieren knnen, dass sie sich trotz 211

Fiction and arts eines hnlichen Programms wesentlich von den Deutschen unterscheiden. Die Literaturforschung sieht darin den entscheidenden Augenblick, in dem sich die sterreichische Literatur sichtlich von der deutschen entfernt und einem eigenen Entwicklungsstrang folgt. Einige Kritiker sehen in der Unfhigkeit sterreichischer Schriftsteller sich an die Richtlinien der Freien Bhne anzupassen, ein Zeichen fr das eigentliche Nichtvorhandensein des Naturalismus als literarische Strmung in der sterreichischen Literatur [vgl. Paetzke 1992: 8]. Andere sind der Ansicht, dass Zge des Naturalismus als Ausgangspunkt zur Entdeckung des Ich als Motiv gedient haben [vgl. Lorenz 1995: 45]. Man neigt dazu, besonders die frhe literarische Moderne eher mit Wien, als mit Berlin, in Verbindung zu bringen. Kiesel sieht den Grund dafr im Zusammentreffen innovativer Schriftsteller in Wien. Seiner Meinung nach wirkt schon im Bewusstsein vieler Zeitgenossen der frhen Moderne, erst recht aber im Bewusstsein vieler Nachgeborener [...] Wien als Ursprungsort der Moderne [Kiesel 2004: 23]. Die sterreichischen Schriftsteller wenden sich der Innenwelt zu und entdecken die Seelenwelt. Das Caf Griensteidl wird zum Treffpunkt der Autoren, zur neuen Kultursttte. Hier werden Gedanken ausgetauscht und man uert sich zum jeweiligen Werk der anderen. Dagmar Lorenz [Lorenz 1995: 88] spricht von einer regelrechten Clique. Tatschlich zeugt auch der spter verffentlichte Briefwechsel von einer engen Freundschaft unter den Schriftstellern. Hermann Bahr versucht, die Zugehrigkeit dieser sterreichischen `modernen Autoren` zum gehobenen Bildungsbrgertum und teils sogar zum Adel, sowie ihren Kosmopolitismus, das heit die Prgung durch eine Mischung mehrerer verschiedenen Kulturtraditionen und Sprachen, als Kennzeichen der sterreichischen Moderne darzustellen [Lorenz 1998: 49]. Die Schriftsteller selbst fhlen sich dadurch jedoch isoliert. Dieser Faktor verstrkt die Tendenz zur Innenorientierung. Der Begriff Fin de sicle als Bezeichnung fr die Jahrhundertwende bekommt gerade in der Donaumonarchie eine besondere Bedeutung. Europaweit ist die Epoche durch eine Isolation des Individuums in Folge der starken Technologisierung und Kommerzialisierung gekennzeichnet. Selbstverstndlich beeinflussen diese gesellschaftlichen Vernderungen auch die Literatur. Nirgends wird der baldige Untergang so versprt wie in der habsburgischen Monarchie. Der stark ausgeprgte Charakter der 212

Fiction and arts Wiener Moderne erscheint auf Grund des Missens eines starken sozialen Rahmens [Nubert 2008: 72], was das innere Exil hervorruft. Das fhrt uns zurck zu Nietzsches Kunstauffassung als Befreiung vom Leiden an der Entfremdung, als eine der Mglichkeiten, sich vom Bann des unbefriedigten Willens [] zu befreien [Weigmann 2003: 20]. In dieser Zeit entdecken Schnitzler, Hofmannsthal und die anderen Autoren die Arbeiten Ernst Machs und Sigmund Freuds. Was sie an der Traumdeutung des Psychoanalytikers, Studium das von der damaligen Fachwelt eher ignoriert wird, so fasziniert, ist, wie Pollack feststellt, der subjektive, selbstanalytische Charakter [Pollack 1998: 123]. Benveniste erkennt Freuds Einfluss auf die Literatur in seiner neuen Art, Sprache und vor allem Sprache im Kontext zu analysieren. Er habe nmlich entscheidendes Licht auf die sprachliche Ttigkeit geworfen [] in ihren Fehlleistungen, in ihren extremen Artikulationen, Verdrngungen, Kompensierungen, []. Auch die normalisierte Sprache verdecke oft nur mhsam ihren Ursprung im Unbewussten und im Tagtraum [In: Weigmann 2003: 24]. Die Autoren der Wiener Moderne nehmen einen Gedanken auf, den bereits Freud von Schopenhauer bernommen hatte, demzufolge die menschliche Vernunft nur zur Analyse und Orientierung beitrgt, das Handeln jedoch meist von Trieben bestimmt wird. Dadurch, dass das Interesse auf das problematische Ich gelenkt wird, verstrkt sich das Krisenbewusstsein. Roxana Nubert erkennt in Machs Auffassungen vom unrettbaren Ich einen labilen Komplex unbestndiger Empfindungen, Erfahrungen, Assoziationen, Stimmungen, Gefhle und Erinnerungen. Des Weiteren hlt sie die Auflsung des Ichs in eine Vielzahl von [wechselhaften] Sinneseindrcken und Empfindungen [Nubert 2008: 81] fest. Das Disparate des modernen Menschen hat bereits in Baudelaires Werk eingesetzt. Im europischen Kontext betrachtet, unterscheidet sich dadurch die Wiener Moderne nicht von der franzsischen oder Berliner Moderne. Die Dissoziationsvorgnge werden hier jedoch strker wahrgenommen und dadurch radikalisieren sich die Merkmale. Dagmar Lorenz [1995: 50] ist ebenfalls der Meinung, dass die bereits erwhnten Kennzeichen keineswegs nur auf die sterreichische Literatur begrenzt werden knnen, sondern gesamt europisch gltig sind. Fr Iris Paetzke stellen einige spezifische Zge das Gesamtbild der literarischen Wiener Moderne zusammen. Sie erkennt in den Werken Verstrung, eingeschrnkte Selbstsicherheit, 213

Fiction and arts Wirklichkeitsverlust, Ich-Spaltung und Verdrngung, Vernunftsversagen, unbewusste Wnsche und Trume, nicht begriffene Normen oder soziale Strukturen [Paetzke 1992: 10-11]. 3. Schlussfolgerung Die kosmopolite sterreichische Kunst wird somit ins Leben gerufen, in einem Augenblick, in dem die Donaumonarchie sich aus politischer Sicht ihrem Ende nhert. Dadurch werden die Spuren und Folgen des Ersten Weltkrieges umso strker wahrgenommen und literarisch verarbeitet. Die Kaffeehauskultur Wiens, welche die Jahrhundertwende geprgt hat, leidet in den Nachkriegsjahren auf Grund des Zeitmangels der Gste. Diese sind jetzt beschftigt, stndig in Eile und stehen unter Stress. Esther Saletta [2006: 24]. spricht von einer modernen, chaotischen und nervsen Atmosphre. Ebenso wie sich in der Vorkriegszeit Zukunftsangst, Hoffnungslosigkeit und Pessimismus mit einem starken Gefhl von Vaterlandliebe paaren, vermischen sich jetzt Nachkriegsdesaster und Bilder der Zerstrung mit einer illusorischen Positivitt. Der Verlust des Krieges und der Zerfall der Donaumonarchie lassen die sterreicher vereinsamt dastehen. Die neugegrndete Republik sterreich muss die Notwendigkeit ein Zugehrigkeitsgefhl zu verspren, berwinden. Literaturverzeichnis: Bahr, Hermann 1890. Die Moderne in Moderne Dichtung. Monatsschrift fr Literatur und Kritik unter http://www.uni-due.de/lyriktheorie/scans/1890_bahr.pdf [25.08.2010]. Becker, S. / Kiesel, H. / Krause R. (Hg.) 2007. Literarische Moderne: Begriff und Phnomen, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Lorenz, Dagmar 1995. Wiener Moderne, Weimar: Metzler. Mller-Funk, W. 2001. ber das Verhltnis von Herrschaft und Kultur unter http://www.kakanien.ac.at/beitr/theorie/WMueller-Funk1.pdf Nubert, Roxana 2008. Einfhrung in die literarische Moderne Naturalismus und Jahrhundertwende 1900, Temeswar: Mirton. 214

Fiction and arts Paetzke, Iris 1992. Erzhlen in der Wiener Moderne, Tbingen: Francke Verlag. Saletta, Ester 2006. Die Imagination des Weiblichen. Schnitzlers Frulein Else in der sterreichischen Literatur der Nachkriegszeit, Wien: Bhlau. Weigmann, H. 2003. Die deutsche Literatur des 20. Jahrhunderts, Wrzburg: Knigshausen und Neumann.

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Extra-conjugal love. Concubinage and adultery in the middle ages

Teodora ARTIMON Central European University, Budapest Abstract: The following paper discusses medieval love outside the legal frames, dealing with a period roughly located between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries, and it also offers glimpses into the concubinage of Late Antiquity and the adultery of tenth-century Byzantium. Focusing on the practice of adultery and concubinage, the paper points to the way sexuality seems to gain priority outside marriage, while inside marriage it has the sole purpose of procreation. Keywords: Middle Ages, love, concubinage, adultery 1. Concubinage and Saint Augustine In Book I of his On Marriage and Concupiscence, Saint Augustine says that chastity in the married state is Gods gift [S. Augustine, www.fordham.edu]. Two chapters afterwards, discussing the nature of marriage, he gives a definition to it that is representative for the Medieval mentality: The union, then, of male and female for the purpose of procreation is the natural good of marriage [S. Augustine, www.fordham.edu]. Therefore, while chastity is more desirable than marriage, marriage is preferred to any type of sexual union outside the legal body. Then what is the situation with concubinage? Can it be called a pseudo-married state or is it a practice surpassing any legal boundaries? The fact that Augustine argues so thoroughly for the canons of marriage may seem somewhat curious as he was characterized as the perfect example of a man living in a concubinage relationship [Verdon, 2009: 238], thus being an example of a person breaking the laws of marriage. In the Late Roman period, when Augustine was writing, concubinatus was, in legal terms, a monogamous, semi-permanent relationship, an alternative rather than a supplement to legal marriage [Brown, 1999: 388]. Peter Brown in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World defines the status of two people living is such a relationship: he says that the male partner usually had a substantially higher

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Fiction and arts social and legal status then the female therefore the concubinage was more socially appropriate than marriage. Moreover, as concubinage was not a legal act, any child born within such a relationship was considered illegitimate and would not inherit from his father [Brown, 1999: 388]. Returning to the life of Augustine, his early life was marked by an almost fifteen-year relationship with a concubine, generally regarded as a slave or a lower class woman. Later on, when he spiritually matured, he condemned that period, arguing for marriage in works such as De Bono Coniugali. In his Confessions, Augustine tells us how desire was that drew them together, while also desire was what kept them in a faithful relationship [Fitzgerald, 1999: 228]. Also in the Confessions, he makes a statement which has good relevance for the purpose of this paper: I in my own case experienced what difference there betwixt the self-restraint of the marriage-covenant, for the sake of issue, and the bargain of a lustful love, where children are born against their parents will, although, once born, they constrain love [S. Augustine, 1953 (latest ed.): 57]. The comparative definition given here by Augustine is universal for the Middle Ages and is also applied to Late Medieval examples of concubinage as it will be presented in the following. 2. Types of concubinage relationships Therefore, as also argued by Augustine, concubinage is characterized by two people living together, having children and having affection for one another, but not getting married for various reasons. The term concubine, referring to women, defined several cases of concubinage. The classical meaning of concubine was that of woman with whom one sleeps with [Karras, 2005: 100] or simply girlfriend. Although in this case a concubine of a single man could be a potential marriage partner, the couple did not necessarily envision marriage especially if they came from different social layers. A different type of concubine is what Karras defined as a woman living in a domestic partnership with a man who was for some reason unable to marry her [Karras, 2005: 100]. This was usually the example of separated couples. As divorce was so problematic, many people unofficially separated from their spouse, not being able to remarry. A woman separated in this way from her husband would be called an adulteress if found out; however, an unmarried woman who lived with a separated man was called a concubine. 217

Fiction and arts A third intriguing type of concubine is the so called priests concubine. Karras illustrates how preachers like the English exemplum collector John of Bromyard, blamed these concubines for attracting priests with the sole purpose of despoiling the goods of the church. Preachers attacked them for greed, but most importantly, they attacked them for lust in an effort to displace on to women the priests guilt of sexual desires [Karras, 2005: 101]. However, it is important to note that most of the women entering in such a relationship with members of the clergy were married women. Therefore the sin of was aggravated by adultery. Jean Verdon tried to answer the question of why married women would engage in relationships with priests. Doing so, he hypothesized that women, being disgusted with their husbands brutality, were attracted by the clerical tenderness which might have evolved into these types of relationships [Verdon, 2009: 248]. J. Verdon also discusses friedelehe. He describes the woman living in friedelehe: a woman whose status was above that of a concubine, but who did not have the legal protection of a formal marriage because she had contracted marriage on her own without the family and property arrangements that usually accompanied it [Verdon, 2009: 243]. Being a quasi-marriage, James A. Brundage confirmed that she continued in fact to be a member of her family of birth, even though she lived with a man who belonged to another family [Brundage, 1990: 129]. Lothair II and Carolingian prices offer another example of concubinage: living with a wife of youth. Before they legitimately married, the Carolingian princes received a wife of youth, usually of noble origin with whom they lived and even had children. Verdon also explains this practice: while young princes reached their sexual maturity at the age of 1516, because of political reasons, the legitimate marriage did not take place until they reached the age of 30 or even 40 [Verdon, 2009: 243]. Lothair I gave his son one such youth wife, Waldrada. However, when his father died, Lothair II had to legally marry Theutberga thus breaking up with his youth wife. Even so, in a short while, he wanted to divorce Theutberga and legitimately marry Waldrada. The fact that Lothairs reign was chiefly occupied by his efforts to obtain a divorce from his legal wife demonstrates the supposition that the Carolingian princes did not only involve a simple carnal relationship with these concubines, but they were also romantically engaged with them. 218

Fiction and arts 3. Adultery Thou shall not commit adultery (Exodus 20:14) said the Seventh Commandment. Accordingly, Saint Augustine, among many others, argued for a clean marriage: I do firmly believe and I call upon all peoples and nations to believe that adultery is wrong [S. Augustine, 1968 (latest ed.): 76]. Although a condemned act, adultery was still very often encountered in the Medieval environment. Whether the partners were lower class, nobles or royalty, this type of attraction was present, most often including romantic feelings. The Ecologa on sexual crimes of the Byzantine emperor Leo III gives a glimpse at the frequency of adultery. Out of nine sentences for sexual crimes, three were reserved to adultery: the first sentence deals with men committing adultery; the third one deals with committing a rather spiritual adultery with a nun; and the fifth one discusses the case of a man aware of his wifes adultery [Geanokoplos, 1984: 78]. Reaching all the layers of the society, examples of adultery are various. However, the most alluring ones are those which took place in royal sceneries. In the following, I will present a short example of a Byzantine empress of the Macedonian dynasty not being loyal to her husband. At the end of the year 956, the beautiful Theophano marries Romanos, the only son of Constantine VII. After Constantine dies in October 959, Theophano becomes at the age of 18, the empress of Romanos II. However, only four years later, she remains widow but soon remarries. Nikephoros Phokas, now the new emperor, is a military commander and is often away in military campaigns. He takes Theophano with him in the first campaigns after marrying her, but afterwards the circumstances force him to leave her back in Constantinople. It is thus not long until the empress takes as her lover John Tzimiskes, the very nephew of Nikephoros Phokas. Hiding their relationship in various ways, they plan to murder the emperor. Accordingly, the murder takes place when Nikephoros returns to the Palace, on the night of 10 December 969. Nikephoros was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, while John Tzimiskes became Emperor John I. The most concluding element of the adulterous relationship between Theophano and John I was carved on the side of the tomb of Nikephoros Phokas: You conquered all but a woman [www.mlahanas.de]. 219

Fiction and arts 4. Conclusion Concubinage and adultery: two engagements disapproved by church and secular law, but so widely practiced. It may seem that the more they were judged, the more the couples rebelled. Saint Augustine with his unnamed concubine and Theophano with John I both are both examples of people caring for each other outside the legal limits, but living together as in a matrimonial commitment. References: Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. 1999. Eds. Fitzgerald, A. and Cavadini, J. C. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. Saint Augustine: The Teacher, the Free Choice of the Will, Grace and Free Will. 1968. Russell, R. P., trans. CUA Press: 1968. Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. 1990. Eds. Bowersock, G. W., Brown, P. and Grabar, O. Harvard University Press. Brundage, J. A. 1990. Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Freshfied, E. trans, 1926. Manual of Roman Law: The "Ecloga", Cambridge. Reprinted in Deno Geanokoplos, D. 1984. Byzantium. Chicago. Available: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/ecloga1.html (October 10, 2010). Karras, R. M. 2005. Sexuality in Medieval Europe: Doing Unto Others. Routledge. Saint Augustine. Confessions of Saint Augustine. Plain Label Books: 1953. Available: http://books.google.ro/books?id=dKNU1B1PSugC&hl=en&source=gbs_n avlinks_s (October 10, 2010). Saint Augustine. On Marriage and Concupiscence. Available: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aug-marr.html (October 10, 2010). Verdon, J. 2009. Dragostea in Evul Mediu [Love in the Middle Ages]. Bucharest, Humanitas. The Biography of Nikephoros Phokas. Available: http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Medieval/Bio/NicephorusII.html (October 10, 2010).

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 221-226

Fiction and arts about 250 children involved in eighty-four actual games that were popular during the time of Bruegel. Sandra Hindman, in her article Pieter Bruegels Childrens Games, Folly and Chance, describes the diverse interpretations that modern scholarship has proposed for this painting. In this sense, there are four main perspectives. The first one, and the most simplistic one, infers that the painting only represents a visual encyclopaedia of games thus considerable literature addressing the identification of these games. A second perspective is represented by an allegorical interpretation, hinting that the painting presents a calendar of the year in which specific games are related to identifiable folk celebrations. A third category put the painting in the Age of Man interpretation, asserting that it represents Infantia, while a fourth interpretation pointed out that Childrens Games can represent mans inherent folly. In this paper, because of its purpose of commenting on different Medieval games, I will mainly discuss the first and the fourth interpretational trends. Before going on to the games themselves, it is first worth seeing who the actors of the painting (and of the paper) are: from the very beginning it is worth dismissing the claims that Bruegels children are in fact miniature adults as their clothing can clearly categorize them as preadolescents wearing characteristic sixteenth-century clothing. A clear example of how the childrens ages can be differentiated is given by the two boys playing in the foreground on a barrel the boy on the left side is aged between five and eleven because of the characteristic costume for this age consisting of a frock open at the front and extending below the knees with pants underneath it; while the boy on the right is aged above eleven as after this age boys adopted the adult costume that can be seen in this case: a short jacket with trousers.

Games, mimics and practice seen through Pieter Bruegel

Teodora ARTIMON Central European University, Budapest Abstract: One of the misconceptions about the Middle Ages is that there existed little time for recreation and leisure, and when it did exist, it was mainly reserved to the nobility. Without entering into details regarding the adults spare time, this paper focuses on the various types of games and recreational activities that children both of the lower and the upper class engaged in. In order to do this, Pieter Bruegels Childrens Games is used as a support for the description of specific games. Keywords: Middle Ages, Games, Everyday Life, Bruegel 1. Introduction It is a common known fact that children engaged in different ways of education like school or apprenticeship. Those children who were not involved in such educational activities, were most likely working. However, although some learned and others worked, just about all children played. In this very perspective, Nicholas Orme [2005: 63] argues that there was no question that children were allowed the opportunity to play because, just like today, play was characteristic to Medieval childhood. Moreover, he maintains that play itself was a way of education, helping children from their interests and attitudes. In the following I will thus discuss Medieval outdoor group-games, games played with natural objects and materials and toys. 2. Childrens Games Childrens Games, one of the famous paintings of Bruegel of 1560 now located in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, is a narrative describing a variety of leisure activities for children. An accurate representation of life as Bruegel saw it, the painting gives the opportunity to learn a great deal about village life in the Low Countries during the sixteenth-century [Corrain, 2008: 48]. The painting includes depictions of

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Fiction and arts 3. Toys Toys are some of the rarest artefacts of Medieval living, only a few metal toys surviving up to our days. This reflects the perishable material they were made of like wood or fabric, and, just as important, it reflects the hard use they had in the hands of children playing with them [Newman, 2001: 187]. As children grew, they toy repertoire also grew. Medieval children, as Shulamith Shahar points out, are known to have played with rattles, hobby-horses, rocking-horses, bones, balls, hoops, dolls, spinning tops, small windmills, clay birds, miniature cooking utensils, marionettes and others [Shahar, 1990: 104]. Also, there were musical toys such as drums or cymbals or jewellery-like toys, like glass rings. Bruegel indicates a variety of these toys on his elaborate painting: one could see dolls and doll houses, masks and hobby horses, balls and stilts. It is interesting to note, based on the painting, how a child would transform everyday objects into objects to play with. Shahar also describes how children use their imagination for this purpose, explaining how a stick could become a white horse or a sword and how a chip could become a castle [Shahar, 1990: 103]. In the same manner, the girl in the right forefront of Bruegels painting is running with a pigs bladder. One can thus see here how a child uses his imagination to transform a relatively elongated-shaped material object into a doll to play with. Imagination was used in all child play: the boy masking himself in the upper room of the building in the left side, the boy in the forefront on the hobbyhorse, the girls playing with dolls in a motherly nature and so on. However, there is another important aspect related to toys in which imagination plays an important role: girls imagine themselves cooking and taking care of babies and the household (such as the two girls playing inside the house on the left corner) and boys imagine themselves in warlike situations where bravery was needed. The typical toys that are used for this playing exercise and the difference between them help reinforce the convention that men should be active and warlike, 223

Fiction and arts while women should be caring and domestic. That is, from the very early stages of life, children learned the difference between mens space and womens space. 4. Games and active play Games, as material and written sources describe them, were most likely very common among both children and adults. Children games were of two types: some were sedentary pursuits with small objects such as cherry stones, while others were lively activities such as running, chasing or archery [Orme, 2005: 76]. The Childrens Games presents some typical games for the sixteenth-century. Bruegel represents in the forefront of the painting the game of leapfrog, he twice represents children on stilts, several times playing with balls, playing hide and seek and knucklebones, just to mention the most representative. Returning to the subject of imagination, other authors also emphasize it. Singman highlights how playing involved transforming the objects in the world around them, like soil, wood, scraps of fabric and how they used these to make dams, boats or mills [Singman, 1999, 23]. Bruegel also represents this type of playing on the lower right side of the painting where two boys are bricklaying, creating a solid structure for their game. The male-female space is also emphasized by games. Some games are more active, or even violent (such as hair-pulling represented next to the central building in the background), while other games are more tender. To give an example, in the right lower corner the viewer can see a girl quietly playing store, while in the middle forefront two groups of boys play tug of war. These differentiated games, just like the differentiated toys describe above, unconsciously teach children the appropriate male and female behaviour.

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Fiction and arts 5. Imitative play: representing practice Just like it happens today, there was a mimetic element in many of the childrens games [Shahar, 1990, 103]. Children initiate games that recall adult actions, this type of activity being both a recreational one and an educational one. The Childrens Games of Bruegel in the forefront a distinction between episodes of mimicry and other games. These episodes emphasize playing out courtship, marriage and baptism as focal events. As Hindman highlights, the children of Bruegel engage in activities that relate to marriage. Therefore, the painting implies that marriage is a sure sequel to courtship, while birth follows marriage as suggested by the baptismal procession next to the bridal party [Hindman, 1981: 452]. The sequel thus starts with courtship which is represented by the game of blindmans buff. As described in Medieval Celebrations, the game implies that a person is chosen to be it and is blindfolded either by having a bag or a hood pulled over the head. The player is then spun around several times and seeks to find his tormentors who pull his clothes and strike at him [Diehl and Donnelly, 2001, 73]. As played in Antwerp, the girl, blinded by a hood, tagged a boy who in turn became her mock bridegroom [Hindman, 1981: 452]. Therefore, this was a type of courtship game, which however also represented the theme of folly the blue cloak was interpreted as referring to the Flemish proverb To put a blue cloak on someone, describing the action of an unfaithful wife. This proverb suggesting the theme of folly in general, it may be inferred that the entire scene of blindmans buff stand for folly. The bridal procession is a clear indicator of marriage and its imitation. Located near the blindmans buff, it suggests the continuity from courtship to marriage. The bridal ceremony includes folk elements: the bride wears her long hair loose over a black dress; escorts surround her in a way to avert misfortune during the procession; and children holding flowers precede her [Hindman, 1981: 451]. The position of the baptismal procession once more suggests continuation. The baptismal procession also follows closely folk customs: the participants advance single-file on a main road, preceded by a midwife carrying a baby who is completely swaddled to prevent the entrance of evil spirits [Hindman, 1981: 452]. The procession is heading towards the building on the lower right side, where a mock altar is presumably set up the baptism itself which is presided over by a doll dressed as a clergyman 225

Fiction and arts [Hindman, 1981: 452]. Also, it is important to notice that the last male in the baptismal procession is wearing a blue cloak, which may also symbolize deceit. In fact, besides Bruegel presenting the practice of most important moments in early adult life, the painter, by juxtaposing the representations of marriage and baptism to that of blindmanss buff and by including the blue cloak, may have wanted to suggest that folly accompanies lifes major events. 6. Conclusion A first glimpse at Pieter Bruegels Childrens Games may give the impression of a chaotic variety of games. I would argue that this first impression is representative for the huge number of games practiced in the Middle Ages, many of which are still preserved up until today. Medieval games may be categorised in different ways: from indoors to outdoors games, from single games to group games, from boys games to girls games. Disregarding the category or their purpose educational, recreational, or both the games described by Bruegel are all representative for the Medieval period. References: Corrain, L. 2008. The Art of the Renaissance. The Oliver Press, Inc.. Diehl, D. and Donnelly, M. 2001. Medieval Celebrations: How to Plan Holidays, Weddings, and Reenactments with Recipes, Customs, Costumes, Decorations, Songs, Dances, and Games. Stackpole Books. Orme, N. 2005. Education and Recreation in Gentry Culture in Late Medieval England, eds. Radulescu R., Truelove A. Manchester University Press. Hindman, S. 1981. Pieter Bruegels Childrens Games, Folly and Chance in The Art Bulletin 21, No. 3. Newman, P. B. 2001. Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland. Singman, J. 1999. Daily Life in Medieval Europe. Greenwood Publishing Group. Shahar, S. 1990. Childhood in the Middle Ages. Taylor & Francis. Snow, E. 1983. Bruegel on the Sexes: A Detail from Children's Games in The Threepenny Review, No. 14. 226

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 227-255

Fiction and arts artists intentionality, reference to a cultural-historical context, the pretext suggested by the tradition of celebrating the nations heroes, and the subtext that encodes Brncuis identity. Symmetrically, hermeneutics establishes the world in which homo aestheticus whether a philosopher, an esthetician, an art critic or historian, or merely a lover of arts discovers his identity as cultural being. Thesis II, which establishes the need for reflection, can be formulated: An art work is a work-function, since the values that are unveiled by hermeneutic exercise are values of the argument to exist as man. Concretely, the reading of an art work of art obliges man to attempt, to try out schemes of understanding, to adopt as hypothesis, at least pieces of philosophy of history.1 As a result, with each reading, with each interrogation, the art work expands. At the same time, by hermeneutic exercise, homo aestheticus assumes the world of the art work as his own existential project. Consequently, interpretation means spelling out the kind of being-in-world, i.e. man legitimate his identity by the great detour of signs of humanity sedimented in the works of culture.2 1.1. Identity and logico-ontological description Although ontology has logical foundations, skillful logicians today still contest the possibility of an ontological discourse. From an analytical perspective, an understanding of the foundations of ontology presupposes the problem of abstract objects, such as identity as a relation (R. Carnap). It is not hard to notice that the issue has language as point of reference. Present day philosophical discourse is marked by limitations: a) the epistemological problems related to the theory of being, and b) the hermeneutic reconstruction of ontology. As working hypothesis, we admit that identity constitutes itself in the core of the verb to be. But this verb functions as copula in cognitive propositions of the type SP. Examining the linking function of the verb to be, the Kneale spouses emphasize: The copula can be perceived as
1 2

Identity in art. A hermeneutic perspective

Clin LUCACI, Diana BOTA, Florea LUCACI Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract. The present paper focuses on the problem of determining identity in art. What I am suggesting is that, by approaching the subject from the perspective of formal logic, of hermeneutics especially, numerous phenomena labeled generically as arts crisis can be clarified and understood. The issue at hand is both ontological and logical by nature. Consequently, I settled on an analysis of the relation between the concept of identity and the concept of difference. At the same time, the nature of esthetic assessment has also imposed an analysis of the logical system of pragmatic and axiological propositions. It results that an absence of neutrality of propositions and of reasonings triggers, first of all, the intersubjectivity of a culture, and secondly, the subjectivity of the art interpreter. The identity of art is a relation, as the hermeneutic perspective clearly demonstrates. The hermeneutic circle and the properties of identity as a relation reveal the role of the subject, of the homo aestheticus, in the intentional construction of the world. Keywords: ontology, identity, difference, logic, hermeneutics 1. Identity and ontology Approaching the problem of arts identity crisis requires, by necessity, the open conceptual framework of human ontology. From this perspective we can see clearly the sense of the determinations that artists embrace in the concrete form of creation, or of those that aestheticians, philosophers or art historians opt for in the vision of their theories. Thesis I, which represents the premise of this paper, can be formulated as: Art is a specific mode of existence, which presupposes the emergence of the homo aestheticus. To homo aestheticus, existence means creation of a world ordered axio-centrically. An art work for example, Brncuis Table of Silence exists perceptibly in the form of stone cylinders and truncated pyramids. By hermeneutic exercise, the physical existence of the art work is doubled by existential and axiological significances. In this case, creation involves the

Paul Ricoeur, Istorie i adevr, Editura Anastasia, Bucureti, 1996, p. 109. Paul Ricoeur, Eseuri de hermeneutic, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1995, p. 105-107.

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Fiction and arts expressing identity, while the terms subject and predicate refer to individuals, as they express properties.3 Thus, identity provides for the logical image of the world, for the relation between thought and the given. The relational function of identity is clearly established by Aristotle in the matrix of extremely general propositions. Saying that what is is not, or that what is not is, represents a false proposition; conversely, a true utterance is one which says what is is and what is not is not.4 This shows clearly that Aristotle has in mind the logic of the relation which controls thinking and the linguistic expression of thought. Ignoring identity generates serious logical errors. At the level of language, there appear homonymy and synonymy, phenomena which can only be perceived by linguistic analysis. This triggers the need for analyzing ideational relations, too. Let us see what happens in cases of homonymy and synonymy: (i) When the same word expresses different notions. Be the word classicism, and the derived classical5, classical art. We have the reasoning (poly-syllogism): Classical art expresses a value, being a model of creation. Phidias is one of the founders of classical art. Poussin, too, created works according to the cannons of classical art. Both artists cultivated ideal beauty. Phidias and Poussin are exponents of classicism. Error: The terms classicism and classical art are homonyms that express different notions. Although all the premises are true, the conclusion is false, because Phidias is a representative of the classicism of the 5th and 4th century BC Greek literature and art, while Poussin is an exponent of 17th-18th French classicism. The phrase classical art in the major premise is ambiguous, as it can designate: a) works produced during the classicism of Greek antiquity; b) works of the 17th-18th century French classicism; c) works, irrespective of
3

Fiction and arts historical age, which cultivate the ideal of beauty, a metaphysical idealization of reason, canons of harmony, etc. Words and phrases, such as: absolute, academism, artistic vanguard, artistic canon, art criticism, esthetics, expressionism, iconography, manner, primitivism, realism, talent, unity of art, vision, etc. can trigger similar homonymy-based errors. (ii) When the same notion is expressed by different words. Be the words creation, invention, discovery and the reasoning: Culture is the means by which mans creative spirit is put to value. Artists and scientists are agents of cultural creations. Art is creation aimed at inventing works of cultural value. Science is creation aimed at discovering ideas of cultural value. Creation, invention, discovery are identical means of putting culture to value. Error: Indeed, the words creation, invention, discovery are synonymous in terms of the denoted, i.e. production and putting to value of what is new in art. If we consider this aspect alone, we note that the premises are all true propositions. And yet, if we analyze the definitions for the terms creation, invention, discovery, we come across mismatches. Thus, invention is a form of creation which presupposes a practically unlimited freedom, a freedom by which any and all contribution in the service of art is allowed. Conversely, discovery is a form of cultural creation that imposes constraints in terms of objectivity and the scientific idea must be tested. Since invention is related to subjectivity, while discovery to objectivity, the risk of paralogisms arises. Using synonyms which describe existence and artistic creation also trigger possible breachings of the principle of identity. It is the case of synonymic sets such as: Criterion principle norm; Form figure model; Harmony accord concord; Art mastery craft; Illusion imagination chimera fantasy; Icon picture image; Perspective panorama plan scenery, etc. This brief analysis shows clearly that identity can be disrupted by phenomena such as homonymy and synonymy. For an ontological interpretation of identity, the time factor must also be taken into account. Changes occur, as for example: ruin in the case of 230

W. Kneale; M. Kneale, Dezvoltarea logicii, vol. I, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1974, p. 75. 4 Aristotel, Metafizica, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1965, p. 155 (IV, 7, 1011b). 5 In Romanian, the opposition classic classical does not exist.

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Fiction and arts architectural works; chromatic degradation in painting; deterioration in the case of sculptures, etc. The principle of invariation is relativized. Identity in time. Identity in time is a form of arts identity crises, it is a fall into oblivion of certain authors, i.e. their works become anonymous, or they may borrow some other identity by their membership to a certain cultural paradigm. In other words, the existence of art work x is legitimated by its membership, not by its act creation. The mechanism by which an art work loses its original identity given by creation, and acquires a borrowed identity, can be rendered as follows (poly-syllogism): x is an art work created by A x is identified as A(x) (read: x has property A, being created by A) x becomes, in time, an art work in the tradition T Tradition T consists of the works x, y, z ... Collection (x, y, z ...) becomes work identified as T (x, y, z...) If x belongs to tradition T, then T(x) (read: x has property T, because it belongs to tradition T) Thus, membership can also come in the form of tradition, i.e. the works identity by creation is cancelled out, as it happened in the case of Byzantine art, for example. In this case, the identity of a work as authentic Byzantine painting is legitimated by its fidelity to the given canons. Identity in space. Existential reference in art and the properties of art works require that we should also consider what is called identity in space. In this case, too, we have a form of identity crisis: a works mark of identity is given by a certain space whose geography is delineated ethnically, or by the authority of a certain creator. Although art works that belong to the same style or artistic trend (e.g. classicism, romanticism, symbolism, cubism, etc.) may pertain to different genres, if those works are confined within a national space, then we get, for example, Romanian painting, French painting, German painting, etc. It would be correct to identify them as Romanian symbolist painting, French cubist painters, etc. In this case, too, a skeptical attitude is required, because some artists are identified not by their ethnic origin, but according to the country in which they produced their works. The idea is very well illustrated by Brncui, who is considered to be both a Romanian and a French artist. 231

Fiction and arts The principle of equivalence is dominant in contemporary art. In the work of one and the same artist we can identify influences of African art, of Oriental art, of European art. Picasso is a good example in this respect. Another thought-challenging example among many others is Rubens workshop. The masters signature was enough to give identity to works made exclusively by his apprentices and hired underlings. Following Rubens example, industrial designers today take on the identity of acknowledged brands, the ultimate aim being the firms status on the market. Schematically, the phenomenon can be presented as follows: X is art work created by A Y is art work created by B Y is identified as B (y) A and B belong to the set of authors identified as M Thus M is equivalent with (A(x); B(y)...N(n)) (by abuse) M (x, y ...n) Membership is defined as a relation that exists between the element and the set, i.e. a non-transitive relation. Buy the example tells us that the membership relation is sometimes intransitive (a property conferred upon x by A is not transitive, i.e. it cannot become a property conferred upon it by M, merely by virtue of As belonging to set M), while at other times it is transitive (the property conferred to y by B is transitive, y assuming the property as deriving from Bs membership to M). The considerations and examples above trigger the conclusion that an ontological interpretation of identity needs to be judged on a case-to-case basis, in accordance with the individuality, the species and genre of the art work considered. In short, applied thinking and hence the order and knowledge required by arts would be impossible without the principle of identity. Validity of the law of identity, its operational function, can be deduced by reduction to absurdity: We have: (1)Art work x, creation of A, has the same identity as y, also created by A, i.e. the resulting relation is: A(x) A(y). (Membership nontransitive). 232

Fiction and arts Art work y has properties identical with those of art work z, created by B, both abiding, for example, by the norms of the supra-realist esthetic program. But art work x, being influenced by cubism, for example, does not have the identity of art work z, which is an expression of supra-realism. Consequently, since membership relation is non-transitive, we have two situations: a) although x y and y z, transitivity is still not possible x z (x belongs to cubism, while z to supra-realism); b) x y and y z, transitivity is however possible, x z (x belongs to cubism, and z belongs to supra-realism, i.e. they are both vanguard, experimental esthetic programs). Note: Identity is justified here by the membership of works x, y and z to a program of artistic experiments. But it is undoubtedly absurd to equate a supra-realist art work with a cubist one, because in that case we would admit that all their features are accidental, depending exclusively on inspiration and on artistic experiment. As a result, there would be chaos, the essential features vanishing. Note: Identity is justified by the membership of works x, y and z to a program of artistic experiments. But it is undoubtedly absurd to equivalate a supra-realist art work with a cubist one, because in that case we would admit that all their features are accidental, depending exclusively on inspiration and on artistic experiment. In conclusion, there would be chaos, since the essential features are no longer there. (2)At rigor, if x cubism y surrealism, then x non-x. If x non-x, then it is also non-y and non-z. Note: The principle of identity is sacrificed, as everything would be reduced to one, respectively to the absolute identity of x, neither y nor y, neither z nor z, having a specificity. (3)At rigor, if we admit that x y, then the statement: x is an art work established by the features imposed by the cubist program is in a relation of identity with the statement: x is not an art work established by the exigencies of cubism Because: x y, where y can be described by the statement y is an art work determined by the ideas of surrealism Note: The principle of identity is sacrificed here, because its truth could not be distinguishable from its falsehood. 233

Fiction and arts Ontological interpretation of identity shows clearly that the logicallinguistic relation implies some extra-propositional features. If we have in view a simple proposition of the form S is P, then the statement is merely an interface between thinking and an object submitted to thinking. The visible relation between S and P is copulative, syntactically analyzable, i.e. P expresses what is said about S. But the syntactic relation triggers implicitly two further formal identity-based relations between the objects and their logical-linguistic images, as one of Quines thesis asserts. Be the proposition of the form S is P: (i) The Wisdom of the Earth was created by Brncui in 1907. What can we remark? S is the expression The Wisdom of the Earth. A strictly syntactic approach tells us that Brncui created this metaphoric phrase in the year 1907. But Brncui is not a poet, a molder of words, he is a sculptor. Consequently, the phrase The Wisdom of the Earth is a name, a sign of an art works existence, of which we can say, created by Brncui in 1907 its extra-propositional extension. Clin Candiescu elucidates the predicational mechanism with the help of a predicational triangle. From this scheme we understand that the predication is not a direct relation between P and Sp, but an indirect one, mediated by S.6 Legend: S = logico-grammatical subject
S Rc P Rp Rp Rs S Rc P

Rs

Sp

Sp

Sp = predicational subject (the real Subject) Rp = predicational relation

Clin Candiescu, O interpretare logico-semantic a predicaiei, descripiilor i numelor proprii, in Probleme de logic, vol. IX, Editura Academiei, 1986, p. 27.
6

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Fiction and arts Rc = copulative relation (internal, for the propositional context) Rs = supposition relation. The truth of proposition (i) derives from its relation of correspondence with reality. If the description (predication) is appropriate for the object described (i.e. it expresses reality), then the proposition is true; if it does not express reality, then it is false. Fulfillment of the true or false characteristics, however, depends on the supposition of existence. If the relation of supposition is a void relation, then the proposition is absurd. If proposition (i) is true, which would be the forms for false and absurd? Thus, be: (ii) The Wisdom of the Earth was not created by Brncui in 1907 (false). (iii) The Wisdom of the Earth was the nickname of Zalmoxe (absurd). The falsehood of proposition (ii) results from the chronological analysis of Brncuis work, while the specification absurd of statement (iii) is triggered by the feature imaginary of Zalmoxis, i.e. the relation of supposition is void. In the case of art, we are dealing with concrete, empirically perceptible, objects which can be submitted to hermeneutic exercise. Identity, we already know, provides for order and the possibility of thinking. But the kind of identity which provides for a unitary description as species or genre of art works cannot eliminate the difference that exists among them. If we admit that art has a specific existence, which has an axiological dimension, then research implies by necessity an analysis of the identity-difference relation. 1.2. The esthetic subject and the identity-difference relation Thematizing the esthetic subject in the forms of artist-creator and receiver-interpreter, and allowing for concrete identification in living individuals (e.g. Picasso and W. Biemel) is a problematic issue. This is clearly highlighted by an analysis of opposite cases: (i) Confrontation with Aristotelic essentialism. It would seem that we are implicitly contradicting the thesis that art object have certain essential features on the basis of which we predict their identity. 235

Fiction and arts Note to (i): If we adopt the essentialist doctrine, we might end up in the absurd. We come across the absurd if we eliminate from the research the artist, as accidental in the act of creation, as no art work can be described as self-generated. And yet, existentialists can argument rhetorically: Is the author present in the definition and classification of art works? No, he is not. No, because, for example, in the class of cubist art works we encounter works by Picasso, Braque, Juan Gris, etc. Reference to the author would induce confusion, since Picasso also has works that belong to Dadaism, to surrealism, etc. (ii) Confrontation with the nihilism of Nietzsches postmodernist followers. With his paradoxical radicalism, Michel Foucault asserts that man is a mere breach in the order of things, an accident and a simple crease in our knowledge, that will disappear as soon as this knowledge gains a new shape... .7 Relativism turned into doctrine and legitimated by the principle of difference excludes identity altogether, since it decrees Mans death in the name of a man who is different.8 Note to (ii): Approaching the issue from a postmodernist nihilist perspective would also lead us to an absurd situation: it would result that we must accept a world determined exclusively by distributive notions. Since distributive notions have an ontological function, it would mean that art works and their creators find themselves within a certain artistic trend by mere adjoining position. And yet, in the interpretation of the artistic phenomenon we operate with collective terms. Are stylistic unity, or the inter-subjectivity that gives cohesion to a culture, mere speculative constructions? No, they are not. No, because every artist embraces the image of his age. The ideas discussed here trigger the conclusion that the visible face of the identity crisis is a crisis of reason. But can we abandon reason as a theoretical principle? Of course not! Is there third possible way? If from a problem-questioning of reality we exclude what Richard Rorty used to call wrong questions, then we may discover the reasoning of hermeneutic discourse. That is to say, we discover that ontology (an expression of this
7 8

Michel Foucault, Cuvintele i lucrurile, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1996, p. 15. Alain Finkielkraut, nfrngerea gndirii, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1991, p. 56.

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Fiction and arts kind of problem-questioning) is accepted as a tacit dimension of the rational discourse. In other words, as Gheorghe Clitan suggests, comprehension hermeneutic in character established itself as a self-standing level of discourse (together with description and explanation, but superordinated to the other two)....9 The action of comprehending ontologically involves an individual determined both distributively and collectively. By operating with concepts and with linguistic or iconic signs, man builds up a logical or a symbolic image. Hermeneutics is a philosophy which has a pragmatic dimension and an axiological dimension. The action that makes possible understanding in a cultural-historical context is interpretation. Although pertaining to a different debate context (i.e. that of the problem of truth in the ethical discourse), one of Habermas remarks is perfectly applicable in this context: The moment we understand that history and culture represent the sources of both a multitude of symbolic forms and of the singularity of individual and collective identities, by this very fact we also become aware of the content of the challenge represented by this epistemic plurality.10 Universality presupposes that, in the framework of practical philosophy we should admit that the relation One-multiple is a form of human manifestation. A culture constituted historically represents the environment in which the relation One-multiple camouflages itself within the relation intersubjectivity-subjectivity. More concretely, individuals assume for themselves a certain identity, putting to use their potentialities in relation with the beliefs and ideals that configure the cultural paradigm. The dialectics of identity and difference is not a speculation. It would be a speculation if either identity or difference were reified, i.e. if it were given the status of property. Identity is involved in various constructive operations: defining an object, joining classes into genres, intersecting and determining species, etc. But this logical modeling applied to the domain of art is problematic. The origin of this problem can be intuited in arts existential condition, which is
9

Fiction and arts not a given, but rather mans creative work. Art presupposes a twofold basic relation, i.e. creator work, on the one hand, and art work receiver, on the other. This state of facts, or more precisely, a combination between a works fact of creation and its fact of interpretation which makes the art work actual, imposes an ontological exigency. The idea of this requirement asserts Cornel Hrngu presumes that ontology should be directed, in a natural way, towards the world and towards the kind of colorful existence that is in direct contact with our senses and in direct contact with our reason. Thus, ontology cannot stay exclusively on the logical level; to be able to judge identities of this kind of world or existence, reference to an authentic actualism,11 to a spatio-temporal world, is required. A simple exercise can show clearly that the world of art is ontologically describable in the spirit of the exigencies stated here. It is not hard to understand that, between an oak tree and Constantin Brncuis Prodigal Son made of the wood of an oak tree, there is an ontological difference. The situation can be described as follows: (i) The oak tree (1) The oak is a tree. (2) The oak tree belongs to the species of hardwood trees. (3) Hardwood trees have broad and falling leaves. (4) Etc. (Other propositions can be inserted here, describing the species and genus of the tree). (ii) Brncuis work The Prodigal Son A. Propositions which describe the non-mediated relation (1) The sculpture The Prodigal Son is carved in oak wood. (2) The sculptures dimensions are x, y and z. (3) The sculpture is exposed in collection A. (4) Etc. B Propositions which describe the mediated relation (1) The name of the sculpture recalls a parable from the New Testament. (2) The theme of the biblical parable is universal in European art. (3) Brncuis work The Prodigal Son incites to reflection.
11

Gheorghe Clitan, Pragmatic i postmodernism, Editura Solness, Timioara, 2002, p. 147. 10 Jrgen Habermas, Etica discursului i problema adevrului, Editura Art, Bucureti, 2008, p. 17.

Cornel Hrngu, Eseu de ontologie descriptiv, Editura Augusta, Timioara, 2002, p. 153.

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Fiction and arts Consequently, those who watch the sculpture ask themselves: (3.1.) What does this art work signify? (3.2.) Who is it addressed to? (3.3.) What does it tell me? (3.4.) Etc. (The questions regard the context, the pretext and the subtext hidden by Brncui in his work, or uncovered by various receivers, from specialists to simple art lovers). The act of interpretation is the means by which the work of art becomes actual and timely. The timeliness required by a hermeneutical exercise does not refer to the object of work of art, but rather, the state in which the receiver assesses the truth of the works message. This truth is not axiologically neutral, because hermeneutics credits what is consciously interpreted.12 Hermeneutics no longer discards the subject. Ever since Dilthey and ending with our contemporaries, hermeneutics has taken upon itself the task of accounting for philosophy and science, for history and mans complex life. This kind of undertaking looks very much like the historical obsession for totality, manifested since Plato to the present day. Obviously, arguments can be both pro and con. Counting on mans weakness for assuming ideals, hermeneutics stands under the sign of totality and takes the form of historicism and of multiple perspectives of interpretation and exploitation.13 As a sui-generis way of thinking (assumed via Heidegger, Gadamer, Ricoeur, Vattimo and others), the hermeneutic exercise is, in fact and by right, a hypostasis of the third form of philosophic thematization, i.e. of communication. Since in its essence communication involves the human community itself, then we can intuit its existential dimension. Hence Gadamer suggests can derive philosophys mission. Sharing Heideggers idea regarding the status of language, of the souls den and also of mans home, he argues along a similar concept-metaphoric line that art and poetic creation are to be found in one of the most comfortable rooms in that house. It is here that man gets together with himself and with the
Aurel Codoban, Semn i interpretare, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 76. Alexandru Boboc, Hermeneutic i ontologie, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1999, p. 78.
13 12

Fiction and arts other. Art, poetic creation, requires that one should listen to everything that has something to say, and to act in such a way that one should be told things. To remember this for oneself is ones specific duty. From the perspective of hermeneutics, there is a principle which further specifies: To do so for everybody, and to do so convincingly this is philosophys mission.14 Implicitly, Gadamer raises a problem here, namely that of art as a means for a dialogue on the scale of history. This does not refer exclusively to the function of the art work of mediator between the artist and the knowledgeable receiver with; it also refers to the successful encounter between the artist and himself, on the one hand, and of the receiver and himself, on the other. From a hermeneutic perspective, the term interpreter denotes here both the artist who translates beauty into artistic language, particularizing it in the form of an object (drawing, painting, sculpture, etc.), and the receiver who submits the art work to prospective interrogation and to value judgements. How can we equate the act of artistic creation with the hermeneutic exercise? Can creation be perceived as technical execution, can a works artistic space-image organization be viewed as the artists dialogue with himself and the premise of his encounter with the other, the receiver, who in his turn initiates a symmetrical dialogue? What are, from the perspective of logico-ontological description, the properties of the relation between the creator and the work of art, between the art work and the receiver? Etc. In philosophic projection, the answer can be found in the dialogue Hippias Maior, i.e. it finds its place somewhere between Socrates irony and Hippias answers marked by severe logical errors. The exercise in which Socrates engages makes Hippias identify beauty with a beautiful pot, a beautiful horse, a beautiful maiden, etc. In rhetorical irony, Socrates answers: The most beautiful of pots is ugly compared to the maidens gathering, is that what wise Hippias would say?; to which Hippias replies: Right you are, Socrates, thats the correct answer. Socrates then specifies, And being asked what beauty is (...) you replied, to quote your words, that
14

Hans-Georg Gadamer, Elogiul teoriei. Motenirea Europei, Polirom, Iai, 1999, p. 218.

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Fiction and arts it is something both beautiful and ugly at the same time, didnt you?15 But the expression something both beautiful and ugly expresses a void notion, of the type square-circle. Obviously, the dialogue highlights the issue of the relation notion denoted object. Hence the final specifications, which relativizes the interrogation: And if you dont know what beauty is, then how could you say whether a discourse, or some other thing of the kind, is well made or not? Referring to himself, Socrates concludes: It looks like Im beginning to understand the meaning of the saying beautiful things are so difficult;.16 The dialogue focuses on a search. By analogy, the theme of the search is what defines the artist. Attempt failure self-punishment, or attempt success illusion of reward, are routes for whose analysis psychology is responsible. And yet, this state of search generates an authentic philosophical problem, i.e. that of the paradoxical relation One multiple. In the strict limits of Aristotelic logic, a particular statement of the form Some S are P is true only for part of the individuals belonging to the subject-class targeted by the proposition. Conversely, in his creative activity, the artist seems to adopt this kind of logic. What can be done? If the artistic creation does not follow the standards of formal logic, then shall we accept the act of creation as either mystical (Plato), or as a pre-logical spiritual activity (Croce), as a sublimated manifestation of instinctual repressions (Freud), or as a simultaneously conscious and unconscious form of objectifying volition (Schopenhauer)? If artistic creation is a hypostasis of freedom (Kants theory of the genius), then can the definition still be operational? We seems to end up with a subjective option which cannot be legitimated by the logic of preference. If we embrace Heideggers ideas, then we accept the existential condition of art, in its function of historical capitalization. It seems that, in the case of creation, the artist comes to understand himself via his work, just like the hermeneutician comes to understand himself by prospectively interrogating the art work. Shall we accredit the idea that art is
Platon, Hippias Maior, n Opere, vol. II, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1976, p. 81-82 (288a-289d). 16 Ibidem, p. 104 (304 d-e).
15

Fiction and arts hermeneutics sui generis, that it is ontology incognito? Can art be viewed as a generator of existence and of values? I do not know whether these questions have a definite answer or not, but at least their truth can be assessed by analyzing the scheme of the four operations perception, mental representation, figurative representation and symbolization i.e. the scheme of the constitutive structure of the human world:17
Object x Mental image of object x Figurative image of object x (image of the mental image of object x) Symbolic image of object x (conventional image of object x)

What results from this scheme? We find that: 1. In the infinite diversity of nature, object x exists only as individual object; 2. The mental image of object x depends exclusively on the person who perceives object x; 3. Object x figurative can be: a) an image dependent mainly on the artist who draws, paints, etc. object x which points to the artists freedom of creation; and b) a typical image, dependent mainly on certain philosophical, religious, moral, etc. ideals which shows that the artist acknowledges and adopts certain rules or canons; 4. Object x symbolized tends to irrevocably escape the realm of the individual and, on the basis of certain rules, to represent the general, i.e. the symbolic image tends to become a notion, or the name of object x; 5. Object x figurative and object x symbolized are independent of object x, having become objects by themselves, i.e. cultural objects; 6. If rules are applied to figurative reality (class of figurative objects x, sense 3b above), a synthesis with symbolic reality (class of objects x symbolized) becomes possible. What results are models of object x, i.e. a form of scientific creation by which object x is analyzed and understood;
17

Florea Lucaci, Creaie i fiinare, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 222-223.

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Fiction and arts 7. Figurative reality and symbolic reality reveal truth by means of a hermeneutic program; 8. Objective reality cannot be fundamented on the individual existence of object x, but rather on its symbolic existence, an existence that is, by logical acception, invariant and definite. If we admit that the artist presents himself as absolute subject (a Godlike stance), then we must also allow for an absolute autonomy of the work of art. But if we admit that art is a human phenomenon, then the artist is doubled by the hermeneut and, as a result, the idea becomes legitimate of an original historicity which concludes the cultural tradition, the style, the ideal of experiencing a unique cultural event. In the perspective of a cultural becoming, we find that the artist plays the part of the hermeneut, and that the philosopher (the hermeneut) takes on the image of the artist. The idea is wonderfully illustrated by Heideggerian philosophy. The historicity of human existence (Dasein, of the being who asks questions, or of the being of existence) results from the moments uniqueness and, in its uniqueness, this human existence (Dasein) forever takes upon itself the mission of clarification of its own factuality,.18 2. The hermeneutic perspective The art work has a paradoxical existence. Paraphrasing Albert the Greats word of wisdom regarding the Bible, we can say: The art work grows with those who create and interpret it. The growth of a work takes the form of an accomplishment, and this process becomes intuitive and, at the same time, explicit if we have in view Hegels model of understanding the Spirits adventure. Emile Brhir interprets the system of Hegels philosophy as the expression of a vast epic of the spirit, an experience, as Hegel himself puts it; in his effort to know itself, the spirit produces successively all the forms of the real, first of all the frameworks of its own thinking, then nature and history, since it is impossible to understand any of these forms in isolation; they need to be considered in the evolution or deployment in which they occur.19 A model of the world, of
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Heidegger i grecii, Biblioteca Apostrof, Cluj, 1999, p. 15. 19 Emile Brhir, Histoire de la philosophie, tome II/3, Le XIXe siecle. Periode des systemes, Libraire Felix Alcan, Paris, 1932, p. 738-739.
18

Fiction and arts the Spirits movement of generating the world, philosophy as a science appears as a circle closed in itself, to whose beginning simple basis of the process mediation weaves its ending; at the same time, this circle is a circle of circles.20 Hence we can deduce that hermeneutics represents a new beginning, a sublimated form of the ideas becoming. What is going on? a. The first hermeneutic circle. In authentic Hegelian spirit, Heidegger asserts that The artist is the origin of the art work. The work of art is the origin of the artist.21 The two propositions describe a novel hermeneutic circle, configured by the relation artist work of art. The artist can only attest his foundation function through his art, which is an exemplary expression of freedom. Analogically, the artists condition is shared by the genius, i.e. every creator assumes the freedom of prescribing rules for art. The rules prescribed by the genius cannot be reduced to logical formulae and operations. Since they are not determined or invariant, the rules assert that the first characteristic of the genius is his originality, his tireless capacity to renew his creative undertaking. And yet, although they are unique and exemplary, the products the genius puts forth serve to others as models to be imitated, i.e. as standard or rule of assessment,22 as Kant puts it. The genius can be captured only partially in the concept and in the propositions of a scientific analysis, because he manifests himself as an principle generator of existence. b. The second hermeneutic circle. Art confers identity to the artist, because in his case the civil status register is replaced by the art work. But the work of art records neither births nor deaths, but rather a continuous form of being. The artists existence is doubled in the specialists interpretations, in the hermeneutic circuit art work interpreter, which gradually acquires historical dimensions. Returning to Kant, we note a fundamental distinction, namely a conceptual separation between the creative freedom of the genius and the evaluative assessment of fine arts as product of the genius, i.e. we are
20 21

G.W.F.Hegel, tiina logicii, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1966, p. 843. Martin Heidegger, Originea operie de art, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1982, p. 31. 22 Immanuel Kant, Critica facultii de judecare, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1981, p. 202-203.

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Fiction and arts talking here of a category-pair in opposition: the productive faculty the evaluative faculty.23 This distinction suggests that the relation artist art work presupposes inscription within a wider circle, generated by the relation art work interpreter. In this sense, the multitude of art critics and historians acquire their identity from recognition of the art work as value, and of the artist as creator who lays the foundations of art. But interpretation is also a form of creation, as it acknowledges the work and establishes its value by esthetic judgment. The fact that interpretation is complementary to creation, that these acts presuppose each other, becomes clear if we consider Heideggers syntagma. Thus, the term origin does not designate a cause in the Aristotelic sense, although it obviously expresses something that accounts for the genesis of the world of art. The origin of an art works essence is precisely what represents the object of interrogation24 Walter Biemel notes. In other words, art provides its determiners both via the artists genius, and via the skill and art of those who interrogate the work, uncovering its esthetic, cognitive, spiritual etc. significances. Still on the level of the second circle, two directions are configured, one with a pronounced theoretic character, which develops interrogations along the relations art human existence, art beauty, art theory of art, etc., and another which punctually mediates the relation object of art public, emotional experience critical attitude, etc. The artist, the art theoretician and the art critic are the protagonists who account for the way a world for mans sake is constituted. c. The third hermeneutic circle. Although art is autonomous, representing the reality of a specific world, it comes into full existence only to the measure in which it enters the world of the social and is assumed as cultural-spiritual necessity. But beauty, in the form of artistic object, does not related itself singly to the stable intersubjectivity that manifests itself in a certain historical culture, but is also challenged by the variable subjectivity of men.

Fiction and arts This circle circumscribes real history, it is an existential circle, irrespective of its mode of perception and representation. This is where we encounter the elites, the snobs, the lovers of art, but also those whose taste is satisfied by the multitude of objects known as kitsch. At this point, the two circles may remain closed, or they may open up. This is where tradition is conserved, while renewal can be accepted in the form of experiment or of fashion. Art and the artist, the language of theoreticians and of art critics, as well as the art-loving public, represent what Hegel called the circle o circles, i.e. they make up a dialectic system. The principles of identity and of difference control the historical life of art, its relations with the manartist, the man-interpreter, the man-lover of art. Application to the hermeneutic perspective The idea was emphasized here that art is a specific form of creation, i.e. arts existence cannot be reduced to the relation artist work of art, but presupposes a complexity of relations which engage the critics, historians, estheticians, philosophers, and of course, the art loving public. These aspects can be suggested intuitively with the help of the scheme:25 1. Artists 2. Works of art and their historical establishment 3. Art critics, estheticians, philosophers 4. Human communities in their historical and geographical determination

Artitii

Opere i constituirea lor istoric

Critici de art, esteticieni, filosofi Comuniti umane n determinare istoric i geografic

If we ask ourselves the question How is art possible?, we note that the answer inevitably requires a series of interrogations aimed at developing the three circles described above, as well as questions regarding the set context25

23 24

Florea Lucaci, Op. cit., p.142. Walter Biemel, Heidegger, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti 1996, p. 106.

Clin Lucaci, Spaiul-imagine. Ontologia spaiului n arta plastic, Editura Provopress, Cluj-Napoca, 2008, p14.

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Fiction and arts pretext-subtext. As exercise, I suggest that we should reflect upon a set of Constantin Brncuis works, namely the series Birds. The context. Briefly, the context is that of Paris, early 20th century. Experimenting was an obsession, artists having seemingly adopted as creative program a form of deconstruction of the idea of art. William Fleming describes the artist of those times as an agent of defiance of the notions of order and harmony established in the history of Europe for thousands of years. Relinquishing its status of embodiment of beauty, art becomes an expression of aggressiveness: The painter makes his painting look like a slap in the eyes, the composer makes his music sound like an outrage for the ears.26 Brncui, too, was experimenting, but for him abstraction meant harmonizing the simplicity of Romanian folk art with certain ideas of the vanguard regarding the search for the essence of things. His quest was never controlled by some artistic formula, such as cubism, Dadaism, futurism, suprematism, etc. Obviously, the context has in view Brncuis land of origin in Gorj, too. In plastic expression, the Magic Bird appears on rugs, in clay, on the threshold of peasant houses as it was believed that it could chase away bad spirits. The pretext. The pretext is the search for the archaic origins, for a time described beautifully by Eminescus metaphor: Ideal lost in the night of a world that is no more, A world that thought in fairytales and spoke in poems. In other words, artistic thematisation of the bird targets the universal, the archetype. Under this theme, Brncui produced 43 Birds, beginning with the period 1908-1910; the theme of the magic birds seems to have obsessed him. Thus, the pretext can be summarized as a search for the worlds unity. The subtext. What the series of Birds conceals in its subtext, i.e. the sense given to it by the authors de intention, is actually encoded in the metaphoric names of the sculptures: The Magic One (Miastra), Golden Bird, Bird in Space, etc.
26

Fiction and arts Magic Bird is not just the title of several of Brncuis works; it is also a character in Romanian folk tales. Analyzing a series of folk tales dealing with the magic bird, Lazr ineanu notes that it is a being which connects this land to the other land, reveals truth, turns people young again, cures blindness, etc. The motive is not exclusively Romanian, it can also be encountered in the folklore of other nations. Thus, in the French Lorne version, it is called the Bird of Truth; in the Florentine variant, it is the Andilandi Bird a magical bird whose song outshines all music on Earth and which has the gift of devining the past and the future and of reading peoples souls; she can be found in the Land of Rising Sun, living in the Fairies palace in the kingdom of dryads.27 Romulus Vulcnescu describes the Magic Bird as a being that never grows old, because every 30 years it bathes in the fountain of living water, which preserves youth without old age.28 Brncui develops and continuously remodels the theme of the Magic Bird, from the shape of a carafe in which living water is kept, to Bird in Space, where the song of the Magic One turns into flight. The Birds in Space have the mystical consistency of the world. Their flight embodies a universe that existed at the worlds beginnings. Flight and ascension stand for mans ideal of physical and spiritual rise. But the bird is also a universal cultural symbol, which explains why the image of Brncuis Bird in Space was engraved upon the spaceship Voyager who, wandering throughout the Galactic space, might be intercepted by possible extraterrestrial civilizations. From this simple exercise we may conclude that a works reading and interpretation trigger a richer configuration in the direction of experiencing truth. 3. The perspective of hermeneutic logic Theoretically, there arises the issue of the validity of the statements regarding art. Implicitly, a comparative analysis is required regarding the esthetic judgment, or more precisely, the judgment applied in art. The
27

William Fleming, Arte i idei, vol.2, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1983, p.277.

