ERTH2404 Lecture 8: Soils

Leaning Tower of Pisa(Wikipedia)

Dr. Jason Mah

Review: Plate tectonics

Wegener theory of Continental drift
5 parameters: longitudinal shift, jigsaw along coast, fossils match, geological match, ancient events Issues: no explanation of driving agent

Tuzo
Ocean studies, earthquakes, continental drift driven by convection

Animation
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Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 10;

Lecture Objectives & Contents

To understand how soils are defined, characterized and classified in soil science and engineering
Soil profile

To learn how soils are formed in different climatic conditions

Factors controlling soil development

To understand the engineering properties of soils

Classification system Soil hazards
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The basics
Earths external processes:
Weathering Erosion Formation of soil

Earth materials can be subdivided into:

Rocks Soils Fluids
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The basics
Engineering
Geology

Soil science

Agriculture

Soil
General definition:
Soil is a material composed of fragments from pre-existing rocks but lacking strong cement between particles Detrital sedimentary rocks form after lithification of fragments
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Soil
The soil science perspective:
Organic-rich weathered zone that supports the growth of plants Focus: interrelation between physical, chemical and biological properties of soils

The engineering perspective:

Any material that can be excavated by a shovel Focus: behavior of soils under load
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Soil
Thee geological perspective:
Portion of unconsolidated material lying above bedrock Focus: link between soils and the formation of various geological material like clay, metallic ores, etc.

Bedrock: relatively hard, solid rock that commonly underlies softer rock, sediment, or soil
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Soil
Typical composition by volume of a soil which yields good plant growth:
45% Mineral matter 5% Organic matter 50% Pore space
25% Air 25% Water

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Soil Composition
Mass of air=0 Total mass MT Mass of water Mw Mass of solids Ms

Modified from Kehew Fig. 10-5.

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Soil Composition
Total volume of soil: VT = (Va + Vw) + Vs Volume of void space: Vv = Va + Vw
Volume of solids: VS Mass of solids: MS = Mw + Ms Porosity [%] Void ratio [ ] Dry density [kg/m3] = Vv / VT e = Vv / Vs d = Ms / V T
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Volume of air: Va Volume of water: Vw

Residual and transported soils

Parent material: rock from which the soil developed
Residual soil: parent material is the underlying bedrock Transported soil: Parent material has been carried from the location of origin to the location of deposition

In Canada, most soils are transported soils

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Transported soils
Alluvial soils: soils transported by rivers and streams
Gravel, sand, silt with coarse/fine horizons commonly alternating

Lacustrine soils: soils transported and deposited beneath a lake surface Marine soils: soils transported and deposited in deltas or oceans
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Transported soils
Glacial soils: soils transported by glaciers
Till: debris left behind by melting glaciers
Deposited directly by the ice sheet, till is composed of particles of different sizes

Glaciofluvial
Sand and gravel

Glaciolacustrine/glaciomarine
Clay and silt

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Transported soils
Eolian soils: soils transported by wind
Constant particle size High porosity

Colluvial soils: soils transported downhill by gravity, either slowly (creep) or catastrophically (mass movement)

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Soil Profile

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Soil profile
Soil forming processes operate from the surface downward
Soil scientists have developed a classification scheme based on horizons Horizon: individual layer with distinctive properties

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Soil profile

Bedrock
Source: Tarbuck & Lutgens Digital image gallery for interactive teaching

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Soil profile
O-horizon: organic matter A-horizon:
Mineral matter mixed with humus (partially decomposed organic matter) Dark color High biological activity
O
A

topsoil = O + A horizons
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Soil profile
E-horizon:
Mostly mineral particles with little organic matter Light color, grey Zone where soluble substances are leached away by rain water

E horizon
B horizon

B-horizon (syn. subsoil)

Zone where substances leached out from above layers accumulate

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Soil profile
Leaching: process by which soluble material in the soil (e.g. soluble minerals, nutrients, contaminants) are washed into a lower layer of soil or are dissolved and carried away by water

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Soil profile
C-horizon:
Partially altered parent material
Residual soils: weathered bedrock Transported soils: unconsolidated material (e.g. glacial till, stream sediments)

C horizon

R-horizon:
Unweathered bedrock

R horizon

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Building on bedrock?
Bedrock: what is the impact on buildings and baseements?

