ERTH2404 Lecture 13: Structural Geology

Folding of Rocks Due to Compression Along the San Andreas Fault near Palmdale, California

Dr. Jason Mah

Lab Midterm
Mineral/rock ID mixed with short answer Lab manual only
No loose leafs, no text book, no photos Notes written in lab manual are OK

Remember to attend your lab section

Contact me or Ray immediately raymond_caron@carleton.ca

Attend TA office hours to study Good luck

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Lab Midterm
Recall from the Course Outline:
A passing grade must be achieved in the lab to complete the course.

Good luck

Updated Course Schedule

Date
March 4 March 6 March 11 March 13 March 18 March 20 March 25 March 27 April 1 April 3 April 8

Lectures
13. Structures 14. Rock mechanics 15. Mass movement 16. Weathering & Erosion 17. Groundwater 18. Rivers 19. Glacial processes 20. Resources 21. Geophysics 22. Geomagnetic hazards Review

Laboratory
LAB EXAM Even (Labs 1, 2, 3)

LAB EXAM ODD (Labs 1, 2, 3)

Lab 4 Even Structures & Geological Maps Lab 4 ODD Structures & Geological Maps Labs completed

Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 8 p. 251-269;

Lecture contents
Deformation Mapping planar features Fractures
Faults Joints

Folds Engineering considerations

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Deformation
Deformation: alteration of size and/or shape Structural geology: Earth science discipline studying
The processes responsible for the deformation of the Earths crust The geological structures produced by deformation
Faults Joints Folds
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Stress and strain

Stress (): Force applied per unit area [N/m2]
= force/area Normal stress: component of stress perpendicular to a given plane
Compressional: to shorten a body Tensional: to pull apart a body Shear: component of stress applied parallel to a given plane
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Stress and strain

Stress and strain

Strain (): Change in the shape and/or size of a body as a result of stress [dimensionless]
= L/L Elastic and Plastic deformation

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Stress and strain

Elastic deformation: returns to original shape
Plastic deformation

Yield stress

Slope = Modulus of Elasticity (E) Elastic deformation Strain ( )

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Stress and strain

Rocks typically behave as combination of ideal materials Some rocks have high modulus (strong) while others have a low modulus (weak) Some rocks will exhibit elastic deformation if the stress is small or over a short time period Some rocks deform plastically AFTER observing other types of deformation
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Stress and strain

(yield stress)

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Stress and strain

Strength of the different rock types Igneous rocks generally strong
Especially plutonic rocks due to large, interlocking crystals

Sedimentary rocks vary

Salt, mudstones weak Quartz-rich sandstones strong

Metamorphic rocks vary

Quartizites strong Schists weak due thin layering
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Stress and strain

At shallow depth (low pressure)
Rocks behave elastically to elastic limit before brittle failure Forces primarily vertical, weight of overlying materials

Middle to lower crust (higher pressure)

Rocks first behave elastically Forces/Temperature from different directions Ductile failure
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Stress and strain

Above the elastic limit, two scenarios:
Brittle rocks fail abruptly producing fractures Ductile rocks undergo plastic deformation producing undulations called folds
Remember that layers are always deposited horizontally

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Mapping planar features

Requires coordinate system
With respect to North Planar features are expressed by Strike and Dip North

Earths surface Depth

East

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Mapping planar features

Strike: intersection of planar structure with a horizontal plane
Expressed as compass angle from North (clockwise) 0 strike 360

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Mapping planar features

Dip: inclination of planar structure, measured 90 from strike line
Specify angle and direction Water will flow in direction of dip Dip always measured perpendicular to strike

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Mapping planar features

When measuring Strike and Dip, we apply the right hand rule
Thumb in direction of Strike Fingers in direction of Dip

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Mapping planar features: Strike & Dip

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Mapping planar features: Strike & Dip

What about inverted planes?
Overhanging features?