28

Lazr ineanu, Basmele romne, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1978, p. 277. Romulus Vulcnescu, Mitologie romn, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1985, p. 538.

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Fiction and arts science of the art critic differs, for example, form that of the physicist. Concretely, we have in view: (a) Constantin Prut defines Brncuis art, with relation to the series Birds, in the following way: Brncui manages to cancel out gravitational effects, dematerializing volumes by his prolonged polishing.29 (b) Isaac Newton defines the Law of Universal Attraction (gravity) as follows: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses.30 Mathematically and graphically, Newtons Law appears as:

Fiction and arts definition is not controlled by scientific assessment tests, but rather by some form of hermeneutic validation. Reflecting upon proposition (a), we see that it needs to be analyzed both in relation with the series Birds, and with myself as receiver of the statement. In this case, the esthetic judgments follow a different logical system than that of cognitive propositions. 3.1. The logical system of pragmatic and axiological propositions Theoretical reasoning acquires explicit manifestation in cognitive propositions, which assess the information in terms of its truth or falsehood. Practical reasoning takes the form of pragmatic and axiological propositions, which are assessed in terms of correctness or incorrectness, and which have significances such as: admiration, emotion, satisfaction, joy induced by some artistic representation, etc. The two types of propositions abide by different logical systems. Pragmatic and axiological propositions are conditioned by the context of expression and by the status of the subjects involved in the act of communication. The correctness of a pragmatic proposition, Gheorghe Enescu argues, involves: a) a certain logical position of the fact itself; b) a certain logical position of the sender; c) a certain logical position of the receiver. The phrase logical position points to a conversion of exactness, suggested by the disjunction true false, into the possible, with regards to a state of facts, i.e. the fact is accomplishable, the sender has reason to utter interrogations, imperatives, etc., and the receiver is able to respond.31 Summing up the formal-symbolic structure of the two types of propositions, we get: (a) the cognitive proposition F(x) (b) the pragmatic proposition (F(x))st Let us illustrate this in natural language, using standard formulations, either axiologically neutral ones (propositions a1 and a2), or taken from Constantin Brncuis Aphorisms (propositions b1 and b2).

What do we remark? Both statements have gravity as referential. Proposition (b) is explicit, and the mathematical formula and graphical scheme tautologically reiterate what is said in natural language. Conversely, proposition (a) is not a definition, but rather a superb metaphor which suggests the magic of Brncuis art. In this case, Constantin Pruts
Constantin Prut, Dicionar de art modern i contemporan, Editura Univers enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2002, p.72. 30 Isaac Newton, Law of Universal Attraction, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation, Aug. 19, 2010
29

Gheorghe Enescu, Fundamentele logice ale gndirii, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1980, p. 201.

31

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Fiction and arts Thus, we have: (a1) Constantin Brncui is the artist who put to value the archaic motive of the bird. (a2). Constantin Brncui is the author of the series of 43 Birds (b1). In all my life, the only thing Ive been looking for is the essence of flight. Flight what bliss! (Constantin Brncui) (b2) Magical bird!... She struggles fiercely, like everything Ive accomplished to this day, to rise to the skies. (Constantin Brncui) To any knowledgeable person, propositions (a1) and (a2) are true, and they convey information that is clear and verifiable. Propositions (b1) and (b2) have metaforical structures, which generate esthetic and spiritual significances. In (b1) we have the confession of a lifetimes search. The expression Flight what bliss! Does not express an extasy of a mystical type, but rather, it points to the spiritual overflow of things well done. In (b2), Brncui gives voice to the existential unity between himself and the Magical One. In the genesis of the Birds series is embodied the turmoil of the artist who gives life to his creation. By applying the requirements of logical conditioning to the analysis of any statement, or in this case, to any of the propositions (b1) or (b2), we note: (i) The senders logical position. In the case of Brncui, we remark that (b1) and (b2) are the artists reflections upon his own work. Although they have a secondary character, they express in retrospect the intense illumination and emotion of creation, the thorough joy of an ideas accomplishment in a work of art. The artist feels the need to meditate both during the act of creation and after it, when the work has the final image of a bird. (ii) The logical position of the message. If we have in view thinking, the metaphorical suggestions, the exclamations which express emotional experience and admiration, i.e. elements which compose propositions (b1) and (b2), then we note: 1) when thoughts and emotions are justified by a finished work of art, then the content of the message is correct or true; 2) the situation is confirmed in which the artist is the works origin, conferring identity both upon himself and upon his work; (iii) The receivers logical position. In the case of the person looking at Brncuis Birds, we have two situations: 1) if he has prepared for the 251

Fiction and arts encounter, then on seeing the work of art, and on thinking about it, he will experience a revelation as a member of the elite; in that case, propositions (b1) and (b2) are credited as true; 2) if the requirements presupposed for (1) are not fulfilled, then there occurs a false encounter with the art work, and propositions (b1) and (b2) void of meaning. 3.2. On the relativism of esthetic judgment In interpreting art there arises a problem, visible especially in the relation object de art art critic. The act of criticism takes the form of value judgments formulated in relation with certain aspects and properties of the object of art. These judgments make the passage from emotion (experienced at the unmediated contact with the art object) to theoretical reflection. The critics function is that of mediator between art and the wide public, predisposed to exercises of admiration. To illustrate this, we may quote Andrei Pleu, who metaphorically defines the art critic as janitor and humble hero, and in describing him he insists on the latters judgments, which can bounce back from their target.32 Hence derives the need of discussing the so-called esthetic relativism. It was already mentioned that pragmatic and axiological propositions are different from purely theoretical ones, mainly by their lack of neutrality. It results that the subject who utters those evaluative propositions on an art object must also be taken into account. The art critic has the responsibility of the objects identity and, just like a judge and taking on the risk of being wrong, he must make pronouncements, specifying whether a work is art or non-art. We admit the relativism of art judgments, as well as their necessity. The complexity of the evaluative context implies certain presuppositions, whose force is that of arguments. Namely: a.) The art judgment, specified and formulated conceptually, cannot be isolated or taken out of the context of the works evaluation. Why? Because an art object pertains to an order conventionally accepted and established by the tradition of a culture. Or, hence derives the problematic character of producing definitions and, implicitly, of making predications in
32

Andrei Pleu, Ochiul i lucrurile, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1986, p. 97.

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Fiction and arts an esthetic judgment. We can clarify this with the help of a simple syllogistic exercise. Fie: Art is an expression of beauty (by definition) Symbolized: MP Painting is a species of art (result of intersection) SM Painting is an expression of beauty (conclusion deduced) SP Although we have operated here along the lines of perfect syllogism, we are contradicted by empirical evidence. For example, Hieronymus Bosch, Pieter Breugel, Francisco Goya, Honor Daumier, etc., created value under the sign of the ugly. In their case, we perceive creation as a paradox. Taking this aspect into consideration, Tudor Vianu argues: To embrace, by repulsion, an intellectual, esthetic or moral inferiority, means to assert, by desire, the value of correlative superiority. Axiological conscience moves thus in a bipolar universe and in a continuous circuit within it.33 Validating a historical practice in European art, Karl Rozenkranz proposes an esthetic of the ugly and asserts the existence of a negative beauty. The syntagm involves an annihilation of the contradiction beautiful ugly. Subtly, the ugly frees itself from its hybrid and selfish nature and becomes comical. Then there occurs another transformation, namely, the comical frees itself again of its negative character.34 This relationing of beauty with the ugly in the form of the comic produces a purging of the esthetic hell of the diabolic significations of the monstrous. It results that the syllogism must be corrected taking into consideration: 1) the evidence of the ugly established in valuable artistic creations; 2) the thesis of convertibility of esthetic values into their opposite. Namely: Art is an expression of beauty. Painting is a species of art A painting is an expression of beauty, or it is an expression of the ugly.
33

Fiction and arts Do we have here a sophism? No, we do not. No, because painting takes concrete shape in unique items. An art work of the species painting has the consistency of a class, but it does not bear comparison, for example, with the class of three-legged chairs. To the species of painting belong Leonardo da Vincis works, in which beauty is an exemplary presence, as well as those of Hieronymus Bosch, in which the ugly dominates. Submitted to an esthetic judgment can be both the unique item, and those unique items which have common features. The conclusion imposes itself in Kantian spirit, namely, that value judgments cannot be detached and isolated from the esthetic experience acquired in the cultural-historical context. Consequently, the idea of relativity of esthetic judgments excludes neither the empirical, nor the logical reference. b) The esthetic judgment must not be confused with the judgment of taste. The phrase de gustibus non est disputandum does not refer to a skeptical attitude, but rather, to the experience of a well individualized subject. We are dealing here with an emotional state which mimics a conceptual purpose. Imagination and feelings fundament neither the notion of art, nor that of beauty. If the same art work appears to the same person sometimes beautiful and at other times ugly, we can say that we are dealing with an experience based exclusively on the properties of the emotional experience and of the perceptive capacity of the given individual. And since this view changes on a case-to-case basis, then it is obvious that the syntagm de gustibus non est disputandum does not express a value judgment. Esthetic judgment is not a determinative judgment, but its range goes beyond the limits of the particular, in the sense that the amount of esthetic judgment is greater than that of the logical judgment of the same kind, which can only be singular (of affirmation or negation of the property beauty, for example). Universality, as a property of the judgment, is replaced by the generally human property of receptiveness to a certain kind of stimuli.35 A clarification: Identification of an esthetic judgment with a judgment of taste is not allowed, although such equivalence is made in certain works.
35

Tudor Vianu, Introducere n teoria valorilor, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1987, p. 55-56. 34 Karl Rozenkranz, O estetic a urtului, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1984, p. 35-36.

Rodica Croitoru, Judecat ntre estetic i metafizic, Editura tiintific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1982, p. 29 30.

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Fiction and arts The rvaluation judgment of a work of art must be submitted to hermeneutic logic, i.e. interpretation does not dependent on the interpreters subjectivity, but on the intersubjectivity constituted as cultural referential. Works of art are intentional creations endowed with a dual structure, i.e. they have a physical support that matches the soul intuited in the subsidiary. With their specific features, indicates by the term soul, art works surpass the status of objects. In the interpretation of an art work, its in re existence is taken into consideration, as it represents the object of esthetic evaluation, but what is important is its extra-physical and extra-psychic existence, i.e. in mente and in voce. Artistic beauty este represents a value, an esthetic value. But esthetic value is not confused with the work of art. An object (painting, sculpture, engraving) becomes esthetical only when receivers perceive it as belonging to the sphere of esthetic value. The same object, for example, Brncuis Table of Silence, can, by an act of thinking, be presented as belonging to the sphere of other values, e.g. of moral or religious values, because esthetic, moral or religious values are spiritual values and, at the same time, values-purpose on the level of human existence

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 256-262

Aspects of the relationship between folk art and fine art

Diana BOTA Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: This article focuses on the relationship between folk art and cultured art. The following questions naturally arise: a) To what extent do artists get their inspiration from and reclaim folk art? b) Can Constantin Brncusi's example be shared by contemporary artists? c) Are personal exhibitions relevant in turning to account the motifs and symbols of folk art? I think the answer is affirmative a conclusion supported by the inexhaustible character of art, whether folk or cultured. Keywords: folk art, cultured art, symbol, Brncui 1. Preliminaries Ive found that the tracked issue is generated by a certain historical delay of the Romanian people. Sociological studies of the interwar period have described the existence of some large rural areas that were characterized by Traian Herseni as ethnographic societies or delayed ones. To name them: ara Moilor, ara Maramureului, ara Oaului etc. and other regions of Oltenia and Moldova. This aspect of the historical delay is also reflected as an echo in the second half of the twentieth century, when industrialization has caused massive population displacements from the rural areas. Farmers brought to town and turned into workers have lost their identity but did not really become city dwellers. Evidence for this is the arrangement of the household space and the establishment of various ceremonies such as baptism and marriage. In another order of ideas, it was stressed in the various theories of romantic origin that it was the folk genius which would give a community its identity. I consider here the studies of cultural morphology of the West such as those of Leo Frobenius and Oswald Spengler. To some extent, these studies have influenced the Romanian philosopher Lucian Blaga. The idea of the genius of the people is understand today, obviously, as a

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Fiction and arts metaphor to suggest that inner voice that guides the existential trajectory of a nation. By semantic transfer, the genius can also be creative authority, that particular skill of the artist to symbolically reconstruct the world. For example, Id like to consider the case of Constantin Brncui. He was able to explore the depths of the folk art to the extent that he met the universal element that epitomized beauty. The reference of the archaic folk art for Brncui was not always properly understood in the West. In this respect, Mircea Eliade writes: "Some people are trying to limit the artist to the universe of values and forms of the Parisian avant-garde of the time; while others are chaining him to the peasant and archaic environment from where he emerged."1 Obviously, Brncuis creation cannot be exclusively linked to the avant-garde environment or to the Romanian folk art. His creations are clearly a form of radical transfiguration of themes and symbolic motives of the folk art and the association of those to the Parisian avant-garde ideas. For example, I want to point out that the inspiration from folklore should not be assumed uncritically. The folklore is just "a bridge to understanding the national constants. Therefore - Ion Vlasiu considers - "we cannot understand the Column, comparing it with a porch pillar...." 2 The example of Brncui's art clearly shows what the sublimation of elements from the folk art in the fine art can mean. Of course, we can also consider other examples, particularly in decorative arts and the art of tapestry. Decorative arts have assumed a dominant function in the folk art, namely the humanization of social and domestic space. As we see in the works of various contemporary artists, decorative arts and the art of tapestry create an environment that ensures the presence of beauty within the human life. It is sufficient to refer to the works of Ileana TeodoriniDan, Ana Lupa, Ariana Nicodim, Rodica Regep-Banciu etc. in order to perceive the exemplary way of a modern recovery of some symbolic structures from the folk art. I can say that Giuseppe Machiori was right when talking about folk art being present in the elements still active in
1

Fiction and arts the formation of an original artistic language." The same Machiori was considering that in Romania, folk art can be the true source - even subterranean and secret - of the modern art. 3 In the art of tapestry we find the ancient, local background which was capitalized and sublimated without ostentation in the well-known and established works. Like the predominantly abstract nature of the various motifs and ornaments of the folk art (spiral, diamond, circle etc.). I also consider the lyrical nature suggested by the chromatics of the wall hangings, wall rugs, wall carpets etc. I choose to repeat within the context an appreciation of the art critic Constantin Prut about Rodica RegepBanciu: "A source of purity and originality that the artist finds, along with other representatives of the genus, is identified in the careful reading of the cultural heritage, in which Brncui himself discovered a way to innovate modern art; the effort of the generation which includes Rodica Banciu meets the global search of the tapestry worldwide on the road to sculpture-likezation, the acquisition of the third dimension (Abakanovicz, Buic). In her case, the result is the development of a formal system that preserves the experimental tension within the working conditions of a decorative and symbolic alphabet.4 By outstanding achievements in the last decades, decorative arts and the art of tapestry deny the bias and prejudice on their character as minor arts. Following my research I found that the Romanian artists have given a new dimension to the decorative arts and especially to the art of tapestry. I take into consideration the structural concepts and progress within the techniques and the means of expression. Representative artists of the art of tapestry have created works characterized by a wide diversity of visions. Olga Buneag saw an exemplary synthesis of folk art and the art of tapestry visible in the transfiguration of the ancient ornaments and motifs in the structures of fine art. In this sense she shows that "the contemporary Romanian tapestry is evolving in a space loaded with memory, while maintaining a direct and live contact with the folk art. The richness of materials (wool - which remains the preferred, goat hair, hemp, cotton,
3 4

Mircea Eliade, Briser le toit de la maison. La crativit et ses symboles, Gallimard Paris, 1986, apud Monica Spiridon, S spargi acoperiul..., in Romnia literar, March 12, 1987, p. 21. 2 Ion Vlasiu, Cartea de toate zilele, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1984, p. 206.

Giuseppe Machiori, Revista Arta, nr. 8, 1969. Constantin Prut in Rodica Banciu, Tendine n arta textil timiorean, Artpress Timioara, 2009, p 5

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Fiction and arts Manilla rope, raffia, silk, corn husk etc.) is added to the stylistic variety and the techniques used (haute-lisse, Persian, patch-work etc.) from the designs that fit into the context of tradition, which respect the need for morality, but with a modern understanding, to those who reflected a universal thought and feeling, a spatial awareness of a contemporary artist while developing suggestions of ideas and that expressions that <<the matrix>> contains - is a very broad scale." 5. Art is an existential mode. Like other art forms, Romanian folk art conveys spiritual values that are "values that originate from our general human sympathies and interests, or even values that come from our subconscious life." 6 The fantasy element was perhaps best capitalized in the fine art. Regarding this matter I took into consideration the observations of Constantin Prut, who considers that Romanian folk art is not part of a closed culture, having provided a filter in the way of many cultural pressures that were exerted in time. I refer here to the mythology of the Orient, to the Biblical stories, to the elements of Western medieval civilizations. In his book Fantasticul n arta popular romneasc (The Fantastic within the Romanian Folk Art t.n.), Constantin Prut gives many examples i.e. icons, iconostasis decorations, murals, and ceramic pitchers and vases, shepherd sticks, ornamental discs. From the folk art the fantastic passed into the fine art. Regarding this we can mention Paciureas Chimeras or some of Brancusi's works. I believe that art - whether popular or cultured - is an element of the human world, contributing to the reality of this world. The term reality has a certain ambiguity in art. Of course, the term does not actually refer to how an artistic image resembles the image offered by the natural world. When speaking of the relationship between art and reality we have to consider both visual and emotional impact, given by the direct contact with the work of art, but also its theoretical reflection. Only then can we see the true reality of art, specifically how it transforms the human cultural space. When we speak about art and reality, we inevitably must admit relationship with beauty, as art allows us a certain sense of beauty and a
5

Fiction and arts specific experience. Art also causes us to think, to define it as object, as value, as presence required in a human habitat. Beauty is therefore present both emotional and thoughtful, so, in the human world, the work of artists and architects becomes a necessity; namely of those dealing with the living space, the public space, the sacred space etc. 2. Personal contributions The questions concerning the relationship between the Romanian folk art and the fine art can be traced in each of my own works. In these works I used various techniques in which I have processed and have given a different meaning to a series of signs and symbols. In particular, Ive started from the decorative arts, i.e. from carpets, stitches, carvings on various architectural elements, from ceramics etc. I also tried to reclaim the chromatics from the folk art. I consider necessary to say that the relationship between volume and color is analogous to the relationship between thought and spiritual sensitivity. This relationship is the hidden stand in every work of art, both in folk or fine form. I should say that during my creative approach, materialized in the exhibition Semne i semnificaii plastice ("Plastic Signs and Meanings" t.n.), I had to consider not only the Romanian folk art but also the cultured creation. In this sense I considered as reference all those works for which the creators were inspired and harnessed - in a personal manner - themes, motifs, symbols and decorative signs of the peasant creation. Here, in this context I consider that my own works can be categorized as follows: a) Textile collage the works in which I merged different fabrics such as linen, wool, etc. into a unified composition; b) Print kerchief - the works of this type are made by what is called headscarf technique; c) Mixed technique - the works were initially made by hand, then they were processed by the computer, then printed on textile backing, and finally I intervened on the chromatics and various graphic details; d) Digital art the works in which drawing and color were made exclusively by computer in Photoshop. Certainly, the collage is not specific to Romanian folk art. I deliberately used the collage to highlight the central idea of my research, that I do not mimic or simulate the folk creation or the crafts. In my 260

Olga Buneag, Art decorativ romneasc, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1976, p. 910; 6 Herbert Read, Semnificaia artei, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1969, p. 45;

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Fiction and arts artwork Perspective arhaice (Archaic Perspectives t.n.), done in collage technique Ive used the spirals motif. Perspective arhaice, textile collage, dim. 83 x 123 cm Specifically, for the creation of this composition Ive started from the spiral that adorns the cuffs and chests of the shirts of men and women in the Hlmagiu Vrfurile area. In this ethnographic region this kind of spiral is called the snakes motif. Beyond the particular aspect, I want to mention that the spiral is an archaic element found in nearly all world cultures. The symbolism of the spiral is related to life, to the cyclical nature of evolution, but also to the transient of becoming, of life. The unfathomable age of this ornamental item entitles us to recover it also in the current cultural context. In my artwork I relied on a composition created out of rhythms and forms which sometimes are repeated. So the idea of rhythm, repetition and also opening strongly suggests that Perspective arhaice piece is not just a collage of space, but one of time also. Past time is recovered and used in the contemporary art context. As another example, Compoziie cu triunghi rou (Composition with red triangle t.n.) is a piece in mixed technique, which is thematically focused on the symbolism of the triangle. This symbol has many meanings, and in the same time has almost a universal feature, being found in almost all world cultures. For this artwork I was aiming for the idea of a complementary harmony, achieved in a uniform composition. The triangle, in this case, refers to the male-female unity, and the four triangles of the composition seem to unite in a rhythm of hora (a traditional Romanian folk dance t.n.). The red color intensifies the idea of celebration and of a tribute to life. 261

Fiction and arts

Compoziie cu triunghi rou, mixed technique, dim. 100 x 154 cm

Bibliography: Mircea Eliade, Briser le toit de la maison. La crativit et ses symboles, Gallimard Paris, 1986, apud Monica Spiridon, S spargi acoperiul..., in Romnia literar, March 12, 1987 Ion Vlasiu, Cartea de toate zilele, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1984 Giuseppe Machiori, Revista Arta, nr. 8, 1969. Constantin Prut in Rodica Banciu, Tendine n arta textil timiorean, Artpress Timioara, 2009 Olga Buneag, Art decorativ romneasc, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1976 Herbert Read, Semnificaia artei, Meridiane, Bucureti, 1969

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 263-280

Fiction and arts Ujgorod in sub-Carpathian Ukraine, where his father and mother obtained jobs after taking a course to train as postal workers a place similar to many others dotted throughout the vast expanse of the then AustroHungarian Empire. His mother, Ana Pausits, had spent two years at the School of Fine Arts in Budapest before her marriage to Mihai Chirilovici, the artists father. We can infer from this where Nicolaes exceptional talent came from. Historical developments caused the artists family to settle in epreu, Arad county, after the union of Transylvania with Romania in 1918. The political situation brought about by the event of the Great Union and by Bla Kns 1919 bolshevik revolution in Hungary meant that the artists mother and her three children (among them the future artist) had to remain with their relations in Penc until 1921 when the family was reunited by their repatriation to epreu, in Arad county, where the artists father, Mihai Chirilovici, had succeeded by competitive examination in obtaining a government position as chief tax cashier. As a result, the first few years of Nicolae Chirilovicis schooling took place in a Hungarian-medium school in Pencs, after which he continued his education in a Romanian-medium school in epreu. At the age of 17, probably with his mothers encouragement but above all from his own determination to unlock the mysteries of painting, he was to be found in the company of Frederich Balla, one of the local artists, who through his works (together with Wolf Kroly Pncota and Havas Bla, both originally from Pncota, Arad) was giving shape to the artistic climate of the region, which developed according to the patterns of the classically conventional painting of Munich and Budapest, in the spirit of which almost all our older artists received their training (Medeleanu. 1994. 3). Nicolae Chirilovici certainly assimilated Ballas teaching, but this did not have a decisive influence on him. Its main effect was to give him the foundations of good draughtsmanship. The two works of his that survive from this period are a small landscape in oils showing thatched country houses in shades of ochre and burnt ochre, and a self-portrait of the artist standing before his easel. They reveal that he had a good mastery of realism, but we by no means see the 264

Nicolae Chirilovici (1910-1993). Biographical and artistic aspects

Onisim COLTA Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: In this study the author proposes to relate the biographical data with the artistic events and background circumstances that had a decisive role in shaping Nicolae Chirilovicis artistic pesonality. The decisive role to structure the painters artistic personality was played by the years of study spent in the Colony and Painting School of Baia Mare, with its specific atmosphere and artistic climate, with the contacts it facilitated among various artists and working styles. An essential contribution in this respect was played by the painters (indirect) contacts with the Western European vanguard, specifically with the post-impressionism, the Fauvism and the expressionism, by mediation of artists such as Ziffer Sndor or Czobel, Perolt Csaba, Krmendi Frim Erwin, Mikola Andrs or Tihany. Keywords: artistic climate, working style, Western European influences, stylistic options. Paradoxical as it may seem, although Nicolae Chirilovici lived in Arad until recently (1993), it is genuinely difficult to give even an approximate account which can bring together a good number of details of his life story. And this is primarily a consequence of the individual character of this artist who, as Horia Medeleanu says in a commemorative booklet, was an extremely modest, withdrawn and silent man. He did not enjoy talking either about himself or about others (Medeleanu, 1994, ). Not even the members of his family, his wife and his daughter Ghizela, succeeded in fully unravelling this biographical thread. Nicolae steadfastly refused to talk about the subject, thus thwarting all attempts to persist in discussing the matter even on the part of his closest relatives. Regarding the date and place of his birth he recounted laconically: I was born on 8th July 1910 in a place which must have meant nothing to me, since I no longer have any memory of it (Medeleanu, 1994, 2). It was in fact

Fiction and arts repristinisation of fine-art techniques that was to follow his Baia Mare period. In 1927 (it becomes clearer and clearer that Nicolae Chirilovici was being guided by Providence towards an authentic artistic future) he came into contact with the painter, sculptor and graphic artist Marcel Olinescu, who opened a school and workshop on the upper floor of the Commercial High School in Arad. His first pupil was Peter Feier, who, as a friend and later a relative by marriage of Nicolae, persuaded him to enrol in this school as well. This was a great opportunity for him, since Marcel Olinescu was a complex artist, trained under the great masters of the Bucharest School of Belles-Arts (...) ( Medeleanu.1994. 4). The unity of spirit that instantly sprang up between the two apprentices and Olinescu saved them from the Academy-style atmosphere that dominated the accepted art of that period. The emphases and advances of Impressionism and especially of Post-Impressionism that the young art teacher had brought with him from the capital were assimilated by his two pupils with the receptivity so characteristic of youth. One must remember that Marcel Olinescu had been one of the 54 plein-air artists who were at Baia Mare in 1920. A certificate issued on 14th April 1955 and signed by the master Andrei Mikola tells us that Nicolae Chirilovici attended courses regularly in the years 1928-1931 as a pupil at the Baia Mare School of Belles-Arts and displayed exceptional ability in fine art. For Chirilovici (as also for Feier) this uninterrupted period of three years (1928-1931) spent at Baia Mare was decisive in determining the fundamental lines of his artistic career. His attendance there (unofficial at first) is confirmed in Rti Istvns official lists (in his book A Nagybnyai Mvsztelep) only for 1931. In 1932 he was there alongside Peter Feier of Arad. Chirilovicis boldness and his burning desire to become a painter artist, as he liked to say with a certain pride, overcame all the obstacles that appeared in his way, beginning with the open hostility of his father towards such a life choice and his refusal to pay for him to study art, and continuing with the privations that life was to bring him during a difficult period of history. Thus, at the age of 18, Nicolae was at Baia Mare, after the painting school there had been through a number of stages. It had had the status of 265

Fiction and arts a temporary painting colony (1896-1901) started by Hollosy Simon, then of a Free Academy (school) of painting (1902-1911), and finally, with the founding of the Society of Painters of Baia Mare (N.F.T), (1911-1935), the initial order of values was established (Boros Judith). Here we are dealing with a return, after repeated conflicts between the neo-ists (neomoderns) who had come from Paris and Munich infected with avant-garde ideas and appetites regarding form, and the traditionalist leaders (Krizsn and Thorma) who were staunch upholders of maintaining the plein-air character of the school. Thus 1911 also saw the exodus of the Grnwald group to Kecskemt. Within this school we can identify a number of factors which had a decisive influence on the vision that was to manifest itself later and over time in Nicolae Chirilovicis painting. Among these it is appropriate to make especial mention of the group of painters who came to Baia Mare after having direct contact with the French or German avant-garde. Of these, Ziffer was to prove to be the closest to the spirit of the young man from Arad, and we will therefore dwell on him at somewhat greater length. It was in the spring of 1906 that Sndor Ziffer (1880-1962) and Bla Czobel (1883-1977) arrived at Baia Mare. The latter brought with him a series of works painted in Paris which provoked a certain degree of stir in the colony (Medeleanu.1994.) Czobel was joined by Krmendi Frim Erwin, Perlott Csaba, Bornemisza Gza, Boromisza Tibor, Mikola Andrs and Tihanyi as well as Ziffer. As a parenthesis, after 1906, when Ziffer left for Paris, he had the opportunity to see the Gauguin retrospective exhibition and the Matisse exhibition. It was then, on the initiative of Perlott Csaba and others, that Matisses private school was opened there. In the same year, 1906, Ziffer submitted a self-portrait to the Independents Salon, and Matisse valued the work highly and gave it a special place among the five thousand five hundred paintings (Borghida 1980. 90). In this self-portrait Ziffer summed up all he had experienced over a whole summer at Baia Mare and what he had assimilated during his stay in Paris. The body and the background are defined by large patches of colour. He omits details and emphasis on the third dimension (...). The surface of the face is achieved almost in (geometrical) planes, and scarcely perceptible variations of warm and cold reflexes are concealed in its 266

Fiction and arts colours. This work marks a turning-point in Ziffers artistic development (Borghida. 1980.22). In 1907 Ziffer encountered another large-scale exhibition, this one at the National Salon in Budapest, with works by Gauguin, Van Gogh, Czanne, Monet, Seurat, Matisse and Signac. The influence of these exhibitions on his vision made itself felt without delay. It was to Ziffer that Lucian Blaga was referring in his aphorism God has given Gauguin a second birth at Baia Mare. He was talking about the use made of flat coloration and the juxtaposition of patches of unblended colour on the screen formed by the canvas that characterise Gauguins work after his time in Tahiti. Assuredly, with agreements and contrasts that are less calm than those of Gauguin. It would be somewhat of an exaggeration, yet in the right direction, for us to say of what took place two decades later, after Chirilovici came home, that God was giving Ziffer a second birth at Arad. But of course the truth contains far more nuances. From 1910 onwards, when he married the painter Kathe Beckhaus, Ziffers contacts with the German art scene increased to such an extent that in 1913 he tried to open a painting school of his own in Munich (Boros .1992.132). In the meantime he had made a longer stay in Paris (1910-11) and had exhibited at the Independents Salon. Ziffer called this stage of his painting career decorative Impressionism, referring to its obvious links with Nabi-style [our note] Post-Impressionism. Up until this point, different influences had dissolved themselves in his art, but now what he had learned from Hollosy, Gauguin and Matisse became his own, and it was now that he reached the point at which he could learn from Czanne (...). He assumed his inclination towards the decorative, his passionate temperament, and knew how to express all this while not forgetting the subject (the thematic) of the picture. He worked freely, joyfully and yet in a disciplined way [italics our] (Boros .1992.132.) But after his encounter with German Expressionism, his work, for example Still Life (1910), can be unusually impersonal. It is a classically balanced composition which could be bounded by a triangle, a clear indication of the influence of Czanne (...) As a result of the strong patches of colour, the atmosphere of the painting is dramatic, but this is not the 267

Fiction and arts passionate, sensual drama (...) of Expressionism but a disciplined, rational, ontological drama (Boros .1992.132.). We are allotting additional space to these points connected with the development of the artistic climate of Baia Mare for the reason that this in its most fundamental aspects had a determining influence on Nicolae Chirilovicis artistic vision (and on that of Peter Feier). To return to Ziffer. In 1913 he spent a somewhat longer period of time in Munich, where he exhibited successfully at the Secession. Somogyi Mikls wrote in the Mveszet journal (Somogyi 1914): In terms of skilful use of colour, Ziffer Sndor is the most impressive artist in the whole exhibition. Only in his works, among pictures painted in a different temper, can we see how much strength there is in colours, and besides this, how much delicacy, how simple the drawing is, and in spite of this how intelligible the forms are. Because of the outbreak of the (First World) War, Ziffer and his wife were unable to leave Germany. In 1915 Ziffer made a desperate plea for (financial) help from Budapest. The Baia Mare Artistic Centre Art Museum still has two works dating from this period: Berlin Station and Baia Mare Landscape (1916), probably painted from memory. Before his return to Baia Mare he mounted two personal exhibitions in Berlin, at the Cassirer and Casper Galleries. Judith Boros, in Ziffer Sndor (1880-1962), emphasises the fact that His encounter with Expressionism transformed Ziffers art. It was then that his talent found its most congenial channel, which it was only to depart from (to a certain extent) in his old age. The Ziffer whom we are accustomed to remember as a Baia Mare painter was born in those years. The Expressionism of the Die Brcke and Blau Reiter groups, the rhythm and colours of Franz Marc and August Macke, those nuances (tones) of interpenetrating blue, define all his later painting. Let us not forget that in 1911 the catalogue of the Berlin New Secession exhibition was circulating in Germany. Here we can find epitomised the ideas of the Die Brcke group. To quote a few lines: Planes of colour do not do away with the fundamental lines of the coloured objects but rather create a new function, which is neither to represent nor to give form but rather to delineate emotional expression in order to indicate and pin down figurative life on a surface. ( New Secession exhibition, 1911.) 268

Fiction and arts Likewise, we find the following statement by Franz Marc in an article that appeared in the March 7th 1912 issue of the journal Pan: Today we are seeking beyond the veil of external appearances hidden things that seem to us to be more important than the discoveries of the Impressionists (...). Nature shines through in our paintings, as she does in all art forms. Nature is everywhere, within us and outside us; there is only one thing that is not entirely in Nature, but rather (in) the mastering and interpretation of Nature: art.Art has always and in its ultimate essence been the activity of boldly separating Nature from naturalness. It is what links us with the world of the spirit. (quoted by Jean Casson, An Overview of the Fine Arts Today, Meridiane, Bucharest, 1971, p.35) And August Macke said on 12th February 1914: Our finest aim is to find the spatial energies of colour instead of being satisfied with lifeless chiaroscuro (Seuphor, 1949). It is certain that avant-garde ideas such as these infected Ziffer too and that he then brought them to Baia Mare and transmitted them to the atmosphere of the place and to his friends and pupils, among them Nicolae Chirilovici. We learn that at the beginning of the thirties he agreed to teach some young men who had been excluded from the school on account of left-wing ideas, i.e. Szolnany Sndor, Pittner Oliver, Mohi Sndor, Incze Jnos and even the sculptor Vida Gza. We find, without a shadow of doubt, that the central strength of Baia Mare in painting, to which Nicolae Chirilovici was most evidently receptive, was the expression of a happy union between two great Western European conceptions regarding painting: that of the French/Parisian school (Post-Impressionism, Czanne, Nabism, Fauvism) and that of the German/Munich and Berlin school, strongly influenced by Expressionism. To be sure, Rti accepts these facts, but he does so somewhat halfheartedly, up to a point, discreetly minimising the contribution made by the new-ists (even this term he invents for the angry young men has a pejorative connotation) to the enrichment, refreshing and reinvigoration of the means of expression in the artistic climate of Baia Mare. He says that The artists of Baia Mare acquainted themselves from the beginning with schools in other countries, with Paris and Munich, and there, with the instinct of first youth, they felt what was bubbling in the cauldron of living art, and the spirit of the age began to work like yeast 269

Fiction and arts within them. They returned home to Baia Mare group by group with sincere belief and with a burning but uncertain desire to do that something which had inspired them abroad (Rti ,1994). Let us not forget that Nicolae Chirilovici came to Baia Mare after this harmonisation between the two great conceptions had been achieved, when Ziffer was at his zenith and when one of the acknowledged masters of European expressionism, Matiss Teutsch, had already come to the colony (as he did in 1928 and in the three succeeding years). Chirilovicis works of this period are so bold in their formal and chromatic approach that they could hang on the walls of any museum of modern art in the world alongside those of Franz Marc or Macke. Painting convention is much more strongly emphasised in its autonomy as an expressive language. One landscape with trees from this period has an unusual plastic strength and emanates a mystical, even elemental air. Sadly, we have little information about Nicolae Chirilovici in the years immediately following his return from Baia Mare. We do know that he made his artistic debut in Arad in 1932, with his friend Peter Feier and Margareta Lasker, on the occasion of an exhibition at the Palace of Culture. Then, in April 1937, Teodor T. iucra, writing in the Arad journal Hotarul, contributed an art chronicle (in fact one of a series that had begun in the sixth issue, in 1936) about an exhibition that included works by the young Nicolae Chirilovici, some six years after his return from Baia Mare. At that time the artist was signing his works N. Chiriloviciu. The exhibition also included works by Marcel Olinescu, Silviu Costin, F. Pcianu, tefan Sos, Iulian Toader, Andrei Virnyi and Petru Feier. iucra drew attention to the fact that The canvases of Peter Feier, Nicolae Chiriloviciu and Andrei Virnyi reflect developments that are taking place in contemporary art. Their spontaneous youthful sincerity, extraordinary simplicity and lifelike drawing place them among the most intense of the moderns (Rti ,1994 .24). Writing of Chirilovicis drawing, the author of the chronicle says that it is penetrating and expressive (...). Chirilovicius depiction of social settings shows very penetrating handling. Whereas previously the artist had exhibited canvases whose execution would rather have placed him among the classics [probably before Baia Mare our note], the artistic influence of his friend Feier has set him on a new road and brought 270

Fiction and arts freedom to his art, of whose originality I am now convinced. Today he has come into full possession of this new trend in art (...). We find here a new aesthetic born of the combination of lines, among which forms are not mentioned except through an extremely subtle tonality (Rti , 1994. 25) In 1939 the Arad painter Iulian Toader made a brief written statement to the effect that Nicolae Chirilovici had worked with him on the Orthodox churches of Sebi, Vrand and Ilteu, carrying out decorative and mural painting. In 1941 Chirilovici was sent to the front, but before this he married Ghizela Elena Rostas, who was to be at his side for the remainder of his life and with whom he would have a daughter, Ghizela, who became a musician. This marriage also led to Nicolae Chirilovici settling permanently in Arad. (Since 1928 he had been living in rented accommodation.) He was always active in Arad art circles and was one of the founder members of the local branch of the Romanian Union of Fine Artists. His membership of this dated from 1st January 1951. It was in the years 1943-44 that the way Nicolae Chirilovici was executing his paintings came closest to that characteristic of the Blaue Reiter group, both at the drawing level and in terms of use of colour. But what was happening here was not merely the slavish borrowing of a ready-made formula but rather a successful blending of the execution of the painted image in a Fauvist manner, in the style of Matisse, for example, and the German, Expressionist approach that recalls Franz Marc. While for the latter horses were a favourite subject, because through their lines, colours and the shapes of their bodies they express energies that are latent or in the course of being manifested, for Nicolae Chirilovici it is the trunks of trees that occupy this position because of their vigorous outline, because of the curves or counter-curves that they or their branches have, because of the sturdiness of their shapes and the purely pictorial animation of their chromatics. Trees, in spite of their connection with the earth, become the vehicle of energies that multiply their vectors on the vertical axis; their boughs are like the powerful arms of figures which spring up from the flesh of the earth in order to force their way up, as if in a vitalist dance, towards the blue sky. They cross the successive stages of the painting/landscape: stone dykes, green or reddish meadows, tracks and fences, rows of red roofs and distant blue hills. 271

Fiction and arts Chirilovicis inner power converts a fact of nature into an active fact/truth of painting. His former points of reference trees, houses, hills etc. become the elements/letters of an autonomous artistic language, line, patch of colour, geometrical figure, articulated on the basis of laws of his own. Nicolae Chirilovicis mastery of drawing and of the use of colour gave him the freedom to express himself in a direct and striking way. The fundamental organisational principle of his paintings is contrast: between warm and cold and/or between complementary qualities. A tree trunk is brick red, almost orange, in the light but blue or violet in the shade. To this may be added the greenish reflections that come from grass when the sun is on it, or the light blue ones that mirror the azure of the sky. There is a striking community of spirit here the extent to which Nicolae Chirilovicis way of treating his subject, trees, resonates with Franz Marcs way of painting horses. The art critic Constantin Prut writes of the painting of the great German Expressionist: There is a certain tension in his paintings the horses are represented in motion, their shapes are enclosed within curves, like springs with potential energy an agitation that invigorates the landscape as well, but the dominant impression remains that of a space of innocence a romantic return to the charm of simple things (Prut, 1992. 313-314). Something similar might be said of Chirilovicis painting during the 1940s. His assimilation of Cubist teaching is implicit in the way he structures his images and geometrising planes that juxtapose areas of almost unmixed colour a sure sign that he was au courant with advances in art made by the avant-garde in the West. It was the good hand of Fate that had sent young Nicolae to study in Baia Mare precisely in the years 1928-31, the period in which one of the artists who came to paint there was Matiss Teutsch. Teutschs boldness in the area of artistic expression and the new German avant-garde ideas he brought with him had a beneficial impact on Chirilovicis vision of painting. It is clear that the paintings he produced between his stay in Baia Mare and the year of the great liberation are his boldest, the ones closest to what has come down to us as most significant from the Fauvist and Expressionist periods of avant-garde art in Europe. Chirilovicis works of the Fifties still have a surprising amount of this boldness, but two important factors were to intervene factors that 272

Fiction and arts cannot be ignored when we are considering how his approach developed. The first was the institution of censorship that came with the ideology that arrived from the East, along with Soviet commissars, and the second was Nicolaes adoption of freelance status. Two powerful factors that crushed other young artists. Their only effect on Chirilovici was to cause him to tone down his style a little. The degree of independence we see in his artistic language becomes less radical, but it is still surprisingly powerful in its expression, when we consider how difficult a period the 1950s were for art. Thus he needed to look for employment that would guarantee him a more or less regular income in order to safeguard his creative work from concessions to public taste. In his work dating from 1960 to 1965 we may observe new emphases in his manner of configuring the image. He makes use of valencies of two-dimensionality, using a deliberate device of foldingdown, as, for example, a panel or leaf of a table bearing objects on it, thus putting aside European rules and conventions regarding linear perspective and adopting the flattening of the image of objects that belongs to the Oriental style of painting. This rediscovery was frequently employed in Romanian art of that period by artists ranging from Dimitrie Ghiaa to Paul Sima; Arad artists who used it were Nicolae Bicfalvi, Sever Freniu and Eva Gyrffy. Between 7th and 22nd July 1975 (of which four days were spent in the surroundings of Baia Mare and Baia Sprie), nostalgia for that blessed region in the north, in Baia Mare, where he had served his apprenticeship in 1928-31, resurfaced and made him resolve to look a few more times at the hills and houses of Baia Sprie and Mine Hill and the streets of Baia Mare with their rows of low miners dwellings, with their chromatic contrasts, their accentuated light and shade, that called to mind Ziffer, Balla Jozsef and Nagy Oszkr. From that visit we have, for example, House in Baia Sprie, Street in Baia Mare and Mine Hill, Baia Sprie. The blue-painted houses found both in the region of Maramure and in Oau serve as excellent pretexts and challenges for the orchestration of the play of warm-cold contrasts that Chirilovici employs when building up a picture.

Fiction and arts The great and complex lesson of Baia Mare had been assimilated through every pore of his artists soul. His youthful energy, matched by his thirst to be fully included within the ranks of those artists who benefited from the new breath of air brought by advances in the language of painting that had been made in Paris, Munich, Berlin, Budapest and also Bucharest, were determining factors. But all these impulses, gains in knowledge, formal advances and new attitudes were passed through a personal filter generated by a set of propensities that belonged to a unique inner structure. When we look at a post-Baia Mare Chirilovici painting, we see that on the one hand it receives its structure from vigorous drawing, through strong brushwork (in Prussian Blue or cobalt, in general, but also sometimes in warmer shades of English red) which organises the component elements in terms of composition leafy trees or houses, roads, hayricks, hills, threads/mirrorlike pools of water, footbridges or bridges etc. but at the same time, within these quasi-Cartesian limits, the free but energetic movement of the brush joyfully and with vitality scatters fresh colours, in vibrant Indian inks, complementary chromatic juxtapositions, now using paint in its pure state, now with a measure of combination. Colour perspective outdoes linear perspective in importance. There is a strong tendency for the painted space to be reduced to two dimensions. Pierre Francastel once said of the Impressionist formula in painting that it was not merely an isolated episode in the history of European art, but the expression of a type of vision and a language with a validity of its own, as in the case of any stylistic discovery. This type of language (...) may be used at any time, without risk of anachronism (Pleu, 1986.140). We have a fine example of this in the Romanian group Prolog in which widely-known artists such as Paul Gherasim, Constantin Flondor, Horia Bernea, Vasile Varga and Horia Patina and also younger ones such as George Mircea, Sorin Neamu and Andrei Rosetti make use of this stylistic formula, but rather than standing on its own it becomes the vehicle, the material basis for a spiritual charge. When the artist stands in front of a corner of nature he does not confine himself to portraying the physical character of the chromatic dynamic; rather, this is converted into the action of bearing witness to a belief, through an act of painting whose motivation runs deep. What interests these artists is not novelty of form in itself but its capacity to mediate the expression of a delight that is charged 274

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Fiction and arts with the thrill of becoming conscious of the existence of a presence that has to do with ultimate reality, beyond the outer crust/shell of things and the flickering of the moment. Something similar happens in the case of Nicolae Chirilovici, with the difference that here the artistic formula does not have the same emphases. But for him too the formula is not an end in itself but a type of vision and a language with a validity of its own, as in the case of any stylistic discovery that can be used at any time without fear of its being pass and outmoded. This happy meeting between the way an artists manner of conceiving of forms was constructed and a particular way of articulating the elements of the image in painting, such as that assimilated and appropriated by Chirilovici at Baia Mare, led to the birth of a profoundly personal oeuvre, with its own emotional and stylistic overtones that defined it and remained with it through the course of many decades. However, this thread, this stylistic constant in Chirilovici, took on distinct emphases that gave it particularity now preponderantly PostImpressionist or Fauvist ones along the lines of the Paris school, and now Expressionist ones in line with the formal advances introduced by the Berlin or Munich avant-garde. It is ultimately a matter of which of the two components of the synthetic Baia Mare vision had the greater influence on him at any one time. These variations in emphasis, in the tipping of the scales, sometimes towards underlining impression, at other times towards expression, came about as a consequence of the artists inner state on the day or at the time when he began this or that landscape, still life or even portrait. This explains why some of his landscapes from the Fifties have something of the inner loneliness/isolation of Hoppers pictures in their manner of configuration, of the synthesis of form and of their chromatic vibration, while others, from the Sixties, possess a vibrancy and a multidirectional verve in the brushwork that stimulate the gaze. It is a commonplace that an authentic act of artistic creation is an elevated way of projecting your wealth of spirit, your delight in living before the universe, on to a canvas, through lines and/or areas of colour. Nicolae Chirilovici expresses his inner states by constructing a picture, structuring it in terms of doses of impression and expression in proportions that can vary but are fixed by the inner needs of the moment. Here we may 275

Fiction and arts observe a resemblance to Kandinskys inner necessity, of course without making a complete break with a referent as he does. A painting as Ren Huyghe would say is a creation modelled by the artist, it is a work. It brings into play our sensibilities, our intellect and our practical abilities, which are conscious of the effort they are making, by synthesising them and retaining their essence. But however much solidarity it has with us, it detaches itself from us; from now on it is fixed in an independent appearance, immutable and offered to the rest of humanity ( Huyghe, 1981, .374). A picture takes on a scale of values. It bears the indelible seal of the end we have assigned to it; that which man conceives after he has passed beyond the stage of being Homo faber in order to attain to that of Homo esteticus. From now on it answers to a need for beauty and justifies, line by line, the different ways in which the act of its making has been attempted: the psychological point of view, to the extent to which it is an image, the formal and artistic one to the extent to which it is a work, and inevitably the aesthetic one to the extent to which we are speaking about the quest for the beautiful. Only through synthesising these will we be able to arrive at an all-encompassing understanding of its being. The same great writer on the theory of art likens a picture to a kind of strange plant (...) which draws the nourishment it needs from two distinct areas, separated, let us say, by a wall that cannot be climbed; nevertheless, via its roots it succeeds in combining two kinds of sap in an imperceptible proportion that gives birth to something new: a flower, which is perfume and colour ( Huyghe, 1981, .374). Thus the painted image is representation and symbol at the same time. We may read in it a likeness to a model, but also an analogy with a being with whom it has solidarity: it has undergone its [that it, the beings, the artists our note] action, but once this is completed it will in its turn act upon that being ( Huyghe, 1981, .374).. The image has solidarity with the external world right from the beginning, but still also solidarity with the inner world, and while being shaped by it, it will shape it in its turn. There is an undefined dialectic operating here. The painter, the interpreter of his own thought or of the thinking of his group, believes that he is projecting his own thesis in his painting; but the moment the painting has separated itself from him and fixed itself in an immutable 276

Fiction and arts appearance, he perceives it as an antithesis. Then there is a need to reach an agreement, a synthesis between what it is, what he believes it is, and the unforeseen relationship brought into the work by what he has put into it without knowing he was doing so, what he was ignorant of with regard to himself and finds himself suddenly confronted with ( Huyghe, 1981 .374). That which is valid and true in the case of a person is likewise valid in the case of a people too. Both for the one and for the other, art has a primordial importance. Nicolae Chirilovicis painting is emblematic in this regard. It is the expression of a spirit which was both sensitive enough and also vigorous and decided enough to breathe the Zeitgeist of its generation in art, to express its emotions and moods through fresh means, a spirit which circumscribes art through a painting, as an organism with its own laws, rather than by using it to pay a tribute of faithfulness to any exterior referent. To quote Ren Huyghe once more: A work of art, however individualised its creator may have wanted it to be so that sometimes it is obviously a confession of what differentiates him from all the rest always allows us to make out the stamp/impression of the time of its creation, which is imprinted in it like a watermark (( Huyghe, 1981, . 13). Negoi Lptoiu values Nicolae Chirilovici as a master of colour whose fervour and delicacy in asserting agreements, for preference on a Post-Impressionist scale, puts him in the same category as Aurel Ciupe of Cluj, Victor Mihilescu-Craiu of Iasi and Vasile Popescu of Bucharest and also says that this Arad painter was an early (from the 1930s) exponent of the trends that renewed art in Romania. It is he again who rightly emphasises that by disciplining (with Czanne-like vision) the rhythmic use of planes that promote coloured sensations, with characteristic, tonic clarities, he maintained his position among productive painters who were significant representatives of Romanian art in a particular time and space (Lptoiu, 2000.43). A picture, for Nicolae Chirilovici, is a kind of window-mirror that gives on to a corner of the world, generally one that is humble and unspectacular in itself but which has, above all, the gift of reflecting the painters inner image, his deep expression before the chosen motif. Nicolae Chirilovicis painting is the transfigured image of a man, the son 277

Fiction and arts of a time and of a people with all the associated range of ways of living and personal propensities. But this transformation takes place in the domain of a specific order and on the basis of rules of his own. As Ren Berger said, by choosing a particular organ, each art predisposes our body toward the kind of attentiveness and expectation that are specific to it. (...) To look at a picture does not mean merely to take in an image. The eye explores it, runs over it, occupies it (...), the retina does not simply limit itself to registering it but goes on to meet the work with its own exigencies (Berger, 1975.121). Some Nicolae Chirilovici landscapes are realised in a harsher, rougher style, with use of the knife and of thick layers of oils, thus underlining the virile, expressive aspect of his art; others, in their weavingtogether of warm and cold Indian inks, contain impressions and feelings of delight that are akin to reverie. The degree of intensity of impression in his work fluctuates widely from period to period, with a range of nuances, precisely because this is an artist who did not confine himself within a comfortable formal recipe that he could continue to employ ad infinitum in a detached and stereotypical way. One detail worthy of notice is that Chirilovici, for reasons that have never been discovered, took particular pleasure in preparing his paints himself, using formulae that he kept secret all his life, from powder colours combined with emulsions that contained egg white and linseed oil in proportions known only to him. The blending was carried out in an almost ritualistic way, as with the master painters of old. It is also fitting to mention the fact that Nicolae Chirilovici was perhaps the only genuine artist in this part of the country to have taken on the risks involved in the status of a freelance, someone who lived exclusively by his own art production. The miracle lies in the fact that he never let his guard drop, did not descend subserviently to the level of popular taste in order to be sure of succeeding with the public. As his younger colleague, the sculptor Emil Vitroel, said at the opening of his 1995 retrospective at the Delta Gallery in Arad, ...in his creative work, Nicolae Chirilovici never sold himself (...) He did not try to paint syrupy pictures or certain subjects that would probably have been easier for him to sell. He continued to be the same modern painter that he had become at Baia Mare. Expression and artistic means were more important to him than money. Collectors had to accept him as he was, with his sincere 278

Fiction and arts beliefs expressed in nuanced and various ways that accorded with his private moods. These personal exigencies, specific to the art of painting, were something Nicolae Chirilovici understood and defended all his life in a period in which ideological pressures were forcing artists to dissimulate them and to be obedient in the face of a falsified reality, in which artists were driven to betray the true purpose of painting as a specific language. In a Nicolae Chirilovici painting we will find, alongside each other, the desire to structure, to articulate in a flexible and robust way the data of the image of some corner of the world, with feeling and pure joy, expressed vigorously but also with gentleness. An implicit geometry gives order and cosmic significance to the energies of exuberance and joie de vivre. Design and colour, geometry and sensibility become one and sing the same song, composing in a synergistic way the healing balsam for the ever-open wound in the spirit of a great artist. Bibliography: Alexa Tiberiu, Moldovan Traian and Musc Mihai, Centrul Artistic Baia Mare 1896 1996 [The Baia Mare Artistic Centre 1896 1996] County Museum, Maramure, Baia Mare, 1996 Berger Ren, Descoperirea picturii [The Discovery of Painting], Meridiane, Bucharest, 1975 Borghida Istvn, Ziffer Sndor, Kriterion, Bucharest, 1980 Boros Judith, Ziffer Sndor(1880-1962); NAGYBNYA-Nagybnyai festszet a nesok fellstl 1944, Mission Art Galria, Miskolc, 1992 Cassou Jean, Panorama artelor plastice contemporane [An Overview of the Fine Arts Today], Meridiane, Bucharest, 1971 Catalogul Expoziiei Neue Secession, Berlin, februarie-aprilie 1911 Huyghe Ren, Dialog cu vizibilul [Dialogue with the Visible], Meridiane, Bucharest, 1981 Medeleanu Horia, Profiluri plastice [Profiles in the Fine Arts], Facla, Timioara, 1979 Medeleanu Horia, Nicolae Chirilovici, 1910-1993, Arad County Museum, 1994 Medeleanu Horia, Culoare i form [Colour and Form], Mirador, Arad, 1996 279

Fiction and arts Muradin Jen,Nagybnya.A festtelep mvszei, Miskolc, 1994 Pleu Andrei, Ochiul i lucrurile [The Eye and Things], Meridiane, Bucharest, 1986. Prut Constantin, Dicionar de Art Modern i Contemporan [A Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Art], Univers Enciclopedic, Bucharest, 2002 Rti Istvn A Nagybnyai Mvsztelep[The Artists`Colony at Baia Mare],,Kulturtrade Kiad, Budapest, 1994 Rti Istvn, Aradart 2001, Mirador, Arad, 2001 Rti Istvn, Aradart 2007 - 50 de ani de art vizual ardean [Fifty Years of the Visual Arts in Arad], Mirador, Arad, 2007

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Fiction and arts sculpture shall emerge as a great sculpture. Whether they belong to one category or another are questions to be answered. Sculpture and architecture are interested about the category boundaries, that is, architectural sculpture or sculptural architecture. Losing the unity may lead both architecture and sculpture to a conscious autonomy and to a personal language. This change towards emancipation, separation, integration shall found the modern architectural development and the abstract sculpture. The above-mentioned process shall prove how narrow this Konnubiums, which belongs to them, shall be. Carola GiedionWelcker2 describes this emancipation process of the two opposing parties, summing up the emergence of sculpture development, beginning with the 19th century, as a focus on the clean form in the area of sculpture, characterized by the representation in and through the space. Thus, on one hand, there is a close connection with the essential problem of architecture and on the other hand there is the success of sculpture, eventually the final answer regarding the role of sub-alternity, decorativism and theatrality which had an impact upon architecture. This connection with architecture is characterized by the fact that modern sculpture is released or determined by illusion, imitation and literary signification. There is a tendency towards an independence of plastic reality; it behaves like architecture, with the essential problem of its personal territory. Michel Senphor, adopting a different stance, claims that the two arts must remain faithful to their own nature and function if the masterpiece of an architect and of an artist are the same, there is a nonsense, because a sculpture that reminds us of a dwelling place is by no means inferior to it3. He brings opposing examples - the Notre Dame-du-Haut Ronchanp church, built between 1950-1954 by Le Corbusier which has a sculptural character, but nevertheless, the church is a functional architecture. There are slight chances for obtaining a fortunate solution and classification of the categories problem because the sculptors have been constantly trying to get closer to architecture or, at the same time, their masterpieces have been considered as architectures.
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Sculpture and architecture, category boundaries

Delia BRNDUESCU Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Modern sculpture is released by illusion, imitation and literary signification and behaves like architecture, with the essential issue of its personal territory. Per Kirkebys great contribution consists in the fact that he opened up this territory for the work of art by combining architectural ideas with modern sculpture, on the basis of a powerful antianecdote, towards a permanent and accessible work of art. Keywords: sculpture, architecture, konnubiums, mobile art, sitesensitive The Fine Arts have preserved their unity and identity until the 19th century, architecture, sculpture and painting having a close connection and interdependency. The term of collective masterpiece has been introduced by Richard Wagner in the 19th century, insisting on re-bonding the arts long lost unity. Nowadays, we acknowledge the fact that the idea of collective arts has had a more or less happy role. In what concerns the art for constructions, Kunst am Bau, both in architecture and sculpture, the idea is rather related to space. More and more often, the places and positions established beforehand will prove that these demarcation lines between arts shall be diminished. These places, where architecture and sculpture shall have a symbiotic unity, a Konnubium, term used by Hans Sedlmayr1, at the moment when the tectonic sculpture takes over the functionality or when the representation of a masterpiece of construction1

Hans Sedlmayr, apud, K.J. Philipp, Architektur Skulptur Die Geschichte einer fruchtbaren bezieung, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart Munchen, 2002, p.11 2 Carola Giedion-Welcker, Plastik des XX Jahrhunderts Volumen und Raumgestaltung, Ed. Stuttgart, 1955, apud, K.J. Philipp, Architektur Skulptur Die Geschichte einer fruchtbaren bezieung, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart Munchen, 2002, p.11

M. Seuphor, Die Plastik unseres Jahrhunderts, Ed. Neuchatel, 1959, p. 210

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Fiction and arts Constantin Brancusi, often uses the formula: sculpture is the real architecture. The construction sculptures from Targu-Jiu, The Endless Column, Kiss Gate, Table of Silence (image 27), have architectural bases, remaining in close connection with architecture, through a clean surface, due to their architecture and tectonics; but however, they do not represent architectures with a constructional functionality. Therefore, we cannot consider architectural sculptures the ones built by Grank O. Gehry, the Guggenheim Museum from Bilbao or the brick masterpieces belonging to Per Kirkeby which are not architectures but sculptures.

Fiction and arts Like the architectural sculpture of Per Kirkeby (image 29), from Ikast Jutland Denmark 1973, a Gothic canopy is an abbreviation of architecture. These requirements are neither complied with by P. Kirkebys sculptures nor by the Gothic canopies, which do not represent architectural models or patterns. They are free creations, made up of architectonic elements typical for the 13th century. They resemble only in terms of material, pedestal, plaster, burnt brick, reminding us of the real architecture, being situated at the boundary between categories. In Middle Ages, the artists did not raise questions related to these boundaries between architecture and sculpture, but beginning with the 20th century the problem of this cataloguing is more and more stringent.

These two extreme positions do not represent unsolved histories; they shall be settled in the future, through the epochs and the European art critics. The new approach shall allow us to examine the past things differently. Both the del Monte Castle (image 28) belonging to Emperor Federich the Second, and F. O. Gehrys Museum may be analyzed as architectural sculptures. Both constructions are, in fact, thermic covers, with a practical functionality, complying with the architectural requirements. 283

Fig. 28 Castelul del Monte, Apulien, Italia, construit pentru Frederic II, 1240-1250 Fig. 29 Per Kirkeby, Huset, crmid, n Ikast Jutland Danemarca, 1973 284

Fiction and arts Per Kirkeby, with his masterpiece Huset, Ikast, the first brick sculpture (1973), in Jylland in Denmark, makes emphatic references to the Maya temples and to the petty burgeois Danish masonry and handicraft architecture of the 19th century. The Gothic accuracy is a distinctive mark of Danish architecture. Bricks are more than a material necessary for buildings; at the same time, walls do not strictly represent a division of the space by building distinct walls but their decoration with sober geometrical models as well, adding sculptural relieves on houses, churches and other public buildings. In fact, Per Kirkeby assimilates the typical architectural language according to the personal artistic view, representing a radical point of view and being opposed to the sculptor architect Erwin Heerich who assimilates the sculptural language in architecture (image 30, 31).