USGS

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Building on bedrock?
1. Bedrock prevents downward movement of rain and melt water, water will accumulate in the basement 2. Bedrock is cold enough to cause condensation in the summer

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Soil Development

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Factors controlling soil development

Climate is the most critical factor Slope factor Vegetation Time

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Climate
Climate
Temperature
High T: more evaporation, less infiltration Cold T: less evaporation, more infiltration

Precipitation
Concentrated in one season or spread over the year

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Climate

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Less leaching (salts accumulate here)

Prairie

Climate
Boreal forest

Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 2006. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 3rd Edition. Fig. 10.4. Shown with permission.

More leaching (salts are removed)

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Climate
In semi-arid and arid climates: Pedocal
Pedo (soil) + cal (calcium)
Soil enriched in calcium, white-ish color

Soil associated with dry grasslands Covers southern Saskatchewan and most of the western U.S.

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Climate
In moist temperate regions: Pedalfer
Ped (soil) + al (aluminium) + fer (iron) Topsoil: sandy, light-colored, acid

Subsoil:
Enriched in aluminium, iron, oxides and clay Brown color

Best developed under forest vegetation

Especially well-developed in conifer forests

Covers most of southern Canada and the eastern half of the U.S.
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Climate
In hot and wet tropical climates: intense leaching
Soluble elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Si) carried away by water Insoluble elements (Fe, Al) left in place
High relative concentration of (Fe, Al) Formation of laterites
Rusty red, historically used as building material, easily cut into bricks Example: bauxite (aluminium ore) 33

Other factors are of equal importance

Parent material
Silica-rich igneous rock (e.g. Eastern North America): sandy, acidic soil Limestone (e.g. Western North America): clay, slightly alkaline soil

Plants and animals

Mix and aerate soil

Topography Time
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Slope factor
Topography: controls position of soil in landscape Thin soil on steep slopes Thick soil on flat or undulating surfaces
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Time factor
Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 2006. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 3rd Edition. Fig. 10.6. Shown with permission.

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Engineering Properties
Challenge to quantify properties as relate to structural loading

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Engineering Properties
Cohesion: inherent shear strength of soils mostly due to the attracting forces between individual clay particles
Cohesion means "stickiness"

Controlling factor is particle size

Silt and clay: cohesive Sand and gravel: cohesionless

Different properties applicable to:

Cohesionless soils Cohesive soils
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Properties of Cohesionless soils

Grain size distribution
Measured by a sieve analysis Laboratory test in which the soil is passed through a series of sieves with successively smaller openings Results plotted as a grain-size distribution curve

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Sieve analysis
Particles with largest grain size

Particles with smallest grain size

Source: P. van Geel, Carleton U.

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Grain-size distribution curve

Variety of sizes Eng: Well-graded Geo: Poorly sorted

Uniform distribution Poorly graded Well-sorted

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Grain-size distribution curve

Geological environments that cause
Well-sorted gravel?
Deposition by fast-flowing river

Well-sorted sand?
Low energy environment Wind erosion

Poorly sorted earth material?

Deposition of glacial till Mass movement
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Properties of Cohesionless soils

Engineering impact of well graded or poorly graded soils
Water drainage: poorly graded has better drainage These properties impact compressibility, shear strength

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Grain-size distribution curves

What geological process leads to
Poorly sorted earth material?
Deposition of till Mass movement

Well-sorted sand?
Wind erosion

Well-sorted gravel?
Deposition by fast-flowing river

Major problem: settlement under load

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Soil Mass & Volume Definitions

Mass of air = 0 Total mass MT Mass of water Mw Mass of solids Ms

Modified from Kehew Fig. 10-5.

