THE DEVELOPMENT OF

SYMBOLIC LOGIC

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF

SYMBOLIC LOGIC
A CRITICAL-HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE LOGICAL CALCULUS

BY

A. T.

SHEARMAN,

M.A.

LONDON

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE

14

HENRIETTA

ST.,

COVENT GARDEN

1906

-ec-i^l

PREFACE
The form
is

that the present

work has taken

that
I

due

to

some correspondence

had

with Mr.

W.

E. Johnson in the year 1903.

He
ing

pointed out to

me

the error of think-

of the

various

symbolic
as

systems

as

being radically distinct, and

competing

with one another

Rather, he held,
it

for
is

general acceptance.
correct to adopt the

view that there

time what
culus,

is

available at the present

may

be called the Logical Calthis

and that towards the creation of

Calculus most symbolists have contributed.

This idea has been worked out

following pages.
I

in

the

have traced the growth

of the subject from the time

when Boole
the

originated his generalisations to

time

when Mr.

Russell, pursuing for

V

the most

158461

VI

Preface

part the lines laid

down by Peano, showed

ot

how

to

deal with a vastly wider range

problems than Boole ever considered.

attention
say,

My
is

has

been

occupied,
to

that

to

upon the questions

whom we

are

most indebted
that

for those rules of

procedure

may

be said

now

to constitute the Cal-

culus,

what important
as

differences of opinion

have arisen

the subject has been gradually

thought out, and which of the conflicting

views

we
as

find

it

correct

to

adopt.

investigation has thus been quite as

critical

The much

historical, for,

in

demonstrating

who

have contributed
it

to the creation of the

Logical Calculus,

has been necessary confirst

stantly to point out, in the

place,

why

certain views have to be rejected as being

incorrect,

and secondly, wherein one of two

both
of which
are

suggestions,

excellent,

shows an advance upon the other.

Portions of some of the chapters

have

appeared in a paper which has been published in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian

Preface
Society

vii

(N.S. vol.

v.),

and which was entitled

Points
in

" Some
Logic."
cations

Controverted

Symbolic

Judging from the kind communi-

which
with

have received from several

reference
to
this

logicians

paper,

think that
is

the insertion of these sections

likely to

prove useful.
I

My

opinion upon
as a

the questions
result

then discussed has not,

of further thought, undergone any

change,

but

after

reading

Mr.

Russell's
I

work. The Principles of Mathematics^

been careful to point out that

have

the view
relation

which

expressed
to

as

to
is

the

of

Mathematics

Logic

to be regarded as

preferable only to the doctrines that

were

in

vogue prior

to the

time of Peano's analysis

of mathematical notions.
It
is

unnecessary here

to

refer

to

the

various writers

whom

have considered,
in the appro-

since they will be

priate places

mentioned

throughout the book.

But

should like to say

how much

owe

in the

way

of equipment for

my

task to Dr.

Venn

viii

Preface
It

and Mr. Johnson.

a

was the former who

in

good many years ago created

me

a taste

for the study of

SymboHc Logic, and he

has

ever been ready both to give

tion and to discuss points in
interested.

me

informaI

which

was

Mr. Johnson*s

articles in

Mind^

by throwing Hght on some of the more

difficult

questions
in

of Formal
a

Logic,

and

by

exhibiting

very

clear

manner

the unity running throughout the Logical

Calculus, have been to
service.

me

of the greatest

University College, London,

February, 1906.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PAGE
i

CHAPTER

SYMBOLS AS REPRESENTING TERMS AND AS REPRESENTING PROPOSITIONS

Introductory
I.

II.

III.

the Primary and on the Exclusive use of Literal Symbols Real and Superficial differences between Systems Symbolic Logic and Modals
. . . .

On

........ .10 ....... ....

g
22

24

CHAPTER
I.

II

SYMBOLS OF OPERATION
Symbols
of

Operation

Logic II. Question whether it is Expedient for the Logician to adopt Mathematical Symbols III. Symbols to denote Logical Addition, Subtraction, and Division IV. Other Symbols of Operation V. Symbolization of Particular Propositions VI. Symbolization of Hypotheticals and of Dis.

.......
are

not

Essential

in

31

34

.38 -Si
.

56 59

junctives

.......

Contents

CHAPTER

III

THE PROCESS OF SOLUTION

PAGE
I.

The Solution
( I )

of the Direct Problem

64
64 80 84

Method (2) Diagrammatic Method

Analytical

....
.

II.

The Solution

of the Inverse Problem

CHAPTER

IV

CONCERNING A CALCULUS BASED ON INTENSION

Introductory
I.
. . .
.

The Doctrines
(2)

of Castillon

.....91
.
.

94
95

(i) Castillon's Fundamental Notions

Illusory Particulars
.

.111

(3) Inconvertibility of Real Particulars and of .122 Universal Negatives

.

(4)

Castillon's

Treatment of Hypothetical and

. .

of Problematical Judgments

(5) Derivation of the Notion of Quantity (6) Comparison of Castillon's Symbolism with
.

.124 .128
131

Mrs. Bryant's
II.

The
(i) (2)

General
Logic

Question

of

an

Intensive

i33
.
.

A Logic based on Connotation A Logic based on Comprehension

.134
.

138

Contents

xi

CHAPTER V
THE DOCTRINES OF JEVONS AND OF
Introductory
I.

Criticism of Jevons

....... ....
MacColl
.

MR. MacCOLL

PAGE

II.

Criticism of Mr.
( 1 )

His Employment of Literal Symbols (2) His Treatment of Modal Propositions (3) His Doctrine of a Universe of Unrealities

161

CHAPTER
Introductory
I.

VI

LATER LOGICAL DOCTRINES

.

.172
173
of

Treatment

of Multiply-quantified Propositions

II.

The

Impossibility of
CopuLi^E
.

a General Treatment
.
. .

.183

III.

The New Treatment

ceptions
. .

of
.

Mathematical Con.
.

.196

CHAPTER

VII
.
.

THE UTILITY OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC

221

INDEX

233

THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SYMBOLIC LOGIC
INTRODUCTION

My

object in writing this

book

is

to show-

that during the last fifty years

there has

been a definite advance made in SymboKc

Logic.

By any person commencing

it

the

study of this discipHne

rally

is

not unnatu-

soon concluded that there exist several

off

" systems," marked

from one another

Such systems
the

by fundamental
he
is

differences.

inclined to describe according to the

character

of

the

view that

founder

entertained as to the
position.

import of the prois

Thus

there

the compartmental

view, the predication view, the mutual exclusion view, and so on.

But subsequent

Symbolic Logic

study enables the reader to perceive that,

in

adhering

to

such

conception, he

is

hiding the points of Hkeness and magnifying the points of difFerence between the

proposed methods of treating the subject,

and he
net
is

is

thus led to look rather at the

result

of the different
instead

efforts.

That
speak

to

say,

of continuing

to

of several isolated systems, he proceeds to

study
the
to

calculus that

is

nov^ available,

and

the

construction

of which

most

symbolists are seen to have contributed.

The

calculus

that

we have

said

now

exists enables us to solve

with comparative
of certain

ease problems relating to qualitative objects.^

We are able, after the performance

processes that are in accordance with a few

logical laws, to arrive at conclusions respect-

ing any class

involved
in

or

group of
premises.

classes

that

is

the

These

conthat

* If we adopt the Peanesque standpoint we may say

the calculus can
objects.

deal

with

either
in

qualitative

or

quantitative

But the statement

the text really expresses the

truth of the matter, for before mathematical assertions can be

dealt with by

Peano they have

to

be expressed as implications.

Introduction
elusions
class

may show
to

the

relation

of such

or group

all

the other classes in-

volved, or

we may employ
show the
other

the process of
relation
to cer-

elimination and
tain

only

of the

classes.

On

the

other

hand,

starting
are

with
to

certain

con-

clusions

we

able

discover premises
for

whose presence accounts

them.

Now,

before the time of Boole none of

the problems with which the calculus deals

could have been solved, unless they were

of the very simplest description.

the
first

He

was
of

to

reach

any

generalisations
certainly

logical

doctrines.*

There

had

been

some

gropings

towards the desired

end before his time.

of the
to the
earlier

Venn

refers to

some
that
Boole
para-

attempts, and in

particular

work of Lambert.
i.

Venn shows
p.

* Venn, Symbolic Logic, ed.

xxviii.,

says that

was the
graph
still
is

originator of a// the higher generalisations.

The

omitted in the second edition.

Of

course

Venn would

hold that Boole was the originator of

many

of the higher

would allow that other logicians have, since the publication of the Lanvs of Thought, generalised in certain directions. The point of Venn's statement is that before
generalisations, but

Boole's time there were no generalisations at

all.

4
following

Symbolic Logic

this eighteenth century logician

had

in the

respects

made

considerable

ad-

vances towards the Boolian position.

He

had recognised that addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division have an analogue in Logic, had perceived the inverse
nature of the second and fourth of these
operations,

had

enunciated

the

principal

logical laws,

had developed simple logical

his

expressions,

had seen that

own method

would
in

deal with complicated problems, and

one place had observed that the process

to

corresponding

division

is

an

indeter-

minate one.*

Venn
and that

also

points

out

that

Lambert's
Holland,

coadjutors

were

Ploucquet

and

all

three took their impulse from

Leibnitz and
It
is

Wolf
in an

certainly desirable

historical

account of the subject to notice these earlier

writers, but the fact

must not be forgotten

did actually succeed in

that none of

them

solving any of the

more complicated probp.

* Venn, Symbolic Logic, Introduction,

xxxi.

Introduction
lems.
I

do not think that such writers

considered
as

must

be

the

founders

of

SvmboHc Logic.
generaHsations the
different.

Had
case

thev framed

anv

would have been

Or had Boole been acquainted

ideas,

with their
ations

and founded his generalisit

upon
those

these,
to

would obviously have

include

been

essential

such
in

writers
erect-

among
ing
the

who have

assisted

svmbolic

structure,

but

he

was

not familiar with their work.

Still,

though Boole

is

the

man

to

whom

we

are indebted for

having

first

constructed

a logical calculus, the

one that he produced

was of

decidedlv complicated character.

that

Moreover, several processes

torm

highlv important part of Symbolic Logic

he did not bring within the scope

investigations.

ot

his

And

occasionallv he

made
pre-

mistakes.
in

Several minds have

contributed
at

unfolding the svmbolic methods

available.

sent

We

shall

have

to

notice

the writers

who

have made improvements

or

on

Boole's

procedure,

have

corrected

Symbolic Logic

him, or

who

have grappled with

prob-

lems that he did not touch.

My
the
are

order of exposition
three chapters
I

is as

follows.

In

first

suppose that
set

we
of

confronted with a complicated

premises and are required to draw a certain

conclusion from them, or that
a

we
it

are given
to

certain

conclusion

and are required

assign

premises from which

may have

been drawn.
I
it

At each stage in the solution shall endeavour to show which logician is who has proposed the best method of
at

procedure to be adopted
this

that point.

In

way

hope

to

make
the

clear that there

has been real development from the time

of Boole,
butors
to

and that
the

principal
are

contri-

development

Venn,
C.

Schroder,

Keynes, Johnson,

Mitchell,

Ladd-Franklin, and Peirce.

Then

in chapter iv.

prove that those

in in

who
the

have
calculus

been

engaged
justified

elaborating

were

proceeding
than

by way of an

extensive

rather

by

way

of an intensive interpretation of the

Introduction
proposition.

7
occupied with
distin-

Chapter
of
the

v.

is

an

analysis

work of two

guished logicians, namely, Jevons and Mr.