Fiction and arts Designing and carrying out brick sculptures, the artist dialectically opposes the utilitarian functions with the building itself. Besides this conception, the artist rejects the forms of mobile art, opting for their establishment in the site and preserving a permanent character of the masterpiece. These things do not only trigger heated arguments about the exhibition manner but it also influences the speculative aspects of the value and judgement of masterpieces. Per Kirkeby visualizes the reception of brick sculptures as a mixture between the safety feeling of the protected area of museums with white walls and the feeling of freedom of the sites, that is, the open space of the masterpiece. He also says that when speaking about masterpieces situated in the closed area of a museum, their existence is considerably limited to their exhibition period. The immobile and the site-sensitive character requires an intense preparation, for a longer period of time, in order to research the form and position of the sculpture in the specific spatial context. From the very beginning, Per Kirkeby uses in his masterpieces regular bricks, enlivening them with local elements. The brick is a simple derivative of soil denoting his preoccupation for geological forms. His sculptures become signs or symbols between museum, art and reinvented nature. The dialectical impulse or approach of Per Kirkebys sculptural discourse, the constructions brick is a reference to a recognizable sign of collectivity: Belgians have been born with bricks inside their stomachs, asserts the artist. Simultaneously, he allows an original and singular approach of the concept of autonomous art. In what concerns the amplitude of his sculpture he does not provide narrative clues: the building is an empty theatre which forces the spectator to play the actors part who, depending on his own cultural background, may reread the work in contrast with the general cultural frame of reference. His masterpieces from Middelheim are extremely paradoxical. His contribution is the fact that he opened this territory of the works of art by combining architectural ideas with the modern sculpture based on a powerful anti-anecdote, towards a permanent and accessible work of art. Per Kirkeby conceived a sculpture detached for Middleheim: this

Fig. 30 Erwin Heerich, Muzeul insula Hombroich Fig. 31 Erwin Heerich, Muzeul insula Hombroich

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Fiction and arts construction which, in the grandeur of the familiar red bricks, raises indeed, diverging, philosophical and intellectual spheres, inspiring reflection.4 Bibliography: Giedion-Welcker, C. Plastik des XX Jahrhunderts Volumen und Raumgestaltung, Ed. Stuttgart, 1955, apud, K.J. Philipp, Architektur Skulptur Die Geschichte einer fruchtbaren bezieung, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart Munchen, 2002, p.11 Kostof, S., Die anatomie der Stadt, Ed. Campus, Frankfurt a M., New York, 1994 Lambrecht, Luc. New Sculptures, The Architect is Absent, Open air Museum of Sculpture Middelheim, Kunst und Museumjournaal, nr.1, 1990 Lefebvre H., La production de lespace, Ed. Anthropos, Paris, 1974 Norberg-Schulz, C., Lart du lieu. Architecture et paysage, permanence et mutations, Moniteur, Paris, 1997 Seuphor, M. Die Plastik unseres Jahrhunderts, Ed. Neuchatel, 1959, p. 210 Sedlmayr, Hans apud, K.J. Philipp, Architektur Skulptur Die Geschichte einer fruchtbaren bezieung, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart Munchen, 2002, p.11

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 288-299

Art, craft, tradition

Claudiu Emil IONESCU University of Timioara Abstract: Talking about art, craft and tradition bring to mind instantly words or images which take us to ceramics, wood, clothes or religious icons, musical instruments, painted eggs, or other folkloric elements. They represent an actual part of the area where the artisans live: the village, where he sings his joy, happiness, faith and pains, i.e. feelings that he blends into the finished product. The product is designed to serve not only pragmatic, but also and aesthetic needs, and what has resulted in this way is the wonderful world of folk art. Today, sustainable design proposes to blend tradition and innovation. Revolutions succeed through creative media, resulting from a power understanding and genuine regard for tradition, united by the power of acceptance of the need for change and the cultivation and use of critical imaginative power. Keywords: art, craft, traditions, costumes, design, words, images, pragmatic, aesthetic, imaginative, communication, change, character, critical. When we talk about art, craft and tradition appear to us instantly to mind words or images that refer directly to objects in ceramic, wood, cloth or face icons, musical instruments, painted eggs, elements of folk, and they with greater certainty is only part of the huge area where the artisan village, managed by an absolutely amazing to sing joy, happiness, faith and pain, feelings that they blended into the finished product and finally was going to not only serve the pragmatic needs1 but also the aesthetic needs, resulting in these conditions the wonderful world of folk art.
1

Luc Lambrecht, New Sculptures, The Architect is Absent, Open air Museun of Sculpture Middelheim, Kunst und Museumjournaal, nr.1, 1990, p.23-24

Craftsmen created a wide variety of products, among which, gourd, barrel, bottle, candlestick candle, lamp, curing, lantern, pots of all shapes and sizes, cups, jugs, bowls, made of clay from the land of Bukovina e.g. has acquired the art of creating

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Fiction and arts Folk art is the area in which popular culture has generated creations in history, the Romanian people have produced remarkable creative values. It is sufficient to point out that here, in all different kinds of objects made for actual needs, is intertwined with the aesthetic utility. Making a repeated application of consistent natural laws, decorative folk art pieces on the surface results in the creation of wonderful art objects, which favors the transformation of numerous works of folk art in the unique values of our popular culture gems. The practice of crafts in the area inhabited by the Romanian people is immemorial, going back to the Neolithic age. Some of these were generated by domestic needs: tows for spinning, weaving, pottery, wood, bone, stone, continuing later in the Bronze Age with blacksmithing. These crafts were to develop in early medieval times, in direct connection with agriculture. Then there appeared craftsmen engaged in carpentry, woodwork, barrel making, leather work, tanning, shoemaking, blacksmithing, pottery or masonry. In the following centuries, the villages are already specialized in the production of certain types of objects, which they sold at fairs or in the villages. Masons and carpenters working in the nineteenth century made up the Masons and Carpenters Guild. They made not only houses but also gates, bridges, wooden objects, chairs, wooden handles, barrow, swings, saws, baskets fountains, slides, stands, as well as the so-called oloini (a primitive oil mill). Woodwork has emerged and developed as one can imagine in the vicinity of towns and cities, then moved to the countryside. The furniture to be found in an old house consisted of blidar (a cupboard), corner shelf, lai (or lavi, i.e. a wide plank fixed on stakes along a wall in the peasant homes that are sitting), beldia (a long slender pole), bed, wardrobe, table. Carpenters had to carry around, in their own carts, their

Fiction and arts products to trade fairs, where they showed dowry chests, chairs, swings for children pegs, door frames and windows. Origin craft objects formed as a result of craftsmen who were as guidance in their use of traditional Transylvanian villages, are found in rural artisan village, or in rural crafts2 town. If village craftsmen guilds were determined by the establishment of law meant to limit the use of materials in the area and traditional techniques, archaic site-specific, have cultivated a Transylvanian craftsmen guildsmen constant contact throughout the period of the Middle Ages, with related to the professional sphere in Central Europe, enjoying all the technical innovations of the period. It is the defining feature of craftsmen in Transylvanian villages that they practiced various crafts while farming on a regular basis, thus boosting their families income; on the other hand, whole communities were specialized in the completion of certain crafts, such as clay work, wood, iron or fur processing. Barrel-making experienced a certain development thanks to the many needs of the population. Thus, for vessels went to the fair, instead of asking coopers mostly agricultural products. Barrel-makers were artisans who produced two categories of objects carved from one piece of wood and staves, such as: tuns, wooden pails, vats, barrels, tubs, wooden spoons, etc. Roof-makers made wooden tiles for the roofs of houses, stables, gates. Lime-making was a specific craft uplands. Blacksmiths made useful products and processes necessary to achieve the jobs and cutting tools, knives, pocket knives, components in construction, but also horse-shoeing yoke of horses and oxen. Pottery was a pottery craft processing, essential in some uses, such as cooking, keeping food or dishes, which are only decorative. Weaving and other crafts are sewing, which have seen a variety of styles. The variety, originality and specificity
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eggs decorated with beads, which are made of wood encased in a layer of beeswax, which is applied over the beads, in Campulung Muscel, Arges, we can mention among others the achievement of icons painted on wood, the carved bark or bark made masks, costumes, beads and ornaments of silver or ginger, are elements that are eloquent proof that folk art is the result of artistic creation anonymous people learned each part.

For guilds that have acquired an absolute monopoly of the field activities, the two groups of craftsmen have split into a non-formal expression, it is implied and accepted as such, the space of rural markets, rural artisans by providing farmers greater part of everyday products with a low nominal value, while the guild members have been imposed in the iron tools and the pieces of social prestige, in the latter area, the special quality of interest occupies the foreground.

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Fiction and arts of weaving and sewing finds form in a wide range of items necessary interiors, such as rugs and carpets, hemp ropes, folk costume, household objects, towels, pillowcases, woolen wall rugs, blankets, pouches, bags. In several countries of the world, netting is present and passed special developments in each of them, thus developing different techniques and modalities for the application. Rope-making is one of the most ancient techniques to create natural objects, light and durable, designed to make contribution in facilitating the daily activities in different eras. The foundation of this art is found in Hungarian folk tradition as any folk art throughout a whole has a positive function primarily by addressing direct-realist pragmatism. Craftsman made rush baskets, hats, slippers, all braids which correspond to the idea of simultaneously and fairly good, healthy and aesthetically. The presence of human settlements in areas with standing water, cattail growth made possible in good conditions, a phenomenon that has generated the presence of this kind of craftsmanship, mature reed is cut in a certain time of year that is autumn, and after drying it, could be used. The essential feature of a water plant that is resistant to rush any type of moisture, being a water plant. Mace becomes great flexibility in hot water following the action after some soaking and drying processes, it retains its form received after the desired product. In the north-east of the country, in Transylvania County Mure Partium and rush basketry tradition, is known for more than three hundred years. Transylvanians they could acquire pottery from the two places where it is produced ie potters in rural villages grouped in specialized fairs that sell the usual especially pottery, tiles, and the scope of trading activity and guildsmen potters, who worked largely glazed ceramic, decorative and typical character. Some forms, techniques, motifs and colors have been able to acquire appreciation for rural populations, so that over time have been devoted to certain styles of potteries, guild or village, and their personality became separate guilds survived suppression. Speaking of red clay plain tiles should be noted that this process has its appearance in the sequence organization has just established by a continuous string of capacity gained through the experience of usages over

Fiction and arts time from the Roman period.3 And red ceramic,4 non-glazed,5 polished stone, in accordance with certain archaic techniques, distinguishing Scel polishing clay jar, above the combustion process, determine the closed pores, thus reducing the permeability of the wall, thereby creating a decorative effect than shown. Household ceramics,6 mixed with ceramic tiles match the effectiveness of glazed ceramics with a higher durability, impermeability and obviously with more aesthetic expression; remembered that ceramics was generated guildsmen pottery centers. Byzantine influence, pottery store sgraphitated,7 not only the specific color range, consisting of green and yellow on a white field and an organization with more space, more clearly that simple arrangement of scenery. In the Custom setting sgrafitated, even if it has been appropriated retained a red color gamut that has an important task.8 The research specialists have been established and detailed the various functions of glazed pottery, with common functions in Transylvania.9 As a succession of means, which occurred in the Saxon settlements and development, arrived in Transylvania, items such as mugs
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Specifies Romanian citadels, mention here Leheceni, Leleti, Bini. Cahle mounted, made in the Hungarian centers of Huedin and Alma, patterns of cahle of wood, cahle glazed and without glazed of centres Huedin and Secuime and cahle Saxon, the center of Bistria, all dating from the nineteenth century. 5 In the area Vadu-Criului, in the center of potters mixed Hungarian-Romanian ceramic tiles decoration technique, achieved through a process of Angobare is represented by a piece representing a drinking vessel, the Josenii Brgului, black ceramic tiles, polished stone, the technical process of prehistoric tradition, was the color obtained by using a special process of burning ships, which consists of filling openings in oven the last stage of the combustion process that occurs in the absence of oxygen. 6 From Baia-Mare, Baia-Sprie, Trnvia, Obra, Josenii Brgului. 7 In the center area Iza Valley and Baia Mare. 8 We recall here with ceramic Vama and glazed ceramics area Trgu-Lpu. 9 Represented by certain items such as high milk carafes, colander, bowl to carry food to the field, cooking pot, frying pans with legs, open hearth, wine funnel, etc.., Ceramic glazed was identified in the Hungarian guild areas Zalu, Turda and Iara, Trei Scaune, Satu Nou, Ocna Sibiului, Odorhei.

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Fiction and arts high, currently used as decoration and only in certain special situations for drinking wine, like pitchers edges bilaterally after being taken here, the realization extreme aspect of the piece gradually enlarged in the neck area then forms a connection with Eastern Balkan brass vessels. Tankards of metal, often ornamented by vegetal and floral motifs, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic and on a white background and blue background ceramic, cobalt and specific forms cylindrical central Europe. Characteristics of these components are avimorphous motifs, a Baroque decor marking the influence manifested in the central and Western Europe, obviously a matter of fact and specific decorative motifs overpopulation. Experts have identified Habana pottery10 17th-18th centuries, proclaimed the period referred to completion of its exceptional quality and elegance of the figurative element of decor. Without having a similar structure and common origin of the term guild in ceramics, pitchers with narrative scenes have led to the appearance of cancee, which consists of terms of style, decorative ceramic element subsequent to link to them. Perfect traditional pottery forms and colors of nature, continued to be a great gift and vocation nonims generated by craftsmen for centuries patriarchal civilization from ancient times, when many pots, gone, carafes, embellish different pitchers, parts of houses and fences surrounding farms. As a divine imposition, very subtle and secret revealed, canon purification forms and nuances that have transferred excess generating ceramics in the register of expressions simplified lines, essential for decorative, like a metamorphosis gives unceasing flow imposed by the travel time since record start development of various trades, knowing us

Fiction and arts today a more or less altered, the technology evolving it yourself, consciously or not manifested at all levels of the traditional art allows. Country Zarand lies on the western slope of the Apuseni Mountains,11 on both sides of the White Cris and is one of the largest holders of archaic traditions across Romania. Craftsmen of the Apuseni Mountains, Moti Mocanii differ fundamentally by two life events like the way of construction of houses and stables hand and economic,12 occupation, namely cattle. Their houses were built in a special way, which is made of wood. Wood house used by shepherds long ago was that of beech or pine, beech, but gradually was abandoned to be replaced with carved pine planks. For their coverage using only straw craftsmanship was later adopted shingle and tile in some cases. The house of the shepherd was fitted with a trna (an outside corridor) with sosi, then the porch with a camni (a chamber where the fire was laid and where they stored the family heirlooms. In the area occupied by cattle and fodder, mountain people built wooden buildings, their place being even in the middle field in the mirite (stubble) or dotin. The interest of these craftsmen was oriented so as to produce machinery that keep out the cattle from frost and snow of winter winds, which could be very harsh. Village craftsmen from the area were required in rural areas for woodwork. One of the reasons this was favored by the generosity of nature, offering quality local raw material. Another reason was that by which individuals among community members had the ability to substitute, through all the accumulated knowledge in the business which involved working with wood, assets acquired in the process of practice, which regions washed centuries without particular skills exclude such as the state of the art equipment, more advanced than those that were organized into guilds.
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Type of fine pottery glazed, with white, decorated with hunting grounds, made by potters from Transylvania sec. seventeenth century, Habana potters, from an Anabaptist sect, who colonized parts of Transylvania, from Moravia During the period between 1621-1629, established and Vinul de Jos; brought with them superior technology and ceramic ornaments and a specific central and western Europe, they have generated a considerable stimulus pottery guilds from Transylvania, putting their mark on the repertoire of forms, decorative styles and colors.

Mountains have mild forms, but are rough stone, slide the coast mountains to the west and smoothing to be confused with the plain Arad; Zarand country is a country like Maramure such as stretching, but little known. 12 For the inhabitants of the Apuseni Mountains, sheep shepherds and hence represent a main occupation which has focused interest in this job, as were skilled in the art achievement of sheep wool famous oale and popular in the nearby area.

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Fiction and arts Integrally, some villages were established carpentry, perfecting his skills in this area of work with wood, making furniture, wooden vessels, shingles, wickerwork. They could however be isolated experience and craftsmen, selling products work in the restricted area of the village where they lived. Objects made by them, illustrating the art of woodworking, were presented with the following tools, firezul,13 apina,14 securea,15 scaunul de mezdrit,16 multifunction compass, msura,17 dintoarea,18 crligul,19 sfredelul,20 horjul,21 tesla22 i jilul.23 The researchers, who used to work in this area have been identified in rural Transylvania nineteenth century, the presence of two different techniques of decorative wood. This was seen on the one hand, the existence of Maramures gate, made of oak, craftsmen, peasants who had carved the integrated ground rope, held in an archaic24 geometric structure. On the other hand, was reported presence cupboards used in Saxon villages, in peasant interiors made of fir, guildsmen carpenters. They were decorated using the technique of painting, containing reasons figurative art inspired by the city register, which was the beneficiary of a certain degree of training. Remarkable diversity of ingenious solutions for facilities, provide the Romanian people, a place between the creators of the first factories in the world and here we recall that water mill, which meant the history of human civilization, an important step and across our country since ancient times were built water mills, windmills, mills riding. Because many rivers were present in numbers large enough force of water driven mills, as is a
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Fiction and arts certainty that the people of this country were able to take advantage of these courses, to submit and convert the force of mountain water, adopting a and employing a personal purposes. These mills were common in small waterways and a simple construction, reduced to a single room, built on a foundation stone on the water. Inside depth is found on half of the room, high floor like a podium, some of it was used as storage bags full, and the other side of the mill stones were found and the gutter that flowed from under stones, flour. The floor was passed down the spindle through floor was pass vertical spindle moving stone, which was caught in a spinning horizontal axis mill wheel made of wood in the form of two parallel circles, fastened together with pieces of plank, which in effect pallets over the water fall, generating rotation of the stones to grind the grains. The wheel was sitting down under a stream of water that gathered in a trough of water running from the main course, and when the mill was at rest, the gutter was reoriented to allow the water to not fall on pallets. A thick, long time, claimed the wheel, he had two beams at each end, one died and the other on the outside, inside the mill the same time have a wheel with tooths which she in turn engage another gear wheel of reduced dimensions. It also engages wave movement, which act through a vertical shaft of the runner stone mill. A second stone was fixed, could be close or distant stones using a device called a mare, and this mill to grind away the slightest cause or greater. The stones have a basket over them, the beans that were introduced, and the cart was fitted with a box that with a wooden bar was activated when the runner touched the stone so that it passed over the movement. The basket, beans arrived in the box, then into a bag after falling from rocks. Through this process flour reached a trough and then fall into a wooden crate, was finally transferred to the bag owner. There were punches into oil pumpkin seed and walnut kernels. For such a process is using a beam with a length of between ten and twelve meters, which made a dent. In it sat the pumpkin seeds, then beat with a wooden tamper, after which seeds were ground thoroughly with lukewarm water, kneaded, and then put the trays to be roasted in the oven. They were placed in the press of roasted consisting of a hub and a wheel, for squeezed, after which oil was achieved in these oil mills which operated from October to May. 296

Used for cutting wood. Necessary element, handling the whole tree trunks. 15 Carved beams and rope necessary for their lining and carved surfaces polished ax. 16 Pieces of wood used for immobilization of wooden items under work. 17 What specific use for vessels of wood staves. 18 What is used to smooth the inner part of the wooden vessels. 19 Required for the shooting circles. 20 Used for drilling. 21 Used for grooving. 22 Required for concave shapes. 23 What is used for smoothing flat surfaces. 24 Form of X's or circles.

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Fiction and arts Brandy boiler is also counted among numerous other technical equipment, was widespread due to the variety of fruit trees. Fruits, which were converted into brandy abundance in the periods of baking, cherries, apples, pears, plums of various sorts, peaches, Butii horns were collected and left to ferment, then grains result, was transported by carriage to the place where boiler installed brandy is found, near a stream. He had the following components, the boiler itself, which was a bucket with a capacity range between two hundred and fifty gallons. The boiler was made entirely of copper and the brandy has a greater quality and was as healthy as the boiler was made from a material more easily. In a brick built fireplace is installed boiler, which is equipped with a barbecue fire which was under the boiler. The boiler had a hole on top for placing marc and another opening at the bottom in which escape when pot should be emptied. The boiler was crossed by a shaft which is wrapped a chain, while outer ends with a handle, which facilitate manual operation. Generate stem mixing process grains during boiling, so as not to catch the bottom of the boiler interior.25 The alembic, made entirely of copper, take the form of caps that apply over the boiler to collect alcohol fumes were generated by boiling the grains. A few inches diameter pipe called the horse started from the alembic, taking steam, stopping them in the cooler. A large cask of water because it was cooler. In continuation of that horse is a smaller diameter pipe than him and was called a snake, it spiraling down to the bottom of the cooler, where the pipeline alcohol fumes were cool and where condensation take place, followed by their flow in the form of brandy in a vat called laitr, then poured into barrels. The water inside the cooler was always refreshed by a big wooden wheel, installed on the water, it had mounted regular distances, approximately five-liter cans. They were filled with river water and their weight determined to make a rocking motion wheel, bins emptied its contents into a chute that led directly to the cooler. Today, sustainable design, strives to create an agglutination between tradition and innovation. It seems that revolutions succeed through
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Fiction and arts creative media, resulting from a power understanding and genuine regard for tradition, joined with a sound comprehension of the need for change, as is the creative power through the cultivation and use, in a criticality. If the project is deeply rooted in tradition and seeks to communicate an important message in a new, radical, providing comprehensive solutions to suit market needs or the needs, with distinctive character, either. The vision is to bring together the best communication devices, designers, artists, nurses and information technology, brand strategy and project managers to develop creative projects that have targeted, the development world. Work, collaborative project that seeks to provide the best solution based on a budget, while participating in different ways, methods aimed at improving or strengthening the market, vision and creative communication. Internationally recognized standards in design hand-coded officers are working and their striving for perfection in everything they carry. References: Victor Voicu, Ioan Vedea-Prean, Mrginimea Sibiu, rural tourist guide, Sibiu, 2008. Florica Zaharia, Traditional Textiles in Transylvania Technology and aesthetics, Suceava, 2008. Cornel Miinger, Monograph Fantanele (Cacova) of Mrginimea Sibiu, in Sibiu, 2006. George Pavelescu, Sebes Valley. Monograph ethno-folk, vol. I, Sibiu, 2004. Doina Isfnoni, Interference of magic and aesthetic, Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002. Georgeta Stoica, Olga Horse, Traditional Artistic Handicrafts, Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001. Laureniu Vlad, Images of traditional identity, Meridians House, Bucharest, 2001. N. Constantinescu, A. Dobre, Ethnography and Folklore Romanian family ethnological career development / tracks, House Foundation "tomorrow's Romania," Bucharest, 2001. Constantin Prang, Dictionary of Famous People Neam, Piatra-Neamt, Crigarux Publishing, 1999. 298

If this happens, the brandy had been smoked and so the whole process was compromised.

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Fiction and arts Nineta Announcers, Bioenergoterapia the millenary tradition of the Romanian people, Editura Miracle, Bucharest, 1997. Emilia Pavel, Moldovan Folk, Junimea Publishing, 1976. I. Al. Florecu, Civilization wood, Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest, 1976. Paul H. Stahl, Romanian peasants, craftsmen and their creations of art, Romanian Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1976. Tiberius Alexander, Romanian folk music, musical Publishing, 1975. Formagiu Hedrig Mary, Folk in Romania, Art Museum RSR Bucharest, 1974. Florea Bobu Florescu, Paul Petrescu, Stahe Paul, Bistrita Valley Folk Art, Bucharest, Publishing House, RSR, 1969. Romanian Folk Art Bucharest, Academy Press, 1969. C.G. Ledge, Vasile Nicolescu, Songs and dances popular in Moldova, Music Publishing House, 1963. Florea Bobu Florescu, North Folk of Moldova, Bucharest, ESPLA, 1956. Alexandrina Enachescu-Cantemir, Romanian folk costume, Craiova, 1937. IL Ciomac, V. Popa-Neacsa, Apuseni Mountains Research on the economic state of M. Apuseni, newspaper printing Universe, Bucharest, 1936. Bicaz Advanced Research Group of the Romanian Academy, Ethnography Bistrita Valley. Ion Vladutiu, Romanian ethnography. Paul Petrescu, George Stoica, Romanian folk art. Elena Florescu, Adolph Chevallier, Bistrita Valley.

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Regional centre for consultancy and clothes design

Lacrimioara Simona IONESCU University of Timioara Abstract: Textile and clothing firms in Romania develop quality products for Western companies. Almost all are designed models made overseas. Materials, accessories, blueprint and technological design as are provided by foreign partners. This situation generates very low prices for the goods, since all we provide is unskilled labor force, and there is no research or creativity involved, that adds value to the product. Romanian folklore can represent a rich and top quality source of inspiration for the Romanian fashion design in the new millennium, likely to stir interest among European customers. The Research Center proposes research in the domain of fashion design of prints, shoes or handbags based on real marketing research. Such services offer customer the advantage of a unitary vision of the product from the perspective of the buyer's needs, with a focus on advertising and marketing. Keywords: costume, succession, representation, production, traditions, design, communication, originality, style office, interdisciplinary phenomenon. Most textile and apparel firms in Romania develop quality products for Western companies. Almost all are designed models made overseas. Materials, accessories, blueprint and technological design as are provided by foreign partners. This situation generates very low prices for the goods, since all we provide is unskilled labor force, and there is no research or creativity involved, that adds value to the product. Thus, it is essential to adopt creative strategies to promote the Romanian textile and clothing industry. Since its debut 60 years, textile and clothing industry recorded significant changes, which were held almost without interruption. Conditions continued growth in demand for clothing, causes a permanent decline in Western countries. Imports of these products have increased in

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Fiction and arts those countries. And decreased employment in the garment industry, organized in very small, less than 100 employees. The decline in Western Europe and North America, overlapped with the development of the garment industry in the Far East in general, as in the whole Eastern Europe. So there is a rapid movement of the garment industry from West to East.1 On how quickly such industry can be created by so quickly, decade may, if the global market demands, the design space is now more intense than ever - do not find a prompt meeting. To modernize the clothing industry more broadly, the basic criterion is the price now, but future is to offer value for money. Therefore, modernization should be build on the foundation of a strategy of pushing the market, a strategy that manufacturers, designers and marketing experts in the problem must find the answer to the question you can add garments to be improved. In these circumstances, creativity can not be addressed simply as an intellectual phenomenon. Without the support-based business, creativity can not be supported financially. The designer does not have the task of leading the financial aspects of business that needs a specific organizational structure, a specific management of creativity. This management requires knowledge of business management and creative design, market and lifestyle culture. Thus there can be no sales in the U.S. without a store related information on this market, being aware of the lifestyle of Americans. Some designers and users, more often say they no longer want the same product to be found in any city in the world and therefore it should be like finding new solutions to achieve greater diversity in order to be returned to buyer willingness to buy and fun to choose from. Others think that there are a number of trends, needs and tastes, a fashion trend with smoothing.2 These trends and making its appearance at different time intervals.
1 The clothing industry, requires a labor-intensive, which requires a small investment for job creation; thus the endowment of a fixed job was one of the smallest, in some cases even below $ 2,000 per worker. 2 Exemple n sensul uniformizrii ar fi Coca-Cola, McDonalds.

Fiction and arts Because of the many cultures in the U.S., there are great differences between regions. In Romania these differences are caused by lifestyle, such as the lifestyle of Maramure, which is different from those living in the Jiu Valley area or city. Desires may be the same, but it must be taken into account differing lifestyles. Therefore, cultural differences between U.S., Japan, United Kingdom, Germany, Switzerland, Romnia, etc.., Designers must determine to develop collections by country, region and lifestyle of the buyer. The experience of developed countries shows that the independent fashion design, organized in a matrix called economic STYLE OFFICE3 or DESIGN OFFICE, is more effective than CREATION compartment integrated in textiles firm, according to the needs of originality, for a target market. As an intellectual and creative activity of structuring a concept in fashion clothing, stylism essentially contains its creative approach, capable of aesthetic emotion in the fashion product, generate a new concept for a new aesthetic and socio-cultural behavior, the status value embedded symbol. Stylism does nothing to designate the formulation enabling style diversification by changing its image, which will be perceived and accepted by consumers as a new concept of fashion clothing. Unlike design, stylism development visual image requires the use of plastic elements of composition, such as decoration, decoration, printing and others rejected the concept of design elements on the clothing as opposed to its principles. In European fashion schools, U.S. or Japanese stylism issues, theory and history of style in fashion is the theme of a well defined discipline, while in Romania, this issue is touched only tangentially, being linked

STYLE OFFICE or DESIGN OFFICE is a small applied research center, which offers professional fashion design, is efficient and therefore profitable for several aims such as creating individuality, creating an original image fashion market by product and / or complex design services for any firm client, test the avant-garde aesthetic and technical concepts, keeping yields based on the principle of customer satisfaction with a profit.

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Fiction and arts only by history as a class suit aesthetic esthetic purposes in specialized schools. Fashion design is a complex task of great responsibility promoting the values of civilization through the product cycle. This research involves both stylistic correction system, interdisciplinary design program for product development, and estimating the results of a design project. Design, unlike stylism into elements that complement the search of a style through a global approach which considers the economic data (study marketing, consumer marketing, etc) Technical data and technology, logical sequencing and functional Ergonomic components, psychological, socio-cultural, aimed at obtaining a quality product and original fashion. In a research complex on the supply of a service bureau style, developing a program that produced the climate on a theme by industrial and commercial research services include product analysis of the entire trajectory, estimating its life cycle on the market by Marketing and visual communication through the product. Fashion as an interdisciplinary phenomenon, brings together the results of documentation and research in various fields, aiming to end products increasingly competitive, all aimed at fashion, highlighting news from one season to another. The main factors determining trends in fashion design and technology and creativity are specialists. News responsiveness, the ability and flexibility to adapt to changes in the operating mechanism are particularly needed in terms of competition, to conduct a profitable creative product. Such information is necessary on the evolution of fashion trends. Through a quality fashion design, inspiration authentic folk will be able to annihilate the intoxication, the period before 1989, that a medical condition caused by inadvertent introduction of a substitute in the individual consciousness, a false folklore. Rehabilitating authentic folklore today, referring here to all the material and spiritual values which has the Romanian people, offering them the opportunity to revive after a period of neglect and disinterest in receiving relationship with the public and the buyer. In this way the Romanian design, will have a real gold mine operated for the domestic market generally took a special interest in our folklore, which demonstrate unity in diversity of style. It is an original folk and is very well preserved, unaltered by external influences. 303

Fiction and arts Romanian folklore can be a rich source of inspiration of the highest quality for fashion design Romanian in the millennium that began a decade ago and is likely to be on the rise among European customers. Romanian fashion design today is in fact no physical time, which would enable completion of design historical clothing from the countries of the past century. These countries have been started up in small fashion houses, through the offices of large companies integrated apparel design, style or independent office. Such situations have made it possible to establish a style and design industries, today the world is manifested by rapid circulation of information and stylistic values. Therefore it would be appropriate to initiate operation of folklore in an appropriate proportion of the facts, as a source of inspiration. The folk costume of other peoples today can be seen only in museums, while the Romanian folk costume is still a living presence in daily life. In several areas inhabited by Romanian is worn at weddings, but also in everyday life of villages in the Apuseni Mountains or photos. It is noteworthy that survival and that is one of the oldest costumes in Europe, and this may explain in part, the continuity of the ethnographic realities. Romanian folk costume variety, has an amazing drive comparable to that of Romanian language and Romanian folk tradition, both recognizable unit in Transylvania, Banat, Criana, Maramure and Moldova, Dobrogea, Muntenia, Oltenia, or Besarabia, Bukovina and Serbian Banat. Some elements of the Romanian port were kept until the last century, Macedo, and even Megleno Istro-Romanian. Folk differs in details up to the present village and thus each locality wish to differentiate by something other surrounding communities. Thus we meet the desire of every person with something to distinguish it from others. This paradox of unity and variety is achieved through an art developed with remarkable cunning. National distinction is discreet, but for those savvy is inherently obvious. Anonymous artistic folk taste as it should be noted, the item has survived over the centuries. Prototypes have highlighted the presence of secular, even millennia, to come back in the collective memory, apparently asleep, is always imposing, to enable the deployment of others. Contemporary fashion styles account for a variety of market trends super-saturation. Form and function are equally important characteristics of the garment, and theatrical form should not be underestimated, and past 304

Fiction and arts or in marginal but records should be retained balance. Of course, inspiration is not the only popular source or the only area in which the company can find arguments for the proposed themes or those requested by the client. Every project builds on a goal to create a training program for a company to support the Romanian companies in launching their national level, both domestic and foreign markets through quality design and promotional products appropriate, so that such companies to win a favorable place in the market. Since investment in design and research has been and is financially costly and manufacturing firms can not allow most of the time allocation of funds to develop a research department of individual value, it requires alternative opportunities to create a design center and independent consultancy that can offer customers both collection of products, expert advice and market studies. In terms of market sales of such services in Romania, there she is in full training at the level of latent demand higher or lower each manufacturer, which is desperately trying to win a larger number of buyers. These firms must develop and enforce, by offering the buyer's own product quality promoting them and do not want this individual could do without the services of people trained in this regard. Certainly the creation and promotion may be considered prima facie di facile activities, which may carry any person without special training, but therein lies precisely in error. Research Center proposes a research in the area of fashion design, the textures, prints, shoes or handbags in design from a real marketing research. These services insured customer, the advantage of a unitary vision of the product from the buyer's needs and the product idea to launch advertising and marketing. References: Don E. Schultz, Philip J. Kitchen, Communicating Globally, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. ISBN 0-333-92137-2. David Harrison, Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion, Reference Reviews, Vol. 19, 2005. J. K. Conlon, M. K. Giovagnoli, The power of two: how companies of all sizes can build alliance networks that generate business opportunities, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1998. 305

Fiction and arts Dave Kurtz, Contemporary Marketing Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning, 2010. James D. Lenskold, The Path to Campaign, Customer, and Corporate Profitability by James D. Lenskold, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0071413634. Laura Patterson, Marketing Metrics in Action: Creating a PerformanceDriven Marketing Organization, Racom Communications, 2008. ISBN 1933199156. R. J. Masi, C. K. Weidner, Organizational culture, distribution and amount of control, and perceptions of quality. Group & Organization Management, AS 1995. Georgeta Stoica, Colecia de covoare din Transilvania i Banat, ClujNapoca, 2008. Victor Voicu, Ioan Vedea-Prean, Mrginimea Sibiului, ghid turistic rural, Sibiu, 2008. Florica Zaharia, Textile tradiionale din Transilvania Tehnologie i estetic, Suceava, 2008. Cornel Miinger, Monografia satului Fntnele (Cacova) din Mrginimea Sibiului, Sibiu, 2006. Gheorghe Pavelescu, Valea Sebeului. Monografie etno-folcloric, vol. I, Sibiu, 2004. Maria Btc, Costumul ceremonial de nunt, n Srbtori i obiceiuri, vol. IV, Moldova, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2004. Maria Btc, Costumul ceremonial de nunt, n Srbtori i obiceiuri, vol. III, Transilvania, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2003. Doina Isfnoni, Interferene dintre magic i estetic, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2002. Tereza Mozes, Portul popular din nord-vestul Romniei. ara Criurilor, Editura Muzeului rii Criurilor, Oradea, 2002. Maria Btc, Costumul ceremonial de nunt, n Srbtori i obiceiuri, vol. II, Banat, Criana, Maramure, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2002. Georgeta Stoica, Olga Horia, Meteuguri artistice tradiionale, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2001. Laureniu Vlad, Imagini ale identitii tradiionale, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 2001. 306

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Education and public health example the school management might observe classes not only for giving an overall picture of the strengths and weaknesses of teaching but also for other aspects such as: attendance and discipline. This type of observation tends to be at short notice and could also take the form of buzz observations or snapshot visits without previous notice, which aim at quality assurance. As an additional element of on-going teacher development there are observations called peer observations. This term covers various types of observation: colleague to colleague, a more experienced colleague to observe a less experienced colleague, or the other way round etc. Each of these observations includes a discussion about what happened in the classroom. It is understandable that peer observation details should be restricted to the teachers directly involved, but the fact that they have taken place, when and with whom should be recorded. The institution should encourage peer observation in order to disseminate good practice. A timetable for observations for the year should be established in each educational institution: there should be an effective system of lesson observation carried out on a regular basis. In most of the quality language schools teachers are observed once a year by their head teachers or the personnel/school manager and receive feedback. Peer observations are carried out more often, at least twice a year and points which arise from these observations feed into the choice of staff development sessions. Teachers are free to choose whom to observe or are paired, but quite often decisions are made because timetabling. They should be encouraged and trained to become observers. New teachers have to be observed to help them settle in by making recommendations that would avoid negative feedback from students. They also have to observe more experienced teachers classes for training purposes. What goes on in the classroom should be recorded on observation charts or sheets. There are different templates for recording different types of observations. Observation sheets which consist of a comprehensive tick list and some areas for comments are suited to provide general information with no clear focus on specific 310

Quality assurance & teacher development through class observation

Laura MUREAN, Radadiana CALCIU ASE Bucuresti & QUEST Romania The authors of this paper have carried out hundreds of class observations in Language Schools and Foreign Languages departments of universities in Romania and abroad. As EAQUALS (the European Association of Quality Language Services) and QUEST (the Romanian Association of Quality Language Services) inspectors they believe that a consistent classroom observation programme plays an important role in quality assurance and as teachers they are grateful to have benefited from other teachers experience and knowledge, while observing their classes. Why to set up a class observation programme? As in other fields of activity quality language schools and language professionals all over the world need to know that they do things right, i.e. that they offer language courses which would meet their students needs, expectations and desires. A consistent class observation programme is seen as an important way of supporting teachers to highlight areas they would like to improve or share with other teachers. The particular weaknesses or strengths which arise after a round of observations are discussed and should be included in a thorough in-service teacher training programme. When setting up a class observation programme the following issues have to be taken into consideration: (Worksheet 1) What is the purpose of the observation? Who is going to carry it out? For how long will the observation last? How often are teachers observed? How is feedback given to the teacher? Is there a system of recording classroom observation? Each educational institution should decide on an observation policy of its own. However, different types of observations should take place regularly and for different purposes.(Worksheet 2) So, for

Education and public health parts of a lesson. (lesson planning, lesson development, classroom management, rapport, etc). Other observations forms, which have been developed with a focus on specific areas, such as interaction patterns (mapping them), setting up and carrying out a speaking activity, beginning a lesson etc. are more appropriate for peer observations with a strong developmental character. Observing the teaching process is a complex activity that needs training. Not only the what to observe but also how to do it should be thoroughly trained. Here are some questions to ask yourself: How long do I spend in class? What information do I require from the teacher? (lesson plan) What categories do I use in the feedback? Do I use names? Should I draw attention on weak staff? Educational institutions should have very clear outlines on how to carry out classroom observations. If they are not done properly they could have a negative effect on the atmosphere in the school. Teachers could feel threatened instead of using the opportunity to reflect on their own teaching and on how to improve certain skills. That is why teachers have to be told that they will be observed and be given feedback in a follow up meeting, soon after the observation. This is recorded on an observation form which is signed both by the teacher and the observer. Following the feedback an action plan is agreed by both parties and provides the basis for the next review. Teachers are also encouraged to identify their own training needs and are involved in In Service training sessions, which could be organised in the form of workshops, seminars, (peer) observations, etc. These are usually run by the Heads of department, external experts but sometimes the teachers themselves can run them. Teachers can also request topics they would like to cover and the Heads of department then organize a workshop. (Worksheet 3) These are just a few aspects that would highlight the important role played by classroom observation in quality assurance and teacher development. The two functions complement each other and both contribute to keeping up the high quality standards set up by the educational institution. 311

Education and public health The three worksheets attached to this paper help teachers understand the importance of class observation and by doing the tasks they can become better observers and carry out class observations to improve quality standards in their departments. References: Muresan, L., Heyworth, F., Mateva, G., Rose, M. 2007. QualiTraining, A Training Guide for Quality Assurance in Language Education, Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing Muresan, L. 2009. Quality Assurance in ESP in Higher Education, Strategies for Optimizing the Quality Standard in Higher Education ESP, Risoprint Calciu, R. 2009. Classroom Observation, Strategies for Optimizing the Quality Standard in Higher Education ESP, Risoprint EAQUALS. 2010. EAQUALS Inspection Scheme Manual- version 6.2, Trieste: EAQUALS Maxwell-Hyslop, H., Ellis, M. 1996. Inspectors Training Course for QUEST Romania, organised through a KnowHowFund project, with the support of EAQUALS, Eurocentres and The British Council, Constanta, 1996 (unpublished course materials) ***PROSPER-ASE Language Centre, Bucharest, Romania - case study presented in Muresan L., Monitoring Professional Development in an Educational NGO, Bucharest: Punct, 2004 (pp 154-155)

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Education and public health Examples of Quality Management Instruments: Post Class Observation Survey in a Language Centre Context*
Questionnaire to Observees Dear colleague, Over the past four-five months we have all done class observation, followed by feedback sessions and informal discussions. It appeared that a more structured mentoring system would be beneficial. As agreed during our staff meeting and at the AGM, we could initiate a series of workshops on different methodological issues, to be conducted by experienced teachers. The format could be that of 3-hr sessions to be held once per month, e.g. on Saturdays from 10.00-13.00. Time scale: April, May, June, September, October, November. In order to help us organise workshops that are as relevant as possible to you, please take a few minutes to answer the following questions: 1. What course type and level have you taught so far? 2. What other course types and levels would you be interested in teaching in the future? 3. Are there any methodological aspects that you would like to improve? If yes, please prioritise. 4. If a series of workshops were organised, would you consider participating? 5. If yes, which would be the best times for you? (If possible, please indicate more than one preference) Thank you for your co-operation! Questionnaire to Observers / Area Co-ordinators Dear colleague, Over the past four-five months we have all done class observation, both as peer observation and as formative observation, followed by feedback session. As agreed during our staff meeting and at the AGM, it would be beneficial to initiate a series of workshops on different methodological issues, to be run by us as trainer-trainees and area co-ordinators responsible for the academic management of the Language Centre The format could be that of 3-hr sessions to be held once per month, e.g. on Saturdays from 10.00-13.00. Time scale: April, May, June, September, October, November. Benefits: These sessions would fulfil at least three objectives: INSET mentoring for less experienced teachers An opportunity of TD for the trainer-trainees in a friendly environment Last, but not least, on-going improvement of teaching standards at our Language Centre part of the quality control system. Could you please take a few minutes to answer the following questions: 1. How many classes have you observed? Please indicate the course type and level. What methodological areas do you think need improving? Please prioritise. 2. On which of these topics would you like to run a workshop? When? (If possible, please indicate more than one preference, esp. if you want to conduct the sessions together with a co-trainer) Thank you for your co-operation!

Education and public health CLASS OBSERVATION Worksheet 1 What is your experience of class observation in your current context? In pairs or groups of 3, select one of the following aspects for reflection and exchange of experience: 1. In your current institutional context, what type of class observation is primarily used or relevant? - Who carries it out? How often? - What is the duration of a standard class observation in your context? - How is feedback given? - Is there any action taken as a result of the class observation process? 2. How do you perceive observation? E.g. a) useless, since students behave differently when theres an intruder in the classroom b) demotivating, a threat, often linked with salary-cuts c) positive when handled sensitively d) a waste of time, since theres no feedback anyway (e.g. when a feeling of collegiality prevents observers from pointing out areas for improvement) e) ........ 3. Relevant aspects before and after class observation: Is the support provided before and after class observation adequate (in relation to teachers needs)? How are the following aspects handled o loyalty to students as the ultimate beneficiaries of the teaching process; o feedback: finding the right language and attitudes to give feedback; o .... ? 314

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Taking action: what are the penalties and sanctions? How long does it take till follow-up action is introduced? What other alternatives are there (in addition to class observation and related feedback session)?

Education and public health

the teachers workplace for the observer to pick up new ideas or to reflect on teaching by observing some-one else teach can be a trainee trainer or observer, a peer e.g. peer teacher

CLASS OBSERVATION Worksheet 2 In language education, class observation is a key-component, taking a variety of forms and playing multiple roles. There are a number of possible reasons for observing, e.g.: training, assessment, development, observer development, quality assurance.... Each of these reasons is associated with a specific situation, a certain type of observerobservee relationship, and as a result of this, also the what and how of feedback given may vary. 1) In the table below, fill in the main reason corresponding to the contexts described.
Main reason Where / When Pre-service What / Why e.g. trainee trying out teaching procedures to see whether teaching practice is in compliance with assessment criteria e.g. the development of selfappraisal skills Who observes Whom a) trainer trainee b) peer trainee c) trainee experienced teacher internal or external assessor teacher, trainee / course participant trainer, or consultant, peer as mentor teacher / mentee Feedback

(adapted from Maingay, P. (1988), Observation for training, development or assessment?, in Duff, T. (ed.), Explorations in teacher training Problems and issues, Harlow, UK, Longman) 2) What feedback style would you associate with the above situations, e.g. (a) less directive, (b) prescriptive, (c) inexistent, (d) collaborative or (e) a mixture of several types? 3) Discuss with your partner(s) and fill in the table below with aspects relevant to class observation for quality assurance purposes. E.g. Who can carry it out? What could/would be the focus of the observation (depending on who observes and why)? How would be the feedback?
Main Reason: Quality Assurance Specific reasons: When & Why? What? Who observes Whom? Type of Feedback

Pre- or In-service, within or outside a course Teachers place of work or an in-service course

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Education and public health As in most of the cases a misunderstanding of a word directs ones mind and feelings to a domain that can be far away from the initial intention. Here we have an univocal understanding of the terms suggestion, induction or rather inductee, conviction, all of them under the same umbrella named manipulation. Even so, manipulation is not necessarily an ugly word, it does not mean obligatorily, an action determined by an intention of a negative control upon another person We are also manipulated by all the habits, prejudices and traditions that we find around, being obliged in a way, to observe them. But this is not always bad. The manipulative environment is only an instrument helping people to adjust themselves to the community where they live. Therefore, it would be wise before one let himself influenced negatively or positively by a word, an expression, to analyze firstly, ones own attitude as well as the real content of meanings of that concept. In the end, honi soit qui mal y pense - shamed be he who thinks evil of it, the meanings are within us. Still, as dr. Lozanov points out for years, the true meaning of the term suggestopaedia has created problems and generated questions for people all over the world. [Lozanov, 2009, p. 29] However, this terminology creates a kind of reluctance among people, either they are or not in this specific professional field. On the other side, precisely this word has attracted a number of people in search for a something different thing than they knew before. 2. Some other words The developing research in the suggestopaedic domain has lead dr. Lozanov to new concepts that express better, perhaps more meaningful, what is going on in the process. Therefore, he came up with terms like Desuggestology, Desuggestopaedia, Reservology and Reservopaedia. While the terms Suggestology and Suggestopedy remain as reference concepts, the new terms emphasize the tendency to bear in mind the perspective of the communicative freeing deprogramming, de-suggesting from the social suggestive norms impressed on us over the centuries that our mental abilities are considerably limited. Suggestopaedia therefore, frees us from those pathological suggestions. That is why we use the prefix de-. [id. p.13] 318

Suggestopaedia understandings and misunderstandings

Magdalena DUMITRANA Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Pitesti Abstract: Suggestopaedia is one of the most prolific educational alternatives of the modern world. Considered from the beginning as something rather avoidable by the common people, suggestopaedia was very welcomed by the professionals and considered as a fundament of different other approaches of learning. More than that, this science became the basis of all the accelerated learning schools, both from East and West. Despite of its huge impact, suggestopaedia is still unknown or rather misunderstood by the people in charge with the educational policies. Keywords: learning, brain hemispheres, teaching 1. Suggestopaedia a bad word? Since the science of suggestology and especially, the results of the educational alternative of suggestopaedia have become public-and that happened in 1978 with the strong recommendation of the Unesco report in the favor of suggestopaedia, since then, therefore, a lot of ups and downs were happening concerning this alternative. First of all, it was the name. The word suggestion rises fear in the people minds, fear of not being manipulated. From here, the curiosity to find out what is all about, just stops. And this is manipulation. This is what manipulates us in our daily life, every minute- the prejudice against this or that; the ignorant but strong belief in what people say, what the neighbors say, generally, what it is said. At the unconscious level, all the stimuli, existing usually in a normal environment, social or natural, induce to people certain feelings, certain opinions, and certain behaviors that people would not display in some other conditions. Everything around us has this power of inducing. Shall we forbid a romantic music as a punishment that it induces us romantic feelings?

Education and public health It is well known the fact that the mans brain has infinite capacities out of which only a very small number is used. Very few scientists had the (scientific) courage to stimulate these unused capacities and dr. Lozanv was one of them. His interest was converted then in a structured theory and practice and more than that, his methodology did not remained hidden in some specialized pages of journal. On the opposite, de/suggestopaedia has generated a multitude of followers and methodologies included all, in the trend of the accelerated learning. In this way, de/suggestopedia became very known among the common people. However, the people continue to be afraid by this name and continue also, to be afraid using their own capacity at its real potential. There is also, another scary word generating much reluctance in the people minds and hearts, namely love. The First Law of Reservopedia is: Love [id. p.56]. But there are some more-The Second Law of reservopedia is: Freedom [id. p. 57]. These two are big words but at least in a Christian world, where the science of reservopedia was born, love and freedom should be welcomed, as being in agreement with the basic Christian values. It seems that it was not so. In our times, perhaps, people are more afraid to (really) love than in other epochs. As for freedom, this was also a problem of understanding its content and consecutive behavior. The question is: how could be better, to change the word or to change people? Successfully or not, dr. Lozanov has chose the second alternative. However, just for our clarification, lets quote Dr. Lozanovs sayings about the content of the two words: It is well known that no fine accomplishments have been made in this world without love. Love is also an essential condition for accessing the reserves of mind. Love creates serenity, trust and contributes to the prestige of the teacher in the eyes of the students and thus opens the ways of tapping the reserves in the personalitys paraconsciousness. Love cannot be played as the students will feel that. But it should not be understood as some sentimental, soft mood, since this attitude brings about negative reactions. Love should be experienced as genuine love for the human beings [.]..Love, together with the other laws, creates the necessary cheerful, genuine and highly stimulating concentrative 319

Education and public health relaxation. This presupposes mental relaxation and non-strained concentration. It calls for calmness, steadiness, inner confidence and trust. Under these conditions of positive emotions, creative mental activity and the global learning process are characterized by an absence of fatigue. [id. pp 56;57] In other words, love in suggestopedia/reservopedia means care, serenity, calmness, cheerful atmosphere, inner confidence, trust in teacher, lack of fatigue. Nothing does remind us the trivial meaning of love. Thus, there is nothing to be afraid of. 3. But what about freedom? When there is Love, there is Freedom.[].The principle of freedom is one of the most basic elements which distinguish reservopedia from hypnosis.Freedom gives the opportunity to the students to listen to their inner voice and to choose their way to the reserves of mind at different moments of the process of instruction..[] Reservopedia is not an imposition; on the contrary, it is opening the door to personal expression. [id. pp.57;58] Obviously, we do not have here some philosophical meaning or a social one; first of all, here it is about the liberty of choice, that is the freedom to be oneself and ones choice to become or not a person valuing the inner freedom and choosing the right path to acquire it, everything of course, within and with the help of the structured suggestopedic methodology. These two words, love and freedom are the words (meaning feeling and consciousness) are perhaps the words which people are most fearful of. Once they are understood, however, it becomes more clear that there is no threatening and not forcing to do something else than ones inner self wants to do. And if there is still fear, then this one belongs to the person and not to the method. Of course, there are some many other concepts that belong to a more specialized area and there is the professionals task to discuss them. The objective here was only to draw the attention upon some misunderstandings coming rather from the human beings way of thinking rather from the suggestopedic theory/practice itself. To understand a new idea needs an open heart rather than an open mind and this is more difficult when the suggestopedic theory is under discussion. 320

Education and public health The reluctance is a good thing in itself if it is followed by some critical thinking operations, otherwise the reluctance becomes just an element of a prejudice. 4. Some closing words Our intention here was not to convince that suggestopedia/reservopedia is the best theory and practice ever known. It is indeed our conviction that the methodology is original, suitable to many areas of learning and perhaps, to many types of learners. The only aim was just to draw the attention of anyone needs a change of the process of teaching /learning that there are some other alternatives, getting out from the usual patterns of a traditional or less traditional class and one of these alternatives might be the best choice for that person. Though our belief is that the traditional teaching /learning process has many positive valences, still we think that the tradition must be enriched with more courageous ideas, methods and even theories, one of these sources being suggestopedia, or after its last name, reservopedia. References: Lozanov, G.,Suggestopedia/reservopedia. Theory and practice of the liberating-stimulating pedagogy on the level of the hidden reserves of the human mind, Sofia:St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2009

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Peer mediation. Conflict as an opportunity of change

Catarina MORGADO Escola Superior de Educao de Coimbra (College of Education Coimbra) Isabel OLIVEIRA JURISolve, Resoluo Alternativa de Conflitos, Lda. Abstract: This study discusses the implications of conflict mediation in schools. It provides a theoretical framework in order to understand the causes and manifestations of conflicts, as well as an analysis of the various alternatives in resolving such situations. It proposes a novel way in dealing with conflicts by means of mediation instead of the traditional punitive and exclusionary methods. Keywords: conflict resolution, schools, punitive, mediation, authority To have conflicts is human To resolve them, divine Conflict is a normal, natural part of everyday life, the legitimate outcome of interactions between even the most well meaning individuals. From our first moments of life to our last, humans beings are continually involved in conflicts. We conflict over mundane inanities as well as the most pressing issues of the times. No aspect of life is resistant to becoming the focus of human conflict. Conflict is not only a normal part of living, it is also a necessary part. It is through the friction of forces in opposition that things change. Fields as diverse as political science, biology, physics, and religion all view conflict as a source of potentially positive change and growth. It also plays an especially significant role in human psychological development. The conflicts that we face in our lives shape our characters, our cultures, and our world. But conflicts are not always positive. Most of the ideas freeassociated with the word conflict are decidedly negative (fighting, pain, violence) and, on an emotional level, people can feel unloved,

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Education and public health angry and depressed as a result of conflicts. Certainly, then, conflict can have destructive as well as constructive consequences. Students have always become involved in conflicts. But today, young people disagree with each other more often and over issues of less real consequence than in the past. The media shows us a vision of aggression arousal in schools; teachers complain about lost of authority; and families expect schools to be the place where the youngest are educated in a safety environment. In this context we should ask an important question: are schools prepared to deal with interpersonal conflicts? Everyone brings up the issue of aggression and bullying, however, interpersonal conflicts assume a wide range of behaviors: verbal threats, cursing, name calling, insults, racial slurs, pushing, grabbing, shoving, punching, kicking and fighting. These are commonplaces in many schools, interfering with schools climate and ultimately with learning environments, causing fear and absenteeism, not only among students but also among teachers as a response to stress. Schools have attempted to manage interpersonal conflicts among students, teachers and administrators by various models of discipline, such as referrals, suspension or expulsion. However, the traditional punitive response has already shown its incapacity to produce real behavior changes or even to reduce interpersonal conflicts in school context (Smith, Daunic, Miller & Robinson, 2002). Dissatisfaction with traditional processes established to settle disputes has led educators and others to try new ways of conflict resolution such as mediation. Peer mediation represents a move away from programs that depend on punitive and exclusion methods of behavior control. These methods cause stigma and discrimination and dont give a systemic response to the problem. The rush towards conflict resolution in the schools is mirrored in society at large by a move away from the traditional litigation model of problem solving in the courts. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) efforts, including court-based mediation programs, are expanding throughout the justice system all over the world; in the USA, mediation as an alternative mean of dispute resolution has been around in various forms since the 1960s. School mediation received particular national attention in 1984 when the National Association for Mediation in 323

Education and public health Education (NAME) was formed. NAME brought together educators and mediators working in neighborhood justice centers to consider how best to teach about mediation and conflict resolution. The mediation effort in schools was also spurred by the development of local programs that have grown to American national stature. Globally, Conflict Resolution Education (CRE) and peer mediation in particular, spread all over the world including mature projects in Argentina, New Zealand, Australia or Canada; in Europe, mediation school programs have been implemented in countries such as France, Great-Britain, Switzerland, Belgium, Poland, German, Spain, among others. Peer mediation goals Johnson & Johnson (1995) present peer mediation basically as a structured process in which a neutral and impartial student assists two or more students to negotiate an integrative resolution to their conflict. The mediation is described as a process in which disputants are actively involved in the resolution of their own conflicts, assisted by trained peers. Conflict resolution and peer mediation programs emphasize students learning how to manage their own conflicts, by training both mediators and disputants to listen effectively, think critically and engage in problem solving. Mediation seeks to solve a dispute and prevent its recurrence and students mediators learn to plan for the future; they learn about responsibilities as well rights, about consequences as well choices, internalizing key social and affective skills (Cremin, 2007). According to research mediators may, in fact, beneficiate of a large increase in social skills, comparing to disputants or control students (Epstein, 1996); increased self-esteem and empathy as byproducts of conflict resolution and peer mediation training has also been documented (Maresca, 1996; Trnkl et al., 2009). Haft and Weiss (1998) even suggested that positive effects of peer mediation might go beyond the school and enhance positive community relations. Some initial evidence shows that mediators may transfer their constructive conflict skills to sibling conflicts at home (Gentry and Benenson, 1993), using the skills similarly in family and school settings (Johnson and Johnson, 2001). 324

Education and public health Most importantly, studies of mediation practices in schools reveal positive impact on school climate, contributing to safer learning environment. Haft and Weiss (1998) suggested that bringing a peer mediation process to schools can reduce violence, free up teachers to teach more and discipline less and increase student morale. In 2003 Burrell, Zirbel and Allen lead a meta-analysis of fortythree studies published since 1985 and the results overwhelmingly support peer mediation effectiveness in terms of increasing students conflict knowledge and skills, improving school climate and reducing negative behavior. Other inspiring meta-analysis conducted by Garrard and Lipsey (2007) report that participation in school-based conflict resolution education methods in general, including peer mediation, contributes to reduce anti-social behaviors (disruptive, aggressive and problem behaviors) among youth in kindergarten through twelfth grade in USA schools. Recent studies also highlight a marked reduction in anti-social incidents leading to improvement in social school climate following the implementation of these approaches (Noaks and Noaks, 2009). Concluding, these programs have the potential to induce school climates that foster pro-social behavior. Pupils become empowered to solve their own problems, they develop conflict resolution strategies and a safe learning environment is created for both pupils and staff. A peer mediation program implementation on Portuguese schools A Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation program is being developed by CONSENSUS Association in two different schools (EB 2/3 Guilherme Stephens Middle School - and Escola Secundria com 3 Ciclo de Pinhal do Rei Middle and High School), placed at Marinha Grande, Portugal. This project is included in a social program to prevent addictions and create social responses to the youngest in risk, named WINGS, coordinated by Associao para o Desenvolvimento Econmico e Social da Regio da Marinha Grande (ADESER IPSS Society for the Economical and Social Development of Marinha Grande Region) and financed by Instituto das Drogas e Toxicodependncias (IDT - State Institute to the Prevention of Drugs and Addictions). The program implementation includes a Consensus experienced 325

Education and public health mediation team, specifically trained in conflict resolution skills and school mediation. The program has four implementation stages. 1. Assessment stage: the Consensus mediators team held private meetings with the school direction and the school counselor, followed by a facilitating meeting with some teachers to acknowledge their needs and identify the major problems that arise in school context. Using this information the team can promote a first draft of the intervention design. 2. Second stage: this team promotes informative and explanatory school meetings with teachers, students, parents, and other educators, open to the surrounding community. The program intends to involve all school community, bringing out the peer mediation as a conflict resolution alternative to solve interpersonal conflicts among students, inviting all to understand and participate in the achievement of the program goals. During this stage, a training course in mediation skills for teachers is provided. It includes classes about (a) conflict theory; (b) communication skills, including active listening, empathy, selfexpression, assertiveness, accepting criticism and giving feedback, and respecting differences; (c) interpersonal conflicts skills, which include negotiation and problem solving skills; (c) emotions management such as recognizing and expressing ones emotions, empathizing with others feelings, understanding the nature and reactions to anger, developing self-control and anger management, and signalizing behavior that triggers interpersonal conflicts; (d) the mediation process; (e) peer mediation program design. A team of mediators is selected from this initial group of teachers and prepared to support and supervise the future peer mediators, guaranteeing the program continuity. 3. At this stage, Consensus mediators start the selection of peer mediators among students and their training in conflict resolution, using the teacher team support. The model of peer selection aims to involve all students but only a few will be selected for the specific training. How does it work? Consensus mediator team defines a mediator profile, based upon leadership and communication personal skills, sense of responsibility and ability to develop empathy. This profile is provided to all class directors because they are the teachers that best know their 326

Education and public health students. In each classroom students are asked to name two classmates they would trust and seek help in resolving their interpersonal conflicts, also intending to promote diversity of genre and ethnic differences. The selection program intends to achieve the mediator respect and recognition among their peers. Finally the student training begins, promoting the same skills that were already developed during the teachers training. The 20 class-hour training is applied following Cohen model and its suggestions (Cohen, 1995). Currently, the Peer mediation program in the schools of Marinha Grande are at the third stage Peer Mediators Training - involving 42 kids between 10 and 15 years old at Guilherme Stephens School and 36 kids at Pinhal do Rei High School, aged from 13 to 17 years old. Following the Peer Mediators training stage, the school will implement the peer mediation program, supported by the help and supervision of teachers mediators. The Consensus mediation team is trying to adapt the peer mediation program to school regulations and procedures, in straight cooperation with teachers and the school direction. How does mediation process take place? The teacher or the counselor gets together with kids in conflict and explain them the process and mediation goals. If they are prepared to mediation, the teacher chooses a mediator from a list of trained peer mediators, according to age and genre and, when possible, to ethnic differences. The Consensus team have already prepared forms to manage the process: the consent form must be signed by the kids involved in conflict and it includes parties and mediator identification and a list of mediation rules and principles; a form to write the final compromise if they succeed in solving the conflict; a parties enquiry about the mediation process and the mediators performance; and an enquiry to be filled by the mediators as a self-reflection about their work. The teacher mediator has a supervising role, however he or she must respect the confidentiality of the process. Teachers mediators and peer mediators will gather together to talk about what happened during the performed mediation sessions; the positive outcomes; their difficulties during the sessions and how to improve their skills. 327

Education and public health 4. The final part reports to an evaluation stage. After 6 months to one year of peer mediation program implementation, the Consensus team will organize meetings with the teacher team to analyze forms, mediation sessions and discuss inquiries and talk about what can be improved or need to be changed. A more refined research project will take place during this period, promoting an evaluation enquiry to all school community about conflict and their resolution by peer mediation. The following questions will be addressed: 1. Number of mediation sessions that took place and percentage of reached agreements. 2. How peers mediation has impact on teachers and students perceptions of school climate. 3. How peer mediation has impact on students conflict attitudes and behaviors in terms of how frequently they are involved in conflict, how frequently they help others who are in conflict, their conflict styles, their tendency toward aggressive behavior (verbal, physic or psychological aggression) and their ability to demonstrate or enact the skills taught in training. 3.1 Number and type of discipline referrals drop out and suspension rate will be measured. References: Burrell, N. A., Zirbel, C. S., & Allen, M. (2003). Evaluating peer mediation outcomes in educational settings: A meta-analytic review. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 21 (1), 726. Cohen, R. (1995). Students resolving conflicts. Tucson: Good Year Books. Cremin, H. (2007). Peer mediation. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Dauber, S., & Epstein, J. (1993). Parents attitudes and practices of involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. In N. Chavkin (Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Epstein, E. (1996). Evaluation of an elementary school conflict resolution-peer mediation program. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 57 (6-A), 2370. 328

Education and public health Garrard, W. M., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). Conflict Resolution Education and antisocial behavior in US schools: A meta-analysis. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 25 (1), 9-38. Gentry, D. B., & Benenson, W. A. (1993). School-age peer mediators transfer knowledge and skills to home setting. Mediation Quarterly, 10, 101-109. Haft, W. S., & Weiss, E. R. (1998). Peer mediation in schools: Expectations and evaluations. Harvard Negotiation Law Review, (Spring), 213-270. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Teaching students to be peacemakers. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (2001). Peer mediation in an inner city school. Urban Education, 36 (2), 165179. Maresca, J. (1996). Peer mediation as an alternative to the criminal justice system. Child and family Canada, (Fall). Retrieved 20 September 2010 from http://www.cfcefc.ca/docs/cwlc/00000827.htm. Noaks, J. & Noaks, L. (2009). School-based peer mediation as a strategy for social inclusion. Pastoral Care in Education, 27(1), pp.5361. Smith, S., W., Daunic, A. P., Miller, M. D., & Robinson, T. R. (2002). Conflict resolution and peer mediation in middle schools: Extending the process and outcome knowledge base. Journal of Social Psychology, 142 (5), 567-586. Trnkl, A., Kamaz, T., Grler, S., Kalender, A., Zengin, F. & evkin, B. (2009). The effects of conflict resolution and peer mediation education on students empathy skills. Education and Science, 34 (153), 15-24.