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Properties of Cohesionless soils

Dry density [kg/m3] d = Ms/VT

In-place density: dry density of a soil sample collected at a certain depth in the field
Generally increases with depth

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Properties of Cohesionless soils

Relative density DR DR [%] = (emax e0)/(emax emin)*100%
emax = void ratio of soil poured loosely in metal mould emin = void ratio of soil compacted densely in metal mould e0 = void ratio of soil in field conditions Comparison of Max and Min densities

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Properties of Cohesionless soils

http://www.humboldtmfg.com

Relative density DR Test

Vibration compaction method used to obtain max and min density

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Properties of Cohesionless soils

Good indicator of tendency of a soil to decrease in volume under load Provides free-draining characteristics
0 - 15% 15 - 35% 35 - 65% 65 - 85% 85 -100% Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
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Properties of Cohesion soils

Water content
Total mass of soil sample: MT Mass of air: Ma = 0 Mass of water: Mw = (MT)wet (MT)dry Mass of solids: MS = MT Mw

Moisture content [%] = M w / Ms Degree of saturation [%] S = Vw / Vv

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Properties of cohesive soils

Consistency
Very soft Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Hard Exudes between fingers Easily mouldable Strong finger pressure required Can be indented with fingers, but not moulded Indented by sharp object Difficult to indent

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Properties of cohesive soils

Consistency is determined by clay fabric

Stiff Strong Floculated

Soft Weak Dipsersed

Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1998. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig. 10.9. Shown with permission.

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Properties of cohesive soils

Remolding: disturbance of the soil by natural processes or during lab tests
Clay can change from flocculated to dispersed fabric during remolding with a significant loss of strength

Sensitivity = strength in undisturbed conditions /

strength in remolded conditions

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Properties of cohesive soils

Atterberg limits
Water content at which soil changes from liquid to plastic to solid behavior Based on laboratory measurements
Might not be representative of soil behaviour in the field

Liquid limit: water content at the transition between liquid and plastic behavior Plastic limit: water content at the transition between plastic and solid behavior Shrinkage limit: point from which the volume of the soil remains constant with further decrease in water content
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Properties of cohesive soils

Atterberg limits

Ref.: Kehew Fig. 10-10. Shown with permission.

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Properties of cohesive soils

Atterberg limits
Dangerous condition A soil with a low liquid limit will behave like a liquid with a small addition of water

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Classification system

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Classification systems
Unified Soil Classification System British Soil Classification System ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials AASHTO - American Association for State Highway and Transport Officials

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Unified Soil Classification System

Major division
Coarse-grained soils
Classified according to sieve analysis
Gravel
Sand

Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

75 mm to 19 mm sieve 19 mm to No. 4 sieve No. 4 to No. 10 sieve No. 10 to No. 40 sieve No. 40 to No. 200 sieve

Fine-grained soils
Classified according to Atterberg limits
Silt Clay

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Unified Soil Classification System

Grain size symbols
Gravel Sand Silt Clay Organic soil Peat G S M C O Pt

Grain-size distribution symbols

Well-graded Poorly-graded W P

Liquid limit symbols

High LL (>50) Low LL (<50) H L

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Unified Soil Classification System

Examples
SC CL GP GM CL-O Sand + Clay fraction Clay + Low liquid limit Gravel + Poorly-graded Gravel + Silt Clay + Low liquid limit + Organic content

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Soil Hazards
1. 2. 3. 4. Settlement Expansive clay Liquefaction Subsidence

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Soil hazards
Settlement: Soil deforms under load, leads to volume decrease under a structure
Tendency of soil to decrease in volume termed compressibility Consolidation test
Test for Void Ratio (e = Vvoid / Vsolid)

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Soil hazards: Settlement

Consolidation test
Void Ratio to Pressure plot

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Soil hazards: Settlement

Void Ratio to Pressure plot
Slope of line = compressibility index Steeper slope, more problems Clay-rich, organic-rich soils most compressive

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Soil hazards: Settlement

Tower of Pisa
Non-uniform consolidation of clay layer beneath structure Construction of 1st level 1173AD Began to sink when 2nd level added 1178AD Construction ceased for 100 years, allowed tower to settle Resumed construction of 4 floors in 1272AD, built with one side taller
Tower is curved!!
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Soil hazards: Settlement

Seventh floor built in 1319AD 1990-2001: structural strengthening
Counterbalance: Concrete, lead weight ballast! Removed soil from beneath high side, now straighter 56 m high, original lean 5.5, after restoration 3.99

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Soil hazards: Settlement

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Soil hazards: Settlement

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Soil hazards: Liquefaction

Liquefaction: phenomenon in which the strength of soil is reduced by vibrations, shaking, and loading
Occurs in saturated sandy soils in which the space between particles is filled with water Under normal circumstances, sand responds to increased stress by the expulsion of pore water Under rapid stress, particles become suspended within pore water
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Soil hazards: Liquefaction