MacCoU, both of whom have, indeed, proceeded by way of extension,"^ but who
have in
errors.
is

my opinion fallen Up to this point the

may
Symbolic
Logic,

into

serious

investigation

concerned with what

be called the

ordinary

and

with

its

ordinary employment.
I

In the next chapter

refer (i) to the logicians

who have shown

with
single

how

the principles that are utilised for the

manipulation
quantifications

of propositions

may

also

be utilised in the
;

case of double and multiple quantifications

(2) to

the view that, though such multiple

quantifications
lated,
it is

may

be successfully manipu-

not possible to treat copulas in a

so

general

manner, and
as

arrive

at

such

Logic

the expression " Logic of Rela-

tives " naturally suggests to the

* Jevons,
as

mind

and
the

Venn

points

out,

professed to

interpret

proposition in an intensive manner, but dealt with the subject

rather

from the extensive standpoint.

(See Venn, Symbolic

Logic, note on p. 453.)

8
(3) to

Symbolic Logic
Frege, Peano, and Russell,

who have

shown that, when certain distinctions are made which the older symbolists passed by
as

unimportant, and
is

when
to

a suitable inter-

pretation

given

the

conceptions

of

quantitative

mathematics,

both

the

com-

prehensiveness and the utility of Symbolic

Logic are greatly increased.

Finally, having

thus traced the development of the subject,

I

devote a chapter to the consideration of

its less

the uses of Symbolic Logic, both in

and

in its

more extended

application.

CHAPTER

SYMBOLS AS REPRESENTING TERMS AND AS REPRESENTING PROPOSITIONS

The

first

step

in

the solution
is

of a com-

plicated

problem
the

to

take the premises,

which
rule,

are given as a rule in

words
be

as

for

cawing of
union-jack

rook and the

premises,

flying

of a

may
to

since they are statements,

though of course
put them into

not propositions,^

and

some other form,

be
easily
is

in order that they

may

manipulated.

The

customary

way

to

take letters either to represent

the classes or to represent the statements

involved.

The
these

question then

arises

as

to

which of
taken
to

two the

letters

should be

represent. f
in

Having

answered

* See MacCoIl
j*

Mind, N.S. No. 43. The argument in the next few pages has reference
I

to

problems of the earUer Symbolic Logic.

9

hold that

in

the

lo
this question,

Symbolic Logic

we

shall

be able to see which

logicians have been proceeding on the right

lines, so far as this

point

is

concerned.

I.

There
to

are here three considerations

distinct
if

that

must be kept quite

is

the

subject

be
it

profitably
is

discussed.

In

the

first

place,

possible to affirm that

set

symbols

may under one

of conditions

represent terms, and under another set of

conditions represent propositions, and then

it

has to

be

decided which
it

of the

two

available uses

is

expedient primarily to

adopt.

Secondly,

it

may

be held that

it

is

a matter of indifference

whether symbols

stand for terms or for propositions.

case of such problems
it

And,

makes no

difference, so long as the

appropriate

rules

are

observed, whether

we

let

our symbols
to

stand for terms or for propositions.

deal with problems that

But,

when we come
to let

are not included within the scope of

it

the Boolian treatment, I admit that

is

better

symbols
later,

stand primarily for propositions.

For, as will be noticed

the

propositions of mathematics
to

which the

newer Symbohc

Logic has been shown

referred to in the latter

be able to manipulate consist of

implications between propositional functions, and the

is

" molecule "

a proposition, not a class.

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

in

i i

the

third

place,

the

opinion

may

be

maintained that only one of the two should

be symbolized
to

on

this

view

it is

generally

designate propositions that symbols are

exclusively utilised.
(i)

As regards the question of expediit

ency,

has been affirmed that

we

should

commence with
positions,
for

the symbolization of profirstly,

then,

our
;

procedure
and, sec-

throughout
ondly,
is

will

be

analytical

we

shall

avoid the " confusion " that

introduced through the identification of

the " physical " combination of propositions

into a system with the " chemical "

com-

bination of subject and predication into a

proposition."*

The former

of

these

reasons
I

is

un-

doubtedly a strong one, but

to think that the

am

inclined

common method
may

of beclasses,

ginning with the consideration of

and the operations that

be performed

upon them,

is

the better one to employ.

latter
i.

For one thing, the

procedure
p. 6.

is

of a

* Mind, vol.

N.S.

12

Symbolic Logic

simpler character than the other.

stronger reason than this
process of considering the
is

But

that,

during the
in

manner

which
the

the

analysis

of propositions
synthesis,
it
is

modifies

form of the

necessary to

point out that the letters representing predications obey the simple laws of propositional synthesis
;

it

is,

therefore, desirable

to be able to refer to an earlier discussion

of

terms and the operations that

may

be per-

formed upon them.

With
alleged
is

respect to the confusion that

likely to arise

it

is

from our allowing

is, I

letters originally to represent terms, it

think,
careful

apt

to

be

exaggerated
of

indeed,

analysis

what

really
literal

happens
symbols
is

during the employment of

in the

two spheres

will

show

that there

no good reason

for confusion in

any degree.
the
to
is

The
same
be
a

fact

that contradictories are not

in

both regions has been declared

source of error.

likely

Now

it

certainly true that the contradictories in the

* Mind,
vol.
i.

N.S.

p.

352.

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

13

two

cases are different, but this should not

involve any uncertainty in the application

of the old formulas to the

that
is

necessary

is

that

new use. All we make allowance

not

for the

change
/.f.,

in the character of the con-

tradictory,

we must

admit that

propositions are sometimes true and some-

times

false.
it

Again,
utilise

has been said that those

who

the old rules for the

actually

new
to

subject-

matter will be led

class

confuse a
as
is

with a proposition, inasmuch

on
the

the class view the contradictory of x

class x^

but on the propositional theory the

contradictory of the proposition

affirmation " x
loses
its
is

is

the

true." ^

But

this criticism
is

force if the

distinction

drawn
true.

between the truth of

statement
that

a proposition

and the
is

the

proposition

When
new

the old formulas are applied to the

case, the correct

procedure

is

to

make
as

the letter symbol represent the truth of a

proposition,

while
* Mind,

such
vol.
i.

an

expression

N.S.

p. 17.

14

Symbolic Logic
is

a:=1

used
is

to

denote that such a pro-

position

true.

Hence

the contradictory

of the truth of x does not leave us with a

proposition, but simply with the truth of x.

There
classes.

is

thus a perfect analogy between this

case and the case

where the

letters represent

And,

just as

the class x

may
it

be
is

declared to exhaust the universe, so

possible to state that the truth of the pro-

position X

is

the only possibility.

In other

we may say that ^=1. When writers, who start by making letters stand for classes, come to make such
words, in both cases
letters

stand for the truth of propositions,

is

there

no

serious

alteration

involved,
in

except
logical

the
rules

one
that

already

noticed,

the
:

have been established

there

is

merely another method of interpre-

tation put

upon the

literal

symbols.

Such

logicians argue that the logical

machinery

may

be put to uses other than those for

it

which

was

originally
1

intended.

For

instance, the
totality of

symbol

from meaning the

to denote

compartments comes

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

the

only

possibility,

and

receives

the

meaning of no

possibility.

Where
rated

the symbolic framework, as elaboclass,

is

from the point of view of the

does not apply to the

due, as
that

new
to

case, the fact

Venn shows,
for

the circumstance

we have no

longer any place in the

the

contradictory

word "some."
it
is

In
that

dealing with classes,

when

said

x-\-x=l^

it

is

meant that both x and x

the
the

contribute to the total, but on the proposition

interpretation,

admission
admission
false,

of x
of
x.

excludes

absolutely
if

Hence,

xy

is

declared

we

can

only say that one of the three xy, xy, xy

is

true, while, if xy

is

declared true, then

false.

xy, xy, xy
say, of the

must

all

be

That

is

to

formally possible propositional

alternants only one can be true.

(2)

But there
that
it

are

some writers who maindifference

tain

makes no
to

whether

symbols stand for terms or for propositions.

These logicians have

that

attempt to show

the

characters

of the contradictories

6
1

Symbolic Logic

do not vary in the fundamental way that

I

have

just

mentioned.

Mrs.

Laddto

FrankHn, for instance, endeavours with

this question

deal

by asserting that

a proit

position
is

may
at

be true at one time while

;

false

another

* but, as Mr. Johnson

remarks, propositions that relate to different

times are different propositions.

Mrs. Ladd-

Franklin

asks,

"

Why

exclude
to

from
cover

an
all

Algebra which

is

intended

possible instances of (non-relative) reasoning

such propositions
rains I rains
I

as

'

sometimes when

it it

am am

pleased and sometimes

indifferent
?
'

when

"

But

am

not

aware that any symbolist wishes to exclude

such
propositions.

Supposing we regard

this statement as consisting of

two proposi-

tions

in contradistinction for the

moment
argues,

to the

way

in

which Mr. Johnson

one

namely, that the particle " and " implies that

we have
will,

really only

then the symbolist

" Let

of

course,
'

say,

x equal
it

the
I

proposition

sometimes
vol.
i.

when
p.

rains

* Mindy

N.S.

129.

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

17

am

pleased/ and y equal

the

proposition
indifferent.'"

'sometimes
Here,
if

when

it

rains

am

we

shall
if

while,

two propositions are true, have x=\ and y = \ respectively X is not true, i.e.^ if a; = 0, the
these
;

verbal rendering will be, " It

that sometimes

is

not true
pleased,"
j/

when

it

rains

am

and similarly with the rendering of

0.

Mrs.

Ladd-Franklin

argues

as

though x

were made by the symbolist

for

to stand only
I

such

proposition

as

"

am

always

pleased,"

but,

of course, the symbol

may

stand for any proposition

(or rather, truth

of any proposition) whatever.

But though the symbolist can

such
propositions

deal
in

with

he will not
lines

conse-

quence proceed along the She argues that

regard

that Mrs.

Ladd-Franklin thinks Schroder should have

followed.
fiable

to

<y-\-z

it

is

not justi-

as

requiring

fundamentally
ing
as
AT,

different

treatment

accord-

y^

and x stand for terms or for

Schroder
the
letters

propositions.
that,

had

maintained
pro-

when

represent

Symbolic Logic
it
is

positions,

not

possible,

as

it

is

on

the view that

for

we
critic

are

deaHng with
that
if it

classes,

X to be divided up between y and

this

z.

To
I

his

says

in

material
either

consequences, such as "

rains,

stay in or else I take an umbrella," the

is

proposition
instances in

satisfied
I

if

there

are

some
in

which

stay in

and some
She
fails

which

take

my

umbrella.

to

observe that the introduction of the

word

" instances "

does

away with the

class

special

character of the sequence, and reduces the

problem
long
as

to

one of

implication.
are

So

propositions as such
is

retained,
in

Schroder
that

undoubtedly correct

saying

X cannot be divided
z.

up between y

and

Again, Mrs. Ladd- Franklin points out

that there
is

a close

resemblance between

what she terms logical sequence and the case where the left-hand member of the
subsumption stands
for a

singular subject.

But
the

this

is

not

any reason for regarding

question

whether

we

allow

literal

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

symbols
positions
to
as
as

19

stand

for

terms

or

for

pro-

statement
fairy "
is

one of indifference. Such a " she is either a queen or a

cases,

one of those Umiting

in

for
so

whose investigation

general

we
It
is

are

much
to

indebted to Dr. Venn.

quite

correct to say that " there

seems, in fact,

be

close

relationship

between

the

logical sequence

between propositions, and

terms

the

sequence
is

between

when

the

subject

singular," but Schroder's general

is

argument
original

not thereby invalidated

the

formula must be modified

and

to suit

the case of the proposition with singular

subject

disjunctive

predicate, just
to

as

there
case

must be modification

meet the
Schroder,

where terms stand

asks

for

propositions.
to

Mrs. Ladd-Franklin's answer

when he
by
[a

<b)=d'{-b

what can

possibly be

meant

on the supposition that

the letters stand for terms instead of for

propositions,

appears

to

me

to

be

quite

sound.