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Innovatory trends in Romanian education and research

Cornelia COER "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: The 90s opened a wide door to the latest tendencies in research and education. The way these were received and the impact they had was diverse, but they unquestionably brought a fresh breath to a country too long fastened to unfashionable and outdated practices. While some of them became part of the national strategy for the teaching/learning process, some others are a matter of personal choice. This article is a review of the first of them, the one that opened the path and, as such, brought with it the first and greatest changes. Keywords: the Communicative Approach, post 90s context, new textbooks 1. The first step: the Communicative Approach Two decades ago the teachers' choices as to what to teach and how to teach were non-existent. The language teacher was no exception with only one textbook for each level, handed out top down, the same for years on end, with the syllabus prescribed by higher forums often having nothing to do with classroom realities or students' needs. Little true education could take place under such circumstances. What a difference compared to today's unconditioned options and foreign publishers head over heels to infiltrate the emerging markets. The abundance of foreign textbooks and supplementary materials besides the domestic ones leaves a great space for the teachers' personal choices but also involves them in an act of great responsibility since, all of a sudden, they had to develop criteria for evaluating the wide range of materials. The passage from the former situation to the present one did not happen overnight and does not only involve a diversification of the teaching material. After the 90s the door was open to new approaches and experiments in education and

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Education and public health new research programs, some of them enjoying greater success than others, some applied at a national level, others at team or private levels, but all of them opening the possibility of new perspectives in an overaged system. In what concerned education, the cornerstone was the adoption of the Communicative Approach to language teaching. It took more than thirty years for the Communicative Approach to reach Romania and even then it was possible only due to the changed historical context. When it finally arrived, it seemed to be the answer to the Romanian native's long-experienced frustration caused by the inability "to express himself," namely to be a versatile participant in conversation, giving spontaneous and appropriate answers within the range of everyday topics. To tell the truth, the problem had never been lack of knowledge in what concerned the structure of English, nor lack of cultural knowledge. While Romanians involved in some training type abroad were able to astound their audiences by their close acquaintance with Shakespeare's life and works, they suddenly became useless when having to order coffee or ask for directions. They seemed to bump into speech limitations every time they were supposed to have a relaxed, friendly conversation, no matter how common the language function they had to perform was. The Communicative Approach finally put a finger on the sore and placed the correct emphasis on social communication skills. While its declared ultimate purpose was to develop communicative performance, it did not neglect other skills. More than that, in Romania, in keeping with the country's specificity and tradition, it did not give up the cultural component, since nobody actually wanted students to become orally fluent illiterates. The much needed change started as a British Council project during which a group of English teachers were selected following an interview and were trained with the purpose of producing twenty-four textbooks, three for each level from the fifth to the twelfth grade, and a methodology. The process was long and tedious and, beyond shadow of doubt, it meant so much more than replacing an old teaching system with a new one. It also meant giving up the Romanian practice of individual achievement and replacing it with team work; it meant experiencing, first hand and fully, the forming, storming, norming and performing periods, specific to group formation; it meant long days and 331

Education and public health late evenings of work and decision taking, giving in and standing up for one's opinion, taking responsibility and dealing with the consequences. It was tough on the group of teachers with most of them having to learn the abc of materials and syllabus design. But it also meant the warm feeling of having achieved an enormous change, of having played a part in it. And since the transition from an old methodology to a new one could not happen without adequate teacher training, the first people trained were also participants at a British Council project, thus giving birth to the idea of "profesori formatori" in the Romanian context. In the meantime recognition was late to show since the more progress was achieved and the greater the changes they brought appeared to be, the more obstacles sprang up on behalf of those who were supposed to smooth the path, but suddenly recoiled realizing the magnitude of the subsequent impact. On the other hand, in spite of computerized editing just being introduced, there were problems with using the new machines and the first books were issued by Editura Didactic i Pedagogic without undergoing any editing process, completely relying on the lack of experience of the materials writers, a thing which showed in the general aspect of the books for the 5th and 9th grades. The success of the books was also slow to come. Many teachers, lacking proper training, were holding tight to the old, customary ways. I personally overheard a teacher complain "I have to learn the lesson before teaching it to the students." Well, what a surprise! The issue of subsequent books, still not edited, was forced "under the desk" to a certain extent. It was difficult for the authorities to surrender control and it seemed impossible to grant freedom to both the content of the teaching material and the students themselves, thus stepping aside from the previous well-established traditions. However, evolution is unidirectional and thus the breakthrough was bound to happen. The two fundamental pillars the Communicative Approach overthrew referred, one, to the goal of language teaching and the other one, to the concrete organizational form to achieve that goal. Firstly, as already mentioned, the real purpose of teaching/learning a foreign language has to do with social skills, namely communication. Any other reason remains purely theoretical and, while any acquisition for a different purpose is able to offer intellectual satisfaction, it has 332

Education and public health nothing to do with performing in the real world. Social and political changes have brought nations closer to each other and in lack of the universal language (Esperanto, in spite of having been devised to foster international understanding, is still a constructed language which never really caught), English appears to be the tool used in all economic transactions and practically all other domains. This being the case, to convey meaning has become more important than to do it in a flawless way and fluency has become more necessary than accuracy, although the latter is still an expression of one's linguistic competence and as such category determining. Appropriacy of language is the third side of the triangle, maybe the most complex dimension since it is situational, temporal and register-wise binding. The student is supposed to be able to relate correctly, formally or informally, to a certain social situation he/she is involved in, at a given time and to a specific type of interlocutor, whose age and sex will intervene in his/her decision making. But since the "ideal speaker" of a language is an abstraction even in our mother tongue, one has to strive for the best possible communicative performance in the foreign language. Secondly, the Communicative Approach set out to accomplish what was humorously called and seriously meant, "the destruction of the teacher." The teacher had to "step down from the pedestal," had to "stop playing God," many other metaphors described the necessity to give up the reality of the authoritarian teaching style. Teachers are no longer the source of wisdom, the only ones knowing all the correct answers. Under the teacher's authority, the learner could never appeal to his own resources. It became clear that the teacher's job was no longer to offer models or descriptions of language but to create in the classroom conditions that would facilitate the learning process. Emotions are important in acquisition therefore, the more relaxed the atmosphere, the more successful the process. One way of engendering positive feelings and increased interest was to engage students in topics that were interesting for them. The students' needs, interests and moral concerns became part of the teaching material. When discussing subjects such as computers or the latest fashion or film, sports and music, there are no right or wrong answers, and not one opinion is better than the other. While the teacher can express his/her own point of view, this should not be done from a dominating position, he/she should be an equal participant in the conversation. As expected, leaving the secure leading 333

Education and public health position and the comfortable teaching material led to a major problem in many classrooms. Back in the 90s, while many teachers were able to confidently teach grammar rules and correct all the mistakes students made until language accuracy was beyond any doubt, they proved to be less confident when having to engage in real life situations together with their students. With their functional vocabulary and exposure to native speakers limited, this was not surprising. But, above all, they were not to blame for the situation since they were the products of outdated teaching methods and of a political system that did not allow for student exchanges or for spending a post graduation year in the country whose language they were supposed to teach. Such practices were common however, in western countries. It must be said to their credit that many of them caught up with things on the fly with no outside help (since Peace Corp volunteers were not in the picture yet), travelling and benefitting from the increasing number of TV broadcasts, books, films and tapes, also liberated from the communist autocracy. Soon with their own communication skills improved, they could expect greater communicative accomplishment from their students. The goals of the Communicative Approach, its emphasis on oral communication and its interactive strategies, have since become common knowledge in the educational environment. Therefore, I will further mention in a nutshell only a few traits which stood out as striking differences from former Romanian practices. All of them were present in the new textbooks at the time. Enriching students' vocabulary is an important component of the teaching practice. However no vocabulary should be taught out of context, for the sake of it. The new textbooks made the difference between active and passive vocabulary, a distinction necessary under the circumstances of using authentic materials. The passive vocabulary was placed in boxes alongside the texts that made the core of the lesson. A massive change was the one that required students to guess words from the context, to infer meaning and thus develop an ability of great consequence in their adult lives. This was overtly in opposition with the custom of writing all the new words on the blackboard and clearly identifying all translation problems. Teaching grammar deductively was another practice taken down by the new approach. Grammar in context, with whole chunks of text seen as units of meaning, replaced the "rule followed by example" 334

Education and public health routine. With all the major grammar points covered by the 8th grade, the textbooks for the secondary level offered wide space for exposure to and recycling of the material in a meaningful context. The differentiation between four types of reading came in confirmation of real life activities. Skimming, scanning, intensive and extensive reading are rarely carried out without a purpose and on the same text. And since learning improves when clear tasks are set and when emotions are involved, pre- while- and post-reading activities were devised in great variety in order to avoid boredom. There was also a permanent endeavour towards drawing parallels between the given situation and the students' position to it. The strongest feature in the development of reading skills was the use, starting with the lowest levels, of as much authentic material as possible, with exclusively authentic materials used in the book for the 12th grade. The teaching material was enriched with knowledge in contemporary science but also creative arts, dance, music, painting, architecture, etc Accepting the foreign textbook format, accompanied by cassettes (and also an activity book and a teacher's guide) at each level was a great step towards integrating in the Western European tradition. The cassettes and the great variety of listening exercises were born out of the necessity to have first hand contact with native speakers' use of the language, as well as with varieties of English spoken in different parts of the world. Writing, for the first time in Romanian textbooks, was developed as a skill in its own right. What used to happen before was that in the last minute of the class the "Write an essay/article/ composition on" type task was thrown to the students as a ball that hit them the harder as they were given no other clues and no clear guides at all as to the purpose of the writing, the audience, length of the writing, etc. The next class, the task was checked as a final product, if at all, due to lack of time. Teachers often imposed themselves as authorities comparing the written piece to an ideal standard, or showing themselves preoccupied mostly with accuracy and grammatical correctness, very much the same way students had done when sweating in agony over the white sheet of paper. In the new textbooks writing was taught within one lesson in each unit and tasks were placed within realistic contexts. The difference between formal and informal writing was taken into account and creative tasks were given more space as the students progressed. All the basic types of essays were covered at secondary level, together with very specific types 335

Education and public health of literary essays. The way the tasks were structured within the series left a lot of space for the weaker student to take an active part in each lesson. The Project Works at each level and in each Unit were one more opportunity to stimulate the activity of students with lesser academic accomplishment, within a group in which cooperation was promoted. There were many other benefits to the Project Works but a very important one was that this was the opportunity when students completely took over decision making as to the organization and presentation of the content of their work. The teacher became silent so they could speak up. Thus one more step was taken in the direction of student autonomy, the latter being developed through different strategies all through the series. The best teaching is the one that makes the teacher redundant. One of the very special features of these textbooks, still ensuring their uniqueness, is the communicative perspective on literature, which none of the subsequent textbooks, with quite a few populating the Romanian market nowadays, could imitate. Not only was the approach to literature unique but it was the recipient of a host of benefits: it allowed for the approach to all types of literature: poetry, novel, drama, essay, etc. it centered on the literary works themselves and their intrinsic value within the larger framework of language teaching it created a stimulating and enjoyable atmosphere during which students were led towards an in-depth appreciation of the body of English and American literatures it taught students about literary techniques, analysis of structure and meaning, aspects of literary theory, such as point of view, theme, the role of the setting, etc. it centered on the students and helped them produce documented responses to literature in agreement with their own perspective and opinion; thus vacuum-cleaning reading was avoided while intelligent reading and personal contribution were encouraged by teaching students to write literary essays, the literary component nicely slid back the scales, a bit tilted by the very aim of the approach development of oral communicative skills. To close the list of firsts, two more important aspects should be mentioned. The first of them is the cross-curricular dimension which these textbooks promoted. This aspect preceded the emphasis that is 336

Education and public health nowadays put on developing thinking skills instead of teaching information. Crossing the boundaries of language learning, using language for doing things with it, transferring knowledge from one domain to another are all efforts towards self-identification and awareness, on the path towards social integration. The second, closely connected with the first, is that quality of the textbooks which allowed for the development of personal values and attitudes and promotion of personal growth. Awareness of other cultures' patterns of behaviour, of culture-sensitive issues help students develop objective thinking but also "tolerance and empathy towards others and awareness of being a member of an international community" (Achim et all, 2000: 41]. Thus meeting "the highest international standards in its quality but which would be tuned to the needs of the Romanian learners of English and would acknowledge Romanian educational and cultural traditions" [Achim et all, 2000: 5], the series of 12 textbooks using the Communicative Approach was written and launched on the market between 1995 and 1999. They were student-centred, topic and task oriented and skill based. As such these textbooks haven't been surpassed yet. Those which followed were just treading on a travelled path. The Communicative method first spread to the teaching of other languages, then wrote a new page in the Romanian teaching system itself. In time those first 5th and 9th grade books which opened the series became known and well-liked. Nowadays, after fifteen years, they still cash in and this is one of the reasons that prevented EDP from selling the publishing rights to Oxford University Press, who repeatedly expressed their wish to own the complete series. References: Achim, A., et all. 2002. The Methodology of Pathway to English. Oxford University Press Vizental, A. 2003. Strategies of Teaching and Testing. Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timisoara

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 338-350

Advantages of a structuralist approach to teaching Romanian as a foreign language

Ada ILIESCU University of Craiova Abstract: In this communication I have tried to point out some of the advantages of a structuralist approach to Teaching Romanian Language as a Foreign Language (RL as FL), calling into question and "limits" of this method when applied exclusively. I also insisted on the essential unity between the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic in teaching morpho-syntactic and lexical patterns to foreign students, by a practicing teacher who functions as director of the didactic discourse. What I wanted to demonstrate is that even when they start from level zero, foreign students can learn to speak Standard Romanian. The teaching methods and techniques used, however, must be quite different. Keywords: RL as FL, structuralist approach, didactic discourse, morpho-syntactic and lexical patterns. Preocuparea de a prezenta ntregurile coerente i semnificative ale unor structuri de baz ale limbii romne ca limb strin ( LR ca LS ), dar, n anumite situaii, i ale limbii romne ca limb matern ( LR ca LM ), coexist cu convingerea noastr c strdania tuturor profesorilor pentru echilibru, claritate, simetrie, rigurozitate, setea de sistematizare vine n contradicie cu incoerena, absurdul, irosirea i chiar pierderea valorilor tradiionale ale limbii. De asemenea, pentru ambele aspecte ale predrii (LR ca LS / LM), ncercm s relevm c reeaua relaiilor structurale se desfoar n simultaneitate, iar ntr-o structur constituit ad-hoc totul e contemporan-sincronic , fr a afirma c structuralismul ignor i exclude devenirea istoric. Nu putem trece cu vederea c, n predare, nu apar situaii n care cursanii nu ne pretind o explicaie mai profund, adic din punctul de vedere al istoriei limbii, de pild, ureche [lat. pop. oricla (= auricula) etc.], ci sunt chiar foarte frecvente.

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Education and public health Cursantului trebuie s i se explice c structurile obiectivate se cer analizate numai ca expresii ale unei contiine structurate. Pentru a susine aceast idee, am ntocmit o serie de scheme, tabele i plane pe care le-am folosit ca material auxiliar i nu de puine ori ( de ex tabelul formrii pluralului la substantive .a.), am constatat c numai plecnd de la aceste materiale, cursanii pot s realizeze diversitatea de forme i multitudinea de dificulti ce urmeaz a fi interpretate, descrise de profesor i apoi nvate i automatizate de ctre acetia. (v., de pild, tabelul cu Categoria determinrii la nume .a.) Prin modelele de predare progresiv, ncercm s susinem ideea c sistemul limbii este o grupare de convenii i de norme, ale cror funcionare i relaii le putem urmri i descrie ca avnd o coeren i o identitate fundamentale, n ciuda pronunrii vorbitorilor individuali, foarte diferite, imperfecte i incomplete, pe care - paradoxal - , studentulactorul activ al actului de comunicare, o sesizeaz, fiind uneori chiar derutat, auzindu-i vorbind incorect pe unii indivizi nativi. Sustinem, n lucrarea noastr, si faptul ca unele dintre obiectivele cursului de LR ca LS/LM pledeaz pentru posibilitatea ca destinatarul s neleag aspectele de organizare morfosintactic a propoziiei, s integreze informaiile noi n sistemul propriu de cunotine i s utilizeze corect sensul cuvintelor n raport cu tema propus. Aceste deziderate ale destinatorului se pot verifica atunci cnd i se d cursantului un numr de cuvinte dintr-o sfer semantic1 anume, cu o tem dat, iar acesta reuete s alctuiasc o compoziie (de pild: strad, pieton, btrn, a traversa, autobuz, accident, a ajuta, brbat, a salva, a mulumi) iar, n semestrul al doilea, la o grup de mediciniti, se poate verifica acelai lucru (de pild: element, fundamental, macroelement, oxigen, hidrogen, carbon, azot, vital, via, necesar, organism). De cele mai multe ori, studentul realizeaz (fr a i se mai spune) ce tem va avea compoziia respectiv, deoarece intuiete structura de adncime a fiecrui cuvnt. Deci, i cnd se trece la acest segment al alctuirii de enunuri corecte, am inteles ca structuralismul ne ofer soluii, deoarece concepe
1

Education and public health limba ca o mpletire de relaii ntre semnele fonetice i sintactice. Pe baza acestor presupuneri, el dezvolt o tiin a acestor semne, innd seama de funcia distinciei semantice, ntruct numai pe baza sunetelor se pot construi unitile de sens. Acest lucru nu este dificil, deoarece cursantul tie c, i n limba matern a sa, fiecare cuvnt n parte are nelesul su i se va combina n uniti n cadrul contextului, n sintagme i n tipare de propoziie. De aceea, orele de compunere i de conversaie ajung s fie o posibilitate de seducie pentru cursanii care au neles c unitile semantice, propoziiile i structurile propoziiei se refer la obiecte i, de aceea, pot s construiasc realiti imaginative, cum ar fi: peisaje, personaje, interioare, aciuni sau alte idei. Acestea pot fi, de asemenea, analizate ntr-un mod, care nu le confund cu realitatea empiric i nu ignor faptul c ele aparin structurilor lingvistice, iar profesorul-regizor poate dirija o conversaie pe o tem dat - ca exerciiu gramatical - sau poate da ca tem de cas o compoziie - tot ca exerciiu gramatical2. Att n Manualul nostru3, ct i n lucrarea de fa, am ncercat s prezentm modul personal n care am privit predarea unor structuri morfosintactice i lexicale de baz - de la cota zero - , dorind s se observe preocuparea noastr pentru organizare i claritate/limpezime, setea de sistematizare, n aa fel nct strinul s observe, mai degrab, motorul structurator al ntregului dect forfota detaliilor. Un alt avantaj al concepiei stucturaliste( la care noi am apelat nca din primii ani de predare), este acela c, spre deosebire de paradigmele gramaticii tradiionale, ai cror membri au n comun doar rdcina sau baza cuvntului, paradigma - aa cum a fost gndit de la F. de Saussure ncoace - este un concept infinit mai bogat i fertil, deoarece, n
2

W. von Humbold dezvolt ideea dup care conceptele sunt organizate n cmpuri semantice.

Aceste teme au fost abordate n dou articole prezentate de noi la Timioara: Conversaia ca exerciiu gramatical (cu aplicaie la formele atone ale pronumelor), Sesiunea de Comunicri, 1976, p. 94-103 i la Piteti: Compunerea ca exerciiu gramatical, n Buletinul tiinific al Facultii de nvmnt Pedagogic, 1980, p. 105-108. 3 Ada Iliescu, Manual de limba romn ca limb strin (pentru studenii strini pentru vorbitorii strini pentru romnii de pretutindeni), Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 2002, v.Google:ada iliescu

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Education and public health funcie de context, sintagma poate avea, de la caz la caz, o natur fonologic (/ krte / comparativ cu /krtea/), morfologic (/salt/ comparativ cu /salutm/), sintactic (#studentei acesteia bune# comparativ cu #acestei bune studente#) i semantic [o main nou] comparativ cu [o nou main]. Dei Sintaxa propoziiei din perspectiva romnei ca limb strin nu se pred ca la vorbitorii nativi, ci se nva inductiv la fel ca lexicul4, totui cu probleme de sintax, vorbitorul ia contact inca de la predarea verbului a fi n structuri, deci de la primele lecii, n care profesorul-formator pune bazele alctuirii propoziiilor i exerseaz diferite tipuri, n care sunt cuprinse coordonatele sintagmatic i paradigmatic ale lui Saussure, precum i un nivel permutaional prezent, i n gramatica tradiional, n cadrul cruia, o mare parte de interes se ndreapt spre descoperirea de raporturi ntre propoziii i pri de propoziie. De pild, ntre predarea cauzalitii i a scopului este o distan de patru lecii, cand se pred modul infinitiv al verbelor, deoarece cauzalitatea se explic imediat dup spaialitate, temporalitate i modalitate, iar, la vorbitorii nativi, complementul i subordonata cauzal si final se explic abia n semestrul al III-lea: ia fii [Unde?] [De cnd?] [Din ce cauz?] [n ce scop? ] #Ali este aici.#, #El este n sala de curs.# #El este de la ora 800 pn la ora 1300.# #El nu este aici, pentru c este bolnav# #Ali a venit n Romnia pentru a studia.#

Education and public health ia scriei ia fi scris, -, -i, -ei #Studentul scrie temele.# #Temele sunt scrise de student.# Pentru studenii arabi, greci .a., ndeosebi, ca vorbitori de limb englez, acest exerciiu de transformare este deosebit de simplu, deoarece acelai lucru se petrece, i n limba intermediar utilizat de ei. De asemenea, substantivrile de tipul #sosirea sa rapid# sunt vzute tot ca transformri ale unor propoziii imanente ca #El sosete repede.#. Pe lng faptul c dezvluie asemnri fundamentale n structura propoziiilor, utilizarea permutaiilor simplific enorm construcia gramaticii, ntruct nltur o serie de dublete. De exemplu: #Dup ce am terminat cursurile, ...# #Dup terminarea cursurilor, ...# 5 #Cnd mergeam pe strad, ...# #Mergnd pe strad, ...# 6 #Pn s vin profesorul nostru, ...# #Pn a veni profesorul nostru, ...# #Pn dup-amiaza, la ora 1700, ...# #Pn la ora 1700, ...# 7 Din exemplele oferite n lucrarea noastr i n Manualul nostru (exemple pe care le utilizm la clas nc din primii ani de predare), se observ c structuralismul nu este, pentru noi, dect o tactic lucid de a ine seama de interdependena i interaciunea prilor n snul ntregului. Preocuparea profesorului practician - regizorul Discursului didactic - pentru aspectul teoretic al prilor de propoziie i al subordonatelor corespunztoare este ceea ce deosebete pe dasclul de la strini de cel de la vorbitorii nativi. Profesorul care pred LR ca LS explic, descrie, interpreteaz doar mecanismul de producere a faptelor gramaticale;
5 6

Un alt exemplu ar fi urmtorul: faptul c exist un raport ntre propoziii active i pasive este utilizat pentru constituirea unei nomenclaturi gramaticale, artndu-se c propoziiile - de un anumit fel - , se afl n raport de transformare cu altele:
4

Pe strin, nu-l intereseaz ce fel de complement, atribut etc.a folosit n timpul vorbirii i nu l-ar ajuta cu nimic - n folosirea limbii - sau c este capabil s fac diferena teoretic ntre un predicat verbal i unul nominal .a.m.d.

Aceast transformare e posibil numai dup ce s-a predat cazul genitiv. Aceast transformare e posibil numai dup ce s-a predat modul gerunziu. 7 Ultimele dou grupaje de structuri se explic dup predarea conjunctivului.

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Education and public health el se deosebete i prin aceea c pune accentul pe alt aspect al realitii, i anume insist, aa cum s-a observat, pe ideea de structur, estompnd - uneori - aspectele realului n favoarea structurii. De exemplu, cnd se pred scopul8, se pleac de la cauzalitate, ntr-o structur redundant i se ajunge la cea mai simpl modalitate de exprimare, iar, la un moment dat, studentul selecteaz ceea ce i se pare mai simplu: #Eu am venit n Romnia, pentru c vreau s studiez.# #Eu am venit n Romnia pentru ca s studiez.# #Eu am venit n Romnia ca s studiez.# #Eu am venit n Romnia s studiez.# # Eu am venit n Romnia pentru a studia.# Aceast obsesie structural, aceast sete de permanen, de stabilitate, de certitudine au fost transmise, i studenilor notri nc din primii ani de predare. Totui, n-am dori s se cread c ne erijm n modele sau c, la clas, am lucrat numai cu studeni excepionali, dar se tie c, n fiecare grup, exist cursani dornici de cunoatere i de autodepire, adica studeni supermotivai. Am observat, de-a lungul anilor, c studenii inteligeni i maturi, care au o motivaie clar i o dorin sincer de a ajunge la competen (o anumit nelegere funcional a limbii) i performan (comentate pentru prima dat de N. Chomsky), sunt iscoditori i dornici s gndeasc n limba romn. Acest fenomen se ntmpl cnd citesc i neleg un text n limba romn cu aceeai rapiditate cu care citesc i neleg n limba lor matern. Ajungnd la aceast performan, s-a observat c gndirea lor nu se mulumete cu devenirea faptelor lingvistice, cu valoarea, cu cauza sau originea lor, ci vor ceva sigur, palpabil, ceva care s nu le scape nenregistrat n memorie. Mai mult, studentul strin, puternic motivat, nu se mulumete cu nimic din ceea ce s-ar afla n jurul fenomenului gramatical, cu nimic din ceea ce este simplu atribut, ci vrea fenomenul nsui. Nu ceea ce fenomenul are, ci ceea ce este. Studenii doresc, de cele mai multe ori, o ntoarcere la izvoare, la lucrurile nsei, deci la esene, iar cnd acestea par a fi abstracte pentru
8

Education and public health ei, la structur, la integrarea fenomenului gramatical n gramatica nsi. Vom da numai patru exemple, cele mai simple, care trebuie explicate cu sim de rspundere nc de la primele lecii, cum ar fi: afirmaia i negaia n limba romn, n forma lor cea mai simpl etc.: I #Eti student palestinian?# #Da, sunt palestinian.# sau #Nu, nu sunt palestinian.# II. #Eti student libanez?# #Da, sunt libanez.# #Nu eti libanez!# #Ba da, eu sunt libanez# III.#Ce faci?# #Scriu temele.# #nv lecia.# #Spl paharele.# #Citesc o revist.# #Mnnc un mr.# #Ce mai faci?# #O! Foarte bine!# #Mulumesc bine!# #Foarte bine, v mulumesc!# #E! Aa i aa!# IV. #Duminic ne ducem la parc.# #Duminica ne ducem la parc.# Diferena de sens existent ntre structurile grupate mai sus nu e uor de sesizat nici de ctre un vorbit nativ neiniiat, cu att mai mult dac i se cer, i explicaii. Totui cursantul nostru iscoditor dorete, aa cum spunem, o ntoarcere la esene; el pretinde s i se fixeze n tipare eterne...perfeciunea i s i se explice de ce? i cnd? tiparele de limb arat ntr-un fel sau altul. De aceea, din primii ani la clasa, am considerat c terminologia lingvistic i, implicit, teoria gramatical sunt i o necesitate, i un lux, n cele din urm, de vreme ce profesorul-enuniator, formator, regizor .a. trebuie s aib o serie de competene indispensabile procesului de predare / nvare a LR ca LS, deoarece se tie c pentru a avea capacitatea s-i nvm pe alii, trebuie ca noi s fim, n primul rnd, bine pregtii profesional. Revenirea structuralist la faptul lingvistic n sine nu este o revenire la natere- deoarece nimeni nu i-a propus ca la cursul de LR 344

Nu n propoziie, ci n fraz, deci ca subordonat final.

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Education and public health ca LS/LM s fac Etimologie sau Istoria limbii - , ci la cununie, la momentul unirii, al simultaneitii perfecte: esen - fapt gramatical material lingvistic. Aceast idee a noastr poate fi exemplificat prin una dintre cele mai importante probleme de gramatic, pe care profesorul de la strini trebuie s o predea, dei implic un anumit grad de dificultate, i anume - Predarea categoriei genului la nume9. n predarea LR ca LM, se tie cte dificulti impune cazul acuzativ privitor la ntrebri de tipul: ce ? pe cine? pe ce? unde? de unde? etc. sau concurena ntre complementul indirect i alte complemente, i chiar concurena numelui predicativ cu subiectul, ambele n cazul nominativ, cu excepia situaiei n care apare fenomenul de tautologie. De aceea e nevoie s se apeleze, i la raionamentul logico-semantic pentru a rezolva litigiul. n concluzie, tineretul contemporan studios nu caut certitudinea n aparena fenomenului, n acceptarea fr discuie a concretului, ci n clipa miraculoas a unitii perfecte ntre idee i fapt gramatical. Studenii, ai cror profesori sunt ghidai de structur devin i ei spirite ale echilibrului, ale organicului; au o gndire integratoare i uneori doresc s ajung singuri la fapte cognitive individuale. Am mai spus i cu alt ocazie: s lucrezi cu strinii nu este prea uor, pentru c, uneori, profesorul e nevoit s mpace nite opoziii ireductibile. De aceea, dasclul de la studenii strini trebuie s fie lipsit de prejudeci i iluzii, s fie un om corect, modest i practic, deoarece - pentru studentul su - , el este oglinda n mic a umanului, este unitatea-etalon de msur pentru suflet, este modelul demn de urmat - i ca mod de exprimare, i ca mod de comportare - , fiind animat mereu de dorina de a anula fisurile universului, deci i ale studenilor si, care - volensnolens - sunt fizionomii diferite de a sa nsui. Prednd structurile morfosintactice i lexicale ntr-o gramatic practic, profesorul de la grupele de strini manifest respect pentru realitatea faptului lingvistic; nu improvizeaz10, ci ncearc s respecte ceea ce i-a propus n planificarea semestrial i deci s explice LR ca LS nu doar ca o enunare ad-hoc, ci ca un tipar sintactic. Cptnd, la
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Education and public health rndul su o gndire integratoare i echilibrat, fiind ajutat de profesorul su s gndeasc structural, studentul va cuta s neleag fenomenul din interior, s-i cunoasc legea proprie de existen i funcionare11. Pentru a exemplifica, vom face apel, n cele ce urmeaz, la morfemul categoriei determinrii aa cum este considerat articolul, care se tie c este strict delimitat distribuional, neaprnd - ca articol dect n vecintatea unui substantiv. Se pune deci problema ca profesorul s-i explice cursantului trsturile formale, semantice i distribuionale. De aceea, trebuie s insiste asupra valoarii operaionale ca instrument - a acestuia, valoare, care se exercit, cu precdere, asupra substanei semantice, lucru ce se poate constata din faptul c elementele care angajeaz categoria determinrii, cu cele trei opoziii ale ei (articulat hotrt - articulat nehotrt - nearticulat) sunt utilizate n realizarea unor clare distincii semantice. Pentru c articolul hotrt alturi de posesivul AL12 implic cele mai mari dificulti, este necesar s se prezinte contextul diagnostic al acestuia, innd seama de valoarea lui determinativ, i anume aceea c apare numai ntr-un singur tip de contexte vecintatea unui substantiv. Prezena sau absena articolului hotrt n anumite contexte presupune prezena unor determinani care satisfac sau nu valena articolului de a determina sau nu substantivul. Considerm c tabelul de mai jos este edificator n acest sens i el poate fi folosit - nu numai la grupele cu studeni strini, ci i la clasele cu vorbitori nativi - , care se tie cte probleme ntmpin din punctul de vedere al ortografiei: #aceti minitri, atri, zimbri# sau #toi minitrii, atrii, zimbrii# .a.m.d. Unul dintre procedeele structuraliste folosit att n predare ct i n automatizarea modelelor de limb este substituia de itemi, care impun ca necesar forma articulat / nearticulat.

11

v. Manual.....l, p. 32-34 Dac se ntmpl s improvizeze, studenii simt acest lucru, manifestnd reticen i chiar obstrucie fa de profesorul respectiv.

Manualul publicat de noi n anul 2002 i cateva dintre dificultile explicrii LR ca LS, prezentate n lucrarea noastr, susin aceast afirmaie, relevnd modul n care noi predm aceste structuri, aducand studenii la nivelul de competen i performan mult dorite. 12 sau alte articole posesive; pentru posesivul AL vezi Manual, Predarea posesiei, p.58-60.

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Education and public health CATEGORIA DETERMINRII LA NUME

Substantiv articol hotrt enclitic Corect Greit Nite elevi n-au nite * nite elevii manuale. Ci studeni sunt * ci ci abseni? studenii Doi profesori au * doi doi grupa mea. profesorii Muli oameni au * muli muli main. oamenii * puini puini Puini pomi sunt aici. pomii aceti Aceti pantofi sunt * aceti noi. pantofii [-] dup acei Acei frai sunt ai ti? * acei fraii Unii medici au * unii unii cabinet. medicii Ambii copii sunt * ambii ambii medici. copiii bunii Bunii colegi m-au * bunii ajutat. colegii ali Ali vecini s-au mutat. * ali vecinii Ai mei prieteni sunt * ai mei ai mei oneti. prietenii Ai notri copii sunt * ai notri ai notri departe. copiii au Toi elevii * toi elevi toi manuale. Amndoi studenii * amndoi amndoi nva. studeni prepoz. El a venit cu mama. * cu mam [+] dup CU nsei + * nsei nsei elevele au spus. S eleve S + * eleve Elevele nsei au spus. nsei nsei

Education and public health Dup cum se va observa, i n capitolele urmtoare, avantajele folosirii tehnicilor structuraliste sunt imense i de aceea am apelat la acestea n predarea structurilor morfosintactice i lexicale13. Limitele metodei structuraliste O interpretare just a structuralismului decurge firesc, logic i fr prea mare efort, i din nelegerea limitelor sale. Concluziile noastre cu privire la acest aspect sunt urmtoarele: a) exist pericolul ca profesorul de limb s cad n greeala prelurii noutilor - fr discernmnt - , s se entuziasmeze prea uor de ipoteze neverificate suficient, ceea ce i-ar putea deruta pe cursani; b) unii studeni, bine intenionai n studiul lor aprofundat, tind spre cealalt extrem, atenia lor ncepnd s se ndrepte exclusiv spre tipar; c) obiectul tinde s se reduc la structura sa; d) prin natura sa, aceast metod, tehnicile sale pot fi aplicate numai n anumite zone ale Gramaticii practice a LR ca LS, iar n altele nu. De exemplu, cnd se pred genul neutru al substantivelor inanimate, n consoan, se observ incapacitatea de a se explica, n termeni de structur, geneza, schimbarea calitii etc., deoarece gndirea structuralist nu poate funciona diacronic, nu se poate spune nimic despre originea unui fenomen lingvistic; este ca i cum nu ar avea antene, care s i aduc semnalele propriei salvri; e) pentru unii dascli, abordarea structural nu s-a ncadrat armonios n complexul de metode existent, ntruct li se prea o contradicie prea mare ntre obiectul tiinei i tehnicile structuraliste14; f) avnd ca reper latura organizatoric, echilibrul etc., se ncearc s se extind importana structuralismului, i n cultura modern, prin preocuparea pentru noiunea de structur ca trstur definitorie. Balzac i Tolstoi se
13 14

v. Manual..., p.28-29 De aceea, ptrunderea metodelor structurale ( incomparabil mai adecvate) nu sa fcut pe cale violent, ci au fost i ramn o cale de acces a unei ofensive. Un exemplu gritor l constituie unele manuale redactate recent, la noi, manuale, care dau impresia c explic LR ca LM nu ca LS, intrucat autorii n-au stat in altarul tablei, n faa strinilor, ci, eventual, ca profesori de romn sau de englez, au avut, sporadic, plata cu ora la strini.

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Education and public health preocupau de sentimente; un contemporan se ocup de mecanismul lor, aa cum preconiza transformaionalismul, care a mutat centrul de interes de pe produs pe mecanismul de producere. n muzic, se presupune c structuralismul este divinatoriu i curios, nu solemn i ferm .a.m.d. Prerea unanim, cea mai frecvent - relativ la deficienele acestei teorii - este aceea c structuralismul consider c limba structureaz lumea nconjurtoare, denumirile delimitnd lucrurile unele de altele. De aceea se zice c acest curent i depete condiia de metod i se angajeaz ntr-o filosofie n care limbii i se atribuie rolul de organizator al lumii. n acest sens, I. Coteanu1515 afirm: Limba este, fr ndoial, contiin practic, adic o anume reflectare a lumii, cci nici ideile i, cu att mai puin, cuvintele, dup prerea noastr, nici schemele limbii, nu sunt nnscute, ci dobndite iniial prin procedee asemntoare cu cele scrise de Pavolov n cercetrile sale asupra reflexelor condiionate. Revenind la ceea ce i se reproeaz structuralismului, i anume faptul c acesta i ntemeiaz observaiile pe ideea c, prin actul denumirii, limba structureaz lumea, I. Coteanu16 completeaz: Actul de denumire nu e nici gratuit, nici convenional. Cuvntul, corpul su material, materia fonic realizat prin denumire nu au corespondent obligatoriu n materia referentului, ci ceea ce este bine tiut i, n general, admis. Maria Manoliu Manea17, referindu-se la reprourile care i se aduc structuralismului, subliniaz n lucrarea sa urmtoarele: Este adevrat c, uneori, chiar i n lingvistic, termenul de structur ascunde mai mult intenionalul, dorina cercettorului de a-i vedea obiectul structurat, setea de sistematizare, proprie oricrei tiine,

Education and public health de unde se ajunge, uneori, la ideea exprimat de Raymond Boudon c nu exist dect comoditate n a folosi cuvntul < structur > i nu< necesitate > (A quoi sert la notion de structre? Paris, 1968, p. 42); sau, mai ru, la desemnarea prin structur a unor domenii, a cror sfer nu a fost bine delimitat. O alt limit a structuralismului este rezultat din necesitatea obiectiv de formalizare a tiinelor; de aceea mitul limbajului, este de prere Maria Manoliu Manea18: ... poate conduce, n acelai timp, la eroarea de a reduce de la simplu joc gratuit (arbitrar) orice activitate uman, deformnd conceptul de cauzalitate intern, de autoreglare i transformare. Oricare ar fi ns umbrele acestui curent, adevrul incontestabil este c a dominat spiritele multor intelectuali din secolul al XX-lea, c mirajul structurii ca sistem nchis n sine, ca limbaj transformat n propriul su subiect continu s-i fascineze, i astzi pe muli dintre noi. Bibliografie: Boldureanu, V., Curs practic intensiv pentru anul pregtitor, Reprografia Universitii, Timioara, 1976 Brncu, Gr., Ionescu, Adriana, Saramandu, Manuela, Limba romn. Manual pentru studenii strini, E.D.P., 1991 Chomsky., N., Aspecte ale teoriei sintaxei, E..E., Bucureti, 1969 Lado, R., Predarea limbilor. O abordare tiinific, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1976 Rivers, W., M., Formarea deprinderilor de limb strin, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1977 Saussure, F., de, Curs de lingvistic general, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1998

15 Semantica i funcia reflexiv a limbii, n Probleme de lingvistic general, vol. VII, Bucureti, 1977, p. 17. 16 Ibidem, p. 20. 17 Structuralismul lingvistic, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1973, p. 237 .u.

18

Ibidem, p. 239

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 351-356

Education and public health cultural heritage of the country and increased our contribution to the universal culture. Art played an important role both from an aesthetic point of view and the content of ideas it expresses, by encouraging and promoting the revolutionary spirit, by strongly contributing to a better understanding of life, by influencing the behavior of citizens and their system of values. The art of sounds is able to express and interpret any feeling or landscape, any action or conflict, the face and concerns of any hero, because the music is thousandfold more nuanced and more accurate than the abstract word that allows different and inaccurate representations, often with several meanings. 1. Music in Balzac's view Motto: "La musique c'est l'Aime According to Balzac: No other art than music acts so directly and so deeply on the human soul. Giving primacy in art to the music, Balzac insists on its infinite nature, on the limitless possibilities offered to the imagination of the listener. Music is for Balzac a puzzle, an enigma that each listener solves in his own way, adapting it and selfadapting to the specific richness of the own psychology, to its interior world or electrical affinities. We are forced - notes Balzac, to accept the poets ideas, the painters painting, the sculptors statue, but each of us interprets music according to his own pain or joy, hope or despair. While the other arts capture our thoughts fixing them on something specific, music spreads over all nature and has the power to express it to us. " Considering music superior to other arts, as painting or literature, Balzac emphasized the infinity of nuances that the art of sounds can play through an expression and language that makes it above the possibilities of the "color that is fixed and the word that has limits". According to Balzacs opinion, the language of music is infinite, it contains everything, it can express everything the whole nature that is an eternal music, a sweet melody, perfect harmony. In Balzac's conception maybe under Schopenhauers influence, music is the first between arts, as it is able to penetrate into the depths of the human soul, to talk directly to it, "to communicate ideas like 352

Esthetic education artistic education, essential component of the multilateral personality

Elisabeta Margareta LINGURAR Liceul de Art Sabin Drgoi Arad Mariana NAGY Universitatea Aurel Vlaicu din Arad e-mail: mariana.nagy@uav.ro Abstract: The paper aims at presenting the undeniable influence that music has on the education process, its role in educating the multilateral personality and forming the action patterns of a new generation. Being part of the life philosophy of many great personalities, such as Balzac, Dante, Schopenhauer or Le Corbusier, music touches the nerve, the maximum sensibility points of an era. In this context, artistic education musical education is so important as it can determine the characteristics of the modern life through its great personalities. Keywords: music, creativity, education, multilateral personality In the process of educating the young generation in order to be able to deliberately build its own future, the scientific and cultural-artistic creativity has an outstanding importance as, by specific means, it is called to contribute to the affirmation of human's personality. Romanian concept on the place and role of qualified labor force and creativity is based on understanding the complex interdependencies between education and society, the need for fully valorizing the creative potential of the most significant national good - the human being. Educating youth is the schools first and foremost task the organized framework for the best preparation, systematic training and education of people for the labor market. The school has the task to train people with highly specialized technical and professional training in all areas, meanwhile giving a high level of general culture. Art has an important role, both in terms of creating new values and in terms of influence in shaping the human personality. Art has undergone a spectacular development, accumulating new values that have enriched the

Education and public health perfumes", revealing or completing a great variety of feelings, a colored range of sensations, thoughts, dreams and aspirations. The initial attraction towards the art of sounds, the dynamics of childhood, will become a true passion that the writer develops a lifetime. At an early age, seduced by the mirage of sounds, the child bought himself a violin - "un petit violon rouge 25 sous and then, in the times of febrile self-searches in his 20th, Balzac thought about writing a comic opera inspired by George Byron's Corsair. Between 1831 and 1837 he attends the Italian Opera and Theatre. For Balzac, the ideal performer is the one who combines intellect with sensitivity, without being entirely dominated by a deep passion that may cancel his capability to play that work. Playing the piano at a high level of perfection, apparently raises the artist to the height of the poet; he is for the composer what the actor is for the author - a translator for the divine things. Among the great performers of his era, Balzac seems to have listened to live concerts and recitals of Chopin, Liszt and Paganini. In his texts, Balzac depicts them as virtuosos; moreover, he wrote considerations on their interpretative art, comparing their styles and highlighting their temperamental features and distinctive characters. In Paganini, Balzac saw the artist "handled by burning passion". In Chopins performing, Balzac distinguishes "a pain and Raphael perfection that reveal a rare sensitivity. Realizing the temperamental differences between Liszt and Chopin, Balzac argues on well-founded artistic differences. "One cant judge Liszt only after listening to Chopin; the Hungarian is a demon, the Polish is an angel." Denying the geniality of the composition, Liszt appears in the position of a performer bearing with a spectacular talent under the grandeur of Dante. He feels Rossini as "a genius, brother of Raphael". Listening to the divine music of the Barber, he "compares the ecstatic state of Massimille with Santa Cecilia painted by Raphael. The purity of the melodic lines of Benedetto Marcello's Psalms suggest to Balzac the simple and serious atmosphere of Giotto's frescoes: "This Venetian noble is for the music what Giotto is for the painting" The set of Balzacian analogies can be enlarged with countless examples. Although perhaps less than painting, music enriched the literary art of the 353

Education and public health novelist; it helped to amplify, clarify and explain his ideas, illustrating them by suggestions, symbols and references to the great creations of the world of sounds. And, if the music has influenced more or less the exceptional achievements in his literary creation, nourishing the intellectual vocation of the writer, no doubt it was for Balzac the man, the unique art that bears with the capacity of calming the soul, to bestow upon him a refreshing balsam, to displace complaints and troubles." 2. Artistic education basic requirement of the contemporary personality Integrated education has now become a necessity not only of the contemporary society but also a virtual, objective opportunity. Any personality tends to valorize any of its availabilities. This aspiration is stronger as the belief that this is possible, has become a common truth. Aesthetic Education, part of the multilateral formation of the personality, is one of the major levers which act on the cultural level of the whole population. The importance of the aesthetic and artistic education has increased in recent years due to new factors and conditions in a manner that they become active and powerful forces of cultural and educational development of our society. Contemporary art deals with sensitive changes in the content and the form of interpretation of the content and form of artistic expression. In this context, the artistic demand for education is much more natural. According to many authors, esthetic education in general and artistic education in particular is presented in nowadays conditions as a remedy against excessive technicality, as a means of humanizing the young generation and preventing alienation, as an essential component of multilateralism. Artistic education, central part of the aesthetic education has a narrower action space, however, goes deeper, counts on a certain degree of initiation, operates with all types of art, implies more subtle qualities and involves more complexly the whole personality. Modern art is inspired by the modern life and civilization incorporating among its means the products of technology, becoming an indispensable element to the mind and soul. According to Le Corbusier, "the technique is not antagonistic to the spirit (...); technique has broadened the field of poetry". Sometimes, 354

Education and public health modern music was inspired by cars: such are the compositions "Pacific 231" by Arthur Honegger, imitating locomotive noises or "Daily news" by Paul Hindemith, imitating the noise of typewriters. Modern music enriched the history of culture with final creations. By their structure, the news and rhythms share, they satisfy our technique oriented civilization. Regarding the conception on arts, the relationship between art and science, between art and the problems of our age faced by humanity, Herbert Read says: "Our age is tragic, full of dangers for the existence of all nations and whole humanity (..). What has artistic education to do with it ? Here's our answer: EVERYTHING. We believe that there is a direct connection between arts and life, between beauty and truth. ". Masterpieces always contain an ethical commitment or aspiration, something high and generally human. "I regret if I had only managed to entertain my auditors, I would have made them better" - Handel said. "The freedom and progress are the target of arts and of the life as whole", thought Beethoven. Essential for aesthetic education is the fact that it correctly blends the logical and the emotional elements. Aesthetic education tends to acquire certain knowledge, skills training and the development of intellectual competencies. It completes the formation of the multilateral personality by specific means and developing knowledge and creative forces. Instruction consists of a student mentoring process based on a system of scientific data, specific skills, with a scientific conception on the world. Education and instruction in school is achieved through learning. They can not be conceived as separate phenomena, being integrated into a coherent whole. Education, training and study are not conceived without an intimate connection between them, as inseparable parts of the teaching process. It is encountered also in the art of playing the piano. In the educational process, the student must be protected by a tendency to aestheticism or to an outer glow that often compensates the poverty of ideas of a less gifted composer or attracted by superficial effects. Esthetic education expands the opportunities of accumulating knowledge on the objective reality by familiarizing students with the artistic culture of the past and present. In an artistic perception, emotions are of primary importance, but the interest only for the emotional aspects, without a proper analysis of the content and means of expression of the 355

Education and public health work, will not lead to a deep and conscious understanding nor to a long lasting knowledge. Education allows the knowledge of the world, not only of the data obtained through science, but also on the path of knowledge through artistic images - due to sensitive resources that such images make available to those who learn. Music sets out sensible relationships between people, given their feelings and emotional content bearing with a general, human character. The means of expression is appropriate to their content. These types of emotions are sensitive expressions of that era, expressions bearing with a certain social character too. Music touches the nerve, the maximum sensibility points of an era. Bach and the preclassics revealed a society wanting to ignore everything that could disturb the balance and strictly regulated rituals. The Romanticism leads us into a new world that feeds by harshness and breathes through shocks. New, contemporary music reflects the effervescent era of the first half of the twentieth century, full of innovations made in all areas of human activity. A burning desire to topple the sonority and escape from the sphere of too much heard and always the same combinations, is heavily felt in contemporary composing art. References: Bentoiu, P., Imagine i sens, Editura muzical, Bucureti, 1973 Bentoiu, P., Gndirea muzical, Editura muzical, Bucureti, 1975 Constantinescu, G., Boga, I., O cltorie prin istoria muzicii, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 2007 Fraisse, P., Manual de psihologie experimental, Paris, 1963 Pasca, G., Boocan, M., Carte de istorie a muzicii, Editura Vasiliana 98, Iai, 2003 Salades, D., Ciurea, R., Educaie prin art i literatur, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1967 Videanu, G., Cultura estetic colar, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1967 Voiculescu, D., Polifonia secolului XX, Ed.Muzical, 2005 Voiculescu, D., Fuga n creaia lui J.S.Bach, Ed.Muzical, Bucureti, 2000 Zisulescu, t., Aptitudini i talente, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1976. 356

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 357-370

Education and public health It often happens that children, even very small ones, ask questions that baffle their parents. For example: Dad, whats the name of that tree? I dont know, son. Dad, who invented the typewriter? Sorry, son, no idea. Dad, how do birds fly? Son, I really dont know. Mother, anxious to help her husband out, intervenes, Leave your father alone, son, hes tired. But father stops her, Let the boy ask, woman, how else is he going to learn things? Naturally, this father does not live in 2010. Todays father accesses the Internet, Googles the data and gets the answers on the spot. Traditionally, teaching was focused on accumulation of knowledge, on providing answers to every question a student might have. But todays society is quite different from earlier societies, so that the students needs are also quite different. In its multi-secular existence on Earth, never before has mankind witnessed changes such as those that occurred in the last century. 100 years ago people had no electricity supply in their homes I challenge you to imagine a day without electricity in your homes. 80 years ago the trams in Arad were drawn by horses, the number of cars could be counted on the fingers of one hand, and planes practically did not exist. The shrinking of space, accomplished by reducing the time required for traveling from one corner of the Earth to another, was accompanied, in an even more dramatic fashion, by a shrinking of the informational gap with the help of the telegraph, the telephone (cellular, in recent years), of the computer and the Internet, so that today we have the worlds entire data base at our feet, on condition we know how to tame it. In addition, digital technology makes everything so user-friendly that even the non-initiated can learn to use the most complex tools and instruments. In his science-fiction novel The Third Millennium, G.S, Altschuller1 summarizes the dramatic pace of change as follows way: Over the three millennia [], science has considerably changed its fundamental views sixteen times. The geocentric system of the world was replaced with the heliocentric one, quantum physics acknowledged
1

Teaching, language and communication

Adriana VIZENTAL Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Present-day approaches to linguistics tell us that communication means much more than using the language accurately, i.e. correctly from a grammatical point of view. The competent speaker knows how to use the language meaningfully, so as to convey his message, functionally, so as to perform speech acts and get things done, appropriately, i.e. adapted to the receiver and the situational context, and strategically, i.e. manipulating the language so as to accomplish his realworld aims. By using the language skillfully, he can avoid conflicts and preserve social relations in good repair. As teachers and/or as parents, we must urge our youngsters to communicate efficiently. Keywords: language, paralanguage, functional grammar, linguistic strategies. They say there is nothing new on Earth, only new people. In the same way, in the field of education, it seems that teachers before us have invented most of the tricks that we consider to be new and innovative, only to discover after a while that someone has already been there. Therefore, I am not going to try to tell you something new. Instead, I suggest that we should reanalyze a number of very well known terms that of teacher, of language and of communication approaching them from a different angle. Traditionally, the teacher is the person who transmits information to his students, enriching their knowledge and widening their horizon. But according to this definition, many people, or many categories of people, are teachers for his peers. The moment a mother is given her baby to hold in her arms, she begins to talk to it, and children usually learn their first language from their mother why else would we call it mother tongue. Mother is also an educator: nothing can replace those first 7 years one gets at home. Obviously, in the age of paternity leaves, the term mother must be regarded in a wider sense, to include both parents.

The father of TRIZ (The Theory of Solving Inventive Problems).

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Education and public health postulates that could not be imagined in classical physics, and so on. The seventeenth overthrow is entirely possible.2 In other words, the changes are so profound, and their pace is so quick, that we cant even imagine what the near future has in store for us. As a result, teachers today are preparing their students for a world they know nothing about, a world in which much of the information they accumulate today will be outdated or obsolete. The main objective of mid-20th century education was the formation of well-trained specialists, so that school was organized along strictly defined domains. The result was the emergence of people who knew more and more things in fewer and fewer domains (Bernard Shaws definition of the specialist). But, as Altschuller argues, specialization may be a key to open door after door, but somewhere behind us doors were slamming shut. In his opinion, specialization should be completely replaced with training universal professionals. (G. Altov, The Third Millennium) Under the circumstances, school today no longer focuses on acquiring knowledge, but on developing abilities and skills: of locating information, of analyzing and systematizing it, of using it for practical purposes, etc. Today, teachers no longer say (or should not say), Children, today we are going to speak about the cat; instead, they say, Children, next time well speak about the cat. Your task is to look up information in books, dictionaries, on the Internet, etc. You might say that, this way, the teacher has less work to do and that his job is easier. Nothing could be further from the truth: instead of repeating a wellknown lesson, now the teacher has to work with each and every student individually, assessing the material he has put together, correcting his mistakes, making suggestions, encouraging, proposing group work, developing habits and correcting behavior, etc. Naturally, this kind of work is closer to the way people interact in real life: have you ever seen a mother lecturing and her son taking notes conscientiously and learning by heart what she has said? This type of teaching also shifts the balance
2

Education and public health between the two basic components of the training-educational process: working together with the children, the teacher has a better opportunity to influence positively their behavior. Now if we approach the subject from another perspective, we may say that every person is, or can be, a teacher for his peers; you dont even have to be grown up for that. In my teaching experience, which spans more years than I care to admit, never have I encountered a person with a sharper pedagogical spirit than my granddaughter Lisa (age 6 ). All day long, with a dedication and perseverance worthy of a larger and wiser person, she teaches and educates every body and thing around dolls, cousins and friends, parents and grandparents and is deeply hurt when her good intentions are rejected which happens quite often, given that one of her favorite students is her cousin Leon (age 7). Leon, lets say were at school and Im your teacher. Repeat after me!; Leon, now we are in the kindergarten and were having our show. Youre reciting your poem. But Lisas concerns are mostly educational: Leon, dont put so much salt in your food.; Leon, you didnt put you hand to your mouth when you coughed. And when she feels that her arguments are not strong enough, she quotes the uncontested authority in the field, Leon, what did Ady say? (i.e. me). Naturally, the student Leon often rebels against the authority. Leon, too, has pedagogical preoccupations, his favorite domains beings sports (Put your foot here, Lisa, come on, you can do it), mathematics (a couple of weeks ago he was teaching his cousin Mark, age 1, to count to ten; rapping it, to his merit), and figurative language (I heard him explain to his teacher that to poke one's nose into other people's business is metaphorical). Even much younger children manifest didactic preoccupations. I can prove it by describing the behavior of my other two grandchildren Hava (age 1 ) and Mark (age 1 and 3 months). You can see Mark raising his hand and scolding the disobedient dog. Dont!!! says his threatening gesture. Or take Hava: She looks at the power supply on the wall, raises a finger in a gesture of warning, and says, Nnnnn!!! As the person she is talking to is herself, you might say that it is a form of selfeducation. Wrong again. Since at this age children do not know the pronominal system (the I and you and he), she is in fact 360

Quoted by Khomenko & Murashlovska, 2006: 261.

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Education and public health addressing some mental Hava girl image, whom she carefully informs that it is dangerous to touch the power supply. (Note the profoundly positive character of Romanian education: the first notion learned is Dont !!!) From here to the (hardly) interior monologues of our senior peers is but a short step. S/Hes gone crazy, the old girl/guy, s/hes mumbling to him/herself! some younger onlooker might say. But what do those greenhorns know about the complexities of education! In such cases, the speaker mindful adviser and guide is carefully counseling some less initiated alter-ego regarding the correct way to act or behave in the given circumstance. Ceausescu was sure no Romanian could manage in life without his wise guidance; how could then those respectable persons get along without vocalizing the voice of reason? But since in my audience today there are many teachers, or prospective teachers, let us return to teaching as a profession. I shall refer mostly to the teacher of foreign languages, but my observations are also valid for other types of teachers, as well as for the parent-teacher. When I was in high school, we used to learn foreign languages in order to acquire solid general knowledge, so as to read in the original, if possible the works of Shakespeare, of Dickens or James Joyce. It was the natural course of things, because Romania was hermetically sealed up and our only chance of equaling the West was by culture and education. But who needs high culture today? Money, even greater amounts, can be made by picking strawberries or by raising sheep. And for that you dont need Shakespeare. With due respect for honest work, whether in the country or abroad, I dare say that some education doesnt hurt. I must nevertheless admit that today people have other needs and priorities. As members of the EU, the mobility of Romanian citizens is restricted by nothing except the limits of their own minds and skills: they can travel, study at prestigious universities abroad, go into business with powerful foreign firms, etc. This state of facts imposes upon the training-educational process new priorities, and the findings of linguists point to the right direction. When I was learning English, foreign languages were taught by the grammar-translation method: students were supposed to learn by heart long bilingual lists of words, grammar was taught deductively (from rule to examples), and translation was a basic means for assessing acquisition 361

Education and public health of knowledge. This was because the great linguist Chomsky had ruled that the well-formedness of sentences was the standard by which to assess the speakers linguistic competence. Confronted with the outside world, however, such learners soon realized that their hard-learned language was inefficient: they could recite long quotations from literary texts, but could not cope with the most basic conversations. This was because, on the one hand, they could not understand the rapid and idiomatic speech of native speakers; on the other, they were used to carefully building up sentences, so that they could not formulate their ideas rapidly enough. Emergence of the communicative approach to teaching foreign languages brought about a considerable improvement. Based on the developments in the field of functional grammar, of socio-linguistics and pragmatics, it emphasizes the priority of meaning and asserts that the non-wellformedness of utterances does not prevent meaningful communication. Unfortunately, from the observations of linguists, many teachers have retained only the idea that grammar is not important, ignoring completely another remark by the same linguists. According to functional grammar, language is a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through which the meanings can be realized. (Halliday, 1994: xiv). In other words, the speaker organizes his message in such a way that each level phonologic organization, intonation, clause structure, sentence structure etc. carry best the meaning he wants to express. Indeed, even toddlers who have not yet learned to speak are able to communicate functionally. They may not yet know how to say milk or pick me up, but with the help of the sounds they mumble, the gestures they make, with their frowns or cries, they manage to communicate (to their mother, at least) their wishes and desires. In the same way, immigrants in a new language environment learn a basic vocabulary and use gestures to convey their message and get the things they need. This is because we use the language not only to say things, but also to do things, as J.L. Austin (1962) tells us in his theory of speech acts, and the speakers goal is to accomplish functions: to ask or to offer, to accept or to refuse, to praise or to apologize, etc. 362

Education and public health Furthermore, as Dell Hymes argues, there are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless [ and ] some occasions call for being appropriately ungrammatical. (Hymes, 1966). Hymes further suggested that an experienced communicator knows the rules of appropriate social behavior, i.e. how to address different types of persons, what to talk about in different situations, when to speak and when to keep silent, etc. In addition, speakers rarely put their ideas into words directly and straightforwardly. Careful of his own good image, and aware that preserving social relations in good repair is essential for his own wellbeing in society, the speaker generally indulges in intricate strategies of indirectness (Grice: 1975), whose reason, in most cases, is politeness. As the theories of politeness (R. Lakoff: 1973; G. Leech: 1977/1983; P. Brown & S.C. Levinson: 1978/1987) point out, we are not talking here of real-world politeness, but rather, of communicative behaviour aimed at obtaining real-world advantages and/or avoiding negative consequences: the speaker may say Thank you and smile sweetly, when in fact nothing would please him more than to punch his interlocutor in the face. In conclusion, in ordinary communication the speaker does not utter sequences of words with the aim of producing accurate grammatical structures. Often disregarding the rules of grammar, he uses the language functionally and strategically, so as to carry out his realworld aims. Therefore, simulating in the micro-universe of the classroom the macro-universe of the outside world, the communicative teacher must create situations in which the students should use the language meaningfully, functionally, appropriately and strategically, negotiating meaning on a case-to-case basis, the way competent speakers do in everyday life. Because, linguists today insist, meaning is not [] produced by the speaker alone, nor by the hearer alone. Making meaning is a dynamic process, involving the negotiation of meaning between speaker and hearer, the context of utterance (physical, social and linguistic) and the meaning potential of an utterance (Thomas, 1995: 22-3). Another basic concept of modern didactics is that of developing skills. In the case of foreign languages, we are talking of listening and speaking skills, of reading and writing skills. (Absence of listening skills 363

Education and public health was one of the main reasons why grammar-translation learners could not cope with real-world communication. Absence of spontaneous productive skills was another). And again, focusing on the individual skills, teachers often dont see the forest for the trees: they forget that people learn foreign languages to as to communicate with other people. How do people communicate? Starting our survey with the young ones, let us return to Lisa and Leon. Lisa teaches and educates and, like all self-respecting teachers, she considers that only she possesses the key to truth, so that she insists, she annoys and exasperates. Leon, with typical masculine efficiency, solves his problems expediently: with a short-armed punch under the table. Obviously, at his age, he hasnt yet learned the profound wisdom of the Romanian saying, Why dyou hit, man, dont you know how to swear? A linguistic equivalent of the fist, swearing has the same effects: on the one hand, it hurts the receiver; on the other, it helps the speaker blow off some steam. But even Leon has come to understand that the fist whether actual or metaphorical is not the best solution: apart from the punishment that hes probably get, he will also lose his playmate; and playing alone is no fun. All the more so, the adult person gregarious soul will do his best to keep social relations in good repair. And yet, people dont always know how to communicate smoothly; a fact attested by the torrents of screams and curses poured upon us from all directions. Furthermore, using the language even according to the strictest rules of the dictionary, grammar and cooperation does not necessarily mean communication. I have recently seen a disquieting film Crash, 2004. Having no unitary subject, it presents pairs/groups of people who talk to each other, but do not communicate. The characters argue all the time (the groups meet and interact), the voices are raised, and in two cases, the encounters end up in bloodshed. In each case, the victim is innocent and accidental. Nor is the killer a cold-hearted criminal; quite the opposite, just a few sequences earlier he had risked his life to put an end to an armed street brawl. But in this case he shoots his opponent because the latter prefers gestures to words: instead of saying clearly that he has a miniature statue of a saint just like that of his interlocutor, he puts his hand in his pocket a gesture similar to that of pulling a gun. 364

Education and public health Why do people argue and fight? One of the characters in the movie summarizes the reasons lucidly: Im angry all the time. I wake up angry and Im still angry when I go to bed. We know all too well this kind of fuzzy anger: we are angry with the government, the crisis and our uncertain future, with the difficult boss and the obnoxious public servant, with our demanding husband and our cheeky children to mention just a few. Today even chickens are stressed; how could then we not be? And how could our children not be, when all around them in real life and on TV people scream and shout and shoot one another? We often hear people say that youngsters today dont know how to behave. While categorically rejecting the generalizing formula (not all, and not only, youngsters dont know how to behave), I would reformulate the assertion as, Today, many people do not know how to communicate in a civilized manner. Because behavior and communication are intrinsically connected. Example: I go to the post office and, politely, ask a question. Sitting behind the thick glass window, the clerk mumbles something without raising her head. I dont understand, so I repeat my question. The clerk raises her head and her voice! No comments! The teacher of foreign languages has an extraordinary advantage: in the foreign language classes you can talk about anything. In the age of alternative textbooks, the foreign language teacher can pick texts, select subjects of discussion and organize activities according to the students interests and preoccupations. On the other hand, this wide freedom is accompanied by an immense responsibility: in a time when parents have little time and patience to spend with their children, the task of showing them how to behave correctly and how to communicate efficiently falls upon the teachers shoulders. Lets also remember the children living in underprivileged areas, whose parents themselves often lack the proper communicative skills; for many of those children, the teacher represents the only way out. To help the students develop their communicative skills, the teacher may insist on strategies that can make language use more complex and more subtle. For example, humor in communication has magical effects. A good joke can loosen up the spirits and save the situation. Why do people tell jokes at parties? Because they are afraid of the silence that 365

Education and public health might set in when there is nothing more to say. Why do you tell your boss jokes? Because, being in high spirits, he may consider your request more kindly. Humor is the spoonful of sugar that makes the bitter medicine go down more easily. But humor can also take more subtle forms. And since such forms are harder to perform and to interpret, they also acquire special communicative and educational valences. With the help of figurative language, for example, the speaker can make his message richer and more amusing. But it is not always easy to perceive the difference between a lie, a joke and figurative language; therefore, it is important that we should help children, as early in life as possible, to make the distinction. They say that many troubles in life are triggered by the fact that people interpret figurative messages ad literam. All the more exposed are youngsters and children. For example: A couple of years ago there was a commercial on Romanian television in which a woman, standing on top of a tall building, raises a scarf above her head and jumps. Miraculously, the scarf behaves like a parachute and at her feet some silky cloth unfolds in smooth waves, on which the woman glides with a delighted smile on her face. The commercial was advertising some brand of chocolate. But how many children understood that the glide on silk was a visual metaphor for the smoothness of the chocolate? Not so many years ago (at least, thats how I feel) one of my children jumped from his superposed bed upon a sheet extended between four chairs, convinced that it would behave like an elastic mattress. Luckily, the bed was not too high, but he still got some serious bumps. Nor is it always easy for adults to separate metaphor from reality. Today we no longer live in the age of Prince Charming and of the wicked ogre, who could fool only very young children. Today the computer offers us a virtual reality which can baffle even grown-ups. A novice driver once told me that he had had an accident because he had confused the road with the computer game and instead of pressing the brake, he had put his foot on the accelerator. Most probably, the same thing had happened in the case of the students who, gun in hand, had burst into the classroom and butchered their classmates and teachers. The metaphor can also be employed to promote a more refined kind of communication. A few days ago, for example, I was in the park 366

Education and public health with my grandchildren and saw an empty can of Coca Cola placed high in an ornamental bush. Instead of screaming and shouting at the loutish behavior of uncivilized people, I told them serenely, Look, what a beautiful flower! My educational objective was attained: they both understood the irony and the criticism; in addition, they learned that negative things can be communicated more subtly. Language is a powerful tool in the hands of the skillful strategist: it can even prevent major conflicts. They say that, at a United Nations meeting, a participant irritated by the endless discussions exclaimed, Jaw, jaw, jaw! To this, another participant replied promptly, Jaw, jaw, jaw is better than war, war, war! But language is neither the only, nor the most potent, means of communication. Paralanguage, or meaningful behavior, has an even greater impact. A survey was made in which two groups of people received the same message: Im not upset. For the first group the paralanguage was positive: cheerful tone of voice, direct eye contact, touching hands, etc. The paralanguage for the second group was negative: quivering voice, avoidance of eye contact and of touch, etc. It was noted that receivers believed what the paralinguistic message said. Under the circumstances, isnt it a serious mistake to focus only on the correctness of the childrens text, ignoring completely their manner of presentation? In the kindergarten children are allowed to recite the poem My mother is the best with a flat tone and with their eyes down. In the classroom role-plays the language teacher concentrates on the accuracy of what the student says, giving little attention to the tone of his voice, to his mimicry or to his body language. We generally think that, in the classroom, such elements are of lesser importance, because what the teacher must grade is the students knowledge. But we should ask ourselves the question: Many adults inability to show themselves in the best light in crucial moments isnt perhaps due to an absence of thorough training in this area? An applicant who presents his case with a quivering voice, shy gestures and furtive glances will not manage to persuade his employer that he is the best for the job. Conversely, a Gigi Becalis ample voice, rich mimicry and wide gestures, communicate not only his great optimism and full confidence in himself, but also the overabundance of his soul. What such persons do not understand, though, is that in this way they reveal more about themselves than they would like 367

Education and public health to. Because pronunciation, para- and body language function as a metaphorical suit of clothes which like in the saying, Clothes make the man can ensure ones access to the desired position in society, or forever close the door for him. As in many other cases, our Westerns partners in the European Union pay more attention to gestures than we do. An example: I was in France, participating in a workshop, and we were having a festive dinner. A French colleague raised his glass, and I raised mine. At that moment, I heard him say, We, French people, look the person in the eye when we click glasses. Believe me, I know all too well the importance in communication of eye contact. But at that moment, a loud sound or some sudden gesture must have distracted my attention. Embarrassment aside, I could not help thinking that, in Romania, nobody would give voice to such an observation; not because we are more tactful, but because we would not consider the fact important enough to mention. But eye contact is a sign of respect, and respect is an essential component of civilized communication. In an article written by an American pastors wife, I found the following interpretation for the term respect: What is crime but lack of respect for law? What is pollution but lack of respect for the rights of others? What is inferior workmanship but lack of respect for quality? What is slanted news reporting but lack of respect for truth? We can regard communication from the same angle: When a youngster sticks his chewing gum to the desk on which he is sitting, or damages a tree in the park, he is communicating improperly with the natural environment in which he lives. When he listens to music at top volume, or swears on the corridors of the university, he is communicating improperly with the members of the social group to which he (wants to) belong(s). Without presuming that in the university man learns to communicate correctly, let me quote the words of my primary school teacher: If a person goes through university, even absent-mindedly, like a traveler changing trains in a station, you can still see the difference. I hope that you, by your facts and by your words, will prove her observation true. To be a teacher, just like to be a parent, is no easy task; nor is it one that only brings joy and satisfactions. Have you seen many happy teachers? In spite of the assertion become clich, I dare say that our 368

Education and public health greatest complaint is not the low pay. We are affected much more profoundly by our students attitude of indifference, by their poor results, by the shortage of time in which we cannot do everything we would like to do. Still, there will always be teachers just as there will be parents who do their job with passion and dedication, endeavoring to endow the students with positive thinking, true values and noble ideals. Bibliography: Austin, J.L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown, Penelope & Stephen C. Levinson. ([1978]1987). Politeness Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, Noam. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge. Mass: M.I.T. Press. Grice, H. Paul. (1975). "Logic and conversation". In Cole, P. and Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and semantics, vol 3. New York: Academic Press. Grice, H. Paul. (1981) Presupposition and conversational implicature, in Cole P. (ed) Radical pragmatics, New York, Academic, pp. 18398 Halliday, M.A.K. (1994/1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2nd Edition. London-NY-Sydney-Auckland: Arnold. Hymes, Dell. (1974). Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach, "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Hymes" Khomenko N. & I. Murashlovska. (2006). Third Millennium: The Driving Contradiction and Other Problems of Education. in Proceedings of the International Symposium Research and Education in an Innovation Era, Section I, Tradition and Modernity in Humanistic Sciences. Arad: Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu. Lakoff, R.T. (1973). The logic of politeness ; or, minding your ps and qs. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Leech, G. (1981). Semantics. The Study of Meaning. Harmondsworth: Penguin Leech, Geoffrey. (1983). Principles of pragmatics, London: Longman.