Liquefied soil behaves like a liquid
Does not have the strength to support a load Mass movement (lateral spreads) Similar to quicksand

Significant problem during earthquakes

Many harbours are built on landfill Coastal communities build on sand pits

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Soil hazards: Liquefaction

USGS

Loma Prieta Earthquake, Oct. 17, 1989, 5:04PM; during the World Series Magnitude 6.9, epicentre near Santa Cruz 50 km south of San Francisco Liquefaction of the Marina District
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USGS

Soil hazards: Liquefaction

Marina District was built on landfill: sand, dirt, rubble from 1906 earthquake Structural failures & fire 63 structures damaged beyond repair, one natural gas line rupture
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Soil hazards: Liquefaction

Animations
http://www.iris.edu/hq/programs/education_and _outreach/animations/20

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Soil hazards: Settlement & Liquefaction

Canadian Museum of Nature
Built in 1912 Settlement
Sinking since 1915 Tower pulled away from structure Cracks in walls, floors, foundation Renovation to lighten load
http://canadianmuseumofnature.wordpress.com/page/3/

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Soil hazards: Settlement & Liquefaction

Canadian Museum of Nature
Liquefaction
Built on Leda Clay Highly vulnerable to liquefaction Renovation included steel frame for structural stability
http://canadianmuseumofnature.wordpress.com/page/3/

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Expansive soil: a soil that tends to change volume in response to changes in moisture content
High moisture content = Swelling Low moisture content = Shrinking

Expansive soils are a significant and costly natural hazard

Volume increase of 3% is potentially hazardous
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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Factors controlling soil moisture content:
Climate
Greater problem in regions with uneven annual precipitation

Vegetation
Localized effect, mostly around tree roots

Topography
Problems related to water accumulation

Expansive soil is often related to the presence of swelling clays

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Smectites: group of clay minerals which tend to swell when exposed to water
Most common smectite: montmorillonite (commercial name: bentonite) Adjacent layers separated by cations and water molecules from pore water

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Clay has a negative electrostatic charge on the surface which attracts water molecules and cations
forces clay particles apart Water induced swelling

Side view

Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1998. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig. 10.20. Shown with permission.

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Swelling/shrinkage occurs in the soil-moisture active zone
Seasonal expansion and contraction

H2O undersaturated

H2O saturated

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Differential Expansion causes damage to foundations

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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Engineering Solution
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Soil hazards: Expansive soil

Winnipeg and Regina
Cities underlain by ancient Lake Agassiz that deposited glacio-lacustrine soils (clay and silt)

Consequence
Cracked basements common in Regina
City standards required for site drainage control, involving slab foundations, shallow basements, distance from trees

"Roller-coaster" road surface in Winnipeg

City standards required for road subgrade and drainage
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Soil hazards: subsidence

Subsidence: sinking of the land surface Highly variable speed: imperceptible to sudden
Rapid subsidence caused by removal of subsurface fluids (water, petroleum)
Surface collapse into natural or man-made subsurface cavities

Slow subsidence caused by drainage or oxidation of organic soil

Florida Everglades, San Joaquin Valley
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Soil hazards: subsidence

Compaction: reduction in volume of a soil under load caused by realignment of soil particles into a denser packing, but without drainage of water from the soil
All types of soils can be compacted by moving grains closer together Typically related to slow subsidence

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Soil hazards: subsidence

Consolidation: (geotechnical sense) reduction in volume of a soil as water flows out of the sample
Consolidation by removal of subsurface fluids is usually initiated by human activity Irreversible It takes time for water to flow through fine-grained soil Slower than compaction
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Soil hazards: Slow subsidence

Removal of fluids

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Soil hazards: Slow subsidence

San Joaquin Valley 9 metres subsidence since 1925
> 2 ft per year

Due to groundwater pumping for crops

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Soil hazards: Rapid subsidence

Sinkhole: circular area of subsidence caused by collapse into subterranean void
Occur typically in soluble sedimentary rocks
Example: limestone

Diameter tens of metres

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Soil hazards: Rapid subsidence

Subsidence over cavities: natural sinkholes

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Soil hazards: Rapid subsidence

Source: http://www.ottawacitizen.com/

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