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Mapping planar features: Strike & Dip

North

East

Strike = Polar opposite = add 180

Dip = With respect to horizontal

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Fractures
Brittle rocks produce fractures

Devils Post Pile, CA Columnar joints

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Fractures
Fractures are the most common geological structure
Fracturing occurs in all rock types Fracturing occurs at several scales
Meters to hundreds of kilometers

Factors controlling the brittleness of a rock:

Rock composition and texture Temperature and pressure Presence of fluids
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Fractures
Two types of fractures, scale dependent
Faults: major fractures, showing appreciable movement between rock blocks Joints: minor fractures, showing little or no movement between rock blocks Both faults and joints have significant engineering implications

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Faults
Stresses building up in the Earth's crust are relieved by relative motion between rock blocks Fault: fracture in the Earth's crust resulting from the displacement of one rock block with respect to the other

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Faults

Hangingwall: rock block above the fault Footwall: rock block below the fault
Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 3.8. Shown with permission.

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Faults
Sudden movement along active faults are the cause of most earthquakes Many faults are inactive
Evidence of past deformation

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Faults
Faults are classified according to the relative movement between blocks
Dip-slip fault: movement in the direction of dip
Normal fault Reverse fault

Strike-slip fault: lateral movement along strike

Several faults display a combination of dip-slip and strike-slip movement

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Faults
Fault type Normal Dip-slip Reverse Strike-slip Compression Shear Deformation force Tension Vertical movement Description Hangingwall moves down relative to footwall Hangingwall moves up relative to footwall

Horizontal movement

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Faults

Source: http://earthsci.org/

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Faults
Naming convection based on direction of movement

USGS

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Normal fault on campus

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Normal fault on campus

Footwall
The Rideau rapids Expression of the Gloucester normal fault

Hanging wall
Photo: C. Samson

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Strike-Slip fault (1992 Landers earthquake M7.3)

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Thrust faults
Thrust fault: low-angle reverse fault
Moves older rocks (hanging wall) over younger rocks (foot wall) Associated with plate collision and mountain building Large displacements (up to 100s km) Typical dip < 20

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Thrust faults
Rockies, Alberta

Source: Natural Resources Canada

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Thrust faults
Rockies, Alberta

Photo: C. Samson

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Mini-Thrust faults

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Engineering Considerations: Faults

Faults can introduce a number of conditions that can have a negative impact on engineering projects
Differing rock types on either side of the fault Presence of weaker rock material Faults provide access to water Movement between rock blocks

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Engineering Considerations: Faults

Narrow zone of intense deformation Rocks within the zone might be weaker
Source: http://earthsci.org/

Fault breccia: pieces of broken rocks Fault gouge: clay material resulting from rock pulverized during movement

Surrounding rock is intact and strong

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Engineering Considerations: Faults

The obvious: Earthquakes!!!

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Joints
Joints are a concern for road cuts, slope stability, tunneling, mining operations
Joint: a fracture with little or no movement between rock blocks Joint set: a group of parallel joints

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Joints
Joints are fractures Frequently form parallel to pre-existing zones of weakness:
Bedding planes Foliations Slaty cleavage Bedding joints Foliation joints Cleavage joints

Joint frequency is not necessarily constant throughout a rock mass

In sedimentary rock, regular joints In granite, irregular joints
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Joints: the cause

Joints result from internal stresses
Stresses transmitted into continents by plate tectonics Expansive joints: loading (burial) and unloading (removal of overlying rocks by erosion) Cooling joints: thermal contraction/expansion in relation to igneous processes

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Joints
Cooling joints: Giants Causeway, Ireland Expansive joints in sandstone

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Joints
Systematic joints
parallel, regularly-spaced fractures Created by a regional uniform stress

Non-systematic joints
randomly orientated fractures with irregular or curved joint faces Created by local non-uniform stresses

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Joints

Source: http://earthsci.org/

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Joints: measurement
Stereonet plots strike and dip
Stereographic projection Points closer to the circumference represent vertical faces Points closer to the center represent horizontal faces
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Significance of joints
Impact on the strength (quality) of the rock Water flow: increased permeability and fluid movement along joints
In soluble rocks, dissolution occurs preferentially along joints Concentration of chemical/mechanical weathering along joints Favors circulation of mineral-rich hydrothermal fluids
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Engineering Considerations: Joints