Education and public health Levinson, Stephen. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP. Levinson, Stephen. (2000). Presumptive Meanings: The Theory of generalized Conversational Implicature. MIT Press, Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Thomas, Jenny (1995). Meaning in Interaction. London: Longman Vizental, A. (2009). Meaning and Communication. From semantic meaning to pragmatic meaning, Arad: Editura Universitii "Aurel Vlaicu". Vizental, A. (2008). Metodica predrii limbii engleze Strategies of Teaching and Testing English as a Foreign Language, Iai: Polirom. Seria Collegium.

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Education and public health 1. How about that cold evening, do you remember that? That evening when you were walking home after a workday like all the others? You didnt have any special successes that day, you weren't promoted, at home you knew there was nothing special awaiting you, no more than yesterday, or the day before yesterday and, most probably, no more than tomorrow. But you must remember that evening, at least because you felt more light-hearted and "freer" andto some extenthappier1. Why? Why was it that now you could shake off with a mere shrug, the haunting thoughts of your uselessness, of your inability to communicatethoughts that had been tormenting you for so long? 2. To explain the momentary emotional state of a human individual considered healthy and able to take personal decisions, there are only three possible answers: a. either we refer to a metaphysical (why not, divine?) force whose caresses or warnings haunt us, heedless to our tiny "objective landmarks"; b. or, we think of impulses coming from some hardly explainable existential spheres pertaining to the speculative domain of parapsychology, or of reactions coming from senses we are unaware of, and we accept the spirits other possibilities of investigation of the outside world (past, present and/or future) and of the self (in its various manifestations), other than those employed consciously by the noninitiated; c. or, we declare ourselves content with explanations we can assess with the help of our research instruments (whose acuity is perfectible) and our judgment (limited at least by the landmarks we have available), our preconceived ideas, level of intelligence, education and training, our preconceived expectations, our relationship with God, and the limited number of associations we can make in the restricted time span at our disposal before the configuration of the outside stimuli bombarding us changes. 3. The first two alternatives have their own fields of expression. But both theology (with all its branches) and parapsychology deal with subjects who are put in exceptional states, or who tend towards some
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The notion of transversal psychology

Gheorghe SCHWARTZ Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract To gain access to a greater number of sources, man looks for tools that can perfect his analyzers or provide him with new ones, as well as for more accomplished data processing methods. Sensations that cannot be brought to one's consciousness like the Moon Sonata to a person born deaf, or the colors of Impressionist painters to someone who has never enjoyed the delights of sight remain virtual. The professional philosopher, as well as the philosopher that lives inside every human being, raises questions. "Big questions", as well as personally annoying ones (Why did this have to happen to me?; the vain person might say, I knew this would happen!). The responses various individuals give are not necessarily in tone with their ordinary behavior in life. But they carry the satisfaction of convictions. It would be artificial to attribute the "big question" to the philosopher, the lesser ones to the psychologist, the teacher, or the sociologist. Transversal psychology offers certain empirical landmarks to both categories. And, last but not least, the philosopher inside every one of us may also find some support in it. Key words: stimuli, mood, behavior, path, transversal psychology. Remember? Nothing unexpected happened to you that morning, you didn't fall victim to any stroke of fate; you didn't get any sign that some danger was awaiting you in the predictable future; and neither did you suffer from any physical pain. In a word, it was one of those grey mornings in your life, impossible to distinguish mentally from those countless days that are neither good nor bad. Impossible to distinguish and yet That morning you were so depressed that, perhaps, you do remember those hours. You were depressed without any "apparent cause". Life seemed to have no sense and the effort needed to merely survive such a mean destinya destiny lacking all reasonable motivationseemed totally ludicrous. Hope itself had vanished completely. Why? And why did it happen on that precise morning, otherwise so perfectly common?

Happier? There is no such a thing as HAPPIER, only HAPPY.

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Education and public health exceptional state (e.g. the person specifically trained will interpret the mere act of raising one's eyes towards the sky as an act of separation from earthly things). 4. Exceptional are also the direct, easily detectable, causes of certain momentary emotional states: a success can lead to joy. If not, it means that either the respective success did not rise to the expected level, or it did not come at the proper moment, and that the effect (the satisfaction) did not cover all the parameters of mood that were functional at that moment. Similarly, a disease can induce an emotional state: from apathy to excitement, from despair tomore rarelya state of optimism that is as unlimited as it is unjustified. But disease itself is an exceptional state2, one that transgresses the boundaries of the area within which, moment for moment, our pathological mosaic is being constructed. Disease involves a tendency towards the extremes, while healthhypothetical normalitytends towards the average, the centre. 5. Just as a broken leg makes us forgetat least for the initial hours some annoying stomach-ache, a reason that goes beyond the limits of the ordinary eclipses for a while the parameters of our mood. It eclipses them, but does not root them out. How many long awaited moments are wasted or diminished in effect by causes that remain obscure? No matter how apt to change the picture of ones mood it might be, a reason that is strong or extreme (located far from the average, from the core) may become, at least for a while, terrorizing with respect to all the other stimuli; eventually, though, it will also be eclipsed by the parameters which we shall discuss at large later on. 6. Mood is a momentary emotional state (see Pinpoint duration element behavior unit, i.e. the minimal physical time span below which no difference in duration is perceptible Henri Piron, my translation). It may change from one moment to the next, depending on the occurrence of a reason which is extreme, but whichequally and apparentlyhas no particular reason. Even in the second case, transition from a state of euphoria to one of deep melancholy may be as sudden. 7. Since our momentary emotional state is responsible for our numerous daily behavioral patterns, and it also participates in our less
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Education and public health numerous major decisions, and since we know that the individual, under the impact of the same stimuli, does not always react in the same way, we conclude that mood is not merely a static clich, but can also be viewed as one image in a motion picture. 8. Viewed in this way, moodwith the accepted interpretation of "momentary emotional state"establishes itself as elementary unit of behavior (which, developing in time, takes the form of a sequence of interwoven moments, a sequence of "momentary emotional states"). 9. The relation that establishes itself between behavior and the great problems of humanity3 is similar to that between figure and background. Generally in this relationwhen an explanation is attempted, the following factors are considered: level of intelligence, temperament, education, relation with God, early obsessive spiritual experiences, obscure unconscious impulses. In "traditional psychology", mood does not find its place in this formula, nor is accepted its quality of elementary unit of behavior. 10. Getting beyond the "static" moment of mood and into the "dynamic" phase of behavior, we inevitably reach the red-hot point of decision making. Only, in life, major decisions4 are fewer than we would like to believe. Daily decisions (such as: which tie should I wear today, what TV channel should I watch, what should I have for dinner, etc.), belong obviously to the realm of mood. Big decisions are few in a person's life. For example, one's choice of profession may result from a conscious option, an imposed one, or hazard; then, for a while or for a life-time, ones entire existence stands under the sign of that decision: one's daily program, the consequences of certain advantages / disadvantages, ones career promotion, etc.. Ifkeeping to our examplethe external option comes from an external command center and overpowers the subject's will or remodels it, we find ourselves in situation. When the decision comes by itself, "naturally", mood manifests itselfat least in the moment of its conscious formulationas an arbiter of whether to make the decision publicly known or not.
Which takes the form of expressions of those problems, such as futility and hope vs. love, death or power. 4 Major decision = a decision that can modify the course of one's life, or even that of a (micro)collectivity, i.e. a decision that can fracture the path.
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Not by frequency, but by configuration.

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Education and public health 11. What results from that moment pertains to the realm of mood and, in time, to that of behavior. During the long periods that follow the making of a major decision, our parameters will perform the function of regulators, the confrontation between them giving the picture of our subsequent behavior. As a consequence of a decision that was made long before, all our intentions, all our work, all our efforts, follow the strict route of our lifes path. 12. In this context, we must not forget that that instant of such importancethe moment of making a decisionoccurs in a moment circumscribed by a given time span, a short dischargeeven when it was long and carefully planned. Why did it happen precisely in that momentat seventeen hours, twenty-three minutes and six secondsthat I made such an important decision, with long-lasting echoes? (I had courted my girlfriend for a week, a month, three years, and suddenly decided to propose marriage to her.) What results hence will last until I die, or until I make another decision (e.g. after years of marriage, I decide to break it up). Why did it have to happen precisely thenthat Wednesday, at seventeen hours, twentythree minutes and six secondsthat I made that decision? Although a decision takes serious preparation, mood interferes here again, allowing the subject to formulate his decision. Thus, even though it is terribly limited in time and almost unrepeatable, mood has dynamic consequences, which raise it beyond its limits. 13. Ultimately, the question is this: why am I now doing this and not that? Why I am now able to do things that, at other moments, I wouldnt even imagine doing? Or, why was it that yesterday I didn't feel like doing something that has been one of my daily habits for such a long time? 14. Even though it deals (primarily) with specific aspects pertaining to the functions of the psyche (memory, attention, thinking, etc.), basically, as a science, psychology strives to explain and describe behavior5. The mental functions together merely make up a puzzle from which other and other components are continuously missing. 15. Just like in any field of research, tendencies become increasingly confined to a territory that is more and more specialized: empirical or experimental, the fragment is dissected to its tiniest pieces. Investigation
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Education and public health goes deeper and deeper, the direction of the study being transferred from the wide horizontal plane, to the narrowest verticality. The countless holes drilled into the human soul make communication among them more and more difficult, while the overall imagethe wholeremains somewhere at the surface and is forgotten; only students may occasionally show interest in examining it. 16. Over-specialization makes us lose sight of the whole. Obviously, thorough research of a certain aspect may provide more rigorous explanation for the whole; but fewer and fewer are those who can reconstruct the initial whole. Use of more sophisticated and more reliable nuts and bolts is justified only to equip the device they were designed for. Otherwise, they are likely to remain mere objects per se, or works of art. 17. In generalwith the only exception of behaviorism, perhapsthe theories of behavior (true, especially those of clinical behavior) are built up around a single element: libido, or fear, or aggressiveness, or gregariousness, one's reaction to a feeling of inferiority or guilt, ones need for self-assertion, etc.. This almost unique primordial element attracts like a magnet other elements around itself, depending on how well they support its thesis orto use the accepted languageaccording to the extent they support demonstration of the nullified hypothesis. Thus, even if by intention the way is from cause to effect, it merely illustrates an idea accepted a priori. 18. Sciences called "humanistic" have a tendency to disguise their limits by employing increasingly sophisticated language. The "nonspecialist" finds it harder and harder to read a book of psychology, for example, because the writer now uses a language that has become professional jargon. Even the basic words receive "special meanings" and things are read differently; such encoding, however, is often gratuitous, failing to define a notion more precisely, but merely fitting it more snugly into a pre-established code. This way, any banality is imbued with a scientific halo. 19. For my work, I shall try to ignore that code, returning to "nonspecialized" language. In other words, I shall try to clarify (to myself) why I (or my characters) make a major decision at a certain moment, why I/they find a day like all the others happy or deeply unhappy, why I/they do not always find that life is worth living, but continue to function in spite of it all. Questions or will thus receive an answer. Just 376

And not only since Watson's times.

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Education and public health like many other questions, old and new. (Every question triggers other questions.) 20. Everything man attempts takes the form of words, triggering its own kind of intimacy between sender and receiver. In the present philosophy of behavior, many expressions carry the words' literal senses. For example, the term mood is used in a way that is totally different from that of classical psychology. Other terms employed carry different connotations. 21. Take, for instance, the term "path". With a major role in these lines, the term must be viewed as the smooth flow of a behavior that was not fractured by terrorizing stimuli. As shown later on, the pulsations of the psyche behave merely as forces that endeavor to keep the individual on the path, on the one hand, and as forces that try to throw him off the path, on the other. From this point of view, the path representstogether with self-belongingthe binder that keeps together the personality of the free and healthy human individual. N.B. If the "fiction" writer tries to avoid answering questions, it is the scientists duty to give answers. The writer merely raises questions. Sometimes, though, questions alone cannot be received" by the audience, or they can only be received partially. Then, they say, it is the writer's fault.

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Romanian education for health in the 21st century

Mihaela GAVRIL-ARDELEAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: 21st century medicine is one intended for healthy people. In Romania, public education regarding cardiovascular diseases presents serious gaps and therefore it is an impediment in having an informed, healthy community. This study demonstrates that cases of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have been reduced in the last few years by better educating the population in terms of disease addressability and symptom awareness. Keywords: health community, education, specialist. 1. Introduction 21st century medicine is intended for healthy people. In Romania there are large gaps in public education for their own health and therefore health community. It is estimated that in the 21st century, coronary diseases will surpass contagious diseases, and will be the main cause for morbidity and specific mortality. Cardiovascular diseases represent a major issue regarding public health in Romania. The patients emergency medical assistance is imperious in all cases that need vascular obstruction. As a means of intervention, thrombolytic therapy is used in case of vascular disobstruction in the county of Arad, however, there hasnt been made a complete registry or a complete analysis of the advantages of individual health and public health, due to the absence of a population survey. The standard mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases, in Romania, was in a ratio of 2 to 1 compared to Europe, situation that has been influenced by 2 causes. On the one hand, there is the different incidence of atherosclerosis and, on the other hand, there is the efficiency of the treatment in the actual stage of cardiovascular diseases, especially in the stage of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), (Braunwald, Zipes, Libby, Bonnow, 2005, Gavrila-Ardelean, 2008). The

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Education and public health acute AMI mortality has been reduced in the last few years on: better education of the population in terms of addressability in cardiovascular emergencies (awareness of symptoms and time of "golden time"), addressability to health services - providing technical resources, economic and human resources specialist. 2. The purpose of the paper This paper intends to analyzed and to achieve a forecast, for the next 7 years, until 2013 of: the population, the specific mortality and the number of the lost years as a consequence of this pathology, in order to improve the management of health services in AMI, the identification of the sanitary education level and the patients who show great factors of cardiovascular risk, the logistics of ambulance assistance on case of coronary emergencies (acute myocardial infarction with an over variation of the ST segment, the introduction of the possibility of prehospital thrombolysis/of the percutaneous coronary intervention), for an efficient prophylaxis and therapy, reducing the specific indicators of AMI mortality and the social-professional reinstatement of the patient. 3. The objectives of the research In Arad, in 2002 for example, at a population of 462.427 citizens, the mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases has been more superior to the specific cardiovascular mortality, in Romania, and it was recorded at values which went beyond the standardized World Health Organisation (WHO) mortality rate for cardiovascular diseases. The mortality, too, due ischemic cardiopathy in the same year, represented 30% of all the deaths as a result of cardiovascular diseases (WHO, 2002). Taking into account these observations, I have started a wide evaluative research of: mobidity and specific mortality from acute coronary disease, acute myocardial infarction in those Arad county and correlation with the number of lives saved by a prospective assessment for the next 7 years, if not improve the education of patients that geographic area in order adresabilitii and increase accessibility to specialized health services, and improve the management of health services in AMI, in Arad.

Education and public health 4. Materials and working method There has been made a database using: the informational and the written records of the ambulance service from Arad, the informational records of the demographic data from the University Hospital from Arad, the registers with the consultations/hospitalizations belonging to the Hospitals Emergency Unit, observation files of the hospitalized patients from the Department of Intensive Coronary Therapy (ICT), the evidence register with cases of thrombolysis, from the ICT section. The cases have been researched taking into account the following criteria: the stable residence in Arad, at the beginning of the research, residence in the last 20 years in Arad, the existence of the precipitant factors in the etiopathogenesis of the acute myocardial infarction, initial presumption diagnosis: acute myocardial infarction, STEMI positive diagnosis confirmed by at least 2 of the OMS classic criteria, the clinical beginning is below 6 hours for the patients eligible to fibrinolysin, the creation of 2 equal groups, statistically speaking, regarding AMI cases of patients with thrombolysis and without thrombolysis, the evaluation of the thrombolytic therapys efficiency applied precociously in AMI, the number of the lives saved (deaths recoded for 1 day, 30 days, and 1 year). The paper also presents a study made on a number of 307 patients who had been given the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction with over variation of the ST segment, in 2000-2006. Out of all these cases, a number of 125 patients have been administered fibrinolytic therapy and 182 havent been administered this therapy. These patients have received the conventional medications used for AMI, and some of them have benefited from an interventional disobstruction, according to different indications. The fibrinolytic therapy was decided upon according to the indications and counter-indications of the American Health Association (Alexander, Newby, all, 2007). The statistical analysis of the whole group has been made according to a variety of items. 5. Data processing and validation In order to process the data, there had been used statistical and graphical programs: SPSS 12.0 and 14.0 for Windows, EXCEL, EPIDATA.

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Education and public health 6. Definitions of the terms used and the legend The terms used are specific of the epidemiological studies. There have been presented the types of the studies used, the distribution, the risk rates, the variation of a measure made at random, the standard deviation, the analysis of ANOVA variation, the test of the statistics significance and the statistics significance (p), the interval of confidence, the statistical power of a research. 7. Additional research for interdisciplinary areas The methods of research used for the epidemiological diseases, which are not contagious for the population study, have set up a relation between the operative of the primary intervention the thrombolytic therapy, mortality the success rate. The quantitative and qualitative data have been used as statistical units. Due to the fact that in the research of morbidity there is always difference between the evident, subjective, diagnosed, declared, recorded, known examination and the real level of the affection of the population, I have chosen to refer to the medium error calculation (the standard error), the application of the statistical significance tests and the establishment of the trust level, when it came to discuss the results. 8. Results The death rates due to cardiovascular ischemic disease for the population of Arad, in 2000-2006, shows a linear increase along with the age for both sexes, but strongly to the male sex. In Arad, the AMI incidence increases on case of young men that belong to the urban society. From all the patients who had called for an ambulance in case of an AMI symptomatology, only 41% have received thrombolytic treatment. The management of the patients who suffer from acute myocardial infarction shows an average period of at least 3 hours from the start of the symptoms and the transport to the hospital, most patients arrive at the hospital around 12-14-15 p.m. Thrombolytic therapy improves very much the evolution of the patients who suffer from AMI, leading to a decrease of mortality, for a short period of time. In case of AMI, the thrombolytic therapy must be applied with the shortest time possible since its start (Braunwald, 2005). For the study groups, there is the statistical significance below the setting 381

Education and public health up of thrombosis in less than 2 hours since the start of the AMI symptoms as compared to a period of 5 hours and even more, reported to death in case of 1 day to 30 days, being recommended the fibrinolysin therapy in less than 1 hour from the beginning of AMI in order to improve the LV performance (FE over 40% to 48% from the thrombolytic patients) and the survival. The application of the thrombolytic treatment, as soon as possible, after the beginning of the symptoms, ensures a high efficiency, and it offers the possibility of a normal coronary flow. The hospitalization periods lasts, on an average, for 6 days compared to 11 days in case of the witness group, due to a better evolution of a myocardial post infarction. The comparison between the deaths and the lost years of life, taking into account the 32 sexes and the age, shows that specific mortality caused by cardiovascular diseases is inversely proportional to the lost years of life for the OMS age classes, most of those who still have chance, belong to the male population, being 45-55 years old. It has been noticed a general decrease in the population of Arad, in 2000-2006, but it is also forecast that in the next 7 years the decrease \ will continue: 2007-2013. One can also take into account that every fertile female who died, could have given birth to 1-2 children, consequently it is estimated a general decrease among those people who are between 30-50 years old. Studies show that the number of deaths recorded between 20002006 increased slowly with age, but the decrease in the number of people in the following 7 years would be marked by an affection of the population, that is between 30-50 years old. Conclusions: The information and education of the citizens, especially of those with a coronary risk, in order to recognize the emergency and to address themselves to the medical services/call 112, with GPS, so that the beginning of the AMI symptoms the call 112 to be reduced to 1 to 5 minutes, and the duration of the transport to hospital should take less than 8 minutes, in order to perform the thrombolysis in less than 30 minutes from the beginning of the acute myocardial infarction. The coordination and assurance of an efficient relation between: the family physician, the doctor on the ambulance, and the doctor of UPU, reported in health education. 382

Education and public health References: Alexander K.P.,Newby L.K., Armstrong P. W.,Cannon C.P., GilblerW.B., Rich M.W., Van de Werf F., White H.D., WeaverW.D., Naylor M.D., Gore J.M.,Krumholz H.M., Ohman E.M.: Acute Coronary Care in the Eldery, Part II: ST- Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals from the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology: In Collaboration with the Society of Geriatric Cardiology Circulation, 2007; Braunwald E., Zipes D.P., Libby P., Bonnow R.O. (ed): ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Pathology, Pathophysiology and Clinical Features; Management in Heart Disease, a Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, W.B. Saunders Company, 7th ed., 2005; Gavrila-Ardelean, M.F, Social policies for health: health insurance, contributions to health services management, University Publishing House "Aurel Vlaicu", Arad, 2008; WHO: Reducing risks, Promoting Healthy Life, World Health Report, Geneva, 2002.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 384-386

Screening and prevention of professional diseases

Mihaela GAVRIL-ARDELEAN Aurel Vlaicu University Arad Abstract: This study theorizes that an early detection of the premenstrual dysphoric disorder can prevent cervical cancer in young women. U.S conducted studies have shown that PMS related symthoms such as irritability, anxiety, hypersensitivity to rejection, decreased interest in social activities, lack of energy, sleep disturbances (insomnia or hypersomnia) have negatively influenced labor productivity, workplace relations and social activities. The analysis of these sympthoms can reveal the severity of the syndrome. Relations of predictability have been established between PMS, workplace productivity and cervical cancer on a sample group monitored for six months. Keywords: premenstrual symptoms (PMS), screening, prevention, cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is a serious chronic disease of great medicosocial importance with very severe evolution, especially when diagnosed in advanced stages. The importance of the problem stems from the fact that cervical neoplasm is a leading cause of death of the female population. Cervical cancer is one of the most common female cancer, with a high mortality in advanced stages, justifying efforts nationally and internationally to study this disease. The cervix can easily examine clinical colposcopic and cytological. These investigations conducted systematically, half were based screening, leading to the discovery of the disease in its earliest stages (stage 0/in situ), which are up 100% curable. Unfortunately in our country-stage cervical cancer is curable unsatisfactory. Currently, cervical cancer causes are unknown, being criminalized a number of contributory factors relating to the body or complex operating environment and, simultaneously or sequentially.

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Education and public health Among the factors related to the body, a high percentage is the reproductive hormonal profile of the host, knowing that the increased risk of cervical cancer occurs in adolescence and continues up to 50 years. Studies in large groups of patients (Melamed and colab.-1969 Ribbo, Keebler and Wied, 1971) but did not provide convincing evidence. It is considered that the patients with cancer of the cervix is more frequently found a degree of delay in the climax, with a relative extension of the period of genital activity and especially preclimax period (hormonal storm) that could pave the way for invasive cancer. Women's age is another risk factor unchangeable epidemiological studies demonstrated that shows that the distribution by age cervical cancer is an ascending curve decade from 20-29 years, peaking in the decade 45-54 years, after which decreases. And genetic factors, family has been shown in cervical cancer. Some studies (Nilsen-Clemensen-1957, Harvard and Hauge, 1963) showed that there was no coincidence between the twin cervical cancer and no family possible involvement of a factor. Other studies show that genetic changes can occur well before the histology, which would allow the movement of the precocity of diagnosis. Among the modifiable risk factors include: smoking (Winkelestein, 1977), immunosuppressive medication administered for long periods of time, feeding behavior, etc. The early symptoms of cervical cancer we sought dysphoric disorder issues, which include: feelings of sadness or despair to thoughts of suicide, feelings of tension or anxiety, panic attacks, mood swings, bouts of crying persistent irritability or nervousness affecting others, disinterest in daily activities and relationships, difficulty thinking and concentrating, fatigue or low energy, appetite changes, sleep disturbances, lack of control, physical symptoms (bloating, breast tension, headache, joint or muscle pain). This study starts from the premise that early detection, screening type, the premenstrual dysphoric disorder type questionnaire standardized tests can predict cervical cancer in young women. Studies conducted in the U.S. noted that there are psychological symptoms of PMS as irritability, anxiety, hypersensitivity to rejection, decreased interest in social activities, lack of energy, sleep disturbances 385

Education and public health (insomnia or hypersomnia) have influenced in a negative way labor productivity, labor relations in rural intercolegiale and social activities. These can be quantified for the diagnosis of the severity of the syndrome (Hohn, 1999). We have established certain interelations of predictivity (Hohn, 2007) between PMS, items para (gynecological examination, examination Papa Nicolau, etc..), productivity at work and cervical cancer, trying on them to achieve a prevention neoplasm women employed in field work through a six-monthly monitoring scheme (Gavril, Gavril, Grivu, 2008). The study is underway in the county of Arad, realizing such studies and in Timisoara and other cities west of the country, in order to assess the situation compared to the regional level. Bibliography: Mihai Hohn, Elemente statistice n analiza fenomenelor psihice, Ed. Viaa Ardean, 1999; Mihai Hohn, Metodologia cercetrii n psihologie, vol II, Ed. UVT, 2009; Mihaela Gavril A., Liviu Gavril A., Ovidiu Nicolae Grivu, Dezvoltarea comunitar, n Biblioteca Dezvoltrii comunitare, Ed. UAV, 2008.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 387-394

Education and public health deterioration in the perception of food and behaviour after 1996, in Arad County. Introduction Obesity is a medical condition in which excessive the Body mass index has adverse effects on health [1]. Body mass index (BMI) is a measure that compares height and weight, defined as persons overweight with BMI between 25 kg/m2 and 30 kg/m2 and obese if it exceeds 30 kg/m2. Health problems: cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, sleep breathing disorders, cancers, osteoarthritis [2]. Causes: diet, lack of physical activities, genetic susceptibility, endocrine disorders, medication and mental illness. Hypothesis Increasing obesity phenomenon is being caused by: 1."obesity packages, resulting in: superdense food, increased sedentarism in humans, aggressive advertising campaigns for products with unhealthy potential [4].; 2.other favourable possible causes of obesity: insufficient sleep, endocrine disorders, especially caused by environmental pollutants that interfere with lipid metabolism; drug consumption, late pregnancy, epigenetic risk factors that transcend over generations, natural selection for those with high BMI [3]. In our study we followed some of these elements. Objective To measure obesity prevalence and risk factors for obesity in the Arad county population. Material. Questionnaires to determine BMI for population aged 514 and over 15. The sample criteria were: age / three categories/4-9, 1014 and over 15 years, gender (M / F) and residential environment U / R. Methods. Randomized cross sectional study to determine obesity prevalence in 30 clusters, the sample set to 2400 people, by directly interviewing and completing the questionnaires for the three age 388

Obesity in Arad county. Prevalence and risk factors

Dana NEGRU, Gabriela TARLE, George RADULESCU, Laura NICOLESCU, Daniela POPA Arad Public Health Department, Romania, Arad, Vasile Goldis Street No.5 Abstract: This paper measures the prevalence and risk factors for obesity having as a designated target the population of Arad county. It uses a randomized cross sectional study organized in 30 clusters, the sample being set to 2400 people, by directly interviewing and filling out questionnaires for three age categories: ages 5-9, 10-14 and over 15. Results: one in six respondents is obese and one in two is overweight. Every five years, the percentage of overweight and obese people born after 1996 is doubled. There is an inverse relationship between the education level of the respondent and BMI. Population generally considers itself as having ideal food resources (42%) and, even so, 47.7% are overweight or obese. Overweight persons have a stronger desire to change their eating behaviors than other categories. Only 26% of the population actively practices sports . Conclusions: there is a major deterioration in the perception of food and eating behaviors registered after 1996 in Arad County. Keywords: obesity, behavior, risk factors, overweight This paper measure obesity prevalence and risk factors for obesity in the Arad county population, using a randomized cross sectional study to in 30 clusters, the sample set to 2400 people, by directly interviewing and completing the questionnaires for the three age categories, age 5-9, 10-14 and over 15 years. Results: one in six is obese and one in two is overweight in Arad County. In every five years, the percentage of overweight and obese in general population born after 1996 is doubled. There is an inverse relationship between education level and BMI. Population largely considers itself having ideal food resources (42%) and, even so, 47.7% are overweight or obese. Overweight persons have a stronger desire to change their food behaviour than other categories. Only 26% of population partake in sports .Conclusions: there is a major

Education and public health categories, 34 questions for people over 15 years / and then extend those for children with the responders parents, total 282 items / over 15 years, processed with SPSS 12.0 for Windows and MedCalc. For CI 95% the acceptable error was under 2.5%. In determining the sample we followed five steps: 1.Calculation of basic sample x n t p(1-p) = m n = sample size desired t = 95% confidence level (standard value 1.96) p= estimated obesity prevalence in the area m = 5% error (standard value 0.05) 2 .Design effect. Being an anthropometric study, we used the cluster criterion. To correct the difference in design, the obtained sample size was multiplied by D (Design effect), which is 2 for nutrition studies. 3 Contingency .Sample was increased by 5-8%, in order to cover non responders or recording error situation. 4. Distribution of observations. Thirty is the number of clusters recommended by WHO (EPI Cluster Surveys) [5], and we obtained the number of persons per cluster by dividing the number of localities selected sample, ie 52 observations for each cluster, for people over 15 years, then calculated the same for group 5-14 years. 5. Setting the cluster area: housing surrounding, churches, schools, supermarkets, industrial plants. Results A. Obesity Prevalence . I. There were validated 2437 questionnaires for general population. Respondents were 52.8% male and 47.2% female, (p <0.0001), obese 15%, overweight 32.7%, normal weight 48.7%, underweight 3.6%. Conclusions: One in six is obese and one in two is overweight in Arad. 389

Education and public health II. There were validated 425 questionnaires for age group 5-9 years. Respondents were 52.5% male and 47.5% female (p = 0.0212), 18.4% obese, overweight 18.8%, normal weight 55.3%, underweight 7.5%. Conclusions: One in five children is obese, one in five children 5-9 years is overweight. III. There were validated 417 questionnaires for age group 1014. Respondents were 49.6% male and 50.4% female (p = 0.0113), obese 6.5%, overweight 12.3%, normal weight 78.2%, underweight 2.6%. Conclusion: One in fifteen children 10-14 years is obese, one in eight children is overweight. IV There were validated 842 questionnaires for age groups 5-9 years and 10-14 years. Respondents were 48.6% female, 51.4% male, (p = 0.0010), 12.5% obese, overweight 15.8%, normal weight 66.6%, underweight 5.1%. Conclusion: One in eight children 5 - 14 is obese, one in six children is overweight. V There were validated 1595 questionnaires for over 14 years. Respondents were 55.0% female, 45.0% male (p <0.0001), 16.3% obese, overweight 41.7%, normal weight 39.2%, underweight 2.8%. Conclusions: One in six people over 14 years is obese, one in two people over 14 is overweight. B. General characteristics of the sample population of Arad county. 1.Age. We see an increase in body mass index with age. The percentage of people 20-29 years reaches 78.4% normal weight, age beyond 50 years the percentage of overweight and obese to 75%. Marriage seems to be favourable for overweight. But the prospect is worrying us: if for subgroup 15 to 19 years the overweight and obesity rate reaches 10%, 10-14 years subgroup lower reaches 18.8% for overweight and obese! So those born between 1996-2000 have from the start a handicap of 1 to 5 against their future health status! (Perhaps, however, it is an "historical accident"?) . 5-9 years subgroup should validate or refute the morbid hypothesis ... Indeed it seems an incredible percentage of overweight and obesity: 37.2%. That is, those born between 2001-2005 reach double the percentage of overweight and obese born five years before! That means there is 390

Education and public health a major deterioration in the perception of food and behaviour after 1996, coupled with sedentary activities for children and teenagers. For children 5-9 years, the responses revealed statistical significance: children who eat only twice a day, most are underweight (p = 0.030); sugar intake between 50-100 g daily is common for overweight / obese (p = 0.019); daily consumption of meat contributes to overweight (p = 0.018); between children who eat fruit three times daily, most are of normal weight (p = 0.029); the highest consumption of fats occurs in obese (p = 0.002); the highest percentage of obese children are in families where the fathers education do not exceed 12 grades. (p = 0.042); advertising matters for parents of obese children and does not matter for those with normal weight children (p = 0.001). For children 10-14 years old, statistically significant responses are: sugar intake between 50-100 g daily is common for overweight / obese (p = 0.005); vegetables intake is lower in obese (p = 0.003); higher intake of cereals is in the normal weight persons(p = 0.003); daily intake of meat is in obese (p = 0.006); the highest intake of juices /sweet drinks occurs in obese (p = 0.000); sweet drinks costs matter for parents of overweight children, which means excessive consumption in the family (p = 0.031); overweight / obese often eat chips and fast food products (p = 0.009); most parents who do not know the protein content of food have underweight children (p = 0.009); most parents who do not know that additives are carcinogenic have obese children (p = 0.043); most parents who do not know that obesity is a disease have overweight children (p = 0.004) For persons over 14 statistically significant responses are: those with normal weight have more accurate food preferences (p = 0.008); normal weight people have more food aversions (p = 0039; overweight and obese persons prefer fatty foods (p = 0.004); underweight persons have depression rate risk 4.8889 times higher than normal weight ones (p = 0.000); normal weight persons eat fruits three times per day (p = 0002); overweight record excessive consumption of sweets (p = 0.005); normal weight persons consume the largest quantities of cereals (p = 0.006); overweight persons 391

Education and public health record hypertension, dyslipidemia , stroke as a consequence of obesity (p = 0.000); obese record diabetes as a consequence of obesity (p = 0.006); between those who follow medication antipsychotic, antidepressant and insulin, most are overweight / obese (p = 0.000); those with normal weight were more educated (p = 0.000); most obese were 12 classes, are workers or retired (p = 0.000); stress is recognized by the three BMI categories (underweight/ overweight / obese) as having a role in body weight through mechanisms and with different effects. (p = 0.0445); stress does not appear in relation with exterior aspect (p <0.0001), only for those not married (p = 0.0019); overweight is higher in men than in women (1.3490); there is no difference between the prevalence of obese / overweight in relation to living environment (rural / urban); overweight believes that genetic background is responsible for body weight (p <0.0488); marriage-related stress affects body weight (p <0.0001); over 10% of normal/ overweight/obese does not believe that obesity is a disease(p <0.006), 2.Gender. Half of women (43.6%) falls within the normal weight, compared with 33.8% men. 3.Marital Status. There are 7.5 obese and overweight married persons to every unmarried one 4. Residence Area. There are no differences in terms of food behaviour and BMI abnormalities between rural and urban areas. 5.Level of education. There is an inverse relationship between education and BMI. C. Food behaviour in Arad County Arad population considers itself having material resources for "ideal" food components(42%) . The practice of physical sports is made daily for 26% of subjects. The main forms are walking (72%) and team games (17.3). Smoking defines 27% of sample subjects plus an additional 8% occasional smokers. Arad smokers (65%) reach the group 392

Education and public health overweight / obesity rate of 59%, increased by 3-4% percent compared to smokers of 20 cigarettes per day. Arad population eats because of: hunger (84%), taste (47%), smell (41%), preferences (27%), price of products (18%), tradition (17%) and advertising (9 %), packaging (7%). The reasons why people eat are: meeting a need (81%), pleasure (37%), pleasant smell of food (27%), celebrating an event (18%). But, relaxation, boredom, happiness, anger, and depression, are all reasons to eat as a percentage of less than 7% each. As expected, obese people considered that the main reason to eat is pleasure. Regarding the consequences of obesity, that contribute to the emergence of various diseases, a higher percentage of obese persons consider that these diseases occur because of obesity. Conclusion One in six is obese and one in two is overweight in Arad. In every five years, the percentage of overweight and obese in general population born after 1996 is doubled. Women manage to keep the weight balance far better than men. There is an inverse relationship between education level and BMI. Population largely considers itself having ideal food resources (42%) and, even so, 47.7% are overweight or obese. Overweight persons have a stronger desire to change their food behaviour than other categories. Only 26% of population partake in sports . Obese people know (in a higher percentage than other categories) of that obesity contributes to the development of various diseases, but without considering obesity as a disease. There is a major deterioration in the perception of food and behaviour after 1996, in Arad County. References: Haslam DW, James WP (2005). "Obesity". Lancet 366 (9492): 1197209. Bray GA (2004). "Medical consequences of obesity". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (6): 25839 393

Education and public health Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, et al. (March 2009). "Bodymass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies". Lancet 373 (9669): 108396 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (June 2003). "Behavioral counseling in primary care to promote a healthy diet: recommendations and rationale" Am Fam Physician 67 (12): 25736 R. B. Rothenberg, A. Lobanov, K. B. Singh, G. Stroh, Observations on the application of EPI cluster survey methods for estimating disease incidence, Bulletin ofthe WorldHealth Organization, 63 (1): 93 - 99 (1985)

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Physical education and sports

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 397-404

Physical education and sports Meeting the ideal of becoming a champion, but not paying any price, for social accomplishment, involves a scientific organization in sports activity. The trainer is not allowed to neglect the discipline of sports, the value of training and competition model, the sports recovery system, the trainer competence and education. Besides, Sports is defined as a formative science of human only if it is used the anthropological, genetics, physiology, psychology, biomechanics data. 2. Types of selection For circumscribing the value groups, those who practice sports for high performance or those who perform for benefic effect, we will use the notions from sports science regarding selection. Methodology of selection, its mechanisms and criteria shows that biological criteria are often top priority, but not determinant, and have value that cannot be neglected taking in consideration the time evolution. The positive experience concerning selection, from didactical and operational, biological and sportive points of view, implies a three levels approach: * primary (initial), * secondary (pubertal), * final (for performance). Each stage contents indices which have to be registered and analyzed in order to have a clear image of sportsman evolution and possibilities. Staging the selection in three levels is determined by the biological age of sportsmen and by the sports branch. The stages can be others that those presented in this study, according to different approaches of the model wanted to be reach. 2.a. Primary selection in bodybuilding starts around 14-15 years, especially among those young men who exercised and have a good health condition. 2.b. Secondary selection can be done around 18 years old, when it can be noticed the individual development. This stage takes in consideration the post-pubertal changes which can guarantee or not the sportsman future performance. 2.c. Final selection takes place around 20 years, when the somatic biotype is stabilized on the line of bone growth. This stage permits a high performance approach. 398

General concepts relating to selection in bodybuilding

Viorel Petru ARDELEAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: It is a well known fact that in order to achieve high performances in sports, the athlete should be discovered as early on in his career as possible in order to better match his athletic qualities to his intended field of sporting discipline. I consider that a good selection based on scientific criteria can guide us towards finding the suitable persons for practicing different sports. The proper selection criterion holds true especially for bodybuilding since it is known that childrens bodies undergo a fast developing stage and we must ensure proper protection against possible accidents, postural deformation or any other physical or mental stress inducing factors. In this paper I intend to show that there are some techniques which can help trainers, instructors and others who are involved in sports, and especially in bodybuilding, to achieve a good selection and a more efficient process of training. Keywords: selection, bodybuilding, muscular development, health, measurements. 1. Introduction Individual motricity potential offers the perspective of high performances. The selection of sports talent, at a very early age, determines the sportsman future, in proportion of 70%. No doubt that the sportsman needs a strong motivation. According to Dragnea A. (1999:27), the selection is defined as the researchers` systematic activity, developed and based on biological, psychological and pedagogical criteria, in order to detect the children with special skills for practicing different sports.

Physical education and sports During these stages the training process takes place, in concordance to law of training technology, based on the fact that the training is done on appropriate coordinate. This fact can be formed following some investigations similar to medical-sportive anamnesis and to other complex investigations (chromosomal formula, muscular biopsies) which give us objective data about sportsman potential in bodybuilding. 3. Sportsman health or sanogenesis Sanogenesis is a set of criteria permanently found in different stages of selection. In primary stage of selection, it can be chosen only healthy people. This fact can be establish only after a medical consultation and the future sportman has to be informed about the sports he/she is going to practice. Usually, in the primary selection, the physicians investigate childhood rheumatic, neuro-psychic disorders (epilepsy, spastics), metabolic problems, cardio-vascular diseases, hepatorenal syndroms, deformations of locomotor apparatus, endocrine diseases, visual field defects, etc. Especially in bodybuilding, health is important. Diseases of locomotor apparatus, ankylosing spondylitis, PCE, RSB, physical deficiencies like scoliosis, severe cifolordose, are reasons for expelling individuals from practicing bodybuilding. (A. Girau, 1996) Compulsory investigations will be done in exercise conditions, determining health degree of individuals. Sanogenesis is efficient in the next stages and even after abandonment. Periodical investigations will lead to conclusions regarding sportsman health and will offer a good evaluation of his functional abilities. 4. Somatic types of individuals This study is based on multidiscipline researches made in the training rooms, and on some scholar researchers, a Weider School approach. It is necessary to take in consideration William H. Sheldon`s opinion when we make a somatic analysis. The researcher states that in 399

Physical education and sports every individual appear three elements of construction, their nomination linking with foils development: embryonic-endomorphic, mezomorphic and ectomorphic, even if it is well-known that not every tissue come form the same embryonic foil. According to Sheldon, the individuals are classified in three somatic types: 4.A) endomorph type short, heavy bones, round physic, undeveloped muscles, weigh loss is difficult. Exercising, he gains muscular mass, but this cannot be value because of the subcutaneous fat layer. 4.B) ectomorph type delicate built body, lean, tall, thin bones, long muscles. 4.C) mezomorph type - athletic, hard body, muscular body, narrow hips. The skeleton is strong, well defined muscles. Mezomorph type is the ideal type for competition bodybuilding, but it can not be excluded the other types, which guided, can obtain remarkable results. Sheldon suggests that somatotype is genetic conditioned and this will not suffer modification during life. This classification of somatic types is appropriate as it is the selection criteria in bodybuilding. The somatic typology of Sheldon is based on a sample of 4000 students from US colleges and universities. Sheldon`s typology was widen so that to content the extreme type of gaining weight, type of muscles, exactly what we are interested in for bodybuilding ideal. 4.1. Muscles and type of muscular fibers An individual with a bigger number of muscular fibers will have the opportunity to develop strong and well defined muscles. Hystological and biochemical data obtained with the help of biopsy, enriched researches. There are red muscular fibers, rich in myofibrils. In some muscles prevail one or another type. We know the intermediary type of fibers. The Swedish scholars Karlsson and Thompson describe those fibers, classifying them: Type I of fibers with slow twitch (ST), the red fibers Type II if fibers fast twitch. Those are classified in two classes: 1. white, rapid fibers, named type II A, poorly perfused, with fast but short time twitch, design for anaerobic regime; 400

Physical education and sports 2. white, rapid fibers, type II B, richly perfused, with strong and longer time twitch and permit work in both anaerobic and aerobic regime; 3. intermediary fibers, type II C, for different regimes. These data obtained through muscular biopsy show that muscular fibers have genetic determinism, they hardly suffer modifications after different effort regimen. Using the data offered by muscular biopsy, we will know the biochemical and histological structure of sportsman muscle. Regarding the development of muscular mass, progress occurs when there are trained as many muscular fibers as possible, both red and white. In bodybuilding, selection of exercises and their planning have to take in consideration this aspect. In bodybuilding good results can be obtained very quickly with sportsmen who have a good anabolism because it is necessary for them to assimilate the nutritive substances easily. From those mentioned above we can draw the conclusion that there is a correlation between body type and sports performance. At the same time, we underlined only few significant factors in gaining performance in bodybuilding. 4.2. Another characterization of somatic types Knowing the body types, the genotype components of the sportsman is very important for sports activity. In bodybuilding terminology, besides the Sheldon classification of bodies, it is used another one, based on genetic criteria: Hard gainer is considered to be the individual genetically ungifted but this type is not excluded from the sportsmen and who can become performer if he works hard Easy gainer are those genetically gifted, having talent for bodybuilding, those who are genetically mega-superior and they are rare. The mega-superior has not the all ideal qualities for bodybuilding like: mezomorph type, ideal attaching point of muscles on the bone, neuromuscular maximal efficiency, maximal length of muscle and the necessary type and number of muscle fiber. The training session has to be based on knowledge of body type, on organism genetic potential in order to achieve good results and maximum efficiency. 401

Physical education and sports 5. Models of anthropometric measurements It will be necessary to establish an anthropologic diagram of the ideal sportsman derived from anthropometric, biochemical and genetic data. Knowing that bodybuilding is practice by males and females and the competitions are structured on weight and age, anthropologic diagram of the ideal sportsman has to contain selection standards. The training results and achievement of performance are conditioned by hereditary background, in proportion of 50%. Maximal genetic potential achievement depends on the training sessions planning. The last researches offer indices regarding the biologic model for bodybuilding males, structured on weight categories. John McCallum`s formula. It is used in bodybuilding, especially for the hard gainers because it sets up a model for body proportions. The formula starts from wrist, like in table below: No. Body part Standard measurements according to J. McCallum 6,5 x wrist 85% of chest 70% of chest 53% of chest 37% of chest 36% of chest 34% of chest 29% of chest

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Circumference of chest Hips circumference Buttocks Thighs Neck circumference Arms Legs Forearms

Table 1 . Formula for body segment proportions (John McCallum) For example, starting from the measurement of the wrist of 19 and 18 cm, it can be reach this muscular development:

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Physical education and sports 1. chest - 6,5 x 19 cm 2. hips - 123,5 x 0,85 cm 3. waist - 123,5 x 0,70 cm 4. thighs - 123,5 x 0,53 cm 5. neck - 123,5 x 0,37 cm 6. arms - 123,5 x 0,36 cm 7. legs - 123,5 x 0,34 cm 8. forearms - 123,5 x 0,29 cm 19 cm = 123,5 cm = 104,98 cm = 86,5 cm = 65,6 cm = 45,8 cm = 44,6 cm = 42,1 cm = 35,9 cm 18 cm 117 cm 99,5 cm 81,9 cm 61,3 cm 42,8 cm 41,6 cm 39,3 cm 33,5 cm

Physical education and sports No. Child age Weight 1. 11-13 years 30% of body weight 2. 13-15 years 50% of body weight 3. 15-17 years 75% of body weight 4. Over 17 years 100% of body weight Table 2: Table regarding weight and child age (Baroga L., 1977). We consider that Tudor Bompas opinion is correct: children at the beginning level have to attend low intensity training courses. The training sessions for young sportsmen have to focus on general development, without specific performances. (Bompa O. 2001: 220). Periodical investigations which supervise morphological development and health allow us to observe every modification or a body negative feed-back to stimulus and to act according to deontology because the trainers` priority is a good and healthy development for young sportsmen and to lead them toward high performances. Bibliography : Alexe Nicu, Antrenamentul sportiv modern, Editura Editis, Bucuresti 1993; Baroga Lazr, Haltere si culturism; Editura Sport - Turism , Bucuresti 1977; Baroga Lazr, Fora n sportul de performan; Editura Sport Turism , Bucuresti 1980; Bompa Tudor O., Periodizarea: Teoria si metodologia antrenamentului, Editura Tana , Bucuresti 2001; Voicu Alexandru-Virgil, Culturism , Editura Inter Tonic , Cluj Napoca, 1999.

Among other qualities mentioned above, there are necessary some qualities for a good stage presence, like: musical rhythm, musical hearing and grace. 6. Conclusions and suggestions The proper age for starting the training is a controversial issue in performance sports. For example, the sportsman and trainer and teacher, Lazar Baroga, states that about the ideal age for beginning the weight lifting: this can be explained, on one hand, by applying a methodical strategy in modern training like early specialization, and, on the other hand, by obtained performances of young weight lifters who often overcome the seniors` results. Thus, most of the scholars agreed that the trainings for force education can star at the age of 8-9 years and this was generalized over last years. Those who were against practicing weight lifting by children, imagined weights of hundreds of kilograms which stress the children joints and diminish their growth. The last researches in this field allow us to state that strength training, properly done, dont stop growth but, on the contrary, they help the children growth and development due to intensifying metabolism. It is necessary to take in consideration that some marks regarding the weights lifted by children. The training sessions can not be more than twice a week. Number of halves is 2 and no more than 6 exercises in a training session. In table 2, we can see the age of child and the recommended weight for training: 403

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 405-411

Physical education and sports characteristics. Actually, it is possible to evidence a gradual increase of gymnasiums, matching that to the necessity evidenced for current society, that search regular sport activity for the purpose of physical, mental and social health, having the search for this services considerable form increased throughout last years. For Brito and Alves (2002, p. 10) the search of gymnasiums make increases this type of industry becoming it sufficiently and very attractive to the investment. The new fitness activities appearance demanded a regular update necessity, concerning new trends in a very progressive market. The fitness activities, as are defined currently, in nothing are related with the ones that are practiced in beginning. The variety is raised, looking to satisfy the necessities of all the different practitioners. The first fitness group activity that appears was named Aerobic. In general way, all the fitness activities can be incorporated in individual activities and group activities (Ceragioli, 2008). The individual activities are monitories, guided and prescribed for an individual person according to their characteristics and personal objectives. As individual fitness activities we have Body Building, Cardiofitness and Personal Training. The group activities are practiced by many individuals that together form a group that will have to be faced by the instructor in its totality, through the junction of individual characteristics of all the members of the group. As group activities we have, among others, Step Aerobic, Hidro Gymnastic or Hip Hop. There are a lot of activities appearing, following practitioners motivations, for the necessity to be always in constant evolution, renewal or update. 3. The fitness group activities instructor The fitness instructor, with the practitioner and the administrator, is considered one of the main intervening in the fitness market, recognized as the three vertices of the service (Pinheiro & Pinheiro, 2006). The relation between instructor and practitioner was a line of study followed by some investigators that had intended to relate the personality and the behavior of the instructor with the practice indexes of accession in fitness activities. Wininger (2002) related exercise pleasure with the personality of the fitness instructor, according practitioners perceptions. He concluded physical condition, communication capacity and the relation instructor-practitioner are the variables that intervene with the 406

The fitness group activities instructor

Francisco Jos Ascenso CAMPOS Ricardo Jos ESPRITO SANTO DE MELO Escola Superior de Educao de Coimbra, Instituto Politcnico de Coimbra, Portugal Susana Carla ALVES FRANCO Escola Superior de Desporto de Rio Maior, Instituto Politcnico de Santarm, Portugal Abstract: This paper looks at how fitness activities fit inside a modern lifestyle and the benefits conveyed by such practices. It highlights the various types of fitness activities and their social determinants, theoretically analyzing the relationship between the trainer and the practitioner in order to successfully promote a functional, motivation oriented and expectation fulfilling environment. Keywords: fitness, health risks, motivational factors, instructor. 1. Introduction The life style of contemporary society is characterized by behaviors that, by themselves, constitute a serious risk for health. Tobacco and alcohol, uncontrolled diets and/or few physical activity practices are behaviors strictly related with main death causes in the modern days: cardiovascular diseases, as well as with the incapacity and/or reduction of quality of life (Terrados, 2003; Vasconcelos & Maia, 2001). Equally, concern with aesthetic, social interaction and social recognition of the importance of physical activity for an attainment of profits in health terms and improvement of quality of life have influenced some individuals in search of regular physical activity, through gymnasiums. 2. The fitness activities Fitness activity is a type of physical activity practice. It is possible to see a current existence of a strong and increasing market, with specific activities, distinguished from the other activities for its individual

Physical education and sports pleasure gotten by the practitioners. According to Sena (2008), the most frequent claims in gymnasium context are related with the instructor preparation, for what, it becomes necessary to demonstrate his technique abilities, contributing this way for attainment of previously established objectives. Another interesting aspect is the physical appearance. Sena (2008) say that all fitness instructors must have a special attention to his image. A high level of competence, amusement, satisfaction and motivation are some of the factors that move practitioners to join and remain in practice, having the instructor an extremely important paper. The instructor quality and the leadership type are some of the most important aspects that practitioners identify in programs that they prefer (Blanco, Sicilia, Gil, Roca, & Snchez, 2003). The instructor has to adapt a behavior to practitioners intention through dynamism (Cloes, Laraki, Zatta, & Piron, 2001; Franco, Cordeiro, & Cabeceiras, 2004), amusement (Hernndez & Murgua, 2003; Silva & Silva, 2003), motivation (Bray, Gyurcsik, Culos-Reed, Dawson, & Martin, 2001; Cloes et al., 2001; Franco et al., 2004) and communication (Wininger, 2002). The fitness group instructor must know as much characteristics as they can about the practitioners, which will help on the process of taking the appropriate decision in each moment. He must always consider the hypothesis that not all the practitioners are motivate or excited for what motivates him. His personality has an extremely important paper in the development of its classes. The empathy relation must be positive, having the instructor to move the practitioners in an enthusiastic way, creating an adequate involvement and revealing good expectations (Snchez, 1999). He must disclose the fact that having charisma, dominate technique movement, as musical technique are not enough to be successful. It has been shown that human relation and social behavior are very important for good performance, however, we do not intend with this to affirm that the methodology component does not have importance. Brito and Alves (2002, p. 10) alert us that fitness professional fast growth locks up the danger that they have not the demanded formation for a correct intervention and adapted to the practioners. 407

Physical education and sports The instructors and practitioners have the potential to exert between themselves positive and/or negative influences, being essential a good relation to create a good environment inside of a class, since that these relations have sufficient influence on the participants involvement (ACSM, 2001). Although in an initial phase, gymnasiums must evaluate the expectations of the practitioners as well as proper capacity in supplying the waited service, so that, corresponding to intended one, to organize and delineate a service with quality, inside of the indicated standards. The practitioners expectations guide, among others, the structure, planning and/or budget of any gymnasium (ACSM, 2001). 4. Conclusions A quality fitness group activities instructor must develop abilities to keep practitioners in their classes, manipulating the factors that influence participation. This knowledge will allow developing and implementing strategies to maximize it. The instructor actual great challenge is to create classes where is possible to practitioners be successful and satisfy their personal issues and needs. The knowledge of the factors that promote satisfaction in fitness practitioners is an important factor considered in the direction of qualitative increase market (Theodorakis, Alexandris, Rodriguez, & Sarmento, 2004). Considering that quality perception is related to personal satisfaction (Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, & Bryant, 1996; Spreng, MacKenzie, & Olshavsky, 1996) and service fidelity (Theodorakis et al., 2004; Zeithalm, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996), these strategical factors must be considered with extreme relevance for survival and success in this professional competitive context (Zeithalm et al., 1996). The instructors need to interiorize that what they say and they make have a tremendous impact on the environment of their classes. The motivational component of the instructor must provoke new behaviors, however, the motivation does not obtain for itself that practitioners remain in their classes much more time (Kennedy, 2000). Effectively, to give a good class is a very important aspect and a challenge for him. Its ability makes that he carefully draws programs and adopt pedagogical strategies to motivate practitioners to practice continue (Francis & Seibert, 2000). His challenge is to encourage the continuous participation of practitioners with his attitude, personality 408

Physical education and sports and behavior, in general, strong motivation factors to influence participation on physical activity practice (Young & King, 2000). One of the actual concerns in fitness market is the installment of a quality service that leads to the satisfaction of its practitioners (Papadimitriou & Karteroliotis, 2000). The instructor is a direct actor on a service that must be considered in the increase of its general quality (Murray & Howat, 2002; Papadimitriou & Karteroliotis, 2000). The instructors has an important paper concerning the practitioners, for amusement, satisfaction and motivation that they impose to keep them in practice, since the qualities of the instructor and its style of leadership the most important factors that the practitioners identify. The quality assumes a role of prominence, becoming one of the main factors to contemplate in this kind of service (Barreira & Carvalho, 2007). The gradual growth up of the fitness market provided the sprouting of a new service where it is more and more contemplated the quality given service (Barreira & Carvalho, 2007), for what, a well formed and competent academic fitness group activities instructor will differentiate itself from its pairs for its professional and pedagogical intervention. References: American College of Sports Medicine (2001). ACSM Resource manual guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Barreira, C., & Carvalho, A. (2007). A realidade portuguesa do conforto em instalaes de fitness. O que mudar? Motricidade, 3 (2), 69-80. Blanco, R., Sicilia, A., Gil, M., Roca, J. & Snchez; F. (2003). Desarrollo de un programa de adherencia en las escuelas deportivas de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Fsica y del Deporte de Granada. Presentado en Congresso Mundial de Ciencias de la Actividad Fsica y el Deporte - Deporte y Calidad de Vida, Granada. Bray, S., Gyurcsik, N., Culos-Reed, S., Dawson, K. & Martin, K. (2001). An exploratory investigation of the relationship between proxy efficacy, self-efficacy and exercise attendance. Journal of Health Psychology, 6 (4), 425-434. Brito, A., & Alves, J. (2002). Desporto e consumo 1969 - 2001, Debate: Desporto. investigao & Cincia, 0, 5-10. Ceragioli, L. (2008). Ginstica aerbica. Cascais: Arte Plural. 409

Physical education and sports Cloes, M., Laraki, N., Zatta, S., & Piron, M. (2001). Identification des critres associs la qualit des instructeurs dArobic. Comparaison des avis des clients et des intervenants. In ARIS (Ed.). Actes du colloque Lintervention dans le Domaine des Activits Physiques et Sportives: Competence(s) en Mutation?. IUFM Grenoble. Fornell, C., Johnson, M., Anderson, E., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. (1996). The American customer satisfaction index: nature, purpose, and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60, 7-18. Francis, L., & Seibert, R. (2000). Teaching a group exercise class. In D. Green (Ed.), Group fitness instructor manual (pp. 179-204). San Diego: ACE. Franco, S., Cordeiro, V., & Cabeceiras, M. (2004). Perception and preferences of participants about fitness instructors profile Comparison between age groups and different activities. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, Clermont-Ferrand. Hernndez, L., & Murgua, D. (2003). La dimensin recreativa en gimnasia de mantenimiento. Presentado en Congresso Mundial de Ciencias de la Actividad Fsica y el Deporte - Deporte y Calidad de Vida, Granada. Kennedy, C. (2000). Group exercise program design. In D. Green (Ed.), Group fitness instructor manual (pp. 141-176). San Diego: American Council on Exercise. Murray, D., & Howat, G. (2002). The relationships among service quality, value, satisfaction, and future intentions of customer at an Australian sports and leisure centre. Sport Management Review, 5 (1), 25-43. Papadimitriou, A., & Karteroliotis, K. (2000). The service quality expectations in private sport and fitness centers: A reexamination of the factor structure. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 9 (3), 157-164. Pinheiro, I., & Pinheiro, R. (2006). Organizao cientfica do trabalho Reinventa um Mercado Tradicional: O caso do Fitness. Disponvel em Maro 7, 2009, de http://www.rae.com.br. Snchez, D. (1999). Bases para la enseanza del aerobic. Aspectos y recursos didcticos en el proceso de enseanza. Madrid: Gymnos 410

Physical education and sports Sena, P. (2008). Influencia de los factores sociales, ambientales y personales en la percepcin de los gimnasios. Tese de doutoramento no publicada, UV - Vigo. Silva, M., & Silva, N. (2003). Procura desportiva satisfeita e razes para o abandono da prtica desportiva na populao jovem da ilha do Faial. Ludens, 17, 11-19. Spreng, R., MacKenzie, S., & Olshavsky, R. (1996). A rexamination of the determinants of consumer satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 60, 15-32. Theodorakis, N., Alexandris, K., Rodriguez, P., & Sarmento, P. (2004). Measuring customer satisfaction in the context of Health Clubs in Portugal. International Sports Journal, winter, 44-53. Terrados, N. (2003). Medicina y fisiologa de la actividad fsica y del deporte. In J. Dosil (Ed.), Ciencias de actividad fsica y del deporte (pp. 187-225). Madrid: Sintesis. Vasconcelos, M., & Maia, J. (2001). Actividade fsica de crianas e jovens. Haver um declnio? Estudo transversal em indivduos dos dois sexos dos 10 aos 19 anos de idade. Revista Portuguesa de Cincias do Desporto, 3, 44-52. Wininger, S. (2002). Instructors and classroom characteristics associated with exercise enjoyment by females. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94(2), 395-398. Young, D., & King. A. (2000). Adherence and motivation. In D. Green (Ed.), Group fitness instructor manual (pp. 207-225). San Diego: American Council on Exercise. Zeithalm, V., Berry, L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 60, 31-46.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 412-420

The management of performance in sports by value analysis. an ergonomic perspective

Ioan GALEA "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: The purpose of the present survey is to develop the method of value analysis (V.A.) in sporting activities in order to improve performance in sports (P.S.). From the research it results clearly that, when attempting to obtain high performances, numerous factors need to be considered. From the perspective of sports ergonomy, all sporting activities represent systemic processes, aimed at obtaining a high level of performance. Keywords: value analysis, system, high performance, sports ergonomy. Introduction The present paper aims to develop the method of value analysis1 (V. A.) in sports, starting from the premise that all sports activities must be approached systemically and, at the same time, it represents a process whose result is performance. From this perspective, high performance is the result of several factors, whose control represents the very condition/premise of high performance in sports. The method of value analysis emerged and was perfected in the field of industrial engineering (Ioni, 1984). Our attempt to adapt it to the field of sports is inscribed in the line of the attempts aimed at finding new ways for optimizing sports activities (Colibaba, 2005). A few specifications need to be made regarding the terms employed.
1

If the method is applied to a product/service in project, the term used is value engineering; if it designates a product/service that exists, it is called value analysis.

