86 HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

ECOLOGY 87

The Urban Ecosystem

he agglomerations of roads and buildings in which hundreds of thousands to millions of persons coexist produce major changes to the landscape. Urban areas can even modify the local climate. The presence of urban areas does not mean, however, that fauna and flora disappear. On the contrary, even though some native animals and plants may completely die off, other species manage to adapt to urban areas. Often, these species are the ones that find it impossible to live away from people.

1.2 billion acres

The total area occupied by all the great urban centers of the world. This is equivalent to 4% of the planets surface area.

(480 million hectares)

Survival Strategies
High Above
Birds and bats make nests on roofs and on window ledges. Other animals (such as insects and rodents) use buildings as living spaces, reaching altitudes that they would never be able to reach in nature.

The city presents advantages for numerous species. Its climate is more stable, and there are no large predators. It is a complex environment, however, and it requires a number of strategies to be able to survive.
FLEXIBLE DIET Many species adopt new eating habits. In many cases, their diet is based on the garbage discarded by people. HUMAN CONTACT Many species lose their fear of people as they come in contact with them. The minimum safe distance between humans and animals shrinks, and some animals (such as pigeons) even establish physical contact. LEARNING NEW BEHAVIORS Animals learn how to tear open bags of garbage and steal food. Cases have been reported in which birds (the blue tit, Parus caeruleus) have opened bottles of milk in Great Britain. LOWER DENSITY, BETTER SURVIVAL Although it would appear that the density of a given population of animals is less in the urban environment than in the wild, each individual animal is able to live longer in general.

Urban Microclimate
The microclimate of cities has characteristic properties that result from the massive concentration of concrete. Urban areas often lack green spaces, and their microclimates are driven by the gaseous emissions from factories, automobiles, and other by-products of human industry, such as pollution.

World of Concrete
Concrete and polluted city air provide ideal conditions for some species; however, others are only relatively successful in this unnatural environment. Some species (such as rats and cockroaches) adapt so well to city life that they become a nuisance to people.

Sterile concrete?
Concrete does not stop the march of life. Several kinds of plants can grow from cracks or holes in the pavement. Plants also use the water that collects in these spaces. The plants can, in turn, provide a home for numerous microorganisms.

HEAT ISLAND
The temperature in large cities is, on average, 2.7 F (1.5 C) warmer than in the surrounding area. When the temperature falls at night, the concrete from roads and buildings radiates some of the heat it absorbed during the day. This temperature difference between cities and surrounding areas can be as great as 9 F (5 C).

Temperature

Champions at Adaptation
Some species have adjusted so magnificently to urban life that they form a part of the urban landscape in almost all cities around the world.
PIGEONS AND SPARROWS RuralResidential suburbs Commercial DowntownUrban residence ParksSuburban residence Rural These birds are present in all major urban centers. They nest in the citys trees or buildings and incorporate garbage into their diets. BATS These mammals nest in high places. Although feared for their appearance and nocturnal habits, they help control bothersome populations of mosquitoes.

HUMIDITY
It tends to be lower, although rainfall is heavier and more plentiful.

SOLAR RADIATION
It is between 15 and 20% less, because the sky is usually dimmed by particulate matter, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. RATS They can live underground and eat cockroaches and garbage. SPIDERS A large number of species have adapted to urban life. Some even build their nests inside houses. They feed on insects.

WINDS
Structures create concrete barriers that reduce wind strength by 20%.

AIR QUALITY
The air in cities contains large amounts of pollution and particulate matter.

Parks and plazas

In cities, these areas contain the greatest biodiversity. Native species coexist with introduced species. Migratory birds even use these places for stopovers.

Below Ground
This region is inhabited by significant colonies of insects and rats, which come out at night to find food. In addition, underground areas contain a variety of fungi, bacteria, and worms.

280
The number of offspring that a single female rat produces in its lifetime. The female can become fertile just 48 hours after giving birth.

COCKROACHES, ANTS, AND MOTHS They have adjusted extremely well to living in cities with people. They are practically impossible to eradicate. MOSQUITOES Not only do they live alongside human beings, but the females even feed on human blood in order to reproduce.