She says that the verbal

naturally

render:

ing

will

be

as

follows

" All

20
^
is is

Symbolic Logic

^" is-the-same-thing-as "everything But all that either non-a or else L''
is

is

hereby demonstrated
a

that the letters

in

certain

equation
:

may
is

have

two

different readings

there
it

here no argua matter of in-

ment
are

to

prove that
so
far
as

is

difference,

rules

of application
letters

concerned,

whether our
for

in

problem stand
tions.

terms

or

for

proposi-

In stating the facts of the case

therefore, to avoid

we

have,
the
all

two extremes.
to

On
that
for

one
the

hand
rules

it

is

incorrect

say

apply

equally

well

both

classes

and propositions, and on the other

so
far
as

hand we need not go

that

to

state

the

rules

are

different

in

the
is

two

regions.

The former
the
latter

statement

erron-

eous

suggests

more

disparity

between the two procedures than actually

exists.
(3)

It

has
it

been
is

mentioned
that

also

that

sometimes

maintained

symbols
repre-

should be employed exclusively to

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

sent propositions.

21

Mr. MacColl
But
I

takes this

view of the
reason

case.

can see no valid

not
designate

w^hy

symbols

may

now

classes

and

now

propositions.
is

The
the

only thing to be remembered

rules of

that

procedure are not quite the same

in

the

two
that

cases.

If

we

are

to

be re-

stricted to
I

one only of the two

uses,

then

think

Venn

is

justified

in

saying

that symbols should stand for classes rather

than

for

propositions.

As
of

regards

the

question
solution
to

of

economy
the
class

space

in

the

of problems, the evidence

that

seems
is

show

interpretation
is

to be preferred.

Certainly this

the case

so far as the representation of the syllogism

after

all

an important form
I

of reasonlay

ing

is

concerned.

do

not

much

upon the argument based on spaceeconomy. At any rate, we ought not to

stress

judge systems by the amount of working that has been offered when the exponents

were

dealing

with
as

certain
a

well-known

problems, because

rule the symbolist

22

Symbolic Logic

could, if he had so chosen, have

solution
Still,

made
at

his

much more compact

act
as

than he did.

seeing that symbolism

rather than
a

may

times
for
if

assist

substitute

thought,

we need
is

not

despise

brevity,

thought
assistance.
I

thereby

rendered

the

greater

think, then, that

it

is

correct to hold

that our letters

may

represent either classes

or propositions, but that v^e must be careful to

notice that the rules to be adopted

in v\Aorking our problems are not the

in

same

the

two
far

cases.

This view has been

and
in

adopted

by Boole, Venn,
as

Schroder,
question
is

who,

so

the

point
seen

concerned,

are

thus

to

have

been

proceeding in the right direction.

II.

variety

of letter

symbols has

been suggested by these three writers for

representing the
class

or

the

proposition,

and

the

contradictory

of

each,

namely,
(Jevons).

XX (Venn), x x^ The selection of

(Schroder),

Xx

different sets

of symbols

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

for

23

the class and

those

its

contradictory

is

one
the
is

of

matters

that

depend

on

logician's

individual

preferences,
in

and

not

of vital

importance

marking

off
very-

one

exposition

from

another.

clear distinction

must of course be draw^n

superficial

between
existing
is

real

and

differences

among

the so-called
the

systems.

It

to

be regretted that

same symbols
involved,
in

are not
cases

used by different w^riters in those

is

where no principle
is

for

there
subject

no doubt
are

that

beginners

the

often

unnecessarily
variety
that
that

puzzled
is

on
be

account
found.
is,

of

the

to

The
I

reason
it

such variety
be
said,

exists

think

must
the

that

symbolists have

frequently not

been

sufficiently

acquainted
predecessors.

with

writings
as

of

their

Boole,

we
any-

have
thing

noticed,
that
;

was

unfamiliar

with

had

been

done

in in

Symbolic
his
earlier

Logic

and

Mr. MacColl

work

furnishes according to

Venn

" another

instance

of results

independently

worked

24
out,

Symbolic Logic
without

knowledge
in
later

of
the

what
have,
clear

had

been

already effected

same way/'

Mr.
ever,

MacColl's

papers

howappre-

been prepared
of what of other
has

with
been

hension
attention

engaging the

writers.^

This
the

want
ot

of historical
symbolists,

information

on

part

besides

causing

students

un-

necessary difficulties, has resulted in a good

deal

of wasted

effort,

for

each
his

logician

instead
left
off,

of starting
has

where
to

predecessor

had

work
the

out

all

the
for

elementary
himself.

notions

of

subject

III.

In close connexion with the sub-

ject

as

to

whether Symbolic Logic

deals

primarily or exclusively with propositions

is

the question as to the kind of propositions

to

which

in

any

case

it

must

confine

itself

The
only.

symbolist can deal with asserIt

torics
* See
p.

has,
his

however, sometimes

particularly

355, and

his discussions with

respect to logical existence,

in Mind^ N.S. No. 47, Mr. Russell and myself with Mind, N.S. Nos. 55 and 56.

article

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

been held
fall

25

that

certain

other propositions

within the scope of his treatment.

For

instance,

he

is

said to be able to

manipulate
true."
I

propositions

that

are

"probably
to

think

he

has

nothing;

do

with
it

such
does

material, for the simple reason that

not exist.

Mrs. Bryant,

in

her suggestive

paper on "
to
to

The

Relation

of Mathematics
still

General

Formal
it

Logic," *
is

holds

the view that

legitimate subject
ask
is it

of

inquiry

when

we
often

concerning

proposition "
to the total in
its

how

true relative

number of cases its occurrence every one of which would constitute

.?

unconditional truth

"

Two
first

considerais

tions

show

that
one.

this

question
the
a

not

an
it

intelligible
is

In

place,

mistake to speak of
often

proposition as

being

true,
its

for

on

each

supposed
be
a

occasion

of

truth

there

would
second

new

proposition.

In

the

place,

though unconditional truth may well be

established

from certain true propositions,

ylr'tst.

* Proc.

Soc,

vol.

ii.

N.S.

p.

121,

26
this fact

Symbolic Logic
establishment
that
is

due

simply

to

the

such

propositions are true, and

not to the fact that they are always true.

Mrs. Bryant escapes the mistake of speaking of degrees of truth, but she
an
equally
serious
falls

into

error

in

holding

that

a proposition

may more
is

or less frequently
in

be
that

true.

She

quite correct
is

saying

" a proposition
event,''
it

the assertion of a
this

joint

but
is

when

assertion
it
is

is
:

once made
it

either true or
true.

false

cannot

be

probably

It

may be

more

or less probable that the events ought

to be joined in the

way

asserted by the prois

position, but such

to be taken
assertion
arises
is

probability

matter

into consideration

before the

made.

The
event.

error in question

apparently through the confusion of

proposition

with
is

The

probability

of an event
ratio of the

certainly measured "

by the

occurs to

number of cases in which it the whole number of cases conthe probability of the truth
has

sidered," but

of a

proposition

no meaning.

We

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

27
"

may

not,

as

she

would

allow
"

us,
is

write
true

" proposition " for " event

for " occurs."

and "

Nor can

the symbolist manipulate pro-

positions respecting probabilities, unless he

recognises that he

is

dealing with an
in

affir-

mation of the relation

which

a thinker
is

stands to a certain statement.

say, the

That

to

symbolist will
propositions.

still

be engaged upon

assertoric

Mr. Johnson has

made

this quite clear.

As he

expresses

it,

these assertions about the probability that a

predicate

is

to be attached to a subject relate

to a different plane

from the one with which

pure Logic
obligation

is

concerned.

They

refer to the

under which the thinker finds

himself to accept a statement of an assertoric

kind, but the propositions that engage the
attention of the logician are these assertorics

themselves.

And

in the

same way that the symbolist

cannot without the use of

new
is

terms deal
so,

with propositions asserting probabilities,

unless

the same procedure

adopted, he

28

Symbolic Logic
as outside his

must consider
of
the

province

many
are

kinds
in

of
the

propositions

that

mentioned
This

very

ingenious

system

that has been elaborated by

Mr. MacColl.
the
symbolist,
into

logician

holds

that

besides

classifying

propositions

true

and

false,

may make

other

classifications

according to the necessities of the problem.

Thus, in addition
bable, and

to the probable,

impro-

even propositions already men-

tioned, there are those that are certain, impossible,

to be

and variable, those that are

known
false,

true,
to

known

to

be

false,

and neither
to be

known
and
is

be true nor

known

so on.

The

objection to this procedure

based on the fact that the considerations

according to which such classifications are

reached

all

refer to

the

relation

in

which

the thinker stands to the proposition, and

not to the proposition

as

itself.

All such facts

Mr. MacColl has

in

in

view can be dealt

but
it is

with

Symbolic

Logic,

in

their case necessary to introduce

new

terms.

Thus, take the case of

proposition A,

Symbols for Terms and Propositions

29

which we
pose

will

suppose to be

false.

We
sup-

have then symbolically

A = 0.

Now,

we
we
i-t

introduce the conception involved

is

in the

words "it
shall
is

known," the proposition

to

that

have

deal with

will

be

" that

known

that

is

false is

true."

It will still

be a case of truth or falsehood,

but the propositions that

are not the same.
fore, incorrect in

we have

in
is,

mind
there:

Mr. MacColl
stating that his
:

stronger

than

A <B
it is

is

it

is

not a matter

of strength,

matter of an entirely

different proposition.
It will

be seen from these considerations

is

why
tory.*
his

it

that

the

same
views
for

writer's

recent

explanations

of his

are

unsatisfac-

He

maintains,

instance,
:

that
x)
is

formula

[K:

x)

+
\

{E\ x)

(AB

true, but that

he could not use the formula

{K:

x)

{B: x) =
is

the latter

true

(AB x). He grants that when A: x means (A + x)^

the meaning that
at,

but not

when we have

he assigns to

viz.,

(A
p.

4-

>^)\

t.e,^

"

it

* Mind, N.S. No. 47,

355.

JO
is

Symbolic Logic
certain that

implies

x.''

In unfolding

his view,
in

Mr. MacColl

takes an illustration,

which the chances

that

is

^ are 3 to

5,

that

is

;c

are 3 to 5,

and that

AB

is

are 1, and his demonstration that under these

circumstances the former of the above formulas alone holds good

is

doubtless sound.

But he
that he

is

not justified in constructing for-

mulae upon this plane.

At any

rate, those

here

constructs
in
this

form no part of
the force of the

pure Logic, for

proposition consists in the definite erasion

or salvation of certain compartments. If

Mr. MacColl wishes

to deal

with the data

he mentions he should introduce new terms.

Pure Logic can take account of the uncertainties

that

such

data

occasion, but

the

propositions dealt with will then denote not

the relation of the respective letters to x,

but the

relation

of the

thinker

to

each

implication.

CHAPTER
4

II

SYMBOLS OF OPERATION
I.

Next
it

as

regards

the

method of
For
a

connecting the term-symbols.

long

time

was

thought

to

be

absolutely

necessary to use symbols of operation, but

Dr.

Keynes

has

shown

that

the

most
solved

complicated

problems

may

be

with the greatest ease without such use. The words " and " and " or " are amply
sufficient

in

his

hands for the connexion

while
the
to

of

the

term-symbols,

connect
predicate-

the

subject-group

with

group he does not depart from the customary "

out,
is."
Still, as

Mr. Johnson points

a logical

Keynes has hardly developed

for
this
is

calculus,

characterized by the

mechanical
rules.

application
31

of a

few logical

32

Symbolic Logic

But
of

may say that there opinion among logicians

I

is

a difference to the best

as

manner

in

which

to describe the

advanced

work

that has been

it

done by Dr. Keynes.

is

On

the one hand

said

that

he has

hardly

developed

calculus,
is

and on the

other hand the question

his

asked whether

methods can
methods

fairly

claim to belong to

the

Common Logic*
would

Venn
never

thinks that

these

have

been

reached without a training in the earUer symboHc systems, for "the spirit of the

methods
type."

is

throughout of the mathematical

in

And Venn,

the second edition

after

of his Symbolic Logic,

the

which appeared

publication of Keynes' work, repeats

the statement

made

in the first edition to

the effect that the want of symmetry in the

predication view of the proposition forbids
its

extension and generalisation. f

is

Thus,

if

Keynes' work
belong to the

not a calculus and does not

Common
in

Logic,
vol. ix. p.

it

is

a little

* See Venn,
j"

Mind, 2nd

304.