411

Physical education and sports The term sports designates both motric structures differentiated by disciplines, branches and probe (Crstea, 1993) viewed as activities/processes in the widest sense of the term activity , and the totality of sports objects, equipments and facilities. From the point of view of sports ergonomy (Galea, 2007), the system consists of the interrelationship sportsman object environment, the main function of the system being high performance. In sports activities, the notion of high performance acquires numerous connotations, of which we shall present only the most relevant: Record represents the maximal performance of a specific action, the optimal result of an activity, its output being expressed by the ratio between the input and the output of the process. But high performance has less spectacular significances, too, namely: Conducting accident free sports activities can be appreciated as high performance in what regards the organizing of the activity, its safety, the appropriate equipment, etc. Similarly, eliminating bottlenecks from a training session or from a class of physical education, establishing the optimal ratio between the number of members for an organization and the type of activity conducted, can also be considered performance. What we can definitely assert is that high performance is the result of several associated factors, and that the term targets both the process and the result of an action. Developing the V.A. method in sports The notional framework of V.A. Value analysis considers that what must be analyzed is not the product/process/service itself, but rather, the functions included by design, and that these functions must satisfy the beneficiarys needs. The V.A. method aims at establishing an optimal ratio between the use value of the good/service analyzed (Vi) and the direct and indirect production costs it generates (Ct), and it can be expressed by the relation: Vi/ Ct = max (1) As the use value of a product/service is given by the use functions which satisfy the beneficiarys needs, it increases when those functions are accomplished better, with the lowest possible costs and without reducing the quality of the product/service, i.e.: 413

Physical education and sports Value = functions / cost or, Value = quality / cost (3) In this case, relation (1) becomes: (4) Fi / Ci = max, ( i = 1, 2, , n ) where: F the function of the product/service; C the cost corresponding to function i; i the ordinal number of the products/services function. In other words, the use (utility) value of a sports product/service is given by the functions the product or service has incorporated by design, i.e. its high performance is given by the manner in which the functions of the product/service answer certain needs. In the language of sports science, by relation (3) we understand: the main functions of a sports activity is given by the activitys quality, which means high performance obtained with the lowest possible cost, i.e. competitiveness. It must be noted that the V.A. method has its own system of classifying and hyerarchizing functions, while the analysis itself is guided by the following principles: the principle of functional analysis, the principle of double dimensioning of functions, the principle of maximizing the ratio between use value and cost, the principle of systemic approach of the use value2. Application of the V.A. method to sports products (equipment, facilities) is relatively simple; things seem to complicate when it is applied to processes/services (activities) pertaining to the domain of sports a domain that is multidisciplinary by excellence. For this aspect, sports ergonomy provides the proper conceptual framework. Sports ergonomy. Assessing performance Sports ergonomy is a cross-disciplinary domain whose subject is the relation established within the system sportsman equipment/appliances/facilities environment, aimed at optimizing performance. It develops a complex vision regarding the sportsmans relations with technology (sporting equipment), correlating the physiological, psychological, anthropometric, etc. factors, with those
2

(2)

For details, see Crum, 1976.

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Physical education and sports pertaining to the environment (humidity, heat, air pressure, noise, etc.), so as to obtain maximal output. I have specified in the introduction that performance is the result of the interaction of several factors pertaining to: the sportsman, the sports objects and the environment. Precise definition and hyerarchizing those factors gives us the premise for a qualitative assessment of the systems performance. In other words, the subject of sports ergonomy is the performance (P) of the system sportsman object3 environment, according to the relation: P= A BC (5) where: P represents the performance of the system; A represents the set of factors of the subsystem sportsman; B represents the set of factors of the subsystem object; C represents the set of factors of the subsystem environment; is an interrelationship operator. For example4: when we want to assess the efficiency (output, performance) of the following structure of exercises (used in the physical training of football players, for developing explosive force): 1 half-genuflexion (I=100%) + 4 jumps over hurdles from two legs on two legs (I=90%) + 5 m accelerated run + shot at the gate, we must take into consideration the fact that each of the players has a different level of the respective motric quality; that the equipment used must be configured according to the works intensity; that the structure of the exercises can be performed on the grass, on slag or synthetic surface; whether the temperature outside is 10 or 30 degrees Celsius; whether it is rainy or windy; the number of players; the work formations; the number of sports materials; etc. For each individual player, what percentage of his maximal abilities do the 100 kg weight of the dumbbell, or the 100 cm height of the fence represent? Are the players training shoes appropriate for the surface on which the structure is executed, so as to eliminate the
3

Physical education and sports risk of accidents? Are the duration and the content of the warm-up, the pauses between the repetitions, appropriate for the atmospheric conditions at the moment of training? From the perspective of sports ergonomy there is a permanent interrelationing among the factors pertaining to the three subsystems (sportsman sports objects environment), and their management is approached systemically. All these and not only these aspects, define a modern training session, in which the means (exercises) are adapted to the purpose (explosive force). No exercises (or structures of exercises) are good or bad, they can be efficient (optimal, performative, etc.) or inefficient, depending on the degree to which they have accomplished the purpose for which they were designed. This is how we must define the optimum of a sporting activity, which is another facet of high performance. The notional framework provided by sports ergonomy allows us to develop a V.A. method in sports also, and our survey focuses on sports activities in the sense of processes!, rather than of sports materials, equipments and facilities. The V.A. method in sports First of all, a table (table 2.1) has been elaborated, containing the main factors of the subsystems sportsman object environment. Table 2.1 Factors that make up the system "sportsman object environment" (suggestion).
SUBSYSTEM cod 1. Pulse SPH1 2. Blood pressure SPH2 PHYSIOLOGICAL 3. Max. volume O2/min. SPH3 (PH) 4. Amount of lactic acid in blood SPH4 5. Respiratory frequency SPH5 6. ... 1. Skills SPS1 A. SPORTIV(S) PSYCHIC (PS) 2. Personality features SPS2 3. Character SPS3 4. ... 1. Height SA1 2. Weight SA2 ANTROPOMETRIC 3. Size of body segments SA3 (A) 4. Angles SA4 FACTORS

For simplification, I have used the term object in the sense of both product (P) (sporting materials, equipment, appliances and facilities), process (p) (sporting activities, e.g. training sessions), and services (S) in the field of sports, according to table 2.1. 4 A structure adapted after Cometti, G. (2005).

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5. Age 6. Sex 7. 1. Sports objects 2. Sports materials 3. Sports equipments/facilities 4. Sports gear B. 5. Methodological procedure PRODUCT (P) 6. Energetic support PROCESS (p) 7. Methods of recovery SERVICE (s) 8. Information (PpS) 9. Organizational structure 10. Services 11. Relations with other structures 12. Advertising 13. 1. Pollutants 2. Noise 3. Illumination 4. Forms 5. Sizes C. ENVIRONMENT (M) 6. Chromatics 7. Temperature 8. Air pressure 9. Altitude 10. Weightlessness 11. Ecology 12. SA5 SA6 PpS1 PpS2 PpS3 PpS4 PpS5 PpS6 PpS7 PpS8 PpS9 PpS10 PpS11 PpS12 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 -

Physical education and sports If in relation (5) we replace notations according to table 2.1, we obtain the concrete contents of the factors that define the three subsystems, so that we get: (6) A = {SFi , Pj , An} where: S represents the set sportsman, which consists of three categories of factors, i.e.: Fi the physiological parameters of the set sportsman; Pj the psychological parameters of the set sportsman; An the anthropometric parameters of the sporting set; i,j,n the ordinal number corresponding to the category of factors, i.e.: A = SFi + SPj + SAn (7)

B = {PpSm}

(8)

where: PpSm represents the components of the set PRODUCT/PROCESS/SERVICE, and: C = {Ms} (9) where: Ms represents the components of the set ENVIRONMENT . If in relation (5) we replace notations according to table 2.1 suggested by us, the performance of system (P) becomes:
5 i =1 3 j =1 6 n =1 12 m =1 11

P : ( SFi + SPj + SAn ) ( PpSm) ( Ms)

S =1

(10)

Obviously, table 2.1 does not cover all the factors pertaining to the three subsystems; concrete circumstances that update high performance come to complete the set of factors which define the content of the subsystems (S, PpS and M).

Relation (10) represents the mathematical expression that records the basic aim of sports ergonomy: that of optimizing the performance of the system sportsman object environment; at the same time, it offers us the possibility of developing a value analysis for sporting activities. The main reason for research within V.A. surveys is that the functions performed by the analyzed sporting product/process/service can be fulfilled better and at lower costs, i.e. we can learn what functions are required to fulfill the conditions imposed for carrying out our purpose. 418

417

Physical education and sports One of the basic principles of V.A. is the principle of functional analysis, which starts from the premise that all products, processes, services are a cumulation of main and auxiliary functions. Thus, we must first of all define the main function of an activity (e.g. in the examples presented here, of the structure of exercises), the design, the configuration of the activity following after. Or, in the framework of sports ergonomy, this kind of analysis (V.A.) can only be accomplished, in a systemic perspective, considering all the factors involved. Starting from relation (10), which assesses the performance of a sporting activity qualitatively, and from the factors presented in table 2.1, the main function of a structure of exercises has the following mathematical expression: (11) Fp:(SF1,4+SP1+SA5) (PpS1,2,4) (M7) where: Fp represents the activitys main function, e.g. for the in football example above, a structure specific for developing explosive force in the lower limbs5; SF1 represents the pulse (F.C.), and it orients the intensity of the effort (maximal/sub-maximal), the pause between repetitions, etc.; SF4 the anaerobic work range (force in a regime of speed); SP1 each players level of motric quality explosive force; SA5 the category of age (junior, senior); PpS1 the sports objects (dumbbell, hurdle, ball); PpS2 the surface of execution (grass, slag, synthetic); PpS4 the sports gear (shoes, jump suit, shorts); M7 the environmental temperature. It is obvious that, in performing a V.A. analysis for the example presented here, we have taken into considerations only those factors that are included in the table suggested by us; certainly, a detailed

Physical education and sports analysis needs to highlight other factors involved in each of the categories considered by sports ergonomy. Conclusions Application of the V.A. method in sports represents a new instrument by which we can improve the process of designing sports activities. By defining the main function of an activity, we merely adapt the most efficient means so as to accomplish the purpose proposed. The formalized framework suggested in the present paper allows us to develop the V.A. method from a systemic perspective, an essential perspective in a multi- and cross-disciplinary domain such as sports. The major concern of the A.V. method is the quality of the process itself which, in the field of sports, is synonymous with high performance. As for the usefulness of such a method, only future studies will confirm or contradict it. Bibliography : Crstea, Gheorghe (1993), Teoria i Metodica Educatiei Fizice i Sportului, Editura Universul, Bucureti; Colibaba Evulet, Dumitru, Andrei COLIBABA EVULET, (2005), Optimizarea procesului de instruire cu ajutorul metodei six sigma, Conferinta tiintific international-editia a XIV-a, 27-28 oct., Bucureti; Crum, L.W. (1976), Ingineria valorii, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti; Davids, K., Smith, Martin, R., (1991) Controlling system uncertainty in sport and work. Applied Ergonomics; Galea, Ioan (2007), Ergonomie Sportiv, Editura Universittii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad; Cometti, Gilles (2002) La preparation physique en football, Editura Chieran, Paris; Grandjean, E. (1969), Fitting the Task to the Man, London, Taylor and Francis; Ionit, Ion (1984) Analiza valorii, Editura tiintific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti. 420

A structure of exercises is efficient and has maximal output when it is appropriate for the intended purpose; in our case: half-genuflexion a general global exercise; followed by multi-form general exercises (jump over the hurdles and accelerated running); and ending with a specifically analytical exercice (shooting at the gate).

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 421-429

Physical education and sports Pilates is a body and mind technique, also has exercises ment to help injured dancers. Pilates exercises increases bone resistance and joint mobility teaching us to keep balance and mind control. It helps toning the abs, it improves breathing, circulation and digestion. Pilates leads to mental relaxation. Exercises can be done in the gym, at home, outdoor, under a specialist supervision. As reguarding the outfit, this must casual (tshirt,shorts) and barefooted. If it is summer, hydratation is very important each time we feel thirsty. It can be observed that the person who does Pilates has more power and resistance while lifting weights or going for long walks. We also can observe a better posture. There will be no more pain in the back, shoulders, hips, knees. Strenghtening the center of the body we will feel a power that has never been felt before. A superior effectiveness level will be reached keeping in mind the eight fundamental principles: 1. Movement control 2. Breathing 3. Fluidity 4. Precision 5. Balance 6. Stability 7. Amplitude 8. Relaxation BASIC RULES OF THE PILATES METHOD Pilates method is composed out of at least 200 exercises. The beginner might feel unfocused exposed to this number of exercises. Certain movements are complex and hard to be memorised. Each exercise is a gathering of the basic movements. The Pilates method simplifies the exercises storing decomposing each elemnt. They represent the basic movements and body concepts and help building all exercises like: Neutral spine center Standing on blades Scoop your abslombar, toracic sau cervical 422

Study of the pilates technique effects over the body sculpture

Gabriela ISTVAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: In this paper I intend to verify if the usage of tehniques particular to Pilates can provide better muscle tonification and an improvement of the physical tonus withouth resorting to excesive effort. I intended to verify if using the Pilates tehniques, a better muscle tonifiation is achieved for the major muscle groups and also an improvement of the physical condition without requiring excessive efforts. Keywords: mobility, suppleness, abdominal muscles, physical training Introduction Pilates gymnastics is a training method which has been used for the last 100 years and its based on complete body. Mind and spirit coordination. Pilates gymnastics is not a training method which involves jumping and running, or any active exercises, done in full body force. This form of gymnastics includes exercises that focus on posture, held,exercises that executed in detail, making sure that the respiration is well done. During the exercises, the respiration is ample, rhytmic, done at maximum, with exhaling while making an effort. Thats why this form of training can be done by anyone: children, adults, elder persons. Pilates gymnastics is recomended for pregnant women, which teaches to breath properly, to focus and to keep in shape. Also the Pilates gymnastics is recomended after giving birth in order to regain muscular tonus. Pilates method represent an excellent method to recover after back, knee, hips, shoulders injury resulted after repeted tension. Pilates corrects the asymmetry or the chronic weakness in order to give back the body balance and prevent injury.

Physical education and sports Flexuosity (lower back, torso, neck) Semi-standing on blades Overlapping vertebrae The bridge The abdominal posture Firts position Relaxation posture This alphabet helps in the process of learning, even for the most complex erecises. THE COMPONENTS OF THE PILATES PROGRAM The training containes 3 steps , each with a well determined role : Step I (5-10min) is ment to prepare the body for effort, heating the muscles at a general level and it take 10 minutes. Step II (30min) is ment to train de body muscles, the glutes and thights , with an immediate effect over the cellulite, tonifiation and reducing volume. There are also exercises ment to tone the abs and to correct the spine posture. Step III (7-10min) being the final part of the training , stretching and breathing exrecises are executed, with a positive effect over the suplesness of the body , over the blood circulation and spine tension. The purpose of the research The purpose of the research is to establish the structure , the demands, and the methodology of the Pilates trainig. The aim of this paper is to observe for a period of time the development of the lower body muscles ,of the abs, the increasing of the joint mobility, muscular elasticity, balance develoment and space orientation after practicing Pilates on daily basis. The tasks of the research Testing aero fitness components of the Pilates students Theoreticaly determination of the most efficient Pilates methodes Increasing methods efficiency used in Pilates training 423

Physical education and sports Research methods used in the study In this sudy paper the following methods have been used: Methods with a high generalistaion degree (historical method) Methods of special investigation (observation and experimentation methods) Methods of analisis and interpretation (statistical, mathematical and graphic method) Research organization SUBJECTS, PLACE, MATERIALS, STAGES The test took place at Salamandra Salon Timisoara, 16 subjects with ages between 20-45 years old, frequency of the training 3 times per week, duration of one training 1 hour. The test took place between march 2008 and march 2009 with 2 periods of 1 week break. Materials needed: gymnastics bench, ruler, timer, 16 pilates mattresses, 16 platforms. The research was structured in 3 stages: First one, studying the Pilates literature Second stage-initial testing of the subjects Third stage final testing of the subjects and presenting conclusions TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS DONE Test nr. 1 Strenght and resistence of the abs test Test nr. 2 mobility and suplesness evaluation Test nr. 3 balance test Research results After the final tests we can observe: An increase of the abs strengh from 7,8 to 12,9; 424

Physical education and sports An increase of the mobilty from 26,25 to 29,5; An increase of the balance from 3,18 to 1,43. The statistic-mathematic interpretation of strenght and resistence of the abs test Nr.crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 Statistics indicators X Mo Me Am S V First testing 7.87 8 8 2.15 2.75 34.94% Final testing 12.93 16 14 1.83 2.14 16.55%

Physical education and sports The statatistic-mathematic interpretation of mobility and supelesness evaluation Nr.crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 Statistics indicators X Mo Me Am S V First testing 26.25 30 27 5.37 5.91 22.51% Final testing 29.5 35 29 6.12 6.78 22.98%

MOBILITY EVALUATION Initials name and surname I.E. S.S. I.M. V.A. G.V. H.A. C.M. M.O. .M. A.I. C.C. I.A. G.C. I.E. I.O. O.L. First testing 30 24 20 21 22 30 31 30 19 35 30 23 18 35 32 20 Final testing 35 26 22 24 26 35 35 34 21 39 32 26 20 40 35 22

EVALUATING THE ABS STRENGHT Nr. Crt. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Initials name and surname I.E. S.S. I.M. V.A G.V. H.A. C.M. M.O. .M. A.I. C.C. I.A G.C. I.E. I.O. O.L. First testing 12 10 6 7 10 12 5 8 3 9 11 5 8 8 8 4 Final testing 15 14 11 13 14 15 10 14 10 14 15 10 15 14 14 9 Difference 3 4 5 6 4 3 5 6 3 5 4 5 7 6 6 5 425

Nr. Crt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Difference 5 2 2 3 4 5 4 4 2 4 2 3 2 5 3 2

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Physical education and sports The statatistic-mathematic interpretation of balance test Nr.crt Statistics First Final indicators testing testing 1 X 3.18 1.43 2 Mo 3 1 3 Me 3 1 4 Am 0.88 0.54 5 S 1.16 0.62 6 V 36.47% 43.35% BALANCE EVALUATION Initials name and First Nr.crt surname testing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 I.E. S.S. I.M. V.A. G.V. H.A. C.M. M.O. .M. A.I. C.C. I.A. G.C. I.E. I.O. O.L. 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 4 3 2 5 4 3 6 Final testing Difference 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3

Physical education and sports effort and using the right systems and technologies tailored to individual situations After applying the Pilates programs as an independent variable among the subjects we have reached the following conclusions: We have registarted a superior progress of the muscular indicators, of the mobility of the joints and of the balance A progress reguarding the body effort resistance A better mattress work, keeping balance during de program. Stretching helps obtain superior results at the final mobility test having a medium increase of the figures from 26.25 - 29.5. The experiement which was done as a research, prooved the efficiency of the Pilates methods through the final test indicators. The indicators obtained at the studied parameters have targeted: physical development, movement qualities and the technique level have increased since the independent variable was introduced. Recomandations In the future, Pilates should be part of everyones life, condiering the benefits. Executing the Pilates programs with specific methods and tailored to individual situations Informing the subjects over the positive effects of the Pilates using specific dates Using Pilates to get better indicators but also to lose weight. Diverisifying the methodes in order to arouse interest of the subjects and to attract more people, without monotony. Bibliography : Ackland,Lesley & Paton,Thomas Pilates en 10 tapes. Editura Guy Trdaniel, Paris 2001. Apostol, Ioan Ergofiziologie. Editura Univ. Al. I. Cuza Iai 1998. Anna, Selby Gimnastica Pilates pentru gravide. Editura All, Bucureti 2003. Curtis,Martine Oakes Perfect Pilates lart de modeler son corps Editura Vigot, Paris 2005. Darcey Bussell Pilates. Editura Marabout, Paris 2006. 428

Conclusions After the final testing, abs tonus, mobility of the coxo-femoral joints and balance , were positively influenced due to the right use of 427

Physical education and sports Dragnea, Adrian & Bota, Aura Teoria activitilor motrice. Editura didactic i pedagogic , R.A , Bucureti 1999 Dufour,Anne & Riveccio,Patricia La mthode Pilates. Editura Hachette Pratique, Paris 2006. Herman,Ellie La mthode Pilates pour les nuls. Editura First, Paris 2005. Pilates,J. H. - ,,Metoda Pilates .Editura Teora, Bucuresti Robinson,Linne & Brien,Caroline La mthode Pilates. Editura Marabout, Paris 2004. Suciu A. & Dumitru Gh. Ghid pentru sntate i condiie fizic, Bucureti, Federaia sportul pentru toi.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 430-435

The role of motivational factors in the development of basic training in the game of football for children aged 7-12
Gabriel Roberto MARCONI "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: The requirments of sporting activities conerned with football for children aged 7-12 are treated superficially and are not in conformity with the regulations set out by the Romanian Football Federation (FRF). Children are attracted to football practice through announcemements made at seniors matches, disclosing the locations for trials and the targeted age groups. Through this research I aim to clarify certain points regarding scientific selection, in which the psychological factor of practice (referring strictly to the motivational factor) is tackled in a way that leads towards obtaining superior results. Keywords: motivational factors, football, initiation. Introduction Intensifying and directing competitional human activity is the usual subject for the advocates of analytical psychology, which see athletic competitions as a symbolic compensation for the hardships of daily life, a mechanism of emotional balancing1. Due to the different aspects of motivation, children and teenagers wish and accept their insertion in the organized practice of football. Even during stage I (athletic orientation general training steps II-III), the benevolent nature of childrens participation is conditioned by the risk of not being selected in higher ranks2.
1

Epuran, M., Holdevici, I., Tonia, F., Psihologia sportului de performan: teorie i practic, FEST Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008 2 Motroc, I., Motroc, F., Fotbalul la copii i juniori, Didactic and Pedagogic Publishing House, R,A., Bucharest, 1996

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Physical education and sports Starting with the premises of a non-benefic reality with regards to achieving performance in the football game, in case the player we are planning to train has not been duly checked from a somatic, motricity and psychological point of view, we will not know whether he is skilled for playing football. The UTA and CS Atletico clubs have the due satisfactory material means for the ongoing of the training and game process, which allows us, by eliminating the already noticed gaps, to satisfy the demands of a training based on scientific investigation and the possibility to prove the hypothesis suggested regarding the motivational and emotional factors related to the trainings and practice of football for the 7-12 age groups. Hypothesis The research that we have planned to achieve refers to the following hypothesis: it is considered that applying the training program focusing on the psychological model based on the motivational factor will improve the football training process for children. Content, method, materials In order to have a larger view of the motivational factors, we have elaborated a sociological questionnaire containing a set of 4 questions, which have been answered by 144 athletes, members of the children groups affiliated to UTA and Atletico Arad sports clubs, these athletes birth years being 1998, 1997, 1996 and 1995, the way footballer groups where our research was conducted are created. Through this method we have gathered in a short time a large volume of information regarding the way that children beginners at football perceive the role played by motivational factors in obtaining superior results during the training process. Each question had a precise purpose, having as final aim the collection of veracious data regarding the role of motivational factors in increasing athletic results. The sociological questionnaire created for the subjects has maintained the research themes structure: the role of the motivational factors, that can be found in the following questions: MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
Question No. 1 How much do you mobilize yourself during practice if the coach appreciates you after a good game? Appreciation criteria very much much little

Physical education and sports

2 How much does the fact that you are wearing the club colours influence your game during football matches? How much did the perspective of possible material gains influence you in regards to football practice? How much does your parents/colleagues appreciation matter concerning your training and evolution as a football player?

The answers provided by children that have taken this questionnaire are shown in bellows centralized tables which have been interpreted and graphically presented, for better understanding. Possible answers How much Very much do you mobilize yourself during practice if the Much coach appreciates you after a good Little game? Question Actual answer 75 % 52%

63 6

43,8% 4,2%

For the first question How much do you mobilize yourself during practice if the coach appreciates you after a good game? , 75 children out of 144 (representing 52%) have answered very much, for 63 of them (representing 43,8%) the answer was much and 6 have chosen to answer little, which makes 4,2 %.

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Little 4,2%0% Very much 52%

Physical education and sports Question no. 3 shows that 47 subjects, representing a percentage of 32,7 % ,were very much influenced to practice football because of the perspective of future gains. 61 of the questioned subjects, representing a percentage of 42,2 %, were much determined to practice this sport by the eventual future gains. If we were to sum up these two percentages, we would have a vast majority of those which are motivated to play football by the possible future material gains. There are still 36 players, a 25% percentage, which this perspective influenced in a small way to play football. Possible Actual answer Question answers How much did Very much 47 the perspective Much 61 of possible material gains Little 36 influence you in regards to football practice?
Little 25% 0% Very much 32,6%

Much 43,8%

For the second question How much does the fact that you are wearing the club colours influence your game during football matches?, 67 out of 144 athletes answered very much (46,5 %), 71 chose much as an answer ( 49,3 %) and 6 opted for little ( 4,2 %). Possible answers How much does Very much the fact that you Much are wearing the club colours influence your Little game during football matches?
Little 0% 4%

% 32,6% 42,4% 25%

Question

Actual answer 67 71

% 46,5 49,3

4,2%

Very much 46,5

Much 49,3%

Much 42,4 %

Out of the 144 subject that have answered to the question How much does your parents/colleagues appreciation matter regarding your training and evolution as a football player?, 45 of them (representing 31,3 %) have answered very much, 60 subjects (representing 41.7 %) have answered much and 39 (27 %) chose the option little. The percentages have been more evenly distributed, proportionately to the possible answers. During stage 1 of the training, 433 434

Physical education and sports the bodys general motricity, sustained by the motivational factors, has to be driven during the development process towards footballs specific, this being one of the main focus points from a performance ability point of view. Long-term training is an objective necessity. A professional athlete needs a long training process and during this time, he must be gradually instructed, following ascending levels, from one stage to another. After the analysis of the answers provided by the 144 subjects, we come upon a clear conclusion: from the point of view of children that are beginners at football, the motivational factors have a positive influence on achieving superior results during training and competitions. Following conversations held with sportsmen and coaches, the enhancement of the efficiency of motivational factors leads to a better training process and can be achieved through the development of training programs which would hold as permanent objective the motivation for sport practicing. Bibliography: Epuran, M., Holdevici, I., Tonia, F. Psihologia sportului de performan: teorie i practic, Editura FEST, Bucureti,2008 Maslow, A. Motivaie i personalitate colecia psihologie (situl Universitatii Lencester), 2008 Motroc, Ion- Fotbal la copii i juniori, CNEFS, Bucureti,1989 Simion, Gh., Mihil,I. Fenomenul motivaiei n practica sportiv, Conferina tiinific Internaional, Educaia fizic i sportul din Romnia prezent i inovare, Oradea, 2009.

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 436-441

Development of coordination in masculine artistic gymnastics, junior gymnasts IV, level 1 and 2
Lucian POPA "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: The main topic of this paper is a different approach to coordination (coordination ability) in artistic gymnastic trainings, the methods and the principal means of coordination development and perfection. The experiment shown in the paper demonstrates that the hypotheses are confirmed. At the same time, this analysis enriches the data base of specialized literature for masculine artistic gymnastics, and was written as a guide for gymnastics trainers and teachers. Keywords: coordination, motric abilities, technical elements, joint mobility Introduction The research paper is an important contribution to the wide field of coordination development in specific conditions, like the sport activities performed by young and active men, without taking in consideration the big performances. The paper is focused on the ability, generic named skill, an important quality for training the gymnastics. More specific, we draw attention on a methodology for developing the coordination ability, under different aspects of its manifestation. Coordination in physical activities has an significant importance, having the role of a dispatcher- programmer and, in every moment, controls the general position of the body, and of its segments, preparing the commands and the programme of each element included in a movement or in a sequence of movements.

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Physical education and sports Theoretical background 1.1. Psychomotricity The area of psychomotricity is broad and has a very complex and varied content. According to most researchers, the coordination has a central place in the psycho-motrics ability system, this category containing kinetics, static and dynamic balance, laterality, ideomotricity, etc. Psycho-motricity abilities are the result of the synthesis of psychic and motric functions which ensure the right response, on one hand, and the reception of external and internal information. 1.2. Coordination definition, characteristics, functions Coordination is achieved through inhibition, a process that corrects and adjusts the fundamental nervous excitement. Adjusting body activity, during the motor actions, involves differentiation with maximum precision and speed of stimuli and responses (effectors activity). At the level of the central nervous system, after many repetitions of the action - the relationship between impulse sensitive reflexes and motor response - based on irradiation, concentration and mutual induction of fundamental nervous processes of excitation and inhibition, the mechanism of the conditioned-reflex acts is formed, as an expression of temporary connections that are established as fundamental mechanism developed by the body when meeting the action. Coordination is a key factor in the body's energy economy, with direct implications in the efficiency of its activities; it is well-known that a good coordination eliminates the useless movements. According to most authors, regarding the manifestation of locomotors coordination, we have studied the following items: a) Segmentary coordination b) General coordination; c) Perceptive - motric coordination 1.3 Development of general coordination and segmentation Factors which govern the ability of coordination are: - The speed of nerve processes of excitation and inhibition; - Ability to create links between brain hemispheres; - Ability to control selective nerve; - The degree of stress. Space-time orientation depends on the following factors: - General coordination (complex motor actions, flexibility); 437

Physical education and sports - Coordination segment (arms, legs, mixed). All exercises to develop coordination include: - Teaching gradual movements, first movement of the arms, then legs and finally overlap between them; - Execution tempo gradually increases; - Systematic use of them. 1.4 Development of perceptual-motor coordination (temporal and spatial orientation ability) Factors on which temporal-space orientation depends on: - The ability to perceive spatial cues (optical analyser); - The ability to perceive temporal marks (kinaesthesia analyser, proprioception and the auditory analyser); - The degree of stress. 1.5. The research hypothesis Development and using systematic character of coordination exercises should be set up in the training content of each lesson. This content should have an appropriate methodology for application, taking in consideration the importance and difficulty of these exercises for children of this age, which emerged from analysis of the characteristics that they have at this time. I believe that the exercises developed and their implementation methodology will lead to an increased expression of the coordination capacity of athletes. If this hypothesis is verified and will not be rejected, exercises and implementation methodology will become part of each training lesson. The experiment 2.1. Place of the experiment and its subjects The experiment was conducted at the Sports School Club Gloria Arad. The experiment subjects were 26 gymnasts and we had their consent. 2.2. Means - exercises for developing coordination segmentation - games and motion paths in order to develop general coordination - motion exercises and games for developing perceptual - motric coordiantion 438

Physical education and sports 2.3. Samples of control - coordination segment - general coordination - perceptual motric coordination 2.4. Technology The experiment lasted 10 months, with training lessons of 120 minutes, 4 training classes in a week, from September 2009 - June 2010, the total number of training classes being 120 courses. In each lesson we used training exercises coordination structure, about 15 to 25 minutes per lesson, depending on the complexity and number of repetitions. As far as Im concern, I considered necessary, as follows: - 35 lessons with 15 min/ course = 525 minutes - 40 lessons with 18 min/ course = 720 minutes - 20 lessons with 20 min/ course = 400 minutes - 25 lessons with 25 min/ course = 625 minutes Total = 2270 minutes A major role during the lessons had warm-up activities and the fundamental learning objectives of training reserved. Switching control samples was carried out in several stages: - September 2009 - December 2009 - March 2010-10-04 - June 2010 It should be added the time for homework, independent activities, yet controlled, which is difficult to quantify. Experimental means used did not affect at all the normal process of preparation, performed as scheduled. They were perfectly integrated into the structure of lessons, the only difference being represented by the request and coordinative educating athletes. The statistical and mathematical analysis notify that the statistical indicators of significant differences of averages obtained between the first and last pass of the control samples indicates a high degree of significance which means a probability of 99% confidence in the effect on education coordination ability, in its many manifestations. These indicators allow us to refuse the hypothesis as null and to increase confidence in exercises conducted, with a probability of 99%. Consequently, there is a probability of 99% regarding the direct 439

Physical education and sports influence of these exercises and the way to use them in a training session, in order to develop the gymnasts coordination. Conclusions After conducting this study and analysing the results, we can draw the following statements: - The content of coordination exercises, developed and applied in the training sessions, was rich, varied and was accessible for the athletes, at this age; - The exercises accessibility, combined with a precise dosing can lead to efficiency increase in activities for development of coordination - Efficiency is demonstrated through the interpretation of statistical and mathematical data, which indicates a confidence level of 99%. This positive probability refers both to the content of the lessons activities and the methodology applied; - There are some extreme individuals which seem to confirm the regularities of growth and body development; - Using the coordination exercises in every training session leads to an increase of attractiveness and children interest for physical education; - It is very important to use a combination of the various exercises, so that to be explored all the manifestations of coordination ability; - Watching closely the athletes activities implies a good communication between the trainer and the gymnasts, which is very important for building good relationships; - I have to stress the importance that we have given to homework (repeat certain exercises or game structures), although it is very difficult to analyse and set the degree of involvement in these activities. Occurrence of top-notch athletes is directly proportional to the practise time and that means that the those athletes who worked harder at home had greater performances and those who have not worked became negative extremes; - The experiment conducted showed that even at this age, the successful coordination ability can be influence 440

Physical education and sports Bibliography: Alexe Nicu., Planificarea antrenamentului sportiv, Bucureti, Editura MTS., 1992 Anderson Bjon, Stretching, Bucureti, Editura. CNEFS, 1988 Avramoff Eugen, Probleme medico-sportive n gimnastic, Bucureti, Editura Sport - Turism, 1982 Biau Nicolae, Lecii de gimnastic, Bucureti, Editura Stadion, 1973 Crstea Gheorghe Teoria i metodica Educaiei Fizice i Sportului, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1993 Drgan Ioan,(coord.) Selecia i orientarea medico-sportiv, Bucureti, Editura Sport -Turism, 1989 Dungaciu Petre, Aspecte ale antrenamentului modern n gimnastic, Ed. S-T, Bucureti, 1982 Epuran Mihai, Metodologia cercetrii activitilor corporale, Bucureti, Editura IEFS, 1978 Grigore Vasilica, Gimnastica de performan noiuni introductive, Bucureti, Editura Inedit, 1998 Grigore Vasilica, (coord.), Pregtirea artistic n gimnastic, Bucureti Editura A.N.E.F.S., 2001, Grigore Vasilica, Gimnastica. Manual pentru cursul de baz, Bucuresti, Editura Bren, 2003 Grigore Vasilica, Gimnastica artistic - bazele teoretice ale antrenamentului sportiv, Bucureti, Editura SemnE, 2001 Podlaha Robert & Stroescu Adina, Terminologia gimnasticii, Bucureti, Editura Stadion, 1979 Rusu Cornelia & Colab., Gimnastica, Cluj-Napoca, Editura G.M.I., 1998 Solveborn A.S., Stretching, Bucureti, Editura CNEFS, 1988 Solomon Mircea, &Bedo Carol & Grigore Vasilica, Gimnastica, Trgovite, Editura Domimpex, 1996 lemin, A.M., Pregtirea tinerilor gimnati, Bucureti, Editura Sport Turism, 1976 Tuduciuc Ion, Gimnastica sportiv, Bucureti, Editura Sport - Turism, 1984

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 442-447

Biological response of training in athletics sprints

Sorin ROTARU Universitatea Aurel Vlaicu Arad Abstract: The aim of this paper is to redefine the concept of quality in sports performance training. In order to choose the best training methods it is necessary to be acquainted with the methodical means and their specific effects which lead to changes at the physiological, biochemical and psychological levels. Keywords: sport, performance, quality, quality markers, effort, muscular fatigue Changes of the main functions caused by the sportive effort in anaerobicsprints Running trials lasting 23 to 60 seconds favour the production of lactic acid to a greater extent up to 3g/s. Thus, in 400 m hurdles which lasts 50 seconds, the athlete has in his blood approximately 150 grams milk acid which is 20 times the normal amount of lacto idem (300 mg% compared to 15 mg %). Changes of breath in anaerobic sprints The speed while running 400 m being lower than in 100 or 200 m, its not necessary anymore to block the thorax during the run. The athletes breathing is more complex in the 400 m trial. The recordings have shown a number of 10 to 12 breath counts centered around the moments when the athlete comes out of the turn and on landing after jumping over the hurdles. The oxygen needed to cover the 400m distance is approximately 24-30 L. By pulmonary ventilation the athlete ensures 2 to 3 L oxygen which represent only 10% of the total volume required. In terms of numbers, the oxygen deficit is higher than in sprints, but due to intense respiratory effort a part of the total amount of oxygen needed is covered during the run. At the end of the race the athletes respiratory debit is very high( 80-100 L/ min) for 2 to 3 minutes, afterwards the breathing decreasing and, eventually, after 20 to 30 min the pulmonary ventilation is very low, meaning 16 to 20 breath counts per minute. The usage of oxygen is still

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Physical education and sports high for 1 to 2 hours and is ensured by a good proportion of the arterial oxygen resulted from the increase of the coefficient of oxygen used. The arterial-veins concentration of oxygen is in this case 7to8 volume % compared to the normal 4-5 volume %. Changes of blood pressure and cardiac frequency during anaerobic running trials When compared to 100 m and 100 m hurdles cases in which the effort is at its top and the changes in circulation are at submaximal level ,after 400 m and 400m hurdles, considered to be trials of submaximal intensity, the changes in circulation tend to reach a maximal level. This paradoxical behaviour can be explained this way: peripheral circulation following the laws of hydrodynamics requires time to reach the maximal stage, thing that cannot happen during sprints. In the case of 400 m and 400m hurdles, the time of effort being 45 to 55 seconds, the probability of gradually increased cardiac debit and arterial pressure is higher, fact that is reflected in the increased values of cardiac frequency, blood pressure speed, cardiac debit and arterial pressure. The cardiac frequency exceeds 180 heart beats per minute while the arterial pressure is around 180-200/40-60 mm Hg. The influence of anaerobe running effort on the central nervous, neuromuscular and neuroendocrine systems The longer period of time needed in these trials means that the central nervous system is subjected to a higher effort and therefore the neuromuscular system too in comparison to sprints. With 400 m hurdles one needs ability, balance after landing especially when coming out of the turns. The neuroendocrine system, in its turn, is more alert in order to make good use of all inner resources. A commonly met symptom of overused nervous system called effort headache is present mainly with athletes who are insufficiently trained or faced with harsh contest factors, during the 400m hurdles. It consists of: faintness, earache, nausea, vomiting, splitting headache. At high altitudes the frequency of such symptoms is much higher, the syndrome is no different from usual headache but it lasts shorter. Here is one possible explanation: the feeling of faintness is the immediate result of the brains main state of hypoxia, whereas nausea and vomiting are caused by hypocapnea. As a result they should be considered secondary 443

Physical education and sports pathological- physiological effects. The underlying mechanism of intense headache is probably due to extreme dilatation of brain arteries. In order to adapt oneself to such hypoxic conditions, one should train at medium height altitudes (1800-2200m). The athlete must be healthy, physically strong, mentally balanced, highly motivated for this kind of training, at the height of his training session and completely prepared. Renal excretion Renal and suprarenal excretion are more intense, diuresis increases due to a higher and longer glomerular filtration pressure. Sweat is definitely abundant, the levels of caloric energy being obviously higher compared to those registered in sprints. Not to be neglected the important role the kidney plays owing to its metabolic and hemodynamic functions. Effort parameters in sports training Extensive research and laboratory data led to the conclusion that volume, intensity, length and complexity are essential effort factors. Their influence is closely connected with different organs and systems of the human body and also with other two types of effort: aerobic and anaerobic. Morphofunctional particularities of the sportsmen involved in a process of training mainly based on one of these parameters, along with experimental research in which only one parameter was the variable, the others being constant, are key points in establishing values and limits for volume, length intensity , density and effort complexity. A comparative study on training methods of the most valuable sportsmen reveals the fact that there are certain areas in sport where the participants performance has increased a lot compared to previous centuries, mainly as far as effort is concerned. Therefore, the effort volume during a training session can be an important factor contributing to the increase of anaerobic effort capability. Still, this increase of anaerobic capability based only on increased volume effort is not efficient as there is no direct dependence between the two coordinates. The volume effort in sportsmen training which involves anaerobic contest effort, although much higher than estimated a century before, 444

Physical education and sports must range within certain low limits compared to the effort sportsmen make especially when trying to develop their anaerobic effort capability. For example, in athletics it is common knowledge that the effort in speed trials is less than 10 % of volume effort in long distance ones. At the peak of a training session, the total sum of distances run is some tens km for a sprinter and almost 1000 km for a long distance runner. Not recommending huge effort volume in order to increase ones anaerobic capability is justified also by the following fact: the more reduced the dimensions and functional ability of the neuromuscular system (with performance sportsmen) the bigger the training and competition effort. The physiology of muscular effort The increasing effect of muscular activity is due to an ever bigger number of motor units, by accessing them according to the stimulus intensity. The bigger the number, the bigger the force of muscular contractions. The measurement of the electrical activity of the muscle is done by means of certain devices, among which the most frequently used is the electromyograph and its recording is called electromyogram. The currents are picked by applied electrodes (surface electrodes) or needles inserted in the muscles (Adrian and Broncks Needle), which allow the exploit of even one muscular unit. The itinerary registered can be of several types: simple, intermediary and interference. The amplitude of motorunit potential um is 300-500 mV, and the length is 4-16 milliseconds. Muscular fatigue, in its early stages, leads to decreased muscular strength, low excitability, longer relaxation periods. Biochemically, it is manifested by low ATP, excessive milk acid, low level of glucose, lack of muscular glycogen, and last but not least painful muscular cramps. It must be actively counterstruck by rest and relaxing therapy such as oxygen and water therapy, massage. Biochemical assessment of effort In order to achieve this target/ objective modernly equipped laboratories and highly qualified staff are needed. Blood lactases is one of the most valuable indicators in measuring biochemically both aerobic and anaerobic physical effort capability. 445

Physical education and sports Blood concentration of lactases is closely linked with the effort intensity and is an indicator of metabolic adaptability to effort .The increased blood level is a setback in achieving good results. At ease, lactases values vary between 0,7 to 1,8m Mol/L ;in order to obtain the numbers in mg% we multiply them by 9,1 or using the conversion table. Changes of lactases allow the exact determination of the aerobicanaerobic level, placed around 4 millimolslactases per liter. After complete usage of anaerobic resources, when the lactases level reaches 16-20 millimols/ L, the sportsman drops out of the race. Donaggio response emphasizes urinal proteins which cause acute tiredness. The response is qualitative and it highlights the purple colour. Micro proteins are allotted also quantitatively using Bisertes method (the normal values are 50-250 mg every 24 hours).The values increase during effort, and the closer they are to the normal standards, the better the metabolic economy in effort is. The cardiovascular system Modern investigation based on radioactive isotopes, X- ray, EMG, provide crucial information about circulation dynamics and changes which appear in the structure and functioning of the cardiovascular system. Heart rate, HR is one of the components of cardiac flow which can be measured by taking the pulse or by means of the stethoscope or placing the ear on the chest. Cardiac flow, CFor cardiac minute volume is the amount of blood which circulates through the chambers of the heart in one minute. It is measured by multiplying the systolic flow by cardiac frequency per minute and has approximated rest values of 5,5L. It is lower with women and during sleep. Blood Pressure, B P changes incredibly especially when making effort in accordance with systolic blood pressure. Peripheral vascular endurance decreases with effort due to capillary vasodilatation in active muscles, subcutaneous system and the open capillaries in muscles. The respiratory system The Respiratory rate shows, when effort is made, an increase of up to 30-40 breaths per minute but not during sprints. At rest the values are 16-20 breaths per minute. 446

Physical education and sports The Respiratory Amplitude is calculated by subtracting the values of the thoraxs circumference forced exhalation from the values of the thoraxs circumference at full inhalation. The inner one is measured with the spirometer from which one can infer the total value. Respiratory minute-volume is obtained by multiplying respiratory rate per minute by current air volume. Bibliography: AlexaNicu, Antrenamentul sportive modern, Editura Editis, Bucuresti 1993 Bota Cornelia, Ergofiziologie, Editura Globus, Bucuresti 2000 Demeter Andrei, Antrenamentul sportiv-teorie si metodologie vol I-II M.T.S, Bucuresti 1992 Legros L, La Biochimie on service de sprinteur, Sport, Belgia 1980 Weiner I, Biologia sportului, EdituraVigot, Paris, 1992 Perling Publishing C.O.INC New York, Successful track and field,

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 448-454

System optimization and natural selection

Ovidiu ERBAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: Research on the miracle of life, on biosystems and on natural selection will continue to be an ongoing challenge for scientists, both from an aesthetic-philosophical point of view but, mainly, from a bionic-pragmatic objective: the ability to imitate and transfer technology in order to improve and optimize a large amount of existing equipment in various fields and techniques that mimic living organisms in relation to the environment. Keywords: optimization, systems, selection, nature Introduction The integration of humans in nature is one of the most pressing issues of the contemporary world. The human is defined as being the only element that actively interacts with the environment, in the sense that it modifies it according to his needs, the changes representing deviations from the natural laws. The human-nature relationship becomes fundamental for human existence, with numerous repercussions on the human individual, animals, plants and nature in general. The development of the general theory of systems (Bertalanffy, 1932; 1960; Needham, 1936, etc.) and, afterwards, of cybernetics and information theory, has drawn attention to the problems regarding the organization and the working principles of the living matter, the levels of integration and organization, and has allowed the delimitation of ecology as being the study of supra-individual systems: population, biocoenosis, ecosystem, bioshere (Odum, 1975). The levels of integration include all subsystems of a system, including abiotic systems (non-biological, nonliving), and the levels of organization of the living matter represent exclusive categories of biological systems, qualitatively different in terms of organization and biological functions (Botnariuc, N., 1976, 1982).

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Physical education and sports General discussions Generally speaking, everything that exists in the surrounding world can be called object or system. These terms are not identical. The objects exists, as such, with all its characteristics and behaviors. In other words, by using object we refer to any actual things or events: minerals, plants, animals, people, machines, processes, forms of organization, products, activity programs, etc. The system, on the other hand, represents only a model or an abstract representation that allows a definition in the form of logical relations, graphic design or mathematical equations. The system refers to an organized grouping of entities whose mutual connections are made up of relations, which determine effective or potential actions. For examples, we consider all mineral bodies, plants, animals, the whole earth and the universe, as being systems, as they are material bodies with a structure and a grouping of components in different ways and with mutual interactions. So, the entire objective reality, taken as a whole, forms a vast system that can be considered as an entity. The system properties and unity are ensured by the links between its components. Thus, the same bodies, things, products, etc. can be considered systems containing a series of elements: molecules, parts, cells, organisms. The natural systems located on a scale of ranks can ensure the highlight and the existence of two particular aspects of the matter: living and non-living . Given that living organisms are in a constant relationship with the environment, the notion of ecological system is highlighted, referring to a complex set, consisting of living and non-living, characterized by mutual action of biological systems and their environment. In ecological studies the fundamental unit is used, formed in a limited space, which includes all living beings, communities and energy, physical, chemical and biological conditions of the surrounding environment. This unit is known as ecosystem. It includes biotic and abiotic components of the natural environment. The living part of the ecosystem is called biocoenosis, and the non-living part is called biotope. The concept of ecosystem is known by other names too: biosystem, holocenosis, microcosm. The biosystem presents the unity of organism communities in a given territory, which is in such a relationship with the environment, that 449

Physical education and sports the energy flow creates a certain trophic structure, a species diversity and a certain flow of substances inside the system (ie substance exchange between the biotic and abiotic environment). The organizational hierarchy is not linear, but branched. Biosystems at different levels of organization should be examined in terms of their systemic relations. Systematic analysis should therefore be a primary problem-solving methodology, the core element being the concept of ecosystem, concept around which modern ecology was built, and which allows optimization of biosystem development. Hence, the biosystem represents a complex system in the environment consisting of a non-living part (abiota or biotope, its natural frame with physical conditions) and a living part (biotic or biocoenosis). Of course, the elements of these two parts are not physically separated, but are in constant interaction. It is in fact a functional unit of the biosphere which, from a structural point of view, and especially a dynamic one, uses the energy that flows through it. In other words, all components of a biosystem should find enough food in the environment to grow and maintain itself. Ultimately, energy and all the necessary elements come from the physical environment. In an ecosystem, beings absorb, change and make energy and certain materials move, which then are returned to the environment. Permanent interactions between plants and animals of the same ecosystem are actually ways in which energy and such items are distributed. All this is achieved by optimizing biosystems. Turning back to the issues of bionic interest (which is the discipline that deals with the study of structure and biological processes in living organisms), the questions rises whether, from a biological point of view, certain principles act to determine the optimal functionality of biosystems and their subsystems. Based on objective manifestation of a competition between biological individuals in order to conquer the conditions of existence, the complex process that Darwin has called "struggle for existence", a positive answer is deduced. Sometimes individual differences are so big, there is doubt whether two individuals are of the same race or whether they belong to different races. Darwin stated that these individual variations are the cause for the outstanding achievements made by the animal selection specialists. Hence the idea to make an analogy between the natural and artificial 450

Physical education and sports selection arose. Man makes selections for his own interest while nature makes selections only in the interest of the body it keeps. Thus, his typological conception of competition between species, accompanied by the deletion of some of them, has changed into another conception, namely the one regarding the existence of individual variations within populations and species. Thus, the idea of individual variation in natural populations was the basis for his conception of natural selection. Due to this thinking, the principle of elimination by the natural forces of individuals who derivate from the normal type, considered the perfect type, maintaining a pure, constant type, static principle derived from essentialist philosophy, has been replaced by the dynamic principle of variable population, capable of evolution, where new individuals appear, being above average, as well as individuals that are below average (Mayr, 1984). Based on the ideas mentioned earlier, Darwin defined natural selection as being the preservation of individual variations and removal of harmful ones. After Darwin, any individual in a population that differentiates itself from the others in a profitable direction (adaptive superiority) has a chance of survival and will therefore be promoted by natural selection. Metaphorically speaking (says Darwin), it can be said that natural selection critically searches, daily and hourly throughout the world, for the slightest variations, rejecting the harmful ones, keeping and accumulating all the useful ones; she works silently and insensibly, whenever and wherever the opportunity arises, to improve each body in connection with its organic and inorganic life conditions. Natural selection is effective only in populations with many variations, but ineffective in populations without variations. The fundamental conclusion to be drawn with regard to natural selection, is that all types of competitive advantages, regardless of their original nature, are transformed, eventually, into differences in fecundity (rate of net production of offspring), which, after a sufficiently long time, leads to the predominance of structures and forms of competitive advantage in the population. Natural selection acts on the multitude of variants (mutants) of individuals of different species. It exerts pressure on every structural 451

Physical education and sports and functional aspect, therefore on individual or subsystem performance (Rosen, 1976). Based on the above, a fundamental hypothesis was advanced, stating that the individuals who are adapted better to the environment also posses subsystems or accommodate processes that are optimal with respect to certain criteria, described in mathematical terms. This hypothesis appeared relatively simultaneous from many researchers, but stronger at Rashevsky (1960). Consequently, the structures and processes in the biosystem, optimal with respect to natural selection, are optimal with respect to certain functional criteria (cost), derived from the physical-technical approach to the problem that usually is obtained using the metabolic energy dissipated for maintaining, repairing and functioning of biological structures. This hypothesis was verified in many cases and at different levels of complexity of living matter. Thus, it is considered to have powers of general principle, known as the principle of optimal project or the principle of adequate design. Amazing performance of biological systems (biosystems called) were, throughout history, a fascinating and ongoing challenge which today still continues to inspire curiosity and imagination of scientists. Nature does wonders in trying to adapt the living matter, eg.: high sensitivity of marine animals, electrosensitive, to detect predators or prey using extremely weak electric fields, bioluminescence for fireflies, the mechanical properties of spider fibers, etc. How did these beings achieve such outstanding performance? Are these performances a danger or are they the result of some laws and very profound natural principles? It is important to invite engineers to imitate these performances by applying them on artificial devices in order to improve life. One of the universal principles that act on living matter has been named The principle of optimal design. Like any principle, POD can not be demonstrated or proved directly, but is considered to be valid because, until now, its consequences have been verified on a large scale and at different levels of organization of living matter, from molecules to a population. 452

Physical education and sports In fact, POD is a methodological consequence of two closely related biological concepts in the theory of Darwinian evolution: the struggle for survival and natural selection. It is known that, if within a homogeneous species, mutations occur, then individuals of the species and mutants will be engaged in a struggle for survival (in fact, a competition for resources and living space). Finally these new mutants will replace, sooner or later, individuals of the species. Therefore, they are superior to normal individuals, taking into account specific criteria. One of the criteria is taken from the energy costs for maintenance, operation and multiplication. Conclusions and perspectives The existence of this principle makes living systems and their subsystems to be perfect models for applied bionics, nature being a source of invention patents which can be transferred to technical sector, to technology and agriculture. In addition, these solutions, unlike conventional ones, are compatible with nature, with the natural environment, being nonpolluting, or in the worst case, leading to biodegradable waste. The high performances determined by biosystems are the results of POD, a universal principle governing living matter, the latter being itself a consequence of natural selection. Due to this life principle, nature is an inexhaustible reservoir of optimal solutions that can be imitated or transferred in a creative way for future biotechnologies. Research on the miracle of life, of biosystems and natural selection, regarding the consequences of POD, will be an ongoing challenge for scientists, both from an aesthetic philosophical point of view and, mainly, from a bionic pragmatic objective: the capability to imitate and transfer technology in order to improve and optimize a large amount of the existing equipment. In all cases, the effort of researchers and safety engineers will be fully rewarded. References: Iorga Siman, I., Bionica cu aplicatii in sport, Course notes, Pitesti, 2006 Popescu, Al., Sistem biologic si principiul de design optim, Biotheoretica Acta, 46, 1998/1999, p 299-310 Bastien, J., Organisme Electrosensoriale, Fizica Astazi, 1994, p 30-37 453

Physical education and sports Selinger, HH, Lall, A., Lloyd, JE., Biggley, WH., Culorile Bioluminescente Firefly; I. Optimizare model, Photochem. Photobiol., 36, 1982, p 673-680 Xu, M., Lewis, RV, Structura unei proteine Superfiber: matase Spider draglina, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 87, p 7120-7124, 1990 Rosen, R., Principiile optimale in biologie, London, Butterworths, 1967 Hess, B., Mihailov, A., Auto-organizare in celulele vii, Stiinta, 264, p 223-224, 1994 Popescu, Al., Principiul designului optim ca o legitimitate a Bionicii, Analele Universitatii Bucuresti, Fizica, 39, 1990, p 23-30 Stryer, L., Biochimie, editia a 3, New York, WH Freeman and Company, 1995 Roth, RR., Studiul Bionicii, Perspective in Biologie si Medicina, 26, p 229-242, 1983 Gheorghe, V., Popescu, Al., Introducere in bionica,Bucuresti, Editura Stiintifica, 1990 Popescu, Al., O taxonomie propusa pentru Biostiinta, Prolegomene, romana J. Biophys, 1, p 49-54, 1991

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Physical education and sports discovery, it was known since Ancient mythology when some sportsmen were enhancing the fight force for twelve times, by ingesting a substance that was extracted from a mushroom and the Greek athletes or the gladiators were trying to become the best by consuming some herbs with boosting effect. The Sports historians mention the using of Efedra plant (MA HUANG) in China, 3200 B.C., a plant that stimulated the muscular system activity and the one of the nervous system, too. Modern Age brings about the beginning of the institutionalized Sports, on the one hand, and the improving of the modalities to boost the sports performances by different substances and, even, through alimentation. Thus, in 1879, on the occasion of the first edition of The 7 Days Cycling Race the fist mentions about the doping started to appear: the Belgian team consumed sugar lumps soaked with essential oils; the French team, a mixture based on caffeine [Vjial, 2002:17] In 1936, during the Olympic Games at Berlin, the symptomatic doping is documentary attested; this type of doping consists in taking some medicines that eliminate symptoms which are associated with sports activities: fatigue, tachycardia etc. The etiological doping which consists in using the anabolic androgenic steroids (SAAsynthetic substances, derived from testosterone) has the widest spread nowadays and the public recognition of this type of doping belongs to the French recordman at the weight throw, Arnjolt Beer (1969), even if Bill Tooney (Gold medal at decathlon, Olympic Games, Mexico City, 1968) admitted he had used SAA to improve his performance. Due to these incidents, from which we mentioned only a few, The Medical Department of the International Olympic Committee was founded in 1967, occasion on which the definition of the doping is elaborated by the Council of Europe (the term doping is recorded for the first time by an English dictionary, in 1889: mixture of opium and narcotics). The first doping test is made in 1968, at the Olympic Games. In Romania the first laboratory for doping control was founded in 1983, in The National Institute for Sports Research and in 1994, Romania adhered to the Antidoping Convention. 456

Doping: A temptation of the present-day sports

Caius MIUA, Dan BANCIU, Ioan GALEA "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract: Our pleading is not mainly focused on saying "no" to the doping temptation or to the "be the best" temptation in the sports world, no matter of the used means, because we are aware of the utopia of such an ideal. This pleading is for eliminating ignorance in order to diminish the unwanted effects of using such substances. Keywords: effort, performance, doping, anabolic androgenic steroids, synthetic substances, symptomatic doping, etiological doping. Being the best is an ideal that any human being is trying to achieve, even if one does not explicitly manifest the will of succeeding. The mans wish to improve constantly his own performances in any field of everyday life is, definitely, a result of the fact that man, by his nature, seeks only the extraordinary [Voltaire, 1974:35]. This searching for performance knows, maybe, its best representation within the Sports world, where born talents, but also those built by hard work explore continuously their limits, going to the extreme and, after reaching a record, they beat it, too, going ahead in the same way till the end of the career. The ideal of perfection represented and it, still, represents a real spiritual force which motivates the sportsmen to make huge efforts (cantonments, preparations), because one day to become the best [Galea, 2007: 5]. If the majority of the sportsmen think that reaching the highest performance deserves any possible human sacrifice, some of them try to find roundabout ways, much shorter and more efficient than the real one, hoping to get a quick victory. This kind of Victory brings not only glory, but, also large sums of money, because the performance Sports means huge financial gain in certain fields nowadays. The doping is, definitely, one of the easiest ways chosen by sportsmen to exceed their limits, to get in front of the others and to be the best for a short period of time. The doping is not a last minute

Physical education and sports But, what is the doping? and why is it so attractive, especially for the sportsmen? The word doping has the etymon dop coming from South-African dialect Kaffir and it refers to a liquid a stimulant used by the members of the tribe within the religiuos practices. The word is 7.000 years old and it was brought on the European continent by the Dutch people, the Englishmen adding an e and defining it in 1889. The definition of the International Olympic Committee mentions about the doping that represents the using of any substance that is not a physiological product of the body, which is taken in abnormal quantities, or which is introduced in the body through unnatural ways and which has as a single target to increase in a wrong and artificial manner the sports performance. It is, also, considered as doping, the medical treatment that needs the using of any substance which by its nature, dosage or way of using, can lead to the improvement of the sports performance in a wrong artificial manner. [Galea, 2004:8 ] Our pleading is not mainly focused on saying no to the doping temptation or to the be the best temptation in the sports world, no matter of the used means, because we are aware of the utopia of such an ideal. This pleading is for eliminating the ignorance in order to diminish the unwanted effects of using such substances. The conscious deliberate doping is a no fair-play action and a performance sports career is built only by hard work, strong personality and fair-play. Thats why we choose to underline the list of the substances and the forbidden methods, just to encourage the real competitive performance Sports that is beyond all of the temptations: (site Agenia Mondial Anti-Doping (A.M.A.D). Being the best in Sports means to be able of real performances, to exceed your own limits by your force, by hard work and last, but not least, by having the strength to say no to the temptation of doping. Bibliografie: Clasing, D.; Muller, R.K., Doping Kontrolle, Edirura Sport und Buch Straub, Koln, 2001. Drgan, I., Medicina sportiv aplicat, Editura Editis, Bucureti, 1994. Galea, I., Codul antidoping, Editura Universitaii Aurel Vlaicu, Arad, 2007. 457

Physical education and sports Vjial, G., Igien i evaluare biologic, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de mine, Bucureti, 2000. Vjial G., Lamor M., Doping.Antidoping, Editura Fest, Bucureti, 2002. Voltaire, Maxime i cugetri, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1974. Etica antrenamentului sportiv, n B.I. (Biblioteca antrenorului), Bucureti, 2005. Sport, dopaj, sntate, n B.I. (Biblioteca antrenorului), Bucureti, 2006. Sport fr dopaj, n B.I. (Biblioteca antrenorului), Bucureti, 2007.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation did not obey the regulation would get a fine and would be brought by the police2. Local authorities were concerned with imposing some administrative measures that would contribute to increasing the degree of public health security in the interwar period. For example, Regulation no 10523/1929 prohibited trading natural ice brought from neighbouring villages. Cafeterias, coffee-houses, pubs, butcheries were obliged to use artificial ice. Butcheries and restaurants could use natural ice provided that they used an impermeable layer between food and drinks. City inhabitants were advised to use artificial ice only whose price almost equalled the natural ice`s price and the safety against a possible infection was absolute3. Firstly, only newborns were vaccinated, then apprentices and pupils. Barrier controllers and cashiers had to prevent vehicles transporting natural ice from entering the city, even by asking the police` help if the situation demanded. Tuberculosis was another fashionable disease in the first half of the 20th century. It had caused a lot of pain and suffering in the hearts of those who saw their beloved ones dyeing from this disease. In order to limit the mortality rate of this malady, local authorities introduced optional vaccination with Calmette Guerin vaccine on June 1st, 19294. Most deaths were caused by the two major world conflicts where also the inhabitants of Arad took part. This death statistics of the first half of the 20th century and its variations is revealed in the table below.