Orientation
Orientation of joints are a major concern for slope stability Take advantage of planes of weakness during quarrying

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Engineering Considerations: Joints

Anisotropy: characteristic of a property having a different value when measured in different directions
Rock masses with non-systematic joints have less anisotropy than masses with systematic joints Rock masses with systematic joints might have significantly weaker properties in a specific direction

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Engineering Considerations: Joints

Spacing
Closely-spaced joints tend to cause numerous rock falls More widely-spaced joints tend to cause massive rock failures

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Folds

USGS

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Fractures and Folds

Ductile rocks produce folds

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Folds
Fold: geological structure formed when rocks are bent or curved as a result of plastic deformation
Folds are produced by lateral compression of the crust There might be multiple phases of deformation Folds can be re-folded by a later event Folding occurs at several scales
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Folds
Composition of a fold
Hinge: point of maximum curvature Limbs: parts of fold that are not curved; interlimb angle Axial plane: imaginary plane equidistant from each limb, bisects angle between limbs Axis: intersection of hinge and axial plane Plunge: angle between horizontal and hinge

hinge

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Anticline and syncline

Anticline: arched fold in which the central part contains the oldest rock layer
Convex upwards

Syncline: arched fold in which the central part contains the youngest rock layer
Convex downwards

Neutral: axial plane horizontal

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Anticline and syncline

Anticline Map symbol Syncline Map symbol Neutral Map symbol

dip dip

Neutral

dip
dip

Axial Plane

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Anticline and syncline

Oldest rocks

Youngest rocks

Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1995. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig. 7-18. Shown with permission.

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Anticline and syncline

Folds can be complex when considering all the parameters Note double anticline forms a dome
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Attitude of axial plane

Four types of folds based on dip of axial plane (upright) (inclined)

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Symmetry about axial plane

Symmetric: lengths of limbs L1 and L2 equal Asymmetric or Overturned: limb lengths not equal, L1 > L2
Axial Plane

Axial Plane

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Progression of Folding
As stress and strain increase, intensity of folding increases Minor horizontal shortening-> symmetric, upright, open folds Increased shortening --> asymmetric folds, inclined axial planes, close folds Greater shortening --> overturned, highly inclined axial planes, tight to recumbent Even greater shortening --> failure, fault
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Map Example
Note dip arrows still point away from plunging antiforms, in to synforms

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Engineering Considerations: Folds

Unequal stresses can be present in a folded rock mass
Event within the same rock unit

Stresses are a function of:

Position in the fold Style of the fold Variations in bedding, foliation, etc.

Civil engineering operations may meet with unexpected results when the stresses are released
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Case Study: Sudbury structure

The Sudbury structure formed by meteoritic impact (1.85 Ga)
Over the time, the structure has been deformed by compressional forces from a circular to an oval shape

Major mineral deposits (Ni, Cu)

Renew interest in the economic potential of other impact craters
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Ref.: Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing, NRCan. Shown with permission.

Airborne radar and magnetic data

Sudbury structure

50 km
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Sudbury structure
Reconstructed gravity data Observed gravity data
Ref.: NRCan. Shown with permission.

At present At time of impact

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Sudbury: INCO R&D project

Joints are mapped to estimate the quality (structural integrity) of the rock It is difficult to map joints underground
Harsh environment Poor lighting conditions Manual, requires compass measurements

Business drivers Quantitative structural analysis of joint orientation and block size for planning support Data archiving Money
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Sudbury: INCO project, mapping joints

3D Laser imaging applied to map joints digitally
Quartzite road cut, 45km east of Kingston, ON

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Sudbury: INCO project, mapping joints

3D Laser imaging
6 images merged to form a single 3D model

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Sudbury: INCO project, mapping joints

Stereographic projection (equal area, lower hemisphere)
Manual measurements 160 measurements 3D Pole density contouring method 165 462 measurements Average angular difference = 9.9

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Sudbury: INCO project, mapping joints

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Next: Rock Mechanics

Photo: B. Eade

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