Symbolic Logic,

ed. p. 29.

Symbols of Operation
difficult

33
it.

to
is

know how
that
it

to classify

My

own view
be,
a

is

generalisation

what he claims it to of (common) logical

no
symbols
that

processes.

There
and

are

are suggestive of

Mathematics except the

suggestive

bracket,

none

of

earlier

symbolic work except x for not-X

distinction
is

The
is

between subject and predicate

use of the

observed, and the

copula

retained.

There

is

generahsation

of the

various forms of immediate inference

com-

monly recognised,

as

well

as

of mediate

arguments involving three or more terms.

Whether

the

processes
is

can

be

readily

described as a calculus

perhaps doubtful.

Certainly Keynes does not reach his conclusions

a very

from the mechanical application of

rules

few fundamental laws, but the

that he does

employ

are after
little

all

not very

numerous, and with a

agree with
that such

practice can be
I

applied with almost mechanical facility.

Venn

that

it is

difficult to

suppose

methods would have been reached

c
>^

without study of existing symbolic systems,

OF THE

34
and there
certain
is

Symbolic Logic
a distinct

resemblance between

parts

of Keynes' treatment of the

subject and that given in Schroder's Operations kreis^ to

is

which work frequent

reference

made

in the notes of the

Formal Logic.

Still,

whatever may have been the history

of the growth of the subject in the writer's

mind, now that the methods are thus presented

as
I

think that they should be regarded

of the

a generalisation

common

logical

processes.

II.

Most

writers

on

the

subject

of

Symbolic Logic

have

undoubtedly intro-

duced symbols of operation, and the four

following, as
is

well
,

known, have frequently

,

been used

-^

to

denote re-

spectively aggregation, subduction, restriction,

and the discovery of

a class

which on
other

restriction

by

denominator yields the cor-

responding

numerator.

Of

course,

symbols might have been used to designate

precisely these operations, and
to ask
it

may

be well

whether, seeing that these symbols

Symbols of Operation
are
it

35

employed

in another region of thought,

is

well to have
If they

them employed
had
first

in

both

regions.

been used by

the class logician, would the thinker

deals

who
in
is

with numbers

have

done wisely
?

adopting them in his science

There
nature

no

reason,

of

course,

in

the

of

things

why
in

they

should
first

not

have

been

employed
were
to look

Logic

of

all,

but they

in use long before the logician

began
suit-

around him for some symbols

able for the operations he had to perform.

Did Boole,

therefore, act wisely in

making
?

use of these symbols in his solutions

In

some
is

respects he did wisely, and in

some

he did not.

He

did wisely because there

certain processes
;

some analogy between

of Mathematics and those of Logic

instance, the

for

commutative and

associative

laws are applicable in both regions.

And,

even in cases where most of

said

all

it

may
is

be

that
is

the

adoption

of

mathematical
little

symbols

likely to mislead, there

risk of error if

we

regard the symbols as

36
*'

Symbolic Logic
the

representing

operation^

and merely de-,

noting

the

result."^

Thus,

which

in

Mathematics denotes
solely
as

zero, might, regarded

a
''

result,

be
"
;

taken
but,

in

Logic

to
re-

stand for

nothing

when we
arise.

member

that the symbol also points to an

operation,

no

confusion
is

need
to

It

becomes obvious, that

here

say,

that
a

we
class

have the process of finding

which which
Boole

upon
class
is

restriction

by

gives
to

0,
a,

immediately seen
also

be

did

somewhat
ploying

though unconsciously
wisely
in

perhaps

that

by emas

these

symbols
has

he

directed,
far

Mr.
than

Johnson
the

remarked,

more
have

attention

to the study of

Symbolic Logic
otherwise

subject

would

received.

On

the other hand,

it

may

be doubted
sets

whether the analogy between the two

of processes
cation
is

sufficient to justify the appli;

of the same symbols

Ar'ist. Soc.j vol.

the formula
ii.

* Mrs. Bryant, Proc.

N.S.

p.

io8.

Symbols of Operation

37

XX = x,

for instance,

may

always be used in
almost en-

the logical region while being

tirely inapplicable in

Mathematics.

More-

over,

had Boole not adopted these symbols

there

would have been avoided the many

disputes concerning the propriety of using

them.

Without
it
is

doubt,

out

of

all

the

controversy on the subject some truth has

emerged, but
relations

probable that, had the

of propositions
re-

of classes or

ceived the attention that the disputants gave

to
a

comparison of the mathematical and

processes.

logical

Symbolic

Logic would
than
it

have made more rapid

done.
ture

strides

has

The wonderful mathematical

struc-

was erected without reference to what the logician was doing, or whether he was
doing
anything, and
it

may

be

that

the

logical structure

would have been more im-

posing

if

the builder had concentrated his

thought upon his own work, instead of casting side glances to see what was occupying
the attention of the mathematician.

38

Symbolic Logic

III.

Much
three
it

discussion has arisen con-

cerning

of
is

these

four

symbols of

operation, and
to

stimulating to thought

weigh the arguments that have been

Boole

advanced in connexion v^ith them. (i) First, with regard to the sign +.

always used this sign on the understanding

that the terms so joined are exclusives.
It

was
to

his special merit, so

it

has been affirmed,

improve
is

on

the

common

vagueness.

That

to say, if " or "

on the popular view

to
to

means anything from absolute exclusion identity, then the logician is called upon
his

improve on the ordinary view when he

states

premises in symbolic language.

It has also

been maintained that there

is

very great advantage in adopting the exclusive notation,

inasmuch

as

there

is

then

rendered possible the introduction of inverse

operations.

That

is,

before ah can be subit

tracted

from an aggregate of terms,

must

be

known

that the aggregate contains ah

left

if

the matter were

open there could be no

Symbols of Operation
subtraction.
class is to

39
If a

Similarly with division.

be found which on restriction by

is

denominator

to yield

the numerator,
as to

then there must be no indefiniteness

what

this

numerator

is.

On
in

the other hand,

it

is

maintained that

the process of expressing the premises

in

symbolic form
is

much economy
if

of space

and time

effected

the non-exclusive

method
it
is

is

adopted.

Further, on this plan

possible to arrive at the contradictory

by

a very simple process.

The demonstraproves in
the

tion of this occupies a

in

prominent position

Schroder's

work."^
that

He

Operationskreis
(ab)^
is

the

contradictory

of

[a^

a^^

in

the

^J, and that of [a -^ b)^ is Vorlesungen the proposition

appears as No. 36.

Of

course, Jevons

had

previously argued that the individual does

often

think
this
is

in

the non-exclusive fashion,

but

no reason

why

such notation

should be adopted in the logical calculus.

* See Adamson's excellent
p.
critical notice
is

in

Mind,

vol. x.

252, where, however, Schroder

erroneously said to have

originated the theorem.

40
It

Symbolic Logic

was

for

Schroder to point out that by

method in the calculus problems could be solved more easily than

the adoption of the

on the Boolian plan

thinks to be

and not only would

the process be easier, but,

still

what Schroder
step

more important, each

would be

intuitively obvious, and justifiable

on purely logical grounds.

As

a result of

the long debate, the non-exclusive notation

has undoubtedly found favour, and
his second edition adopts
as
it,

Venn

in

having come,
" brevity and

he

says,

to

recognise
still
is

its

symmetry," but
than

holding to the view

that the question

one of method rather

one

of

principle.

Having
processes,

thus

changed
either
else

his opinion, reject to

all

Venn
inverse

has, of course,

to

or

to

revert

the

exclusive

notation

when dealing with them. The confusion which has been stirred up by many of those who have discussed this
question
is

greater, perhaps, than

is

to be
It
is

found in any other part of Logic.

very

common

to find

no distinction made

Symbols of Operation
between
(i)

41
place in

what

actually takes

disjunctive thinking, (2)

what is the treatment of the disjunctive judgment in the

text-books that discuss the elementary rules

of formal Logic, and

(3)

ing with the disjunctive

what way of dealis the most serviceThese three

clear

able for a generaHsed Logic.

points

of view were

made

by Dr.

Venn long even now

stance,

ago, but they are quite neglected

in

some
set

discussions.

For

in-

Mr. Ross

out recently * " to try

to determine the

import of the disjunctive

judgment, and

to find out the exact place

which

it

occupies in the connected whole

of logical thought."
criticize

He

then proceeds to

Mr. Bradley and Mr. Bosanquet

(who are, let it be observed, talking about the manner in which we are thinking when

we

are thinking disjunctively)

by appealing
logical

to considerations based

on

common

But obviously the practices of the logician can never define the actual form
usages.

of the judgment.

Somewhat
p.

later,

when

* Mind, N.S. No. 48,

489.

42

Symbolic Logic
Ross advances " other considerations

Mr.
treat

which go

show how inexpedient it is to the disjunctive judgment as necessarily

to
it

exclusive,"
able

becomes particularly noticeto

that he fails

distinguish

between

two

entirely different questions, one of fact

and one of convenience.

poses
to

He

actually proit
is

show how
are
(in

inexpedient

that

alternatives

Bradley's
!

view)

ex-

clusive of each other

To

put

the

matter

in

the

simplest

possible form,

when Boole meets with some

alternatives,

premises

involving
is

he

asks

whether he
the
-\-

to regard the alternatives as

exclusives or not.
in

Then,
Boole

if

the answer

is

negative,
-\-

will

write

down
origi-

xy

xy

xy^

where x and^ were the

nal non-exclusive alternatives.

If Schroder

meets with the same premises, he will, of

know if the alternatives are exclusives, and, when informed that they are not, he will write down x -^ y. Then each symbolist may go to work with his special rules, and each may obtain the
course, also

want

to

Symbols of Operation
correct
solution.

43
person

Thus

it

is

the

supplying the problem

bolist in a position to

who

places the

sym-

commence
as
still

the solu-

tion.

should not have put the matter in

this

such an elementary form

the

were not
'*

many

confusions that

exist a suffi-

cient justification.

has

misled

Mr.
I

The word " should may mean, Ross. It

to

"

How
in

ought
the

describe

the

actual

facts
is

it

mind of the individual who Or thinking a disjunctive judgment ? " may mean, " How ought I to put down
words or other symbols the
relevant here
facts "
?

in

that

constitute the disjunctive thought

It
is

to

notice

also

Mr.
alter-

Bradley's treatment of the subject of alternatives.

He
are

wishes

to

show

that

natives
is

exclusives,

and his procedure

to refer to the state of things not

when
fact

they

are

exclusives.^

Evidently,
a

therefore,

alternatives
either.

can

as

matter

of

be

To

put the same thing in other

124.

* The Principles of Logic ^

p.

44

Symbolic Logic

words, Mr. Bradley says that

natives are not exclusives
slovenly.

when
is

alter-

we

are thinking
still

But slovenly thinking

thinking,
that
it is

though we

may

readily

grant

not " always safe."

Mr. Bradley

seems to have been led to this argument

through a confusion of the kind

just

we have
in

mentioned.

He
in

sees

difficulties

the

way of

reasoning if

we
the

state

the pre-

mises

symbolically

non-exclusive

manner, and so he argues that those premises must have been given in the exclusive

manner.
been

But obviously they

in

given

either

form,

may have though we

information

must know which before we can put them

down
adopt

in

symbols.
is

When
or

upon the subject

either

forthcoming,

we
It

can

the

exclusive

the

nonhas

exclusive

method of

representation.

been pointed out that Mr. Ross attempts

to

show

the inexpediency of the fact that

are
(in

alternatives

Mr.

Bradley's

view)

exclusives.