Mortality in Arad City in the first half of the 20th century

Corneliu PDUREAN "Aurel Vlaicu" University, Arad Abstract Along with the birth rate, a fundamental component of a populations natural growth rate is the phenomenon of mortality. Between the two World Wars, mortality in Arad like in other parts of our country, of Europe and of the world was affected by a series of epidemics, such as the Spanish flu, whose death rate in 1918-1919 had catastrophic proportions. Local authorities were concerned with imposing administrative measures that would contribute to increasing the degree of public health security in the inter-war period. Keywords: natural growth rate, mortality, diseases, epidemics, mortality row rates. A fundamental component of population`s natural growth rate is, along with natality, the phenomenon of mortality. Mortality in Arad, like in other parts of our county, of Europe and of the world was influenced in the Interwar period by a series of epidemics such as the Spanish flu that brought about catastrophes in 1918-19191. Another significant epidemic was variola. Compulsory anti-viola vaccination had been introduced in order to limit it. Regulation no 8.254/1927 issued by the mayor of Arad, tefan Anghel stated that anti-viola vaccination and revaccination took place in April-May and October November 1927. The operation would be carried out on school premises. The ones who
1

Frederick Cartwright i Michael Biddiss, Bolile i istoria, Editura All, Bucureti, 2005, p. 190.

Monitorul Municipiului Arad, VI, 1927, nr.16, 18 apr., p. 106-107. Idem, VIII, 1929, nr.20, 20 aprilie, p. 5. 4 Ibidem, p.7.
3

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Table no 1. The evolution of mortality and of the mortality row rate (MRR) in Arad in 1900-1945
year no of deaths MRR year no of deaths MRR year no of deaths MRR year no of deaths MRR year no of deaths MRR 1901 1.347 23,4 1911 1.702 24,6 1921 3.052 43,8 1931 1.340 16,3 1941 1.550 17,8 1902 1.429 24,9 1912 1.533 22,2 1922 1.203 17,4 1932 1.296 15,8 1942 1.749 20,1 1903 1.392 24,2 1913 1.648 23,8 1923 1.192 17,2 1933 1.175 13,3 1943 1.504 17,3 1904 1.447 25,2 1914 1.552 22,5 1924 1.223 17,7 1934 1.233 15,0 1944 2.194 25,3 1905 1.611 28,0 1915 1.977 28,6 1925 1.032 14,9 1935 1.364 16,6 1945 2.136 24,6 1906 1.505 26,2 1916 1.622 23,5 1926 1.185 17,1 1936 1.036 12,6 1907 1.549 26.3 1917 1.888 27,3 1927 1.022 14,8 1937 1.036 12,6 1908 1.503 25,5 1918 2.159 31,2 1928 1.062 15,4 1938 1.433 17,5 1909 1.595 27,0 1919 706 10,2 1929 1.228 17,8 1939 1.356 16,5 1910 1.464 24,0 1920 1.261 18,2 1930* 1.256 16,3 1940 1.446 17,6 -

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation During the World War I, due to restrictions caused by such an event, natural selection operated upon the ones who remained at home, keeping alive only the healthiest of them. The ones that came back from the battlefield were inspite of their wounds, younger. Consequently, the risk of death was lower at the end of the war. The above table includes also the row rates of mortality. This synthetic indicator shows the number of deaths at 1000 inhabitants. This perspective reveals the same growth in 1901-1945, from 23,4 to 24,6. The years 1918 and 1944, during the world wars, the highest RBM rates were registered, namely 31,2 and 25,3. The second decade of the 20th century registers even more deceases. In the following decades we register a lowering mortality tendency. These are years of normal evolution, the lowering of decease numbers being a characteristic of the phenomenon of demographic transition observable in Arad starting with the 9th decade of the 19th century6. At this point we do not possess all date referring to row mortality rates in the 5th decade but we can state, based on date registered in the first five years that mortality registered again values that were above normal decades. As far as RBM is concerned, in 1930 it is placed below the rate of Romania, of Arad county and other urban centres. Table no 2 reveals that Timisoara city was placed below the values registered in Arad, which is closely followed by Oradea city. All three values of RBM are placed under the values of Romania and other important cities in the country. This is a sign of urban civilization found at that time in the western cities of Romania. Table no 2. Deceased in 1930
Categories Romania Deaths MRR 346.714 19,4 Arad county 7.606 18,0 Arad city 1.256 16,3 Oradea 1.397 17,0 Timioara Cluj 1.366 14,9 1.734 17,6 Ploieti 1.499 19,9

Total5 14.842 Total 16.048 Total 13.467 Total 12.715 Total 9.133

We observe throughout these 45 years a annual variation of deaths. If we refer only to row values of deaths recorded at the beginning and at the end of the period under analysis we notice a growth of their number. We also notice a growth in the number of deaths in the years of war, namely 1915-1918 and 1942-1945. If we carefully analyse Table no 1, we notice that in the last two years of world war more deaths were registered than before. Inspite these, the highest values were registered in 1921. This is the year when dead soldiers from different European battlefields of the World War I were registered. The lowest number of deaths was registered in the year following the end of World War I. This reality can be regarded as natural, if we consider the effects of war.
A Magyar Szent Korona Orszagainak 1901-1910, evi nepmozgalma kozsegenkint, Budapest, 1913, p 340 - 341. * The decesed register of 1930 registers a number of 89 cases, all male, the death date being December 31st, 1918. Their age was between 20 and 46 years old. They had residence in Arad or ega and Gai, which were enclosed to Arad in 1930, being neighbourhoods of the city.
5

Corneliu Pdurean, Populaia comitatului Arad n secolul al XIX-lea, Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu Arad, 2003, passim.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation We have stopped at the registers of 1930 to analyse the seasonal distribution of deceases. Most of them were registered in the first five months of the year, March being at the peak of this mourning statistics. Winter months with its hardships determined by the thermic discomfort, increase in grease consumption, body`s loss of vitamins, etc contributed to the increase of mortality, especially by the death of chronically sick people and of those with poor physical condition. The risk of decease due to improper feeding is higher, as experience reveals. Table no 3. Seasonal distribution of deceases in Arad in 1930
Jan. m f 46 75 121 9,6 Feb. m f 49 39 88 7,0% Mar. m f 65 68 133 10,6% Apr. m f 76 40 116 9,2% May m f 63 61 124 9,9% June m f 61 37 98 7,8% July m f 55 51 106 8,4% Aug. m f 53 41 94 7,5% Sept. m f 47 37 84 6,7% Oct. m f 40 46 86 5,8% Nov. m f 49 58 107 8,5% Dec. m f 45 54 99 7,9%

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Table no 4. Seasonal distribution of mortality in 1930 in Romania and in the urban area
Admin.unit Jan. RO ROU CMU ARJ ARO Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

8,6% 8,1% 9,2% 8,5% 7,6% 8,9% 9,4% 7,8% 9,5% 9,4% 8,1% 9,9%

9,0% 8,2% 7,3% 8,2% 8,6% 7,3% 8,1% 8,3% 9,1% 8,9% 8,2% 8,0% 8,6% 8,5% 7,6 8,2% 8,3% 8,6%

8,7% 9,1% 8,2% 8,0% 7,7% 6,6% 7,7% 8,2% 9,1% 9,4% 8,9% 7,4% 8,1% 7,2% 7,1% 7,7% 7,8% 8,9%

9,6% 7,0% 10,6% 9,2% 9,9% 7,8% 8,4% 7,5% 6,7% 5,8% 8,5% 7,9%

Ro=Romania; ROU=Romania urban area; CMU=Criana Maramure urban area; ARJ=Arad county; ARO=Arad city We find more similarities to the urban area of Criana and Maramure, area where also Arad city belonged to, or to Arad County whose residence Arad city was. The differences prove once again that the urbanization process was more advanced in the western part of Romania than in other parts.

In the summer months and at the beginning of the fall the deceases number was lower, except July. More people died in July due to cardiological problems and higher blood pressure. The seasonal distribution of mortality in 1930 brings significant changes as compared to the second half of the 19th century. For example, in 1971 most deceases were registered in August December7. Such an annual distribution is natural in a rural society. In these months, the physical effort was bigger, due to harvest time and the body was exposed to exhaustion. Also the food lacked vitamins and was rich in fats for the individual to be able to work long hours. The dangers of child sickness also increased because they remained home, unattended by their mothers who went to help at harvesting. The decrease in the number of deceases in these month, after 60 years is a sign of urbanization in Arad city. If we compare the seasonal distribution of mortality in Arad city to the one registered at country`s level or urban area (Table no. 4), we notice also in Romania the presence of the above mentioned agricultural society model. Even the urban area of our country is closer to this model in a certain extend.
7

Ibidem, p. 189.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 467-486

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation river Mure, I also tried to enlist the monetary discoveries in the neighbouring areas, the Criul Alb river valley; the lack of roadways, as well as the depopulation of the area towards South left it out of the subject. As we all know, the geographic frame of an area is in an on-going process of change. For this matter, associating the present geographic factors with the ones in the Antiquity would be a huge interpretation error. A potential image of the area is presented by I. Ferenczi: From the present-day city Mukacevo (from Subcarpathian Ukraine) and to the present-day capital of Jugoslavia, there was a pond extending there for months, not only alongside Tisza, but also on the inferior stream of all Carpathian affluents. Only half-way through the dry summers, the waters were sinking in the river bed, leaving behind vast swamps for the rest of the year [I. Ferenzi, 1993: p.44]. The analyzed territory is located between the Roman camp from Micia - East - (Veel) and the antique dwelling West - (Szeged). This territory is a buffer zone between Pannonia and Dacia, area that is controlled by the Sarmate-Iaziges Barbarian population who, according to their interests, either favouring or not the Roman Empire. The West border of the Roman Dacia arose many disputes it isnt the case for us to debate again on this subject I only mention the fact that the concerned area (the inferior valley of the river Mure) is not a part of the Roman province. Here the Dacians and the Sarmate- Iaziges continued to live. The discovered artifacts strengthen the fact according to which the Western area remains an interference area between the two provinces Dacia and Pannonia. The archaeological discoveries - most of them, random attest that these western Barbarians will take over some elements from the Romans, especially the material culture. The Romans exerted their control on the Inferior Mure Valley, because the road that connected with Apulum, Micia and Partiscum passed by here. The statement is sustained by the presence of the marked bricks belonging to the XIIIth Gemina [S.Mrki, 1892: p.23; P.Hgel, 1996: p.73-76; M.Barbu et alii, 1999: p.36], legion that settled in Dacia during the existence of the province, having its headquarters at Apulum. The coin, through its characteristic nature was destined to flow, thus being a very important source for the analysis of the human society economical, social, political and cultural life; that is why the discovery 468

Lower Mure Valley from the conquest of Dacia by the Romans to the Marcomanic wars in the light of numismatic finds1
Daniela Aurelia BUDIHALA Universitatea Babes-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca Abstract: In the early second century, Roman expansion has reached the Lower Danube and after two long, costly wars, Dacia became the westernmost province of the Empire. The engagement of the new province in the life of the Empire started the process of Romanization. Outside the Trajan province one can observe the Roman influence and these can be demonstrated also by coin discoveries. The barbarians were involved in economic exchange with the roman world. These barbarians used roman coins for their intrinsic value, but also for their extrinsic qualities. It is worth mentioning that roman coins were used and produced in the Dacian territory long before the conquest of Dacia. Keywords: coin, barbarians, romans, Marcomanic wars. The present research aims to identify certain political-economical realities carried on the inferior valley of the river Mure, between the conquest of Dacia by the Romans and the Marcomanic wars, realities based on the monetary circulation. The river Mure is the largest affluent (on the left) of Tisza. The Mure empties in Tisza in Szeged, Hungary. The area taken into consideration in this case represents the inferior valley of the river Muresh, therefore between Svrin and Szeged. For a better understanding of the subject, apart from the inferior valley of the
1

The authors wish to thank for the financial support provided from the program co-financed by THE SECTORAL OPERATIONAL PROGRAM FOR HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT, Contract POSDRU 6/1.5/S/3 "DOCTORAL STUDIES, A MAJOR FACTOR IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND HUMANISTIC STUDIES

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation and the interpretation of the Roman numismatic material in this interference area is a further proof for its importance for the Roman world. The lack of the monetary hoards that end at Trajan or his predecessors (Domitian or Nerva) can be explained by the fact that within the Dacian milieu the Republican denars, coined in the local mints from Ortie mountains were still flowing. The monetary circulation between Dacia and Pannonia is better highlighted in the catalogue concerning the discoveries. The Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan was facing a strong monetary crisis. The Dacian gold would be the one solving this situation after the conquering wars led by the optimus princeps. The year 106 will have been for the Romans of that century a very significant one. Trajan decides to cancel all the duties, the tax payers are exempted for one year from paying their taxes and more than any citizen of Rome could dream of every family receives 650 denars (equal to the cost of several qualified slaves) in order to feel as a part of the great victory. The triumphs and the games (panem et circenses) lasted 123 days, where 10.000 gladiators were fighting with weapons in circus rings. These enormous expenses were made soon before the campaign in Dacia was closed. A commission of notables had been created in order to establish severe measures in the field of economy, because of the fact that the Imperial treasury was practically inexistent. The coins that date back from Traians period are certified in eight points. The denarius has a very good quality (3,40 gr at Cicir where in every hut there were also found fragments of terra sigilata) [Hgel, Barbu, 1997, p.575]. Half of these discoveries are located in Arad Plain, but also in the neighboring areas. The area where Mure flows across in Banat is very poorly represented. A higher concentration can be noticed around Timi area. Since 166, one of the most difficult periods for the Empire has begun because of the conspiracy of all the peoples from Illirycum to Gallia. The Marcomanic wars have started to which also took part the Iaziges, the Kvasses, the Lacringes, the Burs, the Roxolanes, the Costoboces and others [N. Gudea, 1994: p. 79. He states that Porolissum didnt suffer from major damage, as opposed to Dacia Apulensis and 469

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Malvensis provinces, and their situation influenced the economical life, especially the cash flow of the North province ]. Large territories in Dacia were devastated by the Marcomanic wars starting with the second half of the year 167, both in Dacia Porolissensisand in the center of the Transylvanian region. Porolissum didnt succeed in stopping the invasion and the two Roman camps there were almost destroyed. From West, the Barbarians headed towards the auriferous area. The population in Alburnus Maior hid their documents the waxed plates in the gold mines galleries (the last plate is dated 29th of May 167) [IDR, I: p.175]. Damage caused by the invasions were also noticed at Apulum, but especially at Ulpia Trajana Sarmizegetusa [CIL, III, 1769] and Tibiscum. In 168 the legion V Macedonica was transfered in Dacia, at Potaissa as a consequence of a series of measures that were implying the frontier consolidation of the provinces (including the creation of some new legions such as II Italica and III Italica, established on the Danube shores) [M. Brbulescu, 1987: p. 24]. The Marcomanic wars stroke hard in the Danubian provinces, especially in Inferior Pannonia and Inferior Moesia [N. Gudea, 1994, p. 79]. The tragic situation in here influenced the trade, thing showed by the monetary discoveries. The analysis of the isolated monetary discoveries catalogue allow us to observe the shock of Marcomanic wars (the pieces are from Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus or the members of the Imperial family). In the case of three of the settlements we dont have future documentation (Deszk, Dezna, Firiteaz). In other two settlements we found coins dating back only since Phillip the Arab (Chisindia and Lipova). Documentation concerning the reign of Gallienus or Aurelian was found only in three other settlements (Cenad, Ineu, Pecica) and another concerning the period of Konstantin (Kiszombor). The coin discoveries are quite various and probably the coin was used for the payroll. Because we are referring to the confines, a coin of a greater value and of a very high quality (the material used for these coins were gold and silver) starts to be used here [V. Mihilescu-Brliba, 1999, p. 809-810]. Another observation is that we mainly have the same discovery points as in the case of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. We still have to take into consideration the fact that the coin found here, and used during the period of the two emperors, could have also been used during 470

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Marcus Aurelius and his son, Commodus, because it was a coin made of a high quality material. Generally, during Commodus, few money were coined and the launch of the economy didnt take place. So, older coins were being used. The space between Dacia and Pannonia represents an ethnic diversity based on the principle of cohabitation. It is because of this principle that we can barely spot the differences between the Dacian and Sarmatian dwellings. Though the Romans didnt extend to their territories, the habitants were very aware about the reality of the Roman Empire, due to the economical and political relations between them. As a consequence of these facts, the Dacians and the Sarmatians were either the allies or the enemies of Rome. This can also be stated according to analyses of the monetary reality in that area. The treasuries confirm the fact that during certain periods the relations between them deteriorated, or a new enemy appears in the area. Under these circumstances, they decided to bury their fortunes hoping that when the problems would have been solved and life would have take its natural course, they could use again their fortunes. Taking into consideration the numismatic collection from the Inferior Mure Valley, we can observe that concerning the trade, this area was controlled by the Romans who found here a quick way of connection with Pannonia (Tisza wasnt seen as a border, but as a geographic reality). Another observation is that the discoveries strictly concern the Mure Valley and the Cri Valley, which represent access ways between Pannonia and Dacia through Iaziges Plain. These discoveries demonstrate that the roads were controlled by the Romans. Being an area that Apatin barbaric world, identified through currency may rise to Domitian Because the area analized here belongs to the barbarian world the isolated coins discovered here can reach it's lowest points at Domitianus or maybe even earlier, because the Barbarian used the old coin, especially for its intrinsical value (high quality metal) when the more recent currency significantly decried, as it is the case of the period we are now taking into consideration [V. Mihilescu-Brliba, 1980: p.8390]. It can also be noticed a continuity of the dwellings, that could represent local power centers assuring the connection with the centers from the Cri Valley (as we can see on the attached map, the linear disposal of the discovery points can mark a secondary road). 471

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The assumption of adopting an economy based on truck was hard to accept because in the area there was a big army that needed great financial resources. Once again, this is about the Barbarian perception on the Roman currency, about their scepticism regarding the situation in the Empire. Appendix 1.The catalogue of the discoveries regarding the selfcontained pieces2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ARAD, Remus street with Barsei, Arad city, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Random discovery. 1D Trajan. Randomly discovered in the yard of an immobile, at the intersection of the two streets in 1972. CMA. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993; P. Hgel, M. Barbu, 1997. ARAD, Ceala, Arad city, district of Arad. Dwelling. IIIth - Vth centuries. Random discovery. 3 Denars: Caracalla(1), Aurelian(2) No further details. CMA. M. Barbu, P. Hgel , 1993, p. 67, no.1; P. Hgel, M. Barbu, 1997, p. 550, no. 3 s, 576 no. 3 s.

The catalogue of the self-contained pieces concerns the following fileds: 1. The name of the place; 2. The type of the discoveries; 3. The character of the discoveries; 4. The number of the discovered pieces; 5. The time-scale of the research; 6. The keeping place of the materials; 7. Bibliography.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ARAD, Ceala, Arad city, district of Arad. Dwelling. Random discovery. 1D Antoninus Pius, 1D Faustina Senior, 1D Faustina Iunior. In the summer of 1964, the workers from G.A.S-Ceala discovered - when they were on site artifacts belonging to different eras. It seems that they found in the tombs two small grey cups of clay turned on a potters wheel and a small blackish jar made by hand, that was decorated around its collar with dimples, a bronze Roman fibula and four Imperial silver coins: Titus, Antoninus Pius, Faustina Senior and Faustina Iunior. CMA. E. Drner, 1970, p. 449-450. ARAD, Ceala, Arad city, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Random discovery. 1D Hadrian. Discovered in the soil brought for grading in Vlaicu headquarter in 1992 from Ceala. CMA. M. Barbu, P. Hgel , , 1993; P.Hgel, M. Barbu, 1997. In the bibliography Arad appears as a reference, without the mentioning of the toponym. ARAD, Complex Sere, Arad city, county of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Random discovery. 1D from Faustina Iunior. No further details. CMA. 473

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. BEBA VECHE, Train station, Beva Veche township, district of Timi. Sarmatian Dwelling. Survey. 1 D Traianus. The survey was carried out near the edifice of the train station, where there was identified a Sarmatian dwelling. The coin was in a very poor phase of preservation (very rusted) because of the fact that in the discovered inventory appeared another iron object found in its immediate proximity. Unmentioned. Huszr 1954, p.91, n.CLIV. BEBA VECHE, Beva Veche township, district of Timi. Discovery of unmentioned character. Random discovery. 2 D Trajan, 1 AE Maximianus Herculius, 1 AE Constans. Within the township area, without any specification of the place, the aforementioned coins were also referred to. Unmentioned. Toma-Demian 2002-2003, p. 174; Mare 2004, p. 157; Luca 2005, p. 2426. BECICHERECU MIC, Becicherecu Mic township, district of Timi. Discovery of unmentioned character. Random discovery. 3 D Trajan, 1 AE Diocletian. Within the township area, without any specification of the place, the aforementioned coins were also referred to. Unmentioned. Toma-Demian 2002-2003, p. 174; Luca 2005, p. 25.

6. 7. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

6. 7. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 474

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 9. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 10. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 12. 1. 2. 3. 4. BENCECU DE SUS, Pichia township, district of Timi. Discovery of unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1 D Traian, 1 AE Constantin. Within the township area, without any specification of the place, the aforementioned coins were also referred to. Unmentioned. Medele 1994, p. 252; Luca 2005, p. 27. BRUZNIC, Ususu township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D since Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Phillip the Arab. No further details. The Museum of Banat from Timisoara. B. Mitrea, 1945, p. 88. BUHANI, Dezna township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 2AU since Marcus Aurelius. Acording to N. D. Covaci here were discovered bronze and silver coins dating since Marcus Aurelius. The National Museum from Budapest. S. Mrki, p. 27; S. Dumitracu, p. 125, nr. 2; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p. 68. CENAD, Cenad township, district of Timi. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D, Faustina Senior, 1D Commodus, 1D Aurelian, bronze dating since Gallienus. 475

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 5. 6. 7. 13. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 15. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The coins were discovered in 1930, they are now belonging to personal collections in Timisoara. Nussbaum collection (Hadrian). D. Benea, p. 459. CHISINDIA, Chisindia township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Antoninus Pius, 1D Fipil Arabul. Information from S. Marki, taken by E. Drner. CMA. S. Mrki, p. 27; S. Dumitrascu, p.126, no. 4; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p. 68, no. 9. CHIINEU-CRI, Chiineu-Cri town, district of Arad. Dwelling. Discoveries made by amateurs. AE Trajan and 1D Elagabal. In Pumping Station point there were found pottery fragments coming from bowls turned on a potters wheel, out of soft paste. Unmentioned. S.Mrki, p.28, S. Dumitracu 1993, p. 126; P. Hgel, M. Barbu, 1997, p. 578, no.15a. CICIR, Cicir township, district of Arad. Discovery of unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D from Trajan. It was found by a pupil on an island of the Mure. CMA. S.Dumitrascu, p.126; D.Benea, p.459; Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69.

14.

11.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 16. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. DESZK, Csongrd shire, Hungary. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. The discovery doesnt come with any further details. Unmentioned. Flp 1976, p. 257 (H. 8), 262. DEZNA, n Vii, Dezna township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. Bronze and silver coins dating since Marcus Aurelius. No further details. Not specified. S.Mrki, p.27; S. Dumitrascu, p.126; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69. FIRITEAZ, agu township district of Arad. Dwelling. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Antoninus Pius, 1D Marcus Aurelius. Information from E. Drner. Unmentioned. D.Benea, p.459; Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69. FRUMUENI, Frumueni township, district of Arad. Dwelling? Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Commodus. No further details. Unmentioned. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69. 477

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 20. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 21. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 22. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. GURAHON, Gurahon township, district of Arad. Discovery of unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D from Trajan. When the works for the cafeteria of the local highschool began, two Imperial coins dating back since Nero and Trajan were discovered. The highschool from Gurahon. Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69. INEU, Ineu town, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. Coins dating since Commodus and Galienus. The coins were discovered in 1867, near Moroda, on the shore of Cigher. The National Museum from Budapest. S.Mrki, p.24. KISZOMBOR, Csongrd shire, Hungary. Germanic necropolis. Systematic digging. 1 D Lucius Verus, 1 AE Constantius II (?) The coin dating since Constantius is punched and probably used as a pendant. Unmentioned. Huszr 1954, p. 86, 87, n. CXVI.

17.

18.

19.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 23. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 24. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 25. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. KISZOMBOR, Csongrd shire, Hungary. Sarmatian necropolis. Systematic digging. 1D Trajanus, 1D Faustina senior, 1D Hadrianus, 1D Marcus Aurelius, 1D Commodus. Coins discovered in stratigraphic context. Unmentioned. Huszr 1954, p. 86, 87, n. CXVI. LENAUHEIM (township, district of. Timi) Discovery of unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1 D Trajan. Within the townships area, in an undetermined place, it was discovered a stock made out of multiple ceramic jars, dated from the IIIrd-IVth centuries B. Ch. Not specified. Medele 1994, p. 266; Mare 2004, p. 186; Luca 2005, p. 221. LIPOVA, Lipova town, district of Arad. Dwelling. Discoveries made by amateurs. Coins dating since Faustina Iunior and Phillip the Arab. The diggings made for the foundation of the Agricultural Highschool in 1886 brought to light mill stones, Roman coins and the half of a Roman tomb stone representing a man wearing a toga. The Museum of Banat from Timisoara. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 26. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 27. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 28. NDLAC, Ndlac town, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Trajan, 2D Hadrian, 1D Antoninus Pius, 1D Severus Alexander, 1D Faustina Iunior, 1D Iulia Domna. Within the Sildan collection from there are the above mentioned coins that were identified by the professor Moisil. Sildan collection. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69. OLARI, Sintea Mic township, district of Arad. Self-contained discovery. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Trajan. Discovery made by the grave digger Vass Francisc in the Evangelic Graveyard, on December 2007. CMA. Inedited. PECICA, Pecica town, district of Arad. Self-contained discovery. Rescue diggings. 1D Antoninus Pius, 1D Faustina Iunior, ANT Etruscilla, 1D Iulia Domna, ANT Gallienus, 1D Aurelian. No further details.. CMA. D.Benea, p.459; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

6. 7.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 29. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. PECIU NOU, Peciu Nou township, district of Timi. Self-contained discovery. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1 D Trajan, 2 AE Constans, 1 AE Constantius II. Discovery made aprox. 1Km South of the village. Not specified. Medele 1994, p. 274; Toma-Demian 2002-2003, p. 181; Luca 2005, p. 281 PEREGUL MIC, Peregul Mare township, district ofArad. Dwelling. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1AE from Trajan. Information from S.Marki. Neprecizat. S.Mrki, p.27; S.Dumitrascu, p.126; Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69. SNPAUL, ofronea township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Lucius Verus. Information from E. Drner. Unmentioned. Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69 SMPETRU GERMAN, Secusigiu township, district of Arad. Discovery with unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs 1D Gordian.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 5. 6. 7. 33. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 34. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 35. 1. 2. 3. 4. The information comes from Drner and it is defective. It appears mentioned in its notes where it is also found a draft of the coin. Unmentioned. Inedited. SMPETRU GERMAN, Satul Nou, Secusigiu township, district of Arad. Discovery of unmentioned character. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D from Trajan It was found by Bleiezeffer Andrei, blacksmith at CAP, in the southern part of the township known for the name of Satul Nou. CMA. M.Barbu, P.Hgel , 1993, P.Hgel, M. Barbu, 1997 SNNICOLAU MARE, Snnicolau Mare town, district of Timi. Self-contained discoveries Discoveries made by amateurs 1 D Commodus. Tomb stone, sealed tegulated material le(gio) XIII Gemina in different patterns, including with anthroponomy. Unmentioned. P. Hgel, M. Barbu 1993, p. 70; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1997, p. 585 SZEGED, thalom, Csongrd shire, Ungaria. Sarmatian tomb. Systematic digging. 1 D Faustina senior, 1 D Caracalla.

30.

31.

32.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 5. Apart from the coins from the studied tombs, before the start of the systematic diggings, other pieces were brought to light: 2 AE Maximianus Herculius (236-305), 1 AR suberate, Undeterminable, 1 AE undeterminable. Unmentioned. Prducz 1943-1950, p. 186; Huszr 1954, p. 95, n. CLXXXIX. EITIN, eitin township, district of Arad. Dwelling. Surface researches. 1D Marcus Aurelius and 1D Lucilla. Further more, there were discovered ceramic fragments coming from bowls turned on a potters wheel, made up from a soft grey paste, Roman import pottery. . Unmentioned. M.Blajan, 1975, p.70; M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69. TROA, Gomila, Svrin township, district of Arad. Self-contained discovery. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1AE Phillip the Arab. On the territory of the village, a coin was found, that was used during the reign of Phillip the Arab, coin that C. Daicoviciu catalogued as coming from Trajans period. Iosif Dohangie, the teacher who has this coin sent a paper appendix of this piece. Personal collection. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, 1993, p.69. VARIAU MARE, Irato township, district of Arad. Self-contained discovery. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Marcus Aurelius.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 5. 6. 7. 39. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 40. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Further more, there were discovered ceramic fragments coming from bowls turned on a potters wheel, made up from a soft grey paste, Roman import pottery. Unmentioned. M. Barbu, P. Hgel, p. 71, n. 36. ZDRENI, Zdreni township, district of Arad. Secluded Sarmatian tomb. Unmentioned. 1D suberate Marcus Aurelius,1D Antoninus Pius (Inedited). Discovery made in tomb in 1957. The piece in original is dated 170-171. The second piece also appeared in a Sarmatian tomb in 1958. CMA. Barbu, Hugel, 1993, p.69. ZERINDUL MIC, Mica township, district of Arad. Self-contained discovery. Discoveries made by amateurs. 1D Lucius Verus. Information from E. Drner. Prof. Molnars personal collection. Inedited.

6. 7. 36. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 37. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 38. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 487-497

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Resolution, that condemned, in a Stalinist manner, Titos Yugoslavia2, and was issued by the Informative Bureau of the Communist Countries meeting in Bucharest. Following a week of consultations with their members, almost 2000 of them being former partisans and deserters from the Romanian Army, they issued a Counter-Resolution of solidarity to Titos policy. The Serb Hard-liners reaction shocked the PMR Banat County leadership who could not handle the escalating conflict of an uncontrollable outcome.3 At once, the Internal Affairs Department intervened. Teohari Georgescu, the Minister, came personally, to Timisoara, to stop at once this Serb dissident movement. Teams of investigation, control and guidance for the activities of the communist militants and Serb procommunists were formed. During the night of July 12/13, the rebel group was investigated during a harsh interrogation by Iosif Bogdan, an activist sent from Head office.

Soviet 'patterns' for the serbs living in Romania 1948-1950. Kulturny uputnik (The Cultural Adviser)
Miodrag MILIN Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Following the awkwardness of the beginnings when it comes to loans, at the beginning of the 50s, the first autochthonous voices appear in the Serbian minorities' work, recycled on Stalinist patterns. This environment, intensely terrorized by political levers, generated a work to measure: infested by prejudices and fears, the omnipresent complex of guilt for the Titoist "heresy," at any time a possible antechamber for the most violent, physical, repression. With practically more true intellectuals being in prison than free, what is informally called "separating the wheat from the shaft" will be accomplished. Thus the so-called proletarian culture flourishes, solidly settling in the institutions of the system. Disdainfully treated and politically orchestrated by the representatives of the majority. Nowhere at home, unacknowledged, correspondingly perceived more as an exercise of cultural manifestation in one's own language, but of a foreign identity for the mother country and culture. Keywords: Titoism, Stalinism, resolution, counter resolution, "Cultural Guide," "wooden" language Taking everybody by surprise a group of leaders of the Serbian Union from Timisoara1 reacted negatively to the June 28 1948

This is the usual denomination. The correct one is SSKDUR (Savez slovenskih demokratskih udruzenja u Rumuniji), or the Slav Democratic Cultural Associations Union in Romania SDCAUR, although it was almost entirely formed by Serbs.

See recent bibliography: Joseph Rotschild, Intoarcerea la diversitate. Istoria politic a Europei Centrale i de Est dup Al Doilea Rzboi Mondial,[Bucureti], 1997; Jean-Franois Soulet, Istoria comparat a statelor comuniste din 1945 pn n zilele noastre,[Iai], 1998.Miodrag Milin, Andrei Milin, Srbii din Romnia i relaiile romno iugoslave. Studiu i documente (1944 1949), Timioara, 2004. Great Powers and Small Countries in Cold War 1945 1955. Issue of Ex-Yugoslavia. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference, Belgrade, November 3rd 4th, 2003, Beograd, 2005. Liubomir Stepanov, Uniunea Srbilor din Romnia, Timioara, 2006; Zbornik radova sa Medjunarodnog okruglog stola Tito Staljin (Papers from the International Round Table Tito Stalin), Beograd, 2007; Andrei Milin, Miodrag Milin, UACDSR sau Srbii din Romnia pe baricadele Rzboiului Rece, Timioara, 2009 3 We have in mind the planned Serb Congress for Romanias Democratization but also with possible secessionist motivations, in those unclear times at the end of the war. There were rumors of an awaited change of the name of Timisoara into Titograd (Titigrad). The subject is developed in M. Milin, A. Milin, Srbii din Romnia i relaiile...p. 33 79.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The control activities expanded during the following weeks and months4 under the coordination of Mirko Jivkovici, an activist from the Party regional Branch, future university professor in Bucharest, supervisor, and guider of the Yugoslav emigrants and later of the Serbian students in the Capital of Romania. In the leadership of the Serbian Union, he was associated with Alexandru Kurici, a fanatic and narrow minded teacher, follower of the PMR policy, supervisor for years of the Serb high school teenagers, especially those who had the unfortunate experience of Baragan deportation. It is nevertheless true that also, the Yugoslav Internal Affairs Service had its share, we think a major one, contributing to escalating tensions, but for now, the respective archives maintain a cautious silence in this respect. Therefore, the repressive machinery of the Communist Regime in Bucharest began to act. At the same time the minority population, to a great extent of rural origin, less educated and consequently easily manipulated, was subdued to negative emotions5 in the very fragile peace settled over the not yet healed wounds of the terrible World War. After isolating the rebellious group a true Stalinist
4

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation style propaganda offensive started with activists, educated in rural party schools, instructors, agitators, snitchers, zealous informants, military surveillance of unsecured border villages and opinion leaders by Security forces, and putting in place the first high treason of the new republic and socialism in general trials.6 As an instrument of instructing and bringing back on the right track the disconcerted or undecided, the Cultural Guide paper was founded. It was in fact a sort of initiation guide for the rural world into the rules of obedience and vulgar adulation of the Moscovite pharaoh and his perfidious and hypocritical epigones from Bucharest. Following the clumsy beginning, the second issue7 pompously and solemnly opens up with the Soviet Union Hymn, rendering the indestructible union of republics made possible by the constructive spirit of Great Russia, under Lenins guidance towards the sunny shore of peoples liberty, that are embraced by the union flag, in accordance with Stalins words: faith, labor and great deeds! On the next page8 and in antithesis, evaluation marks were taken and interpreted from the muscovite Pravda of the negative status in Yugoslavia: Tito-Rankovici Groups9 extreme nationalism that stained their hands with the blood of Arso Jovanivici, the Stalinist

See the events in detail and supported by documents in A. Milin, M. Milin, UACDSR..., p. 11 292. 5 Jean-Fr. Soulet, in his book (p. 27, subchapter Populaii aflate ntre entuziasm i team) makes a remarkable comment on the hypostasis of populations implication in the Last Worldwide Conflict. Some had lived the conflict with a winning positive emotional state, while others experienced all kinds of frustrations. In Romania, the majority facing the communist regime, brought by from the East, was frustrated after the failure of the maximal national project on the Eastern Front. The Serbs living here, and being less accepted by the majority, due to ethnic connections with the historical enemy from the East, would be meeting their expectations at the presence of the Red Army in Banat, as well. This felling became euphoria, after the success of Titos policy, for which many had fought as partisans. With the separation that took place in the Communist Block that put the equality sign between Tito and fascism, the Serbs face an unsettlement of the existential value scale. Such an emotional environment triggered their very irrational reaction that is to oppose to the whole world while being in this microcosm, and openly contest the fatal Resolution of June 28.

M. Milin, PCR i minoritile: cazul UACDSR sau srbii bneni de la erezie la calvarul reeducrii in volume Partide politice i minoriti naionale din Romnia n secolul XX, Vasile Ciobanu and Sorin Radu, Editors, vol. II, Sibiu, 2007, p. 219 234. 7 Kulturni uputnik za kulturne domove (The Cultural Guide for the Rural Cultural Institutions), no. 2, november 1948, Timioara, p. 2 8 Ibidem, Editorialul Kuda vodi nacionalizam Titove grupe u Jugoslaviji(Where leads Titos Group Nationalism in Yugolsavia), p. 3 - 8 9 Alexandar Rankovici, Titos close ally, chief of Security during and after the war (UDB-a, Ured za drzavnu bezbednost= State Scurity Department) liquidator of the Colonel Draza Mihajlovici armed opposition of Cetnics against Tito. In mid 60s, his political career ended in disgrace due to Serbian nationalist empathies.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation hero , which opened in this way a path for imperialist reaction. Stalin is furthermore the great pathfinder for the workers worldwide. He is the only person capable to guide them onto the path of eternal peace and salvation from bloody wars, of crushing the capitalist slavery and bringing the overall progress of humanity. Following a short deliberation, the anonymous writer came to the definitive conclusion that:also in our politics there are no options that are not Stalins creation.11 Furthermore, the dark humor came to upload even more the crushing burden of generalized fear.12
10

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Another apologetic text praised the Constitution and Stalinist legislation, and the Generalissimos words confessed that: millions of honest people from the capitalist countries wished for the fulfillment of all the things that had already happened in USSR. 13 Undoubtedly, it was an adequate prologue for the new Romanian Constitution of the popular republic. According to a Soviet recipe, a molding of Socialist Yugoslavia14 was also tried by the remaining emigrants in Moscow after the communist split. On April 1949, they reunited to issue an appropriate newspaper. One of the pro-Stalinist masterminds was Radonija Golubovici, former ambassador to Bucharest, who abandoned Titos political line.15 The paper was considered Moscows gift to the Yugoslav proletarians for the international celebration of proletarian labor. Nevertheless, on the May 1 event, Stalin was again expected to give a speech full of providential terms.16 For the Serbs from Romania an ideological mark was Iosif Chisinevski, the party propaganda satrap at the time. His unleashed perorations 17 at the national reunion of Peace Partisans in Bucharest had reached paranoia regarding the Yugoslav issue: The fear of peace, characteristic of capitalism began to overcome the traitorous agent leading Yugoslavia The Yugoslav leaders, puppets of Anglo-American imperialists, by means of festive speeches on building socialismwithout Soviet and international proletarian help, but with the help of Atlantic Dollars and Marshall Plans try to hide the betrayal of socialismand their abortion
13 14

10

Arso (Arsa, Arsenije) Jovanovic , General, Chief of Staff of Partisan Army (JNA, Jugoslovenska narodna armija = Popular Yugoslav Army).After the war was sent to military study in USSR, assasinated by the UDB at the Romanian border in dark circumstances in 1948 autumn. New reserches show some disappointment of the yugoslav officers of the study and living conditions in the Soviet Union. See in detail, Miroslav Perisic, Od Staljina ka Sartru. Formiranje jugoslovenske inteligencije na evropskim univerzitetima. 1945 1958 (From Stalin to Sartre.The Yugoslav Intelectual Formation at European Universities...) , Beograd, 2008, p. 225 254. The author caustically mentiones:...a great number of Yugoslav students andofficers did not need much time to realize they were not for the Russians what the Russians were for them. Out of the 1984 millitary perssonel that was studying in USSR in 1948, 342 joined the Resolution while the rest returned home. (p. 251 252). The Yugoslav Officers in Moscow, came home through Romania at the Jimbolia border. An informative note to the Police headquarters in Timisoara, 1948, august 7, said: ...after they had embarked on the Yugoslav train and the train began to move they started to manifest for Tito by shouting Jugoslavija and Zivio drug Tito . (M. Milin, A. Milin, Srbii din Romnia i relaiile romno iugoslave..., p. 214). 11 Kulturni uputnik.... nr. 3/ 1948, p. 3 9 12 Povukao je rec (He took back his words).The working pesant entered in a verbal dispute with a dubious kulak that eluded the compusory cereal quotas You are so odious tha you do not even deserve to rot in prison! The kulak reacted insisting that the proletarian should take bake his words.Well, said the rural worker Look, I take back my words: you entirely deserve to rot in prison! (Ibidem, p. 21)

Ibidem, Constituia stalinist, p. 23 Ibidem, no. 9/ 1949, p. 7. See also the Photo Annex. 15 Radonja Golubovici. Yugoslavias Ambassador to Bucharest. Several verbal notes with accusations from both parts were issued with the occasion of Ambassador Golobovicis desertion on July 30, 1948. He also notified the Scanteia newspaper on his abandoning Titos political line. A. Milin, op. cit., p. 207 213). 16 Kulturni uputnik... no. 8/ 1949, I. V. Stalin On First of May, p. 1. 17 Ibidem,. Comrades...Presentation at the RPR Intellectuals Congress for Peace and Culture, p. 25 27.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation into a trivial bourgeois republic, stocked-still in the imperialist slavery chains Yugoslavia decays day by day into a consumption market for the reactionary western culture Grand projections of decadent American movies are displayed in the presence of their authors and the Yugoslav Government In Yugoslavian movie theatres, demonstrations took placefor the people do not love gangster, robbery and arson American movies. They reject them with disgust because they know them to be enemy weapons and opened doors for war propaganda. The demonstrators shouted, We want Soviet movies! Tito, the traitor and criminal, and Moshe Piade, 18 the Yugoslav Goebels try to convince the educated people, writers, and artists to join the nationalist coterie and raise them against the Yugoslav peoples interests and the peace front. However, the fact that hundreds of writers and teachers were imprisoned in Rancovicis jails, some being tortured and killed by this executioners janissaries, while others are forced to hide or emigrate, proves that the intellectuals resistance becomes wider The Yugoslav people understand perfectly that under Tito and his allies maskan agent of the peoples enslaving trusts and arsonists of war is hiding The heroic Yugoslav peoples see in the Soviet Union the liberating forceagainst Titos nationalist - chauvinist coterie, an imperialist reactionary agencyenemy of culture and peace Bucharest did not stay behind Moscow. In the Capital of Romania, Under the Internationalism Flag the paper of Yugoslav immigrants was issued.19 They began with applauses and ovations towards USSR, the Bolshevik Party and I.V.Stalin, the genial leader of peoples. Again in the editing crew Duko Novakov, Ljubo Pavicevici, Ivan Dobrainovici, Dmitar Koraci, Milan Poznan, Slavko Dobrosavljevici, are mentioned. Other emigrants mentioned were S. Gruici, T. Knejevici, J. Tomin, B.
18 19

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Trkulici, S. Pavlovici, M. Petrin, Z. Milici, M. Petrovici.20. There were many others, some in disgace due to the political situation in Bucharest.21 The most zealous ones would evidence themselves in the pages of Cultural Guide, Timisoara, with ridiculous poetry and writings for the Romanian fellow citizens. Probably out of precaution and not of embarrassment, they will publish under pseudonym. On the first issues, Gorcilo Mitrovici22 would eagerly write poems. In some of his rhymed verses he would mix together Titos criminal thoughts embracing fascism with the punishing fire of red jet mortars, and hot vows of paranormal devotion for the mythical inhabitant of Kremlin.23 Gradually the new Romanian Popular Republic is introduced in the picture. Its front exponent was then, Chisinevski, the one we saw as a perfidious and, even beyond Moscows expectations, a venomous critic of the Yugoslavs,. Soon we discover the existence of May 9, 1877, an Independence Day, contrary to the dirty forgery of the bourgeois landowners that had tried relentlessly to hide it behind May 10, a day of dynastic eulogy. This was useless because Carol, the Prussian, the prince brought to power, proved himself to be in the end a guardian of foreign capitalism interests 24 Against this treacherous policy and the imperialist yoke, the heroic labor class stood up. Nevertheless, the real independence was gained after the defeat of Hitlers Germany and the countrys liberation by the Red Army
20 21

Moshe Piade, Prim minister of Yugoslavia at the time. Ibidem, nr. 9/ 1949, p. 68.

Ibidem, p. 63. On the debates in the Yugoslav emigrants club in Bucharest, see Vukale Stojanovici, Senke Bukuresta (The Shadows of Bucharest), Zrenjanin, 2003. In a memorialistic book on his 1949-1952 Bucharest experience, the author relates his personal conflict with Dusko Novakov and his antourage. 22 Gorcilo Mitrovici, a sort of Serbian Dumitrescu Amrteanu. 23 Kulturni uputnik..., Suznjeva izjava (The Imprisoned Confession), nr. 11/ 1949, p. 13 14. 24 Ibidem, 9 Maj dan nezavisnosti ( May 9 Independence Day), nr. 8/ 1949, p. 14.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Conclusion: we must not forget that the Soviet Union had helped us, and does so all the time by supporting our economy in order to be able to preserve our independence and the democratic achievements we have gained25 Following the May festivities the poor Romanians were hit by a furious exultation of heroic over - fulfillments and then boundless, even insane, different plans, illustrated by the harsh noise of beyond any control numbers and percentages. What is Kolkhoz? is a text of the same euphoria and lack of common sense censorship, which unleashes on the rural reader a bombardment of figures and astounding statistics regarding a large quantity of cereals and many rubles that shall eventually flood his household. A more skeptical peasant from Banat soon understands everything while reading the unequivocal conclusions: The Soviet Power is directly interested in strengthening the Kolkhoz democracyfor this contributes to the unstopping strengthening of collective farming orders and, at the same time to the strengthening of the Soviet State force26 In addition, gradually, the peasant writers of the new era became present in the multileveled polyphonic and multi-stratified chorus of adulations of the new false paradise. Laza Ilici, the agrarian proletarian poet, attunes his clumsy lines on the vigorous themes, of great resistance and impact of the antiimperialist revolution. The less he understands the more arrogant, furious and crazy he becomes in his verses. The Varias collectivist throws revolutionary thunders and flashes of lighting over the New York Wall Street or London City. He spreads fear towards the monstrous

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation imperialists and atomic maniacs. What a sad pity for the lost destiny of those lacking common sense!27 A privileged place was reserved to the conclusions of the Annual Conference in Budapest of the informational Bureaus of communist and labor parties. As a paradox in the final Resolution, one year after the schism, some rather negative conclusions on the results of the anti-Tito battle occurred.28 In Moscows view, the Yugoslav traitors were successful in creating a contra revolutionary gang formed of reactionary, nationalist, clerics and fascist elements aiming at the separation of brotherly countries from the Soviet Union. The treacherous group was successful in transforming Belgrade into an American spying and anti-communist propaganda centre, by openly joining the imperialist block at the United Nationsinto a common front with American reactionaries. Consequently, Yugoslavia would, almost overnight turn into an anticommunist, police state, with a fascist regime. In accordance with such times, Bojidar Cherpenisan, a teacher and another dilettante of blank verses on proletarian indoctrination of North American workers, began to pour into rhymes a public letter to the American worker29 . We do not know if the receiver understood anything out of the language and the philosophy of the message, but for sure the bard offered freedom and prosperity on the bright Leninist path, considerably widened by Stalin over the Atlantic Ocean.

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Ibidem, p. 15. The obedient formulation, of communist type, at the beginning of Romanian propagandistic indictment: USSR helped and will always help us! would be, as the local regime acquires a nationalist image, replaced by due to the care and wisdom of our party and government revealing a clear self-sufficiency of our proletarian leaders. 26 Ibidem, no. 11/ 1949, p. 20.

Ibidem, Onima iz Volstrita (Message to Those on Wall Street), no. 12/ 1949, p. 8. 28 Ibidem, Jugoslovenska kompartija pod vlascu ubica i spijuna. Rezolucija Informacionog biroa (The Yugoslav Communist Party under the leadership of assassins and spies. The Information Bureau Resolution) no. 1/ 1950, p. 21 26. This pessimist evaluation must be correlated to the furious wave of trials and political executions that caused top radical structural changes in brotherly east European parties and popular democracies. See an exquisite comparative analysis of Stalinist repression in east-European democracies : J. Rotschild, op. cit., p. 115 212. 29 Kulturni uputnik, Otvoreno pismo americkom radniku (Public Letter to the American Worker), no. 3/ 1950, p. 28.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation After the clumsiness of a borrowed start, in the recycled art of Stalinist patterns for the Serb minority, at the beginning of the 50s, the first native voices occurred. They were intense, even smothering, with terror, and generated a measurable artistic creativity, infested by fears and prejudice, the overall guilty complex, anytime a possible antechamber for the most violent physical oppression.30 Having many real intellectuals imprisoned than actually at large a separation of the wheat from the chaff was done. A dramatic split pushing the cultural expression of the minority on to the lost paths of political confrontation and suppression of freedom of expression. The so-called proletarian culture flourished into the systems institutions. It was despised and politically used, never at home, unrecognized or inadequately perceived, more likely as a cultural expression exercise on the official language, but of a strange identity for the country and native culture. The result of these traumas was a minor artistic creation, marked by frustrations and failures, never and nowhere entirely valued, obedient to everyday politics that kept it on intensive care, until it finally passed away. September 19, 2009 11:25:39 PM (Pages 8, Times New Roman, 12; 1.5 space; no. of characters with spaces: 21.832 The undersigned, Isabela Prina, authorized translator by the Ministry of Justice in Romania, under Reg. no. 8464/2003, hereby certify the authenticity of this English version of the Romanian text of the emailed document. September 19, 2009 11:25:39 PM

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 498-506

The public servant. Challenging in the Court of Justice the evaluation file of the employees professional performances and skills
Eugenia IOVNA Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract. It is a prerogative of the employer to grant marks when the annual individual and professional achievements evaluation procedure of public servants is made. The law court invested with an annulment action of The annual valuation of the professional activity paper slip has the right to make the legal control of the individual and professional achievements of the public servant valuation procedure. The evaluation mark and the granting of another mark are not absolutely necessary. The professional achievements evaluation file must contain a motivation of the marks granted based on the evaluation criteria from the methodological valuation of the professional activity Norms. The motivation is necessary by the appreciations possibility perspective regarding the public authoritys competence to emit the administrative legal document and regarding the legality and the solidity of the disposed measure. Regarding the aspect of motivation of legal documents, The European Court of Justice said that the motivation has to be appropriate with the emitted one and to present in a clear measure the algorithm followed by the institution that adopted the measure attacked, so the aiming persons can establish the measures motivation and also to allow the revision of the legal document by the national law courts that are competent. The motivations insufficiency or its missing lead to the nullity of the national law courts legal documents. Keywords: public servant, performance criteria, evaluation file

(Nr.pagini: 8.;Times New Roman 12;1,5 space;caractere cu spaii:21.832.)

Subsemnata Isabela Prina, interpret / traductor autorizat de Ministerul Justiiei, nr.8464/2003, certific conformitatea traducerii cu textul documentului redactat n limba romn i primit pe e-mail.

30

An unintentionally or maybe of diabolic perfidiousness, dark humor comes out of the naive or allegedly naive poem Posle proveravanja (After checking) by S. M. Lalici (Ibidem, p. 44) . Such a strange creation had also political causes: massive PMR elimination of former legionnaires and other actual or imaginary enemies.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation I. Case study Present Case By the action registered on the part of Cluj Law Court and registered again at Arad Law Court according to the close instructions of the High Cassation and Justice Court given in the solving of the resettlement demand, the plaintiff individual summoned in trial the defendant public institution Cadastre Agency, requesting the law court to notice that the individual evaluation file of the relevant achievements and abilities of the activity she carried on is, partially, illegal and not solid and on the consequence to order the partial annulment of it, respectively the contested points, with the obligation of the defendant to give the maximum score and the Very good mark reported to her entire activity and in relation with the post paper sheet, to order the nullity of the decision of maintaining the score regarding her evaluation, adopted by the appeal solving commission because of the lack of motivation, to order the defendants obligation to public excuses in a national circulation newspaper in two different publications, to order the defendants obligation to give the worth salary and the payment of moral damages in value of 100.000 RON for the moral prejudices created by the defendant. In the motivation of her actions the plaintiff emphasized that during her individual achievements and abilities evaluation for the time that she was appraised, she was given the Satisfying mark, but the evaluation was made by the second executive manager with who she had certain incidents during the professional activity progress and the professional achievements and abilities individual evaluation file was approved by the executive manager of the defendant, regarding the fact that both of the managers are in their functions only from the second decade of the year that she was appraised for . She also pointed that the paper sheet in discussion is clearly not solid, because from its content arise only perfunctory evaluation that are not approved, the assessor limited to only make simple statements that are wrong, regarding her achievements and abilities and did not indicate a documentation that can sustain these evaluations, none of the negative aspects from the presented once is proved with concrete examples and other explanations, so the evaluation is faulty and perfunctory and from it does not arise what evaluation method was used, which are the concrete criteria regarded and in what way certain principles where 499

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation witnessed (uprightness, ethics, realism and objectivity) stipulated in the Indoor Discipline Regulations. She also stated that in the appeal conveyed to the defendant she made another analysis of the subparagraphs from the evaluation file, as against she received minimal scores, emphasizing in her actions motivation, that in contrary with the indicators from the regulations and the work tasks established in her paper sheet post she resolved all of her tasks, her activity as manager of the Cadastre Agency cannot be appreciated as being inefficient, on the contrary she managed to organize the work efficiently and with proper results, trying to respect the deadlines, she fulfilled in time all her work tasks, and no task was identified as being delayed, more, it was not proved that the delays in the tasks fulfillment are frequent situations ad she pointed out that she fulfilled her duties properly with responsibility professionalism, she maintained that she applied and accomplished with a lot of accuracy and quality the work tasks and the requirements from the paper sheet post the Indoor Order Regulations and did not have any claims over this aspect, in the year that she was evaluated she took part at all the improvement classes organized by the defendant obtaining very good outcomes, and in April of the same year she obtained the title of Master with refinement and she is in university degree specialization, she applied the acquaintances she achieved at the improvement classes regarding the specific and concrete conditions that are existing at the institutions level, she also stated she never had any complaint of unresolved task, she emphasized that she coordinated many of her colleagues in activity, she had and still has the availability of sharing her acquaintances, to maintain the team spirit by her actions, organize meetings, concluding that the marking is subjective, as long as regarding her professionalism, availability and kindness she obtained the maximum score, so the assessor is in contradiction with himself and no way she ever received any complaint about her professional ethics. She also showed that she was never punished for presumptive minor wanders and that she is useful for the institution for over a decade, institution that she brought into being, in all this time she occupied a leading function and it is the first time when this mark was granted to her, not in the last place she underlined that her evaluation file has no sustaining such as a note or a reference that can be used as an evidence for the evaluation conclusion, 500

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation the assessor did not show which are the concrete situations (by clear examples) that led to the obtaining at every subparagraph of a reduced number of points, and the evaluation file conclusions are in contradiction with the findings from the report regarding the monitoring of the activity she is leading, made exactly in the evaluation year but also with the Accounts Court report that gave motion download without any objection in that year. By meeting, the defendant required the rejection of the action invoking that in essence the evaluation must only be made by itself and not by a law court that would surpass the trial power attributions if it would obligate the defendant to grant the maximum score for the plaintiff, more, the Labor Code does not stipulate that the law court can obligate the employer to public excuses, and regarding the plaintiffs requirement to receive the worth salary, we can see in the legal documents economy that this is not mandatory and the law court cant take the place of the employer, in plus the defendant invoked that the plaintiff does not justify a legal interest, she only has the desire to be granted as being Very good and not a right recognized by the law, it defended itself saying that the plaintiffs arguments cannot be accepted because the score for every evaluation criteria cant be censored b the law court, and regarding the moral damages it appreciated them as being unacceptable because only if the defendant refuses to compensate the employee this one can report to a law court, but the plaintiff didnt prove she made a request in this case and that she demanded compensations from the employer. By the civil sentence no.1380 from the 6th of October 2009, of the Arad Law Court, the action formulated by the plaintiff was partially accepted and so the individual paper sheet of achievements and abilities evaluation regarding the year that she was evaluated by the defendant was annulated, the solution to still maintain the plaintiffs score was considered null even if it was made by the defendants Evaluation Board, the defendant was obligated to pay 35.000 RON to the plaintiff as moral damages, the plaintiffs requirement regarding the fact that the evaluation file is partially illegal was rejected, the plaintiffs demand to obligate the defendant to grant her the maximum score and to be evaluated as being Very good was rejected, the plaintiffs demand to obligate the defendant to public excuses in a national newspaper in two 501

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation different publications was rejected and was rejected also the plaintiffs demand to received the worth salary with the defendants obligation to pay the trial expenses. At first was stipulated that considering the decision that the Indoor Order Regulations of the Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity Agency offices approved by The Order no.1019/2005, emitted by the Executive Manager of the National Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity Agency regarding the 9th article, 5th paragraph from the Government Decision no.1210/2004 regarding the organization of the National Cadastre and Real Estate Publicity Agency, republished, says without any legal attack possibility that the evaluation has to be made with uprightness, professional ethics, realism and objectivity (53rd article, 4th paragraph) and the evaluation activity must be reflected by the individual paper sheet of achievements and abilities evaluation from which the professional competence must be reflected, and also the employees qualities and capaciousness. The three evaluation criteria of the individual and professional achievements evaluations are the professional competence, the behavior and the other qualities (57th article) ; professional competence means to fulfill the requirements from 58th article, 1st paragraph, employees behavior means to fulfill the requirements form 59th article, 1st paragraph and other qualities means to fulfill the indicators from 60th article, 1st paragraph from the same regulations. More than that, the Order no.300/2004 89th article of the Administration and Internal Ministry regarding the management activity of the human resources of these sectors unities, the evaluation sheet reports of the personnel must be brought to their knowledge, after they have been approved by the commanders that made them and the assessors have the obligation to listen to their opinion regarding the correctitude and the objectivity of the evaluations, and to motivate their decisions. On the other side, the same Regulations that was mentioned higher, that was changed by the Order no.268/2006, for the modifying of the Executive Manager of the National Cadastre and Publicity Real Estate Agency Order no.1019/2005, establishes that the appeal made in legal conditions against the evaluation has to be filed at the Human Resources Direction, in five days since the evaluation result was found out and it 502

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation has to be solved by the Appeal solving Board made by order and from which cant take part the person that made the evaluation file. The law court noticed in the case that from the content of the evaluation sheet contested by the plaintiff are resulting only appreciations regarding the plaintiffs achievements and abilities that are not well-founded and based on a proper documentation, neither one of the negative aspects mentioned in the paper sheet is proved with concrete examples or extra explanations, and does not result which is the evaluation method used and neither the concrete criteria that where in sight when the evaluation was made to eliminate any possibility of discrimination, criteria that should have been brought to the plaintiffs knowledge when the evaluation activity was initiated. With other words, it has been concluded by the law court, regarding the way that the plaintiffs evaluation file has been made that we cannot say that the evaluation was made with uprightness, ethics, realism and objectivity, and that this paper sheet reflects the real professional ability, behavior and qualities of the plaintiff. So the only legal conclusion is that the mark given to the plaintiff is not motivated, motivation that is absolutely necessary, in plus the assessor had the legal obligation to listen to the plaintiff, because he didnt do that, he caused her an injury which in the given conclusion must not be proved by her, but is presumed in the case. In the verdicts motivation was also showed that the plaintiffs requirement which is to be found out that the individual evaluation file is partially illegal, cant be received according to the 3rd article of the Civil Procedure Code which says that the interested part can make a demand to find out the existence or inexistence of a right, but the demand cant be received if the part can ask for the rights accomplishment. Regarding the plaintiffs demand for the moral injuries, this one was seen as being well-founded because the evaluation made by the defendant in illegal conditions and its result caused the plaintiff a moral prejudice especially when the plaintiff brought evidence that she has a good reputation, a vast professional experience being involved also in the scientific activity by the volumes she published, she is an honorable person which is mentioned in the Romanian Personalities Encyclopedia and has the title of Master with cum laude, qualities that the defendant did not deny. Regarding the amount of the moral damages, because of the connection between the evaluations result including the differences 503

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation between the plaintiff and the defendant and the plaintiffs medical affections, was not found, the law court enforced the conclusion that the grant of these moral damages in an amount of 35.000 RON is reasonable. In the law courts decision motivation was also detained that the law court is not the proper one to make the evaluation or to grant another mark even if the evaluation file was annulated, so it rejected the plaintiffs demand for the worth salary knowing the fact that the grant of the salary depends of the evaluation which regards the employee. The law courts decision remained unalterable, being kept in appeal by the Appeal Court of Timisoara by the civil decision no.262 from 19th of February 2010, the defendants appeal was admitted only regarding the amount of the trial expenses. II. General Considerations It is undeniable that the appeal worded by the employee against her professional achievements and abilities individual evaluation file represents a work conflict as it has been defined by the Labor Code as being represented by any disagree between the social partners. On the other side t is known that the labor jurisdiction has as target the solving of the work conflicts regarding the ending, the execution, the modification, the suspension and the cessation of the individual or group work contracts stipulated in the higher mentioned code and also judicial reports between the social partners, stipulated in the same code. So, stipulated in the Labor Code dispositions regarding the deadlines when the regards for a labor conflict solving can be addressed to a law court, it is absolutely necessary that the appeal against the professional achievements and abilities individual evaluation file to be made by the employee in 30 days from the communication of the evaluation report. The judgment of the appeal is in the competence of the law court in which district the plaintiff has the residence; the judge decision in this case is final and enforceable, it can be attacked by appeal and it will be solved by the Appeal Court. It is practicable the urgency regime characteristic to every labor conflict, the evidence administration is made with the respect of this regime, and the evidence burden goes to the employer who is obligated to bring the defense evidences before the first day of the suit. Regarding the contents of every professional achievements and abilities individual evaluation file, beyond the rules that different Indoor 504

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Order Regulations have, it is essential that it is motivated properly, because for the Romanian state it applies the community jurisprudence in which it says that the motivation must be proper with the emitted legal document and has to present in a clear manner the algorithm followed by the institution that took the attacked measure, so that the evaluated persons can establish the measures motivation and also to allow the community competent law courts to make the revision (case C-367/1995). Also, the European Court of Justice decided that the extent and detail of the motivation depend of the nature of the legal document and the demanding that the motivation has to fulfill depend of every case circumstances, an insufficient or wrong motivation is equal to the lack of motivation. More than that, the motivations insufficiency attracts its nullity or the lack of lawfulness of the community legal documents (case C41/1969). On the same idea, it has to be remembered that a particularization of the reasons is necessary also when the issuing institution has a large power of appreciation, because the motivation gives the legal document transparence, the particulars can check if the legal document is correctly founded and in the same time can allow the jurisdictional control made by the law court (case C-509/1993). In the same manner has pronounced the Romanian High Court of Appeals and Justice by decision no.1580 from 11th of April 2008, showing that the discretionary power given to an authority cannot be seen, in a law state, as being an absolute and unlimited power, because exertion of the appreciation right by violating the fundamental legal rights and freedoms of the citizens ordered by the Constitution, is power excess. The Romanian Constitution orders at 31st article, 2nd paragraph the authorities obligation to insure the correct information of the citizen regarding the public occupations and the personal interest problems. So, it has been detained by the High Court of Justice that any decision which can product effects regarding the fundamental rights and freedoms, must be motivated not only regarding the citizens and society perspective appreciation possibility above the lawfulness of the measure, because to accept the thesis which says that the employer must not motivate his decisions is equal with the emptiness of the democracy essence and the law state based on the legality principle. In concrete, the assessors appreciations must be based on a proper documentation; the negative aspects from the paper sheet must be evidenced with concrete examples or explanations, and from the paper sheet must 505

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation result the evaluation method that was used and the evaluation criteria that must be brought to the employees knowledge when the evaluation activity began. Respecting the principles higher mentioned and also the defense right it is obvious that no matter what the rules are the assessor has the obligation to listen the employee, otherwise he causes him an injury which, in the given conditions, must not be proved by the employee because is understandable from the case. From another point of view, but in full agreement with the same decision of the higher mentioned High Court, it is a prerogative of the employer the marks grant when the evaluation procedure is over, and the law court invested with the annulment of the individual evaluation file has the competence to exert only the legal control of the evaluation procedure, without making herself the evaluation and grant another mark. Not in the first place, is undisputed that in the exertion of the legal control, the law court cannot proceed to only a partial annulment of the paper sheet, because it hasnt got the power to make opportunity appreciations. Bibliography: Constantin Calinoiu, Verginia Verdinas, The common public function theory, Lumina Lex Publishing, 1999, pages 12-13 Guy Isaac, General common law, Armand Colin Publishing, page 92 Rodica Narcisa Pretrescu, Administrative law, Accent Publishing, 2004, page 437 Verginia Verdinas, Bill nr. 188 from 1999 regarding the Status of the public servants, Lumina Lex Publishing, 2000, page 23 The High Court of Appeals and Justice, Jurisprudence, The executory and fiscal legal department, year2006 Public decision nr. 1380 from the 6th of October 2009, pronounced at the Arad Law Court, unpublished Public decision nr. 262 of The Timisoara Appeal Court, from the 19th of February 2010

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Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 507-511

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation by Parliament: Parliament may legislate on any subject area it chooses, but usually legislation only affects the future, it is not retrospective. Experimental Part: In order for a case to be followed by later courts it must be written down and reported. Historically, when only a small proportion of the cases were reported, this factor was a significant limitation on the system of precedent. The first question the judges must ask themselves is whether the facts of the case are sufficiently similar that the earlier case constitutes a precedent. The key question is whether the differences between the present and previous case have a bearing on the outcome of the case. If there are materially different facts, the court may distinguish the case from the earlier cases and so apply a different rule. To decide whether facts are material or not, the court must determine what the general rule is which was laid down by the earlier case. This is called the ratio decidendi, which is a combination of the rule of law and the material facts to which it applies. For example, in Camplin (1978) the House of Lords held that a 15year-old boy who killed a man by striking him with a chapatti pan after the man had sexually assaulted him could claim the defence of provocation to a charge of murder. If in a latter case, all the facts were the same, but the defendant had stuck his assailant with a kettle, that would not be considered a material difference in fact and the case would be a binding precedent. It has generally been agreed that the ratio in Camplin was that in deciding whether or not a person could claim the defence of provocation to the charge of murder, the court should consider the effect of the provocation on a reasonable person with the same general characteristics as the defendant. The age of the defendant in the latter case would probably be considered a material fact. The court would still be bound by the general rule set down in Camplin but might distinguish the outcome on the facts. One important question in the system of precedent is whether higher courts are bound by their own earlier decisions. The rules differ for different courts. The Divisional Court of the High Court, being a court of review, is generally bound by its own decisions in the same way as the Court of Appeal. In Young v Bristol Aeroplane Co. Ltd (1946) the Court of Appeal set out the rule that it is bound by its own decisions except in the following circumstances: earlier decisions of the Court of 508

Case law, precedent, and law-making in the English legal system

Nicoleta Florina MINC University of Pitesti Abstract: The paper presents the rules of precedent which determine when courts are bound by earlier decisions and compares the common law system with that of civil law countries. It explains how these rules have been affected by the Human Rights Act 1998 and by the increasing willingness of the judges to accept that they do not discover the law, but play a role in its formation. The acknowledgement of a lawmaking function raises questions about the legitimate boundaries of judicial law-making. Therefore, judges are thought to determine the social consensus on which changes to the law are based. Keywords: rules of precedent, law-making, boundaries Introduction: One of the requirements of a just legal system is that decisions of courts are consistent, in that like cases are treated alike so that litigants can, to some extent, predict the likely outcome of cases. To this end, it is normal for judges in all legal systems to seek to reach decisions which conform to earlier cases. In the common law system, however, this principle is elevated to a formal system of binding precedent which requires judges to follow the decisions of earlier courts in certain circumstances. The system is essentially a simple hierarchy the higher the court, the more authority its decisions have. Where the decisions of higher courts do not constitute binding precedent, they are said to be persuasive. The courts will take them into consideration and will follow the decision unless they think there is good reason not to. Case law is a major source of law for which the judges are responsible. Judges only get the opportunity to make pronouncements on an area of law. They must work within the existing law and subject to the rules of the doctrine of judicial precedent. However, the courts are wary of the retrospective effect of case law. Case law is unlike law made

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Appeal conflict; an earlier decision has been overruled by the House of Lords; an earlier decision was reached in error because a binding precedent or statutory provision was overlooked. In deciding whether or not a precedent applies to a set of facts which has not previously been considered by the court or in choosing between competing precedents or constructing the meaning of a statute, the judges can be said to be creating the law. Such cases sometimes involve issues around medical treatment and require judges to make highly sensitive and difficult decisions. An example of this arose in 2001 when the Court of Appeal was left to decide whether it would be lawful for surgeons to separate conjoined twins in order to save the life of one twin in an operation which would result in the certain death of the other (Re A). Sometimes, the changes which give rise to the need for judicial law-making are not technological, but social. In 1991, the courts held that a husband was no longer immune from prosecution for raping his wife (R v R). Until then, the common law rule was that by marrying, a woman effectively gave her ongoing consent to sexual intercourse with her husband. Instead of abiding by the precedent and leaving Parliament to abolish the immunity if it so wished, the court went ahead and changed the law to bring it into line with current social attitudes to rape and marriage. In White v White (2000), which concerned the division of assets on divorce, the House of Lords held that the Court should start from the assumption that the husband and wife were entitled to equal shares on divorce, rather than, as it had done up to that time, seeking to provide for the reasonable needs of the non-earning partner (usually the woman). Results and Discussion: It is quite easy to state the rules of binding precedent, but in practice, it is not always easy for the courts to know how to apply them. The courts must go through a series of decisions in order to determine whether or not it is bound by a particular previous decision. As concerns Camplin, the main question in determining the ratio is to know what the level of the generality of the rule is, and this is not always easy for the court to discern. The rules of precedent and statutory interpretation are simply guiding structures which judges necessarily exercise a wide measure of discretion. Sometimes, this discretion must be exercised because new 509

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation technologies throw up situations which have not occurred before (Re A). No precedent existed for such a situation and the criminal law could not be reconciled with the facts, since it was arguable that if the surgeons did not operate they might be committing a criminal offence by failing in their duty to save the life of the stronger twin, while if they separated the babies, they might also be committing a crime by bringing about the death of the weaker twin. In practice, the judgment was forced to look beyond the law, coming up with a reasoning which allowed the operation legally to proceed though it was difficult to reconcile with the existing law. In White v White, the decision of the court was explained as in keeping with contemporary understanding of equality which required that the contribution of the non-earning partner in the home should be viewed as equivalent to that of the earning partner. It is possible to make too much of the difference between a common law and civil law system in terms of the role of precedent. For instance, in France, judges are not bound by earlier decisions, but in practice, they seek the benefits of consistency and certainty which following earlier decisions brings. On the other side, one significant effect which the system of binding precedent has is to give a greater role to the appellate courts in a common law country. It is clear that judges, particularly the senior judges in the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords, are widely-engaged in law-making. It is impossible for them to avoid doing so and the distinction between the creation and interpretation of law is so difficult to draw as to be almost meaningless. There are, however, sound democratic principles why judges should take a very restrictive approach to their law-making function. The notion of parliamentary sovereignty requires that laws are made only by elected representatives. Every time judges take upon themselves the task of determining what the law should be, they risk undermining this vital principle. The increased law-making role of the judiciary raises important questions about the way judges are appointed. One of the most significant features of the provisions of the Human Rights Act 1998 is its potential impact on the system of precedent. Under Human Rights Act, s 2 when deciding on Convention points, courts must take account of the case law of the European Court of Human Rights. Therefore, it is not bound by those decisions, but it is 510

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation under a duty to consider them. However, under s 3, courts must, so far as possible, interpret legislation in a way which is compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights and, furthermore, under s 6, it is unlawful for the courts (as public authorities) to act in a way which is incompatible with the Convention. Taken together, these provisions mean that when any court is considering a statutory provision or the common law which raises Convention issues, the Courts must look at the jurisprudence from Strasbourg and interpret the requirements of the Convention in the light of that case law. Yet, s 2 does not alter the established rules of precedent. Where there are contradictory rulings of the House of Lords and the European Court of Human Rights, domestic rules of precedent prevail and the Court of Appeal is obliged to follow the House of Lords. Conclusion: Although the rules of precedent limit the extent to which judges can change the law, judges clearly make law. Whether or not it is good for a democratic system to rely on judges to make the law, in practice it seems that judges in the higher courts will be called upon more frequently to shape the law in areas which have political, economic and moral significance. Judges decisions are a function of what they prefer to do, tempered by what they think they ought to do, but constrained by what they perceive is feasible to do. Whether or not the right balance between preference, obligation and feasibility is being struck by the judges, it is an ongoing and crucial question in the legal system today. References: Cross, R. and Harris, J. Precedent in English Law, 4th edn, Oxford University Press, 1991 Holland, J. and Webb, J. Learning Legal Rules, 6th edn, Oxford University Press, 2006 Lee, S. Law and Morals, Oxford University Press, 1986 Robertson, D. Judicial Discretion in the House of Lords, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1998 Wilson, S., Mitchell, R., Storey, T. and Wortley, N. English Legal System, Oxford University Press, 2009 Zander, M. The Law Making Process, Cambridge University Press, 2004 511

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 512-519

Civil Law and changes made by the new Civil Code in the Civil Law in their preliminary title
Petru TRCHIL Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: Having come into force on the 1st of December 1985, the Romanian Civil Code has many articles which were repealed or modified through normative articles adopted throughout time in the pursuit of harmonization of its provisions to the reality of the social, economic, judicial domain but also harmonization of the Romanian legislation to the European one. The legislature adopted Law 287/2009 which promotes the New Civil Code, a normative act adapted to the contemporary realities of the Romanian society. It also made Romanian Legislature compatible to the one of the E.U. Even the structure of the New Civil Code reflects the changes of this normative act. While the old civil code consisted of a Preliminary Title and 3 books (components which regulate different domains of the Civil Code) the new Code consists of a Preliminary Title and 7 books. Keywords: the Romanian Civil Code of 1985, the New Civil Code of 2009 1. Civil Law, the main part of the Romanian Private Law Etymologically the expression civil law has its origins in the Latin term Jus civile, utilized in the time of The Roman Empire in order to designate the law of the roman citizens, in opposition to Jus gentium, which designated the law which could be invocated by the pilgrims (foreigners) comprising the common rules which were applied to all the peoples of the empire. Component part of the Romanian private law, the civil law comprises juridical norms which regulate patrimonial and extra patrimonial rapports, concluded between individuals and legal persons in positions of juridical equality. 1
1

GH. Beleiu, Romanian Civil Law., 4th Edition, Rosetti Publishing House, Bucharest, 2000, page 25.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The juridical patrimonial rapports are those rapports which have an economic content and a clear-stated value in money, for instance, the property rapports (transfer of the property right, inheritance), the pecuniary obligations (loans, mortgage) a.s.o. By their nature or the type of the subjective civil rights which are part of their content, the juridical patrimonial rapports are classified in two great categories: -real juridical rapports, which consist of main real rights, like the property rapport -obligation juridical rapports, which are stated in their content the right of debt, no matter if this has its origins in an act or juridical fact. On the contrary, the juridical non patrimonial rapports or those extra patrimonial lack in economic content and they manifest the person individuality. The juridical non patrimonial rapports are classified in three great categories as it follows: -rapports which regard the existence and integrity of the subjects, as the right to life, the right to health, the right to social reputation a.s.o. -rapports of the identification of the subjects as the name right, the right for residence a.s.o. -rapports generated by intellectual creation of the subjects which have their source in science, literature, arts, invention or other object of the intellectual property right. This way, through the regulation object of the juridical norms of civil right, the civil right regulates the human activity starting the moment of birth to his/her death, contributing in a substantial way to the protection of the patrimonial and non patrimonial human values. In the same time, the civil law has also the function of common law regarding juridical rights, for the juridical rapports of private law because when a part of the private law does not consist of its own norms to regulate a certain social relationship, the proper juridical norm of the civil law will be applied2.
2

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation For a long time, private law was synonym for civil law, because this is the main structure of the private law, because comprises in the dense network of its norms the whole human life3 2. The changes brought by the New Civil Code The Romanian Parliament adopted Law nr. 287/2009 regarding the new civil code, promulgated by the President and published in Monitorul Oficial nr. 511/24.07.2009. The New Civil Code comprises a great part of the civil juridical norms of the old code but it is more complex, adapted to the new realities from the Romanian contemporary society and also to the requirements of the community acquis regarding the integration and compatibility of the Romanian Legislature to the European Legislature. Even the structure of the new code reflects the changes brought by the Legislature, as it follows: -the old code consisted of a Preliminary Title and 3 books (component parts which regulated different domains of the civil law). The Preliminary title was entited On the effects and the application of law, generally. The 1st book-On persons; The 2nd book-On goods and the great changes of the property; The 3rd book-On different ways for receiving property; -The new civil code consists of a preliminary title and 7 books, as it follows, as it follows: The 1st Book- On persons; The 2nd Book-On family; The 3rd Book-On goods; The 4th Book-On inheritance and liberties: The 5th Book-On obligations; The 6th Book-On the extinctive prescription, declaration and calculation of terms; The 7th Book-Dispositions of international private Law;
3

P. Tarchila, Civil law, General Part and the Persons , Gutenberg Publishing House, Arad, 2008.

M. Eliescy, Inheritance Course, Humanitas Publishing House, Bucharest, 1997

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation 2.1 The changes of Civil Law in the Preliminary Title of the New Civil Code The old code comprised by the Preliminary Title has only 5 articles, from which art. Nr. 2 was abrogated. The most important aspects of these are those debated in art. 1 referring to the principle of the non retroactivity of the civil law, aspect stated in art. 1589 and 1911 Civil code and also the aspects of the 3rd article referring to the criminal responsibility of the judge which refuses to judge a civil case because of the slender law. The New Civil Code comprises in the Preliminary title named On civil law a number of 4 chapters, as it follows: -chapter 1, named General dispositions, which presents in the first two articles the object of the regulation and the content of the civil code: The Code Dispositions regulate the patrimonial and non patrimonial rapports between persons as subjects of the civil code.4 Referring at the content of the civil code, art. 2 states that this is compound by a rules ensemble which constitutes the common right for all the domains of the letter of the spirit of its dispositions. Referring to the general application of the aspects of the code, the dispositions of the present code stipulate that these are applied also to the rapports between professionalisms, and also to the rapports between them and any other subjects of civil law.5 In the same content of the code it is also explained the term of professionalism, referring at the person who exploits a company. Means the exploitation of a company the systematic exercitation , by one person or more, of an organized activity which consists of producing, administration or alienation of goods or service, no matter this has a lucrative purpose or not.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The last two articles of the first chapter refer to the priority application of international treaties regarding human rights and the priority application of the aspects of the community law. Chapter 2 of the Preliminary Title is named The application of the Civil Law and consists a number of three articles which treat spatialtemporality of its effects. Referring to the time application of the civil law, The New Civil Code reiterates the aspects of the old Civil Code, respectively the fact that The Civil Law is applied as long as it is in force. It doesnt have retroactive power. The last 2 articles of this chapter define the principles of territoriality and extemporaneity of the civil law. Referring to the territoriality principle it is stated that normative acts adopted by the authorities and central public institutions are to be applied on the whole territory of the country except the case it is stated in another manner and the ones adopted by the authorities and administration local public institutions are applied in their territorial competition region only. In case of juridical rapports with foreign origin elements, the determination of the civil law is made having in mind the international private law norms from the New Civil Code, the 7th book. Chapter 3 of the Preliminary Title it is named The interpretation and effects of the civil law and comprises a number of 9 chapters, as it follows: The first article is dedicated to the interpretation of law and means the fact that The one who adopted the civil norm is competent to do and interpret it, originally. The interpretative norm produce effects only for future. The law interpretation produces effects only for the future. The law interpretation by instance it is made only in the behalf of its application in the case of judging.6 The second article is dedicated to the institution of the customs and the general principles. In a juridical way, customs mean to understand the local habit and the professional usages and these produce effects only in the way that they are recognized or admitted by law, especially.

4 5

Law 287/2009, Chapter 11, art.1. Law 297/2009, Preliminary Title, Chapter 1, art.3

The same, Chapter 3, art.9, alin.1,2 and 3.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The 3 article named The application of some law categories means the fact that the laws which derogate from a general disposition which restrain the exertion of some rights, produce effects only as much as they are recognized or admitted by law expressively. The 4th article, named The liberty of disposal states that anyone can independently dispose by his/her own rights, if law does not states in a different manner. In the same time, in this article it is stated that no one can freely dispose if it is insolvably. In the 5th article of this chapter, named The disclaim to the right, the legislator states expressively that the disclaiming to the right it is not assumed. The 6th article, named The Good Faith states the obligation of the subjects of the civil right juridical rapport in order to excite the rights and assume the obligations with good faith, in full accord with the public order and good manners. The Good Faith is assumed until it is not proven differently. In the 7th article of the chapter, named Right abuse it is stated that there is no right to be exercised in the pursue of hurting or damaging another one, in an excessively and dishonorable way, on the opposite of the good faith. The last but one article of the 3rd Chapter of the Preliminary title named The guilt, treats this institution (coming from the General Part of Criminal Law). Therefore, the legislator institutes the fact that the person is responsible for his/her deeds committed intentionally or by fault, in case law does not mention it differently. The institutions of intention and fault are defined as it follows: -the fact is intentionally committed when the author foresees the result of his/her action and is willing to get it done, or, even he/she is not willing to do it, accepts the possibility of its production -the fact is committed by fault when the author foresees the result of his/her action but does not accept it, considering without cause, that this will not occur or does not foresee the result of his/her action, although he/she should have foreseen it. The fault is severe if the authors actions have been done with some much negligence or imprudence that even the person most lacunaria in dexterity would not have manifested it towards hi/her own interests. 517
rd

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The last article of this chapter treats the institution of the common and invincible error. In this article the legislator states the fact that No one can send or constitute many rights than him/herself has7. Referring to the common and invincible error, the legislator states that when someone having a common and invincible belief considered that a person has a certain right or juridical quality, the instance will be able to consider that the act signed in this situation would cause the same effects towards those in mistake as it would have been available, except the case when its dissolution wouldnt cause any prejudice. The common and invincible error does not presume. Chapter 4 named The publicity of rights, acts and juridical facts consists of a numver of 7 articles, as it follows: The first chapter, named The object of publicity and ways of accomplish designates the rights, acts and facts which can pe advertised, according to law. Publicity is realized thorugh: -Land registry; -The Electronic Archive of Real Estate Warranties; -Other forms of publicity stated by law (the juridical publicity); In de 2nd article, named Publicity conditions is expressively stipulated the fact that The procedure and conditions are stated by law.8 The accomplishment of this condition can pe asked by any person, even if he/she lacks in the capacity of exercitation. The 3rd article named The effects of publicity, legislate the opposability of law To publicity, fixes its rank and if law states this conditions the constitution or their juridical effects. The 4th article named The Presumptions, confirms that a right, act of fact was supposed to publicity by writing it in a public registry it is presumed that it exists, and if it has been radiated it is presumed that it does not exist.

7 8

Legea 287/2009, Preliminary Title, chapter 3, art. 17 Idem, Preliminary Title, chapter4, art. 18.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Article nr.5, named The lack of publicity.Sanctions, the legislator states that If the publicity formality was not realized and this was not presumed by law with constitutive character, the rights, acts and facts or other juridical rapports for publicity constitute a bar to third parties, except the case these have known them though other ways.9 The last two articles refer to the concurrence between the different forms of publicity and the consult of the public registries and the legislator states that when law supposes a right, act or fact to different formalities of publicity, the non-effectuation of a publicity requirement it is not covered by the effectuation of another. In the same time it is expressively mentioned that any person may, according to the law conditions, ask for consulting and may obtain extracts or copies regarding a right, act, fact or another juridical situation for publicity. Bibliography: Romanian Civil Code entered in force on the 1st of December 1985 Law nr. 287/2009 for promoting the New Civil Code (published in Monitorul Oficial al Romaniei, nr. 511/21.07.2009) P.Trchil, Civil Law.The General Part and the Persons. Gutenberg Publishing House, Arad, 2008. M. Eliescu, Treaty of Civil Law, The General part, The Academy Publishing House, Bucharest, 1992; Gh. Beleiu, Civil Law, ansa Publishing House, Bucharest, 2000. M. Murean , Civil Law.The General Part, Cordial-lex Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 1996. O. Ungureanu, Civil Law. Introduction, Rosetti Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005

Research and Education in an Innovation Era, ISSN: 2065-2569, p. 520-532

The Life and Its Story in the Old Testament

Mihai HANDARIC "Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: In this article, the author intends to show that the story as a literary genre, is the main instrument used in the Old Testament text, in communicating and in motivating the human community, who adopted the Judeo-Christian faith. It seems that there is an ontological relationship between humans and the story. From this point of view, there are important differences between the biblical stories and Greek literary texts, in the sense that, the characters in the Bible do not dare comment over the will of God, as do those from de Greek texts. The Scripture is taken as the Story (with capital letter) of the Creator, addressed to humans. This Story is a description of the Life of the Creator (the Life with capital letter). The life is mediated, for Israel, through the Story. This Story of God integrates all other stories of the individuals and communities. It is argued that the act of storytelling can be taken as the centre for Old Testament interpretation. From this point of view, the biblical passage from Deuteronomy 6:4-9, known by the name "Shema", can be considered as the theological centre of the Old Testament. The story of the Scripture has a meaning for its readers, only when it is lived out by them. Keywords: story, story telling, the Old Testament 1. The role of the Story in interpretation In the begining we wish to underline the fact that the story as a literary genre has an important role in educating people. In human society, the story has been used as an instrument for moral instruction.1
1

Law 287/2009, Preliminary Title, chapter 4, art.21.

Brad J. Kallengerg in his essay "The Master Argument of MacIntyre's After Virtue", from the volume edited by Nancy Murphy, Brad J. Kallengerg & Mark Thiessen, Virtues & Practices in The Christian

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Concerning adopting the concept of story, we have to admit that, theology fully benefited by the postmodern world view, namely, that we, as a human community, are integrated into some particular contexts, which in turn, influence: the manner we communicate, our religion, and our existence, in general. In this article, we intend to show that the story is also the main tool used in the process of communicating and in motivating the human community, who adopted the Judeo-Christian faith. It seems to us that there is a ontological relationship between humans and the story. Amos Wilder has been impressed "with the fact that great bodies of the world's literature and scriptures not least the Bible are so largely made up of story and narrative."2 He tries to ask why, the particular genre, called story is predominant in the world literature. He observes the impact which the story has over different categories of people. He asks himself "how is it that we account for the appeal of a story whether to children or grown-ups, for that which 'keeps children from play and old men from the chimney corner'?" (Wilder; A 1983, p. 354). Wilder considers that the story stirs up the interest, because of several motifs, namely: the curiosity of the reader for the events that happened in the story, the manner in which the events succeeded one after another, the common aspects in the story, with which the reader identifies himself, the end of the story, and the way it is narrated (the art of storytelling). The world of the story is built up on the way the author understands reality "story-worlds, thus, are shaped by more or less articulated grasp of our human actuality" (Wilder; A 1983, p. 363). This means that the human interest in reading or listening a story, consists in its close relationship with the very life he is experience.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Returning to our special area of concern, we say that this relationship between man and the story applies also, to the way we express our religious faith. The idea of story presented by the postmodern theologians, brings some new insights in understanding the divine revelation. Auerbach and later Hans Frei,3 analysed the biblical narratives by comparison with the Greek classical narratives, such as The Legends of Olimp. They observed that there are important differences between the biblical stories and Greek narratives. On the one hand, the biblical narratives have the capacity to imitate reality (mimesis, mimetism). By contrast, the characters from the Greek legends have the liberty to express their oppinions, to comment concerning the will of the gods, praising or accusing their demands; which is not the case for the characters from the biblical text. Concerning the biblical story, such as "The sacrifice of Isaac" (Genesis 22:1-19), Auerbach observs that the characters from the Bible do not dare to comment over the will of God. Once he receives God's command, Abraham assures himself that the divine will, shall be implemented, as it was narrated to him by God. The characters from the Bible have the following options: 1) Either to decide to play the role prescibed to them in the story, as it was communicated to them by God, 2) either to refuse to be part of this story. There is no middle way, as in the Legends of Olimp, where the characters negotiate with the gods concerning the implementation of their will. 2. The Old and the New Testament as a single and complete story of life We may take the Scripture as a Story (with capital letter) of the Creator, addressed to his creatures, namely humans. This Story is a

Tradition: Christian Ethics After MacIntyre, (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1997)), p. 14, informs us that "storytelling was the primary tool for moral education in classical Greece". 2 See the article of Amos Wilder, "Story and Story World ," from Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, vol. Xxxvii, (Richmond: Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, 1983), p. 354-355.

See Auerbach, Erich, Mimesis: The Presentation of Reality in Western Literature, Trans: Willard R. Task, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1953, 1st ed., 1949). See also Hans Frei, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative, (New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1974), p. 1-2.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation description of the Life of the Creator (Life with capital letter) and the life (with small letter) of the creatures. In this Story, the creatures were confronted with a personal decision, to choose between Life and Death. In the blessings and curses from Deuteronomy, Israel was advised by Yahweh: I call heaven and earth to witness against you this day, that I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse; therefore choose life, that you and your descendants may live (Deuteronomy 30:19 RSVA). From the point of view of the Old Testament, there is a direct relationship between the life, in general, and the story. The life is mediated, for Israel, through the Story. And the life is to be taken from God, who is the Life. In Jeremiah 2:13, Yahweh complained because, in a certain moment, Israel ... my people have committed two evils: they have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters, and hewed out cisterns for themselves, broken cisterns, that can hold no water. This means that the source of man's life, is the Life who is God. The authors of the Scripture, communicate the divine message, using the story as a literary genre, but not only.4 The biblical story is unitary, but it has some sections, small stories, which are integrated into the great Story, which, in turn, represents the description of God's World as a whole.5 From this perspective, we can see the Old and the New Testament as part of the same great Story, of God's World. The Scripture (the Old and the New Testament) is the complete story of the World of God. The Old Testament is not complete, without the New Testament. The New Testament describes the final revelation of God, presented to man, through Jesus Christ (John 14:6, Hebrews 1:1-3). In order to understand this revelation (this Story), we need to have both sections of the Christian Scripture. To know the whole story of Christ

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation (the Messiah), we have to read the Old Testament, which represents the beginning of the story, in which it is foretelling his coming and his work. The Lord Jesus Christ encouraged his hearers to read the Old Testament scriptures, in which they will discover his story (John 5:39; Luke 24:25-27).6 In the same time, in order to understand the whole story of God's World, it is necessary to read the New Testament, which records the fulfilment of many promisses made in the Old Testament. Further, Hans Frei asserts that the story of God does not end with the closing of the New Testament. Each generation and each person has its own story, which integrates itself into the biblical story. These individual stories belong, in this way, to God's World (Frei; 1974, p. 3). He insisted also, that the biblical world, presented in the Old and the New Testament, is complete and normative for each individual story, of the following generations, which are invited to participate in the World of God, which is described by the Scripture. The other individual stories fit into this compact story, presented in the Scripture.7 An argument in favour of the normativity of the Scriptures for other external narratives is seen in the treatises of the history of old Romanian literature (N. Iorga, Sextil Pucariu, Alexe Procopovici... N. Cartojan, G. Clinescu...) (which) dont have special chapters concerning the church literature; nevertheless, the topic is included in the larger sphere of the religious literature.8
6

Even though in the biblical text we have different literary genres, such as legal, didactic and poetic texts, we may see them as parts of the whole story of the Scripture. It is not unusual that in a story there are includes different other literary genres into it. 5 See Hans Frei, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative, (New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 1974), p. 1-2.

Let's remember that the Scripture of the people, in Jesus' time, was only the Old Testament. The New Testment has been written, latter on. 7 In this sense we will recall the statement of N.T. Wright about the normative character of the New Testament canon, which can be extrapolated also to the Old Testament, which is part of the Christian canon. He said that we have to accept what the canon claims about itself. "The New Testament claims to be the subversive story of the creator and the world, and demands to be read as such...it offers itself as the true story... the true history of the whole world" (N.T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God, from the series Christian Origins and the Questions of God, vol. 1, (London: SPCK, 1992, the fourth printing, 1997), p. 471). 8 See Ioan Chiril, The Bible In The Romanian Culture, from Sacra Scripta: Journal for Biblical Studies, ed. Stelian Tofan, Cluj-Napoca: Babe-Bolyai University, 2005, 1-2, p. 159.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation We have to admit the complexity of the process of man's approaching to God. This difficulty is due to the diversity of the contexts in which live each person and each community. Each individual has his own complex life story. In these circumstances, God offers to man the possibility to adhere to the world mediated through Scripture. Man is exhorted to harmonize the world of his life with the world of God which is presented into the story of the Scripture. Here we see the role of the theologians, to update and to retell periodically, the story of the biblical world, in a language, proper to the generation, to which they address. By the theology, written by them, the reader can understand what he has to do, in order to accomodate his life with the world, presented into the biblical story. 3. Story telling in the Old Testament The representatives of "the historical critical method," used by the theologians, from the Enlightenment until the end of the 20th Century, treated with contempt the importance of the biblical story in interpretation, because it was considered a subjective and mythological version of the real history of the text. They proposed to give up the version of the history, as it is presented by the biblical authors, and to create a new version of the history of the Bible, based on historical critical principles.9 They supported a critical version of the biblical history reconstituted trough the historical critical method called "the scientific history".10 However we must admit that even the so called "the scientific history" has great weaknesses, because the events to which it refers, have already passed out, they do not exist anymore, as an object to be studied. What is left, is only the point of view of the historian, about the past events, which he included into his history. The events received a certain meaning, because the author decided to give them that meaning.
9 John Bright, A History of Israel, ediia a II-a, London: SCM Press, 1972, p. 76. 10 See the first article of Ricoeur, from the book Eseuri de hermeneutic: de la text la aciune, Cluj: Echinox, 1999, p. 12.

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The interpretation given by the author of the text, is that which connects the events in a narrative, through the act of the storytelling. Therefore we cannot give up the story, made up by the author of the text, based on the supposition that it is subjective.11 The new version of the history is also subjective, representing the point of view of the historian. There is not a solution, to replace the biblical version of the history of the Old Testament with a historical critical version of the Old Testament. In fact the historical critical version of the biblical history, is a another subjective version of the history a story. The representatives of the historical critical method, may be seen, also, as storytellers, not really as scientific interpreters of the biblical text. On the other hand, their results are questionable, because those who adopted this critical approach to history, were in disagreement among each other.12 As a result, it is desirable to accept as historical, the version the biblical authors. As we see, the act of storytelling is the way used for communicating information. The process of knowing is made possible because of man's decision (or in the case of the Scripture based on God's decision) to preserve a certain tradition during time. This line of tradition is tied up by each generation. The perpetuity of knowledge is not compulsory, but it is made possible, based on the decision of man. The thread of knowledge requires to be tied up periodically, because of

11

Ioan Pnzaru, Practici ale interpretrii de text, (Iai: Polirom, 1999). As an illustration you may read the article of Ilie Melniciuc-Puic, concerning Paul moral interpretation of the Old Testament narratives in Romans (Ilie Melniciuc-Puic, Semnificaia citrilor veterotestamentare din Epistola ctre Romani, from Pleroma, ed. Corneliu Constantineanu, Bucureti: Pentecostal Theologica Institute, 2009, p. 150.) 12 There were at least three schools of history, each of them having their own version of the history. See Mihai Handaric, Tratat de istoria interpretrii Teologiei Vechiului Testament ("A Treaty of the History of the Old Testament Interpretation"), Arad: Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu, 2009 2nd edition, p.115-117.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation the efemerity of each of us. John Sailhamer14 says that the story is a literary genre, used by the biblical authors in order to communicate efficiently the divine revelation. The biblical authors included characters, real events, which, they integrate into the literary genre called "story. The story is filtered through the personality and the talents of the human authors, used by God in writing the Scripture. We do not have to see as a problem, human participation in the process of composing the Scripture. In this way, we have to understand God's commandment addressed to the Hebrews, who were to tell and retell the story of Yahweh, their God, and of their relationship with him (see Deuteronomy 6:4-9). From our point of view, the biblical passage from Deuteronomy 6:4-9, known by the name "Shema", can be taken as the centre of the Old Testament.15 Deuteronomy 6:6 And these words which I command you this day shall be upon your heart; Deuteronomy 6:7 and you shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them ( ) when you sit in your house, and when you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you rise. Deuteronomy 6:8 And you shall bind them as a sign upon your hand, and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes. Deuteronomy 6:9 And you shall write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates. The idea o storytelling as the instrument for Old Testament interpretation, was initially, proposed by Gerhard von Rad. He argued that the great mass of tradition, known today under the name: Old
13

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Testament, resulted through the act of retelling (Nacherzahlen).16 During time, Hebrews repeated and enlarged their creeds, which initially were rather schort texts. In his view, the Hebrew religious tradition started with three small creeds, from Deuteronomy 6:20-24; 26:5b-9; Joshua 24:2b-13, which were recited by the believers during the main festival of the first fruits, when all men from Israel, had to come together, to the central sanctuary and to recite these fundamental creeds. In time, to this small creeds, the priests were added other lines to the initial text, and finaly, it resulted this mass of tradition called The Old Testament. 4. The relationship between the Life and the Story in the Old Testament In this article, we argue that there is a close relationship between the life of a man and its story. We will appeal in this sense to the essay of Ricoeur, named suggestively "Life: A Story in Search of a Narrator". Ricoeur argues that there is an inseparable relationship between life and story. "That life has to do with narration has always been known and said; we speak of the story of a life to characterize the interval between birth and death. Yet this assimilation of a life to a history should not be automatic".17 In order to understand the relationship between the life and its story, presented in the Old Testament, we may see the story as being a synthesis of the different actions performed by its characters. In defining the story in this maner, Ricoeur observes three directions, which can be followed in a story. "The mediation between multiple incidents and the singular story accomplished in the plot; the primacy of concord over discord; finally, the struggle between succession and configuration" (Ricoeur; 1991; p. 427). All these arrangements from the narrative have
16

13

See Ioan Pnzaru, Practici ale interpretrii de text, (Iai: Polirom, 1999), p. 8. 14 See John H. Sailhamer, Introduction to Old Testament Theology: A Canonical Approach, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), p. 36-40. 15 For further discussion concerning taking Deuteronomy 6:4-9 as the centre of the Old Testament, see Handaric, op.cit.,especially Chapter 7 Viaa povestit i povestea trit (The Life Retolld and The Story Lived Out).

Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology: The Theology of Israels Traditions, vol. 1, London: SCM Press, 1975, p. 121. 17 A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination, editor: Mario J. Valdes, (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991, p. 425.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation to do with the life. We will say that there is a close relationship between the two, because the life can be discovered from its story, and vice-versa. Ricoeur speaks about the assimilation of the life into its story. In order to explain it, he tries to follow the reversal proces, of going from the story the narrative, toward the life, to which the story bares witness. He argues that the life to which a text witnesses, must not be found in the text as an object, but in the process of reading the text. This means that the story of the Scriptures comes to life when it is read. We may see here the importance of the act of storytelling in the Bible. The reader is the one who experience the life of the text, by reading it and by retelling its story. In this manner the configuration of life is possible through the text.18 Concerning the relationship between the story and its life, interpreters have to be aware in distinguishing between the life, and the story which describes that life the Bible. The Bible does not have a mistical power into itself, but the Bible releases power life, only when it is taken in direct connection with the Lord of the Story, who is God. The Bible is not a magical object. Some struggle to prove the sacredness of the biblical text, based only on its special status, as the Word of God. But its real impact can be experienced only when the reader is living out this text. Scholars have to be careful not to detach their theology from the life which lies behind the text. We must remind to ourselves that there is an intimate relationship between God, who is the Life with capital letter, and the biblical text which is the Story of this Life. The Story has meaning for its reader, when it is lived out by the reader. 5. The commitment of the interpreter to the process of Interpretation The interpreter cannot understand the life to which the text testifies, if he tries to be an outsider. First of all, he has to decide if he
18

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation wants to involve himself into the world, which the text describes. If he refuses to be part of the world of Scripture, he will disqualify himself, of being a genuine interpreter of the sacred text.19 This means that even though he is able to do a proper historical and literary study of the biblical passage, he will not be able to understand the world of the text, and as a result, he will not understand properly the meaning of the sacred text. The story, as a main concept in interpreting the Bible, has two important features: 1) the story can be lived out (by the reader), and 2) the story can be handed out, communicated, from one individual to the other. But the story can be communicated properly to others, only if it is applied lived out - by the storyteller. We see here a close relationship between the living out of the Scripture and the proper communication of it. If the interpreter is not connected to the spirit of the text its life, he will overlook some aspects of its message, and finally the meaning of the text. The Scripture depicts the world of God, and an outsider of this world cannot understand, in a proper way, what is happening into the biblical story. Concerning the texts (taken as stories) which are external to the biblical story, we dare to say that, they convey, one of the two possible options: 1) The Worlds which integrate themselves into the world of God - which is the world of the biblical text, or 2) They can describe parallel worlds, false worlds, which propose a different way of living, which is called the Evil World. Each external story (including the story of every individual) belongs to one of these two worlds; God's World or The Evil World labeled as such, because it oposes God's World. The present reality reveals two ways of living and storytelling: God's way, or the Evil way. There is no posibility to overlook the living out of the biblical story and still to be able to practice a proper storytelling (or interpretation) of the biblical text. Those two are inseparable.

"The meaning or the significance of a story wells up from the intersection of the world of text and the world of the reader. Thus the act of reading becomes the crucial moment of the entire analysis. On this act rests the ability of the story to transfigure the experience of the reader" (Ricoeur; 1999;op.cit., p. 430-431).

19

See what Augustin says about the need for the teacher to live out these teachings. Cited by Brevard Childs, A Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testament, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1993, p. 38-39.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation We see this close relationship between the life and its story in Deuteronomy 6:4-9, where the parents are urged to teach (recite) the story of the Old Testament to their children, Verse 5 speaks about living out the story of the Old Testament by expressing the supreme love for God. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might. Then, in the next verse (v. 6), Israel is urged to meditate to God s commandments. Keep these words that I am commanding you today in your heart, which is another aspect of living out the story of God, from the Scripture. Then, following the act of living out the biblical story, the parents are urged to recite the story. This is the proper way, namely, to live out the story and then to recite it to others. Deuteronomy 6:7 Recite them to your children and talk about them when you are at home and when you are away, when you lie down and when you rise. (v.8) Bind them as a sign on your hand, fix them as an emblem on your forehead, (v.9) and write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates. Bibliography: Auerbach, Erich, Mimesis: The Presentation of Reality in Western Literature, translated by Willard R. Task, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1953, 1st ed., 1949. Bright, John, A History of Israel, ediia a II-a, London: SCM Press, 1972. Childs, Brevard, A Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testament, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1993. Ioan Chiril, The Bible In The Romanian Culture, from Sacra Scripta: Journal for Biblical Studies, 1-2, Ed. Stelian Tofan, Cluj-Napoca: Babe-Bolyai University, 2005. Frei, Hans, The Eclipse of Biblical Narrative, New Heaven, London: Yale University Press, 1974. Handaric, Mihai, Tratat de istoria interpretrii Teologiei Vechiului Testament, Arad: Editura Universitii Aurel Vlaicu, 2nd edition, 2009. Melniciuc-Puic Ilie, Semnificaia citrilor veterotestamentare din Epistola ctre Romani, from Pleroma, ed. Corneliu Constantineanu, Bucureti: Pentecostal Theologica Institute, 2009. 531

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Kallengerg, Brad J., "The Master Argument of MacIntyre's After Virtue", from Virtues & Practices in The Christian Tradition: Christian Ethics After MacIntyre, editors Nancy Murphy, Brad J. Kallengerg & Mark Thiessen, Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1997. Pnzaru, Ioan, Practici ale interpretrii de text, Iai: Polirom, 1999. Ricoeur, Paul, Eseuri de hermeneutic: de la text la aciune, Cluj: Echinox, 1999. Valdes, Mario J., editor, A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo, Singapore: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991. Von Rad, Gerhard, Old Testament Theology: The Theology of Israels Traditions, vol. 1, London: SCM Press, 1975. Wilder, Amos, "Story and Story World ," from Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology, vol. Xxxvii, Richmond: Union Theological Seminary in Virginia, 1983. Wright, N.T., The New Testament and the People of God, from the series Christian Origins and the Questions of God, vol. 1, London: SPCK, 1992, 4th printing, 1997.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation many of the impure acts cannot be included in the scope of morality. They do not represent an offense to an ethical God, nor are they a violation of the commandments of justice towards other people or a loss of personal dignity. Therefore they are excluded from the scope of evil for us4. Still, from a hermeneutics point of view, the concept of impurity remains important. In Judaism, the concepts of purity and impurity play a very important role. It is about the ritual impurity that is transmitted through contact or just closeness to certain objects (dead bodies, leakage of sexual origin etc.). Some of these concepts from the Old Testament penetrated Christianity and were only removed by the Protestantism. As far as Judaism is concerned , through the Talmud begins a process of moralization and spiritualization of the impurity concept. Studying the Torah was becoming a way of purification5.However, as Ricoeur argues, the experience of sin will never be completely liberated of the old language of impurification6. Moreover, says Ricoeur, not even philosophy can accomplish that: The Greek philosophy was formed while being in contact with myths that were interpretations themselves, descriptive and explanatory exegesis of certain beliefs and rituals that were related to impurity7. If we try to comprehend the essence of the sin concept, the biblical exegesis will not be enough. We need a perspective of synthesis, offered by hermeneutics. In the strictest sense of the word, sin points to the moral evil, which makes the human action an object of imputation, of crime, of blame. The concept of sin, inseparable from that of guilt, indicates an advanced phase of an experience of individualization and
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The Evil and the Christian theological discourse

Pavel RIVIS TIPEI, Iosif RIVIS TIPEI Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad Abstract: In this article the authors present the problematic of evil from the perspective of Christian theology. Therefore in the first part, they approach the Judeo-Christian concept of sin, where sin is the embodiment of evil in the context of theological speech. In this concept sin is viewed as a ritual impurity, perceived as a maculation, as a stain, as something exterior that has the capacity of infecting man. The authors highlight the fact that in Christianity we find the notion of original sin, something that is absent in Judaism and also the need for a saviour that can do the absolute redemption. In the second part they present Saint Augustines vision on sin. St. Augustine elaborated a purely ethical vision of sin, where man is entirely responsible for it. Therefore, any tragic trait in the way sin was conceived disappeared. Keywords: evil, sin, impurity, theology, morality 1. The Judeo - Christian conception of evil. In The Symbolism of Evil, Paul Ricoeur arguments the thesis that the oldest notion of evil is impurity. It is about the ritual impurity perceived as a maculation, as a stain, as something exterior that has the capacity of infecting man1. By this last characteristic, the concept of sin can be connected to the concept of antecedent sin, transmitted by Gnosticism. In contrast to these, the Judeo-Christian notion on sin would be considered a revolution, meaning a radical individualization and interiorization.2With the concept of sin, the evil is tied to the guilt of a responsible agent, while in the other case, it is about the objective violation of something forbidden.3 The difference is noticeable especially from the fact that
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Paul Ricoeur, The Symbolism of Evil, Boston, Beacon Press, 1969, p.7-8. Idem, p.7 3 Idem, p.27

Idem, p.26 V. Dictionar enciclopedic de iudaism, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2001, p. 649-650. 6 Paul Ricoeur, op. cit , p. 34. 7 Paul Ricoeur, The Symbolism Of Evil, Boston, Beacon Press, 1969, p. 39. Vladimir Jankelevitch was thinking about an apophatic philosophy of purity that would be the contemporary description of impurity and the detailed census of countless ways of the impure human being (Pur i Impur , Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 2001, p.13).

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation interiorization of evil. From this perspective, sin points to a sentiment of lacking dignity that penetrates the heart of a rational human being, of a person. The feelings of guilt point to a more fundamental experience, the experience of sin, that includes all people and is an indicator to the real situation of man facing God, whether the man is aware of it or not8. The Hebrew Bible uses thirty terms to talk about the different kinds of sins. They can be classified into three categories. The first term is to be het that appears over six hundred times. The root for this word means to miss the good, to pass by the good. This term and its derivatives apply to all the types of sin, social and ritual, voluntary and involuntary. The second term that is used for sin is avon. It is generally translated by inequity and it introduces the idea of a deliberate act. It especially points out the mistake committed by man to his neighbor by braking the ethical-social laws. Finally, the third term is pesa. Generally translated by violation, it points rather to the idea of rebellion against God9. Generally speaking, the way the Hebrew Bible views sin is related to breaking a negative commandment or to the unfulfillment of a positive one. We could talk in this direction about a legalistic conception. The late prophets, however, will draw attention on the spiritual, moral and the metaphysical dimension of sin. Regarding the New Testament, a major difference would be that the sin is here explicitly in connection to the perverse influence of Satan. Beyond this, John has a metaphysical approach to sin as a willing rejection of light. The sin is the opacity of darkness, but it is a blindness desired by man. Ultimately, the sin is the absence of love10.In the writings of Apostle Paul there is already a complex theology of sin. He
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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation states the distinction between sin (hamartia) and sins (paraptoma, falls or parabasis, violations). Adams sin is called violation, mistake or, as appropriate, disobedience. Introduced by the disobedience of Adam, sin fell on the entire humankind and even on the material universe. In the case of man, the sign of this sin is death. On the other hand, in the Epistlesthere are the well-known lists of sins. These are not much different to the ones in the Old Testament. They sum up idolatry, sexual abnormalities and social injustice. For John, as well as for Paul, sins are the expression and exteriorization of a hostile power against God11. In closing this section, it is important to notice that for Judaism the fall of man (in sin) demands that he redeems himself before God through deeds. This is an essential difference to Christianity, where the redemption of the lost perfection of man requires a savior. 2. Sf. Augustin .The Augustinian vision on evil, sin and predestination developed in a polemical context that had two fronts12: the Anti-Manichaean fight and the Anti-Pelagianism fight. In his early works, his objective was primarily to reject the Manichaean claim according to which the evil in the human life proves that the world is not the work of the ultimate Good13. Therefore Augustine developed a purely ethical vision of evil, where man is entirely responsible for it. This way any tragic trait in the way evil was seen disappeared14.It is an important moment in the history of western thought: The Augustinian respond to this tragic vision where all the embodiments of sin are assumed in a single idea of evil was one of the fundamentals of western thought15.
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Paul Ricoeur, op.cit., p.7. V. Dicionar enciclopedic de iudaism, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2001, p.594. Millard J. Erickson enumerates the following terms used for sin in the New and Old Testament: ignorance, mistake, inattention, missing the target, lack of piety, breaking the law, inequity, lack of integrity, rebellion, betrayal, crookedness, abomination, nervousness, adversity, guilt, disaster (Teologie cretin, Oradea, Editura Cartea Cretin, 1998, p.123138). 10 V. Vocabular de teologie biblic, Bucureti, Editura Arhiepiscopiei Romano-Catolice, p.518.

Idem, p.519. He was the first that carried the Anti-Manichaean fight, and then the Anti-Pelagianism fight and in the middle of this two fronts fight he elaborated the polemical and apologetic concept of original sin.(Paul Ricoeur, op.cit., p.249). 13 Henry Chadwick, Augustin, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, p.61. 14 Paul Ricoeur, op.cit., p.251. 15 Paul Ricoeur, Rul. O sfidare a filozofiei i a teologiei, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2008, p. 31.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The thought of Saint Augustine is therefore in line with the Greek and Latin patristic that claims, basically unanimously, against the gnosis, the unsubstantiated nature of evil: the evil has no nature, it is not a something ; it is not matter and it is not substance. The evil does not have an existence in itself, but it comes from within us. On this subject, Augustine basically extends the people of Neo-Platonism16, that also claimed that the evil cannot be considered a substance. The substantial nature only has the intelligible, the One, the good. At the same time, Augustine took ideas from Etica Nicomahic. Therefore it is the philosophical thought and not the biblical thought, the one that excludes the idea of existence of a substantial evil for the first time17. The most important consequence of denying the substantiality of evil is the foundation of an exclusively moral vision about sin. Thereby, according to Augustine we not only have to reject the answers regardingthe possible nature of evil but also the question: we should not ask quid malum ? but rather ask unde malum faciamus ? Beacause sciri non potest quod nihil est. The evil is not a to be, is a to do18. Augustine radicalized the thought of the element of freedom in the design of evil, thus creating a connection between the reflection of the power of nothingness contained within the evil and the freedom that is expressed through the human will. The consequence was the creation of a purely negative concept of evil which can be defined with the terms: defectus, declinatio, corruptio naturae19.This is, as Henry Chadwick draws attention, in agreement with Augustines ontology. The road to nothingness ad non esse of evil is very much related to the terms of ex nihilo where, in a biblical manner, Augustine designs the creature that
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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation marks its deficiency as a being and its state of dependency20. In everything created out of nothing there is an element of non-being, a tendency towards non-existence21. Incidentally, this conception steers Augustine away from associating too tight the evil with the matter and the corporality , which some of the Gnostics and people of NeoPlatonism did. Augustine would rather put the root of evil the instability of the soul than in the body. For him, the weakness of the soul is the required cause, if not sufficient, of sin22. In Despre ngeri i oameni, Augustine writes: I know that when a bad will is born into a certain being, this could not happen if the being itself would not want that. Its weaknesses are therefore willing and not inevitable and for this reason they are followed by a just punishment. When we fall, the evil is not in the object where the will is pointing to, but it is in the way that we act, because there is no bad nature, only a bad action, determined by the separation, against natural order, from the ultimate Being to go to something that has less being in it23. It needs to be said that first, this negativity cannot explain certain traits of evil contained in the Adamic myth24. The strangeness of the situation is that as Augustine involved himself more and more in the other big theological battle of his life, the one against Pelagianism, he began to drift away in the other direction from the Christian exegesis of the Adamic myth. When he talks against Pelagius, Augustine exceeds the moral vision and from certain perspectives, he dismisses the moral vision of the world25. Augustine formulates a theory of the original sin in which this concept becomes, as it rationalizes itself, almost Gnostic although, at its origins and willingly, it was Anti-Gnostic.

This nothing is inherited from the Platonic non-being and from the plotinian nothingness (Paul Ricoeur, Conflictul interpretrilor. Eseuri de hermeneutic, Cluj, Editura Echinox, 1999, p.277.) 17 Paul Ricoeur, Rul. O sfidare a filozofiei i a teologiei, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2008, p. 32. 18 Paul Ricoeur, Conflictul interpretrilor. Eseuri de hermeneutic, Cluj, Editura Echinox, 1999, p.251. 19 Paul Ricoeur, Conflictul interpretrilor. Eseuri de hermeneutic, Cluj, Editura Echinox, 1999, p.252.

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Paul Ricoeur, op.cit., p.253. Henry Chadwick, Augustin, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, p.59. 22 Henry Chadwick, op.cit, p.58. 23 Sfntul Augustin, Despre ngeri i oameni, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2005, p.61. 24 Paul Ricoeur, op.cit, p.253. 25 Paul Ricoeur, op.cit, p.277.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation The evil still remains wholly human .The original sin appears though as an almost biological knowledge of the transmission of the hereditary inflexibility for all the human race as an almost juridical knowledge of the guilt of the newborn27. In this way, the Augustinian work defines the idea of a quasi nature of evil, that recalls very much the existential terror that sits at the origins of the gnosis28. The original sin, therefore conceived, implies the existence of the huge crowd of the damned out of which only the ones predestined by God can be redeemed. Lastly, Augustine comes to think in terms of a quasi-Gnostic myth, according to which God decided to redeem a fixed and relatively small number of people, leaving the rest of the places that have become vacant with the fall of the angles for other rational beings29. We also have to briefly refer to the fact that, besides these ontological and cosmological considerations, Augustine also treats the problem of evil in terms of a philosophy of history. It is the theory of the two cities. In his late work, Despre Cetatea lui Dumnezeu30, Augustine presents the history of mankind as an evolution of the earthly city (civitas terrena), of people, towards the city of God (Civitas Dei). Augustine explains the fall of the Roman Empire in that it became a pagan place, and it had to make room for the City of God, meaning the Church. He identifies the City of God with the Church. The two cities are based on two ways of being, regarding man, on two kinds of love31 self love and the contempt towards God builds the civitas terrena, the love for God, taken as far as self-renunciation builds the civitas Dei. The
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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation first one seeks the glory of man, the second, the glory of God. The first citizen of the earthly city was Cain and of the heavenly city was Abel. Returning to the concept of original sin, we have to mention that it had, in the ages following Augustine, a complex theological history. Remember, that after Augustine, the most well-known advocate of the doctrines of the original sin and predestination was Jean Calvin. The Calvinist definition of original sin is as follows: a hereditary depravity and corruption of our nature, spread through all the parts of our soul, that first makes us worthy of the wrath of God and then fulfills in us those works that the Scripture calls the works of the flesh32. In regards to the double predestination, Calvin considers that the Scripture clearly points out that God already separated in his eternal and unchanging plan the ones that he had chosen for redemption, once and for all, a long time before and the ones that, on the other hand, will have dedicated for destruction33. The Catholic Church never discarded the dogmatic significance of the concept of original sin. In the orthodox theology, however, this concept, at least the way Augustine stated it, was never accepted. This could be proof to the fact that although it is based on the biblical exegesis and especially on the readings of the Epistles of Apostle Paul, the concept of original sin is related to the theological-philosophical speculation. Augustine is not considered holy by the Orthodox Church because of the fact that the predestination theory is not according to its teaching. The orthodox notion of original sin does not have criminal and quasi biological characteristics. Then, it does not imply the complete destruction of the face of God in the creature that fell in sin. In philosophical terms, it does not assume the impossibility of ethical initiative from the creature. From an orthodox standpoint, the divine providence also involves ones free will to decide to be redeemed, talking about the synergy mystery, the work done together by God and man.
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Paul Ricoeur, op.cit, p.257. Paul Ricoeur, op.cit, p.248. 28 Paul Ricoeur, op.cit, p.260. 29 Hans Kng, Das Christentum, Mnchen, Zrich, Piper Verlag, 2008, p. 348. 30 V. Aureliu Augustin, Despre Cetatea lui Dumnezeu, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1998. 31 Elsewhere, Augustine writes: someone who loves perversely something good, no matter what his nature is , becomes evil even if he has this good and becomes unhappy because he lacks a greater good.(Sfntul Augustin, Despre ngeri i oameni, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2005, p. 62).

Jean Calvin, nvtura religiei cretine, Volumul 1, Oradea, Editura Cartea Cretin, 2003, p. 357. 33 Jean Calvin, nvtura religiei cretine, Volumul 2, Oradea, Editura Cartea Cretin, 2003, p. 98.

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History and society. Earthly and divine legislation We will conclude with a few considerations of hermeneutic philosophy. Paul Ricoeur claims that the enigma of the preexisting power of evil it is falsely solved by a rationalizing explanation like the Augustinian one, that combines in the concept of original sin two heterogeneous notions: the one of a biological transmission through reproduction and the one of an individual imputation of guilt. The notion of original sin appears therefore as a false concept. The content of the gnosis is contradicted, but with the price of reconstructing a similar speech, from a formal point of view, with the gnosis, of formulating a rationalized myth34. Bibliography : Augustin, Aureliu, Despre Cetatea lui Dumnezeu, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1998 Augustin, Sfntul, Despre ngeri i oameni, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2005 Calvin, Jean, nvtura religiei cretine, Oradea, Editura Cartea Cretin, 2003 Chadwick, Henry, Augustin, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 2001 Dicionar enciclopedic de iudaism, Bucureti, Editura Hasefer, 2001 Kng, Hans, Das Christentum, Mnchen, Zrich, Piper Verlag, 2008 Ricoeur, Paul, Conflictul interpretrilor. Eseuri de hermeneutic, Cluj, Editura Echinox, 1999 Ricoeur, Paul, Rul. O sfidare a filozofiei i a teologiei, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2008 Ricoeur, Paul, The Symbolism Of Evil, Boston, Beacon Press, 1969 Vocabular de teologie biblic, Bucureti, Editura Arhiepiscopiei Romano-Catolice, 2003

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Paul Ricoeur, Rul. O sfidare a filozofiei i a teologiei, Bucureti, Editura Art, 2008, p. 34.

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Participants Linguistics Brbule Gabriel, Lecturer Ph.D., 1 Decembrie University, Alba Iulia, Romania Btrn Mariana-Florina, teacher PhD. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Margan Claudiu, Lecturer Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Margan Manuela, Lecturer Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Mihu Lizica, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Miua Bianca, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Neamu Carmen, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Nemu Alina Paula, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, University of Oradea, Romania Pdurean Alina, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Radu Voica, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Selage Nicolae, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Zafiu Rodica, Professor Ph.D., Bucharest University, Romania Fiction and arts Artimon Teodora, Ph.D. student, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary Belei Odeta Manuela, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Boditean Florica, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Bota Diana, Lecturer Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Brnduescu Delia, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Colta Onisim, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania

Drucean Adela, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Dumitrana Magdalena, Associate Professor Ph.D., University of Pitesti, Romania Ionescu Claudiu, Associate Professor Ph.D., Faculty of Arts, University of Timioara, Romania Ionescu Lacrimioara, Lecturer Ph.D.,Faculty of Arts, University of Timioara, Romania Ionoaia Lavinia, teacher Ph.D. candidate, University of the West, Timioara, Romania Lucaci Clin, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Lucaci Florea, Professor Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Paliciuc Clina, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Pop Diana Otilia, teacher Ph.D. candidate, Mihai Veliciu High School, Chiineu-Cri, Romania Rou Petra-Melitta, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Simu Alina, teacher Ph.D. candidate, University of Oradea, Romania Education and public health Calciu Radadiana-Beatrice, Lecturer Ph.D., Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest / QUEST Romania / EAQUALS Coer Cornelia, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Dumitrana Magdalena, Associate Professor Ph.D., University of Pitesti, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Romania Gavril-Ardelean Mihaela, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Iliescu Ada, Associate Professor Ph.D., University of Craiova, Romania Lingurar Elisabeta, Teacher Ph.D. candidate, Sabin Drgoi Arts High School, Arad, Romania Morgado Catarina, College of Education, Coimbra, Portugal Murean Laura-Mihaela, Professor Ph.D., Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest / QUEST Romania / EAQUALS Nagy Mariana, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania 544

Negru Dana, Arad Public Health Department, Romania Nicolescu Laura, Arad Public Health Department, Romania Oliveira Isabel, JURISolve, Resoluo Alternativa de Conflitos, Lda., Portugal Popa Daniela, Arad Public Health Department, Romania Radulescu George, Arad Public Health Department, Romania Schwartz Gheorghe, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Tarle Gabriela, Arad Public Health Department, Romania Vizental Adriana, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Physical education and sports Alves Franco Susana Carla, Escola Superior de Desporto de Rio Maior, Instituto Politcnico de Santarm, Portugal Ardelean Viorel Petru, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Ascenso de Campos Francisco Jos, Escola Superior de Educao de Coimbra, Instituto Politcnico de Coimbra, Portugal Banciu Dan, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Galea Ioan, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Istvan Gabriela, Assistant, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Marconi Gabriel Roberto, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Marconi Ioan, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Miua Caius, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Popa Lucian, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Rotaru Sorin, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Santo de Melo Ricardo Jos Esprito, Escola Superior de Educao de Coimbra, Instituto Politcnico de Coimbra, Portugal Serban Ovidiu, Lecturer Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania 545

History and society. Earthly and divine legislation Handaric Mihai, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Iovna Eugenia, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Milin Miodrag, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Minc Nicoleta Florina, Lecturer Ph.D., University of Piteti, Romania Pdurean Corneliu, Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Rivi-Tipei Iosif, Assistant Ph.D. candidate, Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Rivi-Tipei Pavel, Lecturer Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania Daniela Aurelia Budihal, teacher Ph.D. candidate, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Trchil Petru, Associate Professor Ph.D., Aurel Vlaicu University, Arad, Romania

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