We

now

see that

Mr. Bradley

was led

to regard alternatives as exclusives

Symbols of Operation

45
it

by
be

reflecting
if
(2)

how

inexpedient

would

they are not.

Concerning the employment of the

(

sign

) some

difference
first

of opinion
it

has

also arisen.

In the

place,
is

has been

pointed out that the sign

not absolutely

necessary, since subduction

may

always be
But,

expressed symbolically as restriction.

though

this is true, the reply has reasonably

it is

been made that

frequently

more con-

venient to employ the minus sign, and that

no logical considerations render such em-

ployment
the

illegitimate.
as

But

it

is

to

be
is

noted that only

use

denoting subduction
appropriate.

of the
is

sign

If the

attempt

made

to designate negative terms

by prefixing (-) to the

can
result.

positive, only error

For, as

Venn

points out, the

irresistible

tendency then
to
transfer
a

becomes almost
of the

term with changed sign

a statement

to

the
will

other

side

equation, and this

is

mean

that
class

made con-

cerning a

about which the premises

give no information.

46
So
far all

Symbolic Logic
is

clear

concerning the use of

it is

the minus.

But sometimes
is

employed

where the calculus

in this

based on the inten-

sive rendering of propositions,

and the use

way

deserves

some consideration.

Castillon has carried out

more

consistently

than any other writer the development of

Symbolic Logic on intensive

shall restrict

lines,

and

my

remarks here to
in

his treat-

ment of the

sign

question.

What

he

means by (-) becomes evident when we

observe his symbolic representation of the
universal

negative

and

of
as S

its

converse.

This proposition appears

= - A + M,
attributes

by which

he

means that the

embraced under S

are not co-existent

with

those embraced under A, but are co-existent

with those embraced under M.^

affirms that such proposition

Then he
con-

may be

verted thus

what

Castillon

= - S + M. Clearly, then, means and he says as much

by the (-)

is

the mental act of keeping

apart, of analysis.

But, as he has thus far

logique, pp. 9,

* Sur un nouvel algorithm

10.

Symbols of Operation
been
criticized,^

47
in

he

is

supposed
assign
to

the

original

proposition

to

two
is

aggregates, consisting respectively of negative

and positive
infinite

attributes.

But
he

this

what he
such
to

distinctly

avoids
as

doing.
calls

When
it,

judgment,

is

be

designated,

he employs

the

form

Moreover, if he had = (-A) + M. meant what Venn thinks he did, the

S

converse of the universal negative would,

of course, have been (- A)

- M.
For

Is,

then, Castillon justified in converting in the

way he
is

does

Obviously not.

to pro-

ceed from

S=-A
that

M toA=-S + M
is
is

to conclude
a statement

co-existent with
at variance

M,

which
these

with

the original proposition.

tensive
lines,
it

So

that

on in-

as
is

are

laid

down by
Logic,
to

Castillon,

not
it is

in
in

general allowable,
extensive

any more than

to

transfer

letters

with
(

changed sign

the other side of the

= ).t
p.

* Venn, Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed.

466.
is

Castillon' s

doctrine on this and other questions

examined

in detail in chapter iv.

48
(3)

Symbolic Logic

The
is

last

sign

that need

claim our

attention
( -f )

the one corresponding to the

of the mathematics of quantity.

inverse

Has
of
that

this

process any rightful place in

or
is
it
?

Symbolic

Logic,

a
I

survival

merely historical
for

interest

hold

two reasons the process ought without

to

hesitation
place,

be

retained.

In

the

first

the
at

mental
the
in

exercise

involved
of

in

arriving
is

comprehension
the
is,

what
such

implied

performance
as

of

inverse

operation

Venn
And,

maintains,

of the greatest

utility.
is

in the second

place, the operation

capable of yielding
It

absolutely

reliable

results.

may

be

stated in reply to this that, in the perform-

ance of the so-called logical division,

utilise

we

symbols that are from the logical

standpoint quite meaningless, and that such

a

procedure

is

not warrantable

that,

in

other words,

we

should follow on the lines

laid

which Schroder has

all

down, who makes

But
to be noted that a

intermediate processes intelligible.

in

answer to

this

it

is

Symbols of Operation
calculus
is

49
for

mechanical contrivance

arriving at results that cannot be intuitively

reached.
state

Having given our premises we them in symbolic language, then

manipulate this in accordance with a few

simple logical laws, and so reach our conclusion.

Whether

or not the intermediate

is

results are

intelligible

of no importance
if

whatever.
processes in
is

Thus, even

the intermediate
as

Logic were unintelligible,

the
find

often

affirmed,

inverse
their

operations
in

quite

reasonably

place

the

calculus.

But, as a matter of

fact,

the stages be-

tween the statement of the premises and the arrival at the conclusion are not meaningless.

Certainly Boole

never

attempted

to

assign

them

meaning, but Venn has

all

carefully

examined
that

the

various

forms

that arise as a result of " division," and he

has

shown

they have a perfectly in-

telligible

logical signification.

The words
by
D

of

explanation
as

that

are

given

Mrs.
arise

Bryant

to

how

imaginary

results

50
are

Symbolic Logic
not therefore required in
realm.
is

the strictly

logical

She

says,

"

Whenever
expected
because

subject

reduced to symbolic expression,

results

imaginary
appear,

may

be

to

and

this

happens

the

operations of thought

which the combinof

the
subject-

ing symbols represent extend in application

beyond

the

possibilities

matter." ^

No
all

doubt that sentence throws

light on a difficult question.

But

as Boole's

forms

have

been

assigned
it

strictly

logical explanation
asserted
ligible
tion.

by Venn,

cannot be

that

in

Logic there are unintelbe such but

expressions that call for considera-

There appeared

to

when
was

Boole published his

results,

that

only because he did not perform the task

of explicitly stating the logical significance

of the forms in question.

To
to

reject inverse processes, as does

is

Mrs.

Ladd-Franklin, for instance,

deliberately

throw away

useful instruments for solv-

ing problems.

At the same
ii.

time, she
p.

is

* Proc. Arht. Soc.^ vol.

N.S.

131.

Symbols of Operation
unquestionably correct in showing
portant
is

51

how im-

that interpretation of alternatives

which

will allow of our reaching the con-

tradictory

with

ease.

The most

satisfacis

tory conclusion of the

whole matter

that

which Venn has formed, namely,

as a rule the

to adopt

non-exclusive rendering, so as

to profit

by the simple rule for contradicto

tion

but

change

to

the

exclusive

notation at times, in order that the advantages to be derived

from the employment

of inverse operations

may

not be

lost.

IV.

We

may proceed now

as serviceable

to consider

certain other symbols of operation that have

been suggested

in the expres-

sions of our premises.

When
is

the proposi-

tions to be dealt

with are of the universal

an indefinite

affirmative description there

element
various

involved,

and
for

there

have

been
this.
is

proposals
considers

dealing
the

with
^

Venn
every

that

symbol

in

way

suitable for the purpose of exis

pressing that the subject

contained some-

52

Symbolic Logic
in the predicate.

where
to

The
is

signification

of the symbol

may extend from

1
;

the value
say,

the value

that

to

there
re-

may be no
mise,
or

things existing

which

are

presented by the subject-term of the prethose

things

may

constitute

portion of the universe of discourse, or they

may

be co-extensive with what

is

denoted

by the predicate.

Boole introduced this

symbol into Logic, and with entire appropriateness, since in

Mathematics

^ denotes
is

complete indefiniteness.
consistent
in

But Boole

not

his

use of the symbol, for,

is

though when he
it

dealing with universals

to 1,

means with him anything from

it

he uses

in his representation

of particular
the
sig-

propositions,
nification

and
is

in

their

case

excluded.
to

The same
use
q.

in-

consistency

applies

Boole's

of v,

which

is

merely his alternative for

Leibnitz, to designate the indefiniteness

in question,

employs the equation x=:xy,^

p.
1

* See Venn, Symbolic Logic,

76.

Symbols of Operation
and Jevons
shows, this
prefers
is

53
as
as

this.

But,

Venn
x = ^y.
0, or

precisely the

same
as

For the
Ar(l--)/)

latter

may

be expressed

xy =

=0, or x = xy.

Again, starting with

the form x = xy^ and expressing x in terms

of y only,
get x = ^y.

Le,,

eliminating x trom xy,

we

Other writers,
there
is

in

order to denote
identity

that

not

necessarily

between

the subject and the predicate, but possibly

only subsumption, employ a different form

of expression.

makes use of <, which sign suggests by its form the relation involved. It

For instance, C.

S.

Peirce

may
that

be

said

in

favour
to

of

such

symbols

they

are

nearer

the

predicative

interpretation
course, Keynes,

of

the

proposition.

Of
the

who works with

depart
at
all
i.e.,

the term

"

is,"

does

not

from
his

predication point of view,

is

method
of exit

less

artificial

than any others.

these

As regards
pressing the

various

ways

universal

affirmative,

may

54

Symbolic Logic

be said that, with the exception of Jevons' form, there

is

not

much

difference between

them

in the matter

of suggestiveness and

usefulness.
^

It is quite clear,

however, that
is

must not be employed,

if it

also

to

be

employed
rule

in

representing

particular
as

propositions.
a

Jevons' form
it

had better

be discarded, for

introduces the

thing defined into the definition.

It is

to be noticed that, if for the uni-

versal affirmative

we

accept the symbolism

the

of

Venn and
is

Boole,
to

import of
as

this

proposition

be

regarded

of

negative character.
universal
terpreted.

The import
is

of this
in-

negative

to

be

similarly

The

positive

^ = qJ^ and
is

the
to

negative
say, to

^ = 7.y are equivalent, that

and xy =
of
this

xy =

respectively.

The
made
is,

significance

negative

rendering
first

was

realised

by Boole, but was

conspicuous in the writings of Venn.

as

To denote equivalence the symbol ( = we have seen, often used. It is to

be

Symbols of Operation

55

observed that this represents equivalence of

results,

not
has

of operations.

think Mrs.
fact

Bryant
clearly

brought

out
else.

this

than any one

more She makes it

very evident that the signs +,

represent
result.*

x,

-^,

the

operation

and

denote

the

Once
premises

more,
it
is

in

the

statement

of

the

frequently necessary to

make

use of the bracket.

at

Every system has need

times for the bracket. f

Even Keynes

here makes use of a symbol of operation,

as,

for

instance,

in

his

statement of the

Law
to
scale,

of Distribution.!
in

Boole v^as the

first

employ brackets

Logic on an extensive

but the use of the bracket in logical

work was not uncommon among earlier writers. For instance, Lambert employs
it,

especially

in

his

Logische

und
the

Philoso-

phische Abhandlungen^ and Castillon realises

its

force

in

his

essays

before

Berlin

Academy.
* See
p.

36.

f Mind, N.S. No. I, pp. 4, 5. I Formal Logic, 3r(l ed. p. 385.

56

Symbolic Logic

V.

We

have discussed the best methods

premises where
it

of symbolizing
universals.

these

are
to

But

may be

that

we have

deal with particulars.

stated
for
?

How

are these to be

And
It

to

whom
more

are

we

indebted
stating

suggesting the best

?

method of
than
in

them

has

once

been
the
says

attempted to

express

them

much

same way

as

universals.

Thus Boole

that the particular

may
vy.

be represented by

the equation v x

=:

Here there appears

ex-

to be an identity resembling such an

pression

as

y.

Similarly Jevons says

we may

adopt the form

AB =

AC.

But

clearly Boole cannot introduce such expres-

sions to a treatment resembling that

which

he employs when dealing with universals,

for

in the case of particulars

is

made by
Jevons*

him
in

to exclude the value 0.

And

rendering supposes that the

members found
of

both B and
than

have more attributes in

one
being
such

common

the

Symbols of Operation

57
is

common members,
not
justifiable.^'

and

this supposition

The
is

best

way of

dealing with particulars

in

that

expounded by Venn
work, namely,
that
are
to

both editions
these

of his

take

pro-

positions as denoting the existence

of in-

dividuals
classes.

found in
edition

each of two

In his

first

he took the

symbol v

to designate this existence, so that

the particular appeared as xy

v.

In the

second edition he employs sometimes a form of symbolic procedure closely resembling

that proposed

by Mrs. Ladd-FrankHn
Studies.

in

the Johns
sent

Hopkins
is

Thus

to

repre0,
i.e.,

"some X
procedure

jk"

he writes xy >

xy

is

not nothing.
is

own

Mrs. Ladd-Franklin's She prethe following.

ferred to discard the

symbol
this

0,

and to retain

only the symbol

viz.,

for
as

denoting everything,
occurred in every

00.

Then
it

proposition
to say "all

might be neglected.
is

Thus
xyy.j"

y'' she
is

wrote xy v, and to
she wrote
p.

denote

"some x

y"

* Venn, Symbolic Logic,

392.

I Johns Hopkins

Studies in Logic, p. 25.

58

Symbolic Logic
00
is

Here
plete
is

understood on the right of the

is

copula,

which

complete or an incomas

wedge according
or
originality

the proposition

universal

particular.

Mrs.
regard

Laddto

Franklin's

with

the

treatment of particular propositions consists

not in the fact that she represented these
as

denoting " something/' for such an interpretation

had already been suggested by

in her

Venn, but

attempt to grapple with

the problem of dealing with particulars in

a general

manner.

formula that
as

Her aim was to give would deal with them with

as

much

ease

the formulae that

deal

Boole
these.

proposed for

universals

with

But though she

of the

realised the full significance

difficulties,

and

attempted to sursaid

mount them, she cannot be succeeded in the attempt. As

elimination
volves error.
in

to

have

will presently

be shown, the formula that she proposed for

the case of particulars
insaid,

Venn,
to

it

may

then be
the

was the

first

recognise

existential

character of particulars, while Mrs. Ladd-

Symbols of Operation

59

Franklin devised a very convenient notation

for

expressing,

and

in

some

respects

for

dealing with such propositions, but she did

not succeed in presenting a general treat-

ment of the

subject.

VI. But, supposing, in the next place,

that the premises are not stated in categorical

form, and appear

as

hypotheticals or dis-

junctives, the question arises if they can be

expressed in symbolic language.

Venn was

undoubtedly the
at
all

first

symbolist

who went

fully into

this question.

He

main-

tained

that

hypotheticals and
difficulty

disjunctives

may without
bolically,

be expressed symregarded
as

for
a

they are to be
certain

denoting

amount of compart-

mental destruction.
interested
in

The
causes

symbolist
that
led

is

not
the

the

to

formation

of these
is

types

of propositions.

He

does not, that

to say,

emphasize the

which the individual stands to the environment, and which lead to the
relations in

utterance of the hypothetical or the

dis-

6o
junctive.

Symbolic Logic

As

in

the case of categoricals

the only information that

as

we

here get

is

what compartments are destroyed, what are saved, and what cannot be said
to

either

to

be

destroyed

or

to

be

saved.

Venn

goes carefully into the consideration

of the three kinds of hypothetical, those

involving

two,

three,
in

and

four

elements

respectively,

and

each case he determines

what

effect

the proposition has upon the

compartmental scheme.
ing to Venn,
it

In short, accord-

makes no difference whether

the premises are stated in categorical, disjunctive, or hypothetical form.

But Mr. Johnson

subject has
is

in his discussion of this

shown

that Venn's investigation

not exhaustive, and that to stay at the

point reached by
in error.

In the

Venn would involve us first place, Mr. Johnson

in the case

distinguishes between conditionals and pure

hypothetical. '^

For one thing,

of the former, but not in the case of the

latter,

an

equivalent

categorical
1, p.

may

be

* Mind, N.S. No.

17.

Symbols of Operation

6i

obtained whose subject and predicate corre-

spond respectively
consequent.*

to
is

the
to

hypothesis
say,

and

That
refer to

when we
of
a

have conditionals, the hypothesis and the

consequent
certain or
in

cases

phenomenon
in a

in

time

space,

while

pure hypothetical

we have

presented

an implication between two propositions of

independent import.

But, further, the pure

at

hypothetical receives minute examination

Mr. Johnson's hands, and he demonstrates

that there
is

no equivalence of any kind

between

this proposition

and

a categorical,

except in one particular case, namely, where

there
ticular cases
it
is

universal antecedent and a par-

consequent.

In

the

other

three

can only be said that a categorical

or that
it
is

implies,

implied by, a pure

these

hypothetical.f
it is

From
class

considerations

clear, therefore, that

Venn and Boole

for their prop.

cannot in their

Logic deal generally

with the pure hypothetical,

* Keynes, Formal Logic, 3rd ed.

f

213.

Mind, N.S. No.

2, p.

242.

62
cedure
is

Symbolic Logic
to
as

express

the

premises
in

of an

argument
denoted

though these
relationship.

every case

class

But

if

we

follow the course adopted by certain other

logicians
for

instance

MacColl, Johnson, and and allow symbols

rather

Russell,
to repre-

sent

propositions

than

classes,

the

pure

hypothetical
It
is

can

receive

adequate

treatment.
asserts ^

to be

noted that Keynes

that,

though

pure
as

hypothetical
in

cannot

be
the

expressed
subject

categoricals,

which
spond

and
to

predicate

corre-

respectively
it
is

the hypothesis
to

and
turn

consequent,

always possible

the former propositions into categoricals of

some

sort or other.
is

But
as
it

if

Mr. Johnson's
is,

analysis

correct,

certainly

this
:

statement of Keynes cannot be accepted

* Forma/ Logic, 2nd
this ed.,

note on

p.

165.

Keynes omits
refer

note in the third

edition,

where he does not

to

the question whether the hypothetical

as a categorical of

may always

be expressed

some kind or

other.
to

He

restricts

himself to

the remark

(p.

213)

that reduction

a categorical

"is not

possible at all (with terms corresponding to the original antece-

dent and consequent) in the case of hypotheticals.'*

Symbols of Operation
the

63
not
in

change

may

sometimes,

but

every case, be effected.

Where
tion
it is

the premises contain a disjunc-

important

to

observe

whether

this occurs in the subject or in the predicate.

Venn, Keynes, and Schroder

to
this

all

call

attention true

point.

Only
in

is

there a

disjunctive
is

proposition

when

the

disjunction

found

the

predicate.

"
"

or

B
B

is

or

D," therefore, means

of them)
is

and

(each

either

or

D."

CHAPTER

III
-

THE PROCESS OF SOLUTION

I.

(i)

Analytical

Method,

Having
way
that

then stated our premises in the

has been described, the question next arises

as

to the best

method of proceeding with

expressions.

our symbolic
to

Our

object

is

determine
letters,

what
or

is

said
a

about

one of
of

the

about

combination

them, in terms of the remaining

or of a
tions

letters,

portion of them.

The
some
be

proposi-

must
so

obviously
that
it

in

way

be

combined,
is

may
force

seen

what
the

the

totality

of the

they possess.
all

Boole would proceed to bring over terms to the left-hand

zero.
side,

and equate to

Then,
is

if in

each case the left-hand

is

member
square,

an expression that

equal to

its

all

such

members may be added

64

together, and the result be put equal to 0.

The
But, should
left-hand

Process of Solution
it

65
a

happen
is

in

any case that

its

member

not equal to

square,

the process of squaring must be performed

before the terms are added to those of the

other equations.
class

We
is

thus obtain a single

expression that

equal to zero.
to
is

The
in

squaring just

referred

necessary

order to obtain co-efficients that are positive,

for

only in this case will the same con-

stituents

appear in the resulting equation

that occurred in the separate equations.^

The

characteristic
is

method of Venn, on
Suppos-

the other hand,

the following.

ing the premise appears in the form x = ^y,

he

restricts

the left-hand

member by

the

contradictory of ^, and then equates to zero.

In the case of

x=y

it

is

necessary both to

do

this

and

to

equate to zero the result of

y by the contradictory of x. addition of these two equations is

restricting

The
a
full
i.e.,

statement

of the

information

given,

each of the left-hand members being equal

to 0, the

sum

of them will also equal

viii.

0.

* Laivs of Thought^ chap.

props. 2 and 3.

66

Symbolic Logic
to universals only.
it

This applies, of course,

With

regard

to

particulars

has

been

shown above
rules in their

that Boole cannot utilise his

behalf.

Venn, however,

by-

them as denoting existence, is He able to express them in relation to 0. can show not only what compartments the universals destroy, but what compartments Venn thus shows an the particulars save.
interpreting

advance upon Boole both in dealing with

universals
in
a

simpler

manner,

and in

bringing

out

the full

force

of particular

propositions.

The

process of manipulating

the symit

bolized premises having thus begun,

will

be well to mention here two formulae that

are sometimes useful in effecting a simplification.

One

of

them

is

due

to
is

Boole
given

and the other to Peirce.

Boole's

among his methods of abbreviation, and is (A + x) (B + x) = AB X. The one for which we are indebted to Peirce is as follows {A+x){B+x)=Ax-{-Bx,^
-{:

* See Venn, Symbolic Logic, pp. 69, 70.

The
It

Process of Solution

67

may

be well also to call attention to

the advantages

which Schroder's methods of

In the

solution have over those of Boole.

Operationskreis^

and with more elaboration in

is

the Vorlesungen^ Schroder

careful to take

no step that
grounds.
intelligible.

is

not justifiable on purely logical

All his intermediate processes are

Jevons was going too far in stating that Boole's methods were " fundamentally false," * for Venn has pointed out
that

they are

justifiable,

but

their justifia

cation requires

good deal more than

simple act of intuition.

Boole, for instance,

applied his rule of development to fractional

forms, and
it is

quite true that the results of

that application
definite

may
a

be shown to have a
too,

meaning,

meaning,

which the

symbols employed

may
is

be said to suggest.

But the suggestion

mediate.
It

by no means im-

needed Venn's careful analysis

to bring to light the logical

meaning underof Boole

lying these symbols.

The forms

did not suggest to Jevons their logical in* The Principles of Science,
p.

113.

68

Symbolic Logic
they suggest this at the
that

terpretation, but

present day,

now

Venn

has gone ex-

haustively into the subject.

In

the case of Schroder, on the other

is

hand, each step

this

intuitively obvious,
its
is

and

obviousness

has

advantages.

For

one thing, the beginner

saved the labour

is

though

this

salvation

by no means

altogether an

advantage

that

would have

to be spent in tracing out the admissibility

of the various steps in the solution.

The
the

one method
other,

is

as logically intelligible as
is

but

there

more

for

the

under-

standing to do in the one case than in the

other, in order to grasp the significance of

the

process.*

Another
is

point
his

in

which
are

Schroder excels
*
I

that

solutions

think that

Adamson

hardly states the case correctly

in

when he says that " the superiority

logical intelligibility
p.

of

Schroder's solution must be admitted" {Mindy No. x.

254),
inter-

His remark, moreover, seems to suggest that

mediate processes
is

all

the
;

in a solution ought to
is

be intelligible

but this

not 80, because a calculus

means of reaching correct

few

conclusions by means of the

logical rules,

mechanical application of a

and

it

is

quite possible that in the application of

such rules unintelligible elements

may

temporarily appear.

The
effected

Process of Solution

69

with more compactness.

Judging

the two symbolists by the

number of Hnes
is

or pages that they occupy in the solution of

the same problem, there

certainly little

difference to be noted in this respect,^ and

it

was probably from such an examination

that

Adamson was

led

to

state

that

it

is

doubtful whether Schroder's methods are so

much more compact

the whole,
I

than Boole's.

But on

think, Schroder in this matter

shows an advance upon Boole, while Keynes'

methods, which in

many

respects resemble

Schroder's, are neatness

itself.

When
to zero,

the equations have been put into

the form of a single

it
is

sum

of terms equated

possible

to eliminate

one or
in the

more
result.

letters

which
first

are not

wanted
to

The

writer

show

how

elimination in these complicated problems

may
is

be effected was Boole.

He
the

gave the

well-known
to
*

formula /(l)/(0)=0.

That

say,

he

developed
;

expression

Laws

of Thought, pp. 146- 1 49

Der

Operations krets des

Logikkalkulsy pp. 25-28.

70
with respect
and
then

Symbolic Logic
to the

term

to

be eliminated,
the
its

multipHed

together

co-

efficient

of the term and that of

conthe

tradictory.

He

also

showed
to

that

formula

may
is

be extended

the case of

the elimination of two or

This

undoubtedly

more terms. one method

of

eliminating,

and one that

may

frequently

be employed.
it
is

But
only
to

it

is

to be

noted that
that
it

not

the

method,

and

applies

only

universals.

Venn

and

Schroder
for

have

described
this

other

methods
Schroder

dealing with

problem.

points out that, the equation having been

expressed
zero,
a

as

sum
take

of terms
the

equated

to

we may letter if we
contain

obtain
all

elimination

of

the terms that do

not

the

letter,

and

to

them add
in-

those

which when taken together do not

it.

volve
that

In the expression A;^ +

to
say,

B^ + C = 0,
of x
will

is

the elimination

be given by

AB + C = 0.
may
all

And Venn shows

how

elimination

be effected without

bringing over

the terms to the left-hand

The
side.

Process of Solution
for

71

When,
as

instance,

such an equais

tion

njD=xyz
to

+ xyx + xyz
j,

given, and
is

we want
to

eHminate
the

what we do
symbol
^

substitute

indefinite

for

y and y
It
is

in the equation.

important to observe that in deal-

ing with the problem of elimination the

amount of work required in carrying out the method of Boole is greater than that
involved
if

we

follow

Schroder.
it is

In

the

case of the earlier logician

to develop

necessary
left

the expression on the

to the letters to

hand

with regard

be eliminated,

but in Schroder's method those terms that

are
free

from the
set

letters
at

to be eliminated

may
the
fact,

be

down
result.

once

as

part

of of

required

As

matter

however,

Boole,

though

he

does

not in his statement of the rule mention

this

simplification,

avails

himself of
to

the

shorter

method when he comes

work
Laws

examples.^
* See the problem
of Thought^ and his
at

the bottom of p.

144

in

the

mode

of eliminating a.


7^
Symbolic Logic

Coming now
the process
rectly described

to

the case of particulars,

of elimination

was

first

cor-

by Venn.

He

shows that

the elimination of x from the inequation

A;c'4-B^

+ C>0
in

can only yield

A + B + C>0,

and that

more general symbolic language

appear asy(l) y^(0)>0.
suppose
that

this result

may

And
premises

lastly,
is

one
is

of

the

universal,

and one

particular.

Venn

also

shows

effected in this

how elimination may be From DAr + E^ + F = case.

j?

and AAr+B^ + C>0, since

is

and x

is

D,

we may substitute in the inequation and This, together with get AD + BE + C>0. DE + F = from the universal, gives the elimination of x. And Venn here too
states in general

form the method of dealing

of
elimination.
:

with the

problem

His

formula appears

as follows

/(l)/(0) =
I

<^(l)./(l) + <^(0)./(0)>0.*

Another

formula,
is

one which

may

be
his

* Evidently there

a misprint in

Venn's statement of

formula: instead of/(l) he ha8/(;). (Symbolic Logic ^^. ^SS.)


The
shown
to

Process of Solution
this,

73

be equivalent to

has been

suggested by Mr. Johnson in an examination question in the

Moral
as

Science
:

Tripos,^

This formula runs

thing
is

follows

If every</>(Ar),

f(x) and something elimination of x is given by

f

is

the

Everything

is
is

/( 1 )

or

/(O),
or </)(0)/(0).

Something

^(l)/(l)

This problem of dealing with elimination,

when
and

there

is

combination of universals

particulars,

had been attacked by Mrs.

She says "
the

Ladd-Franklin, but in her statement of the

rule she

made

a mistake.

if

premises include an alternation of particular

propositions, the conclusion consists of the
partial inclusion of the total co-efficient of

in

the

particular

propositions

by the

negative of that of x in the universal propositions, tions

added to the included combinaare

free

which
a

from x

as

given." f

Such

rule

would lead us when dealing

University

* Cambridge
p.

Examination
Logic j

Papers,

vol.

xvi.

536.
j-

Johns Hopkins Studies

in

p.

45.

74
with
the

Symbolic Logic
equation

Aat+B^ + Cv and the inequation E^r + Fi^ + Gv to the conclusion EA + C G V But here we have evidently committed error, for we have concluded
.

that

C
it

is

something, whereas in the unito be nothing.^

versal

was declared

In tracing to their sources and criticizing the methods that have been suggested
for the performance of the process of elimi-

nation,

it

has been

necessary

to

refer

to

the question of development or expansion.

This question has been adequately discussed

by

all

three of the logicians

who
The

have done
/.^.,

most

for the earlier

Symbolic Logic,
last

by

Boole, Venn, and Schroder.

of the

three was,

I believe,

the

first

to give a geo-

metrical justification of the process,t but

the analytical treatment of the subject was

well treated by Boole at the outset.
in
It

was

the

Laws

of Thought that

the

now

well-known formula f{x) = f(\)x + f{Qi)x first appeared. A companion formula to

* See the
j"

critical notice in

Mind for

October, 1883.
p.

Der

Operatlonskreis des Logikkalkuls,

I4.

The
this

Process of Solution

75
viz.^

has

been proposed

by

Peirce,

f{x) = {f{l)-\-x}{f{())+x}.

This formula
prefer
to

may
the

be

used

when we
as

have

development

product

of

sums

rather than as a

sum

of products.^

In order to bring out one or two other

points

where

later

logicians
it

show an imbe
well
to

provement on Boole,
describe

may

somewhat

fully

one of his solutions.

is

We

may

take the problem that

worked

out on pages 138 and 139 of the

Thought,

Laws of

In the

first

place,

he put the

premises in the form ^^ = 0, ^2 = ^' ^^^ ^^

on,
i.e.^

in

each case he brought over with

all

changed signs

terms that were originally

on the right-hand side of the symbol of

equality.

These equations were then added

case he squared before performing

together, unless V^ or Fg needed squaring,

in

which
to

the

process

of addition.

His next step

eliminations,

was

make any
p.

necessary
388
is

* See Venn, Symb. Log.

Peirce in the Amtr. Journ. of

is

Math.

vol.

iii.

p. 38.

In Peirce's formula /(qc)

used in-

stead of

/(I), but the meaning

the same as that of

/(I).

76
and to
the

Symbolic Logic
effect these

he proceeded
with

to develop

resulting

equation

reference

to

the letter or letters about

tion

which informa-

was not required

the desired elimi-

nation was obtained either by multiplying

together the resulting co-efficients, or by

constructing the equation

Ey + E^l-y) =0,
the
letter

where
the

is

derived by changing into 1 in

original

equation
is

about
then

which

information
the

asked,

and

eliminating

letters

not

required,

and

the where E^ comes from changing into same letter, and making the same elimination.

We

thus

arrive

at

an

equation

from which, by means of the application

of the principle of expansion to fractional
forms,

the

desired

information

may
there

be

obtained.

In

this

process

of

solution

are

several drawbacks,

which the more modern

to

methods
already

are

able

avoid.

We
of

have
elimi-

noticed

certain
are

modes

nating

which

sometimes

more

con-

venient than that proposed by Boole.

The

The
necessity

Process of Solution

"j^

of squaring

may

be escaped by
left-

adopting Venn's plan of restricting the

hand member by the contradictory of the

right
-

hand

member,
easier

and

equating

the

result to zero.

Sometimes, again,
than
the

a resort

to

diagrams

is

plan

laid

down by

Boole,

who, strange

to say, never

appeals in his

work to a diagram. And, once more, when in the course of our

solution

we

arrive at a fractional expression

with a complicated numerator and denominator,

we may,

so

long

as real class
^-

terms are

involved, employ the formula

= xy -\--^xy^
from
of

and thus avoid the

the 1 and

liability

to error

substitution.

The

fact

that

there

is

abundance

opportunity of falling into mistakes on the

Boolian plan of making this substitution
needs perhaps but
little

emphasis.

Those

who
by
ing

have worked through several examples

his

method

will fully realise the liability.

fall-

Boole himself has not always escaped

into

mistake.

His

solution,

for

in-

78

Symbolic Logic

stance, for ^(1

/) on

p.

145 of the

Laws
easily

of Thought

is

certainly wrong, as

may

be shown by working the problem in two

or three of the available ways.

The answer
But,

should
Boole's

be

irn+~{ir + i).
is

though

method
over

long,

it

has one

marked
later

advantage
logicians.
cess

those
is

proposed by

That

to say,

when
at

the pro-

that

he describes has

last

been

completed, the who/e solution that can be

asked for with
certain
letters

regard to the relation of

to

certain

others has been

p.

obtained.

For instance, on

397 of

his

Symbolic Logic^

Venn

reaches a conclusion
this

xz =

00
ac
-)r

- dc.
is

Now

?ives ^

assur-

ance that xz

found somewhere within

tell

ac or dc^ but does not

or dc
is

us

whether ac

more extensive than xz. To find out whether this is so, two operations, by which information similar to that concerning xz was obtained, would have
to

be performed.

But,

when Boole had

once worked out the conclusion concerning

The
xz, there

Process of Solution
in

79

would be no doubt

what way

the constituents of the other

member ought
upon the
appears as

to be expressed in terms of xz, for the coefficient 1 or ^

would be

decisive

point.

In other words,

when

a co-efficient in Venn's solution, the question

sibly
arises

whether the symbol may pos1,

be equal to
is
is

and a new piece of

order
to

work
if

necessary in
so
;

determine

this

but,

when

the

symbol

is

found

at the

conclusion of Boole's process,

arises, for if a

no such doubt

term

is

there

to have the co-efficient 1

this fact will

be

brought out in the original solution. When the method referred to above of
obtaining
all

the

denials

is

employed,

it

will as a rule
set

be necessary to combine a

of terms
set

with

the

contradictory

of

another
able
to

of terms.
a

Hence
a

it

is

desir-

have

simple
of

means of finding
complicated
ex-

the

contradictory

pression.

to

Here De Morgan was the first His rule, exmake the way plain.

8o

Symbolic Logic
is

tended by Venn,

as follows

For every

elementary term substitute the contradictory, interchanging at

the same time the

symbols

of
is

addition

and

multiplication.

This
p.
1

rule
8

mentioned by Schroder on
Operations kreis^ but he
It is also

of the

does

not refer to

De Morgan.

given,
that

without

employment of

expressions

imply

symbols

of operation,

by Keynes,

who alludes to this early work of Schroder. He To this rule Venn adds another.
up the expression to be contradicted into the form A;c + B;?, and then congathers
tradicts

and B, thus arriving

is

at A^c

+ BJc.

This procedure
than applying

often a simpler one either

De Morgan's rule, or than fully

expanding the original expression, and then

finding the contradictory on the principle
that the contradictory of
(2)
at

is

at.

Diagrammatic

Method,

We
in

have

now somewhat
fications

fully discussed

the simplithe

that

have

been

effected

analytical

methods of solving complicated

problems.

We

have

next

to

remark

The
that

Process of Solution

8i

pari

passu
a

with

this

simplification
in

there has gone

marked advance

the

employment of diagrams, both

of solution.
Boole, as

for the pur-

pose of representation and for the purpose

we

noticed above,

never appealed to diagrams.

The

Eulerian

method is entirely unsuitable in the case indeed, not is, of complex propositions Dr. Keynes has accurate for simple ones.

shown the
diagrams,

unsuitability

of the
has
is

Eulerian
a

and

himself

employed
quite

diagrammatic method that

rate.

accu-

But Keynes' procedure, though accuis

rate,

much

too

cumbrous

to be

of any

use

except in the case of propositions of

the very simplest description.

Venn
invent
tation limits
a

set

himself

as

one of his tasks to

represen-

suitable

diagrammatic

of propositions, and within certain

he was very

successful.

He

sug-

gested the intersection of circles, ellipses, or

other closed figures to denote compartments,

some of which
the
premises.

are destroyed or saved

by

This plan works well up

82
to
for
five

Symbolic Logic
terms, and
terms.
it
it

is

possible to use

it

six

Theoretically, though

not

practically,

may

also

be

used

for

any

number of terms. It was left for Dr. Marquand to suggest an elegant method
of
dealing

diagrammatically

with

those

cases that involve a very large

number of
terms,
for

terms.

In

the

case

of seven

instance, he forms sixteen rows of squares,

eight deep.

The rows
These
and
^,

are alternately (say) off in

pairs,

d and which
pairs h pairs

d.

are
f,

marked

are c

such pairs into other

and

and these, again, into the

a and

a.

Then

those

squares

that

constitute the depth of the figure

may

be

marked
letters

off similarly

with reference to the

J j/, xx^ and %%,

for

diagram on

this

plan

even

ten

terms

would

occupy

only a page.

As we remarked
in the solution
is

few pages back,

dia-

grams may sometimes be made of service

of direct problems.
the problem
is

Such

the case
a

when

to

show

that

certain

compartment has been en-

The
tirely

Process of Solution

83

erased.

diagram constructed
at

on

Venn's plan decides

premises

once whether the

such
is

have

effected

an

erasion.

And, where the problem

mination,

one

of

eli-

Dr.
is

Marquand's
in

diagrammatic
reaching
_y,

method
desired

serviceable

the
for

conclusion.

To
is

eliminate

instance, in the
all

problem with seven terms,

to take those

that

is

necessary

groups

which involve any of the four

and
j?,

pairs of

y
be

add
the

such

groups
to

together,
It

and

equate

sum

zero.*
if

may

remarked, however, that,

we

adopt Dr.

Marquand's diagrammatic scheme, the process of effecting the erasions

is

rather a slow
that

one.

This

arises

from the

fact

the

squares to be erased by each section of the

premises do not

lie

together.

But, though diagrams are to this extent

of service, direct problems are

as

rule

much more
methods.

expeditiously

worked by literal diagram takes some time to

construct, and often

when completed
p.

does

* Venn, Symbolic Lo^ic,

374.

84
not yield at
require.

Symbolic Logic
all

easily the information

we
re-

In

fact, if
is

the symbolist employs

diagrams, he

guilty of a

somewhat

trograde movement.
figure

For

in the case of a

we have

to a certain extent to think

out the answer, whereas a genuine calculus

supplies us with a mechanical

contrivance

by which
by

results

may

be reached with no
is

other thought than that which

a person

required

who
it

manipulates a machine.'^

On

the whole

must be

said

that,

with

the exception of the two cases above

men-

tioned, diagrams in relation to the solution

of direct problems are mainly of interest

as

giving

pictorial

representation

of

conclusions

that

have

been

reached

by

the analytical method.

II.

So

far

we have
mentioned

considered

the

method of finding the

letter or letters,

description

of

in the premises,

in

terms of

all

or of certain only of the

remaining

letters.

But there
vol.
i.

is

also

the

* M'lnd, N.S.

p. 3.

The
direct

Process of Solution

85

inverse problem, and, as in the case of the

problem,
the

there
that

have

been

here,

during
has

period
studied,

Symbolic

Logic

been

many

improvements
for

suggested
solution.

in

the

methods

effecting

Boole does not attempt to deal v^ith the

Inverse Problem.

Jevons realised w^hat

is

the nature of the problem, but he did not

suggest any general

method of obtaining He drev^ up a table w^hich a solution. applies to three terms, and he shov^ed what
types

of proposition will result in the given

destructions.^

But he does not demonstrate

at

how

to

arrive

proposition

that will

occasion the destructions, and he does not

attempt to deal with more than three terms.

was one of the important contributions of Keynes to the development of Symbolic Logic to suggest three methods by which
It

a solution to this problem can always be

obtained.

As Venn
is

points out,

it

cannot be

said that there

* The

one and only one solution

Principles of Science^ p. I40.

86

Symbolic Logic
;

of these problems

in

other words, each

of several solutions will occasion the given

destructions.
are saved,

Keynes discovers what terms

form
" Everything

and then he throws the proposi:

tion into the

is

or

or

Z
or

or

W," where
is

these letters represent

is

complex terms.

Hence " What

or Y."

not either

Z
is

Then,

if

the subject

thrown

into the affirmative form, a series

of simple propositions

may

be obtained that

are together equivalent to the original proposition.

Another method
of
:

is

to

employ
the
."

the

process

obversion
" Nothing

and
is
.

reach
.

negative

form

This

proposition then splits up immediately into

a
set

of
is

simple

propositions.

third

method
(say)

to put the proposition into the

is
.

form " Everything

the

."

Then
"^
is

select

and the a members, and form

two

propositions, "

is

.,''

."
. .

Next, in both cases take the B and b

bers, so obtaining four propositions.

memAnd

so

proceed until the propositions have no

disjunctives in the predicate.

The

Process of Solution

87

A
third

fourth

method of dealing with the

is

inverse problem

suggested by Schroder's
his

corollary to

36th

Proposition,*
negation.

namely,

the

method of double
to

This amounts

taking
to 1,

the

saved

terms

and equating them

both
sides

then contradicting

and getting an expression, comis

posed of factors, which

expression

equal to 0.

This
out.

may

then

be

multiplied

Then,

if

both

sides are contradicted again,

there will be another expression

composed
factor

of factors

equal

to

1.

Each
1,

will

consequently be equal to
at

and

we

arrive

series
is

of simple propositions.
given
it

This

rule

not

in

so

many words by

Schroder, but

follows immediately from

the above-mentioned corollary.

considerable advance in simplicity in

connexion

with

this

part

of the

subject

was made when Mr. Johnson showed

Keynes' third method
a

how

may

be employed in

semi-diagrammatic manner.
of
all

Mr. Johnson
by a process

first

shows clearly

that,

* Forlesungen, pp. 356-357.

88

Symbolic Logic
Inverse

of multiplying out, the

Problem

may

be solved by a direct process, and that

not, as Jevons

w^e are

maintained

we

are,

here limited to a series of guesses.

process of multiplying out
is

But the

long, and the

if

same

solution

may

be

obtained

we
to

" represent and by horizontal juxtaposition^ and

or by vertical juxtaposition T *
say,

That

is

commencing with
finds

the given expression,

are equated
at

Mr. Johnson
to unity.

what terms
and

He

then takes two lines

lets
a.

right

angles

to

one another,

opposite

squares represent (say) a and

these
similar

Each of
into
letters

regions

may

then

be

divided

portions to represent other

so

and their contradictories, and

proceed
suitable
until
all

we may
their

the

letters
if the

find

place.

Then,
such

columns are
multiplied

read downwards, and the letters joined by

-f,

and

if

all

sums

are

together,

an

expression

will

be

reached

equal to the original one.

Hence each one

is

of the factors of this product

* Mind, N.S. No.
3, p.

equal to 1,

350.

The
obtained.

Process of Solution
at

89
once

and thus simple propositions are

consists in his perceiving that the

Mr. Johnson's originahty here

formula

{ac-^dd)
in
a
this

{a

+ d){d-\-c)
way,

could be expressed

useful

and

in

showing

in

particularly convincing
error
consists

manner wherein
identifying

Jevons'

in

In-

duction with the

fact that this

Inverse

Problem.

The
a

problem can be solved by was

also

direct process
in

made very

evident

Mr. Johnson's discussion, but of course Keynes had already practically settled this matter when he proposed the three methods
of solution given above.
It will

be noticed that at the end of Mr.

is

Johnson's solution there

that if the product
is

an
1,
1.

assumption
then each of

equal to

the factors

is is

also

equal to

That
is

this

assumption
clear

perfectly justifiable

made
Studies

by reference

to one of the truths that

was established
have "All x

in the

Johns Hopkins

by Dr. Mitchell.*
is ^^

He showed
"

that if
is

we
i.e.,

and "All y

a:,"

* See Venn's detailed

critical notice in

Mind, October, 1883.

go
xy =

Symbolic Logic
and xy =

of these
as

compound expression propositions may be given just

0, the

well

by

{xy
0.

+ xy + xy) {xy

-\-

xy + xy) = 1
first

as

by xy + xy =
that
is

He

was the

logician,

to say, to bring out the fact that the

process of multipUcation in the former case

is

equivalent to the process of addition in

latter.

the

Obviously,
the
separate

therefore,

to

get

back

to

statement
for

of

the

premises

as

equations, with
it

one of

the members,

is

necessary that each of

{xy
-\-

the factors

{xy

+ xy + xy) and
1.

xy -\- xy)

should be equal to

CHAPTER

IV

CONCERNING A CALCULUS BASED ON

INTENSION*
In
the
critical

history,

which we
earlier

have

now

concluded,

of the

Symbolic
to

Logic,

we have

had

occasion

note

one point on which

logicians

have been

separated into well-marked divisions, viz.,

the

point

as

to

whether symbols should

be

primarily

or

exclusively
or
to
after

employed

to

denote

classes

denote

propositions.

Boole, and

Venn

him, used symbols

primarily to denote classes or individuals,

and secondarily
*

to
"

stand for propositions.

based on Intension " I
rather

By
a

the expression

a Calculus

mean

Logic based on

attributes

than

on

classes.

The
in

term " intension " here is used in a general sense, not Keynes' special sense of attributes "mentally associated" On the other hand, " connotation " and " comwith a name.
prehension

" throughout
to

this

chapter are taken in the sense that

91

Keynes has assigned

them.

92

Symbolic Logic

Schroder and the contributors to the Johns

Hopkins
on
the

Studies

have advanced the subject

same Hues.

Mr. Johnson

in

his

presentation of the Calculus has used symbols in the first place to denote unanalyzed

propositions,
treats

and,

subsequently,

v^hen

he

of the synthesis of singly-quantified

and of multiply-quantified propositions that

follows their analysis,

he points out that

predications obey the same laws that were

originally
ficient

enumerated
the

as

necessary and suf-

for

synthesis
is

of

unanalyzed

propositions.

That

to

say,

symbols

here stand primarily for propositions

secondarily for terms.

and
also

Mr. MacColl
classes

holds that propositions and implication are

more fundamental than

and inclusion.^

We
ment
:

have

now
all

to take note of a subject

on which
should

all

these logicians are in agree-

they

hold that Symbolic Logic

extensive
I

adopt

an

interpretation

of the proposition.
* Mind, No. 17,
Mathematics y
p.

think they are unB. Russell, The Principles of

pp. 49, 51

I2.

On a Calculus Based
doubtedly
but
the
correct
in

on Intension
this

93

holding
is

view,

matter,
calls

which
for
I

one

of great

importance,

careful
shall

argument.

In the present chapter

to

endeavour

prove that labour

is

not wisely spent

a

in

attempting to elaborate
lines.

calculus on

intensive
will

be

to

take

method of proof the work of the most

My

consistent

logician

who

has
/.f.,

proceeded
Castillon,

from the intensive standpoint,

and to show in
he
fell

detail the errors into

which

in constructing the various portions

It will

of his symbolic structure.

evident,
I

become

think,

as

the investigation ad-

vances, that a calculus cannot be elaborated

on the

lines

he laid down.

Then, having
lie,

demonstrated where his errors

shall

refer to the treatment of the subject given

by Venn, with whose conclusions

in agreement, viz.^ that,

am
are

when we

confine

our

attention

to

the

attributes

that

commonly denoted by
based on intension
is

the name, a calculus

impossible, but that,

when we

take all the attributes

common

to

94
the

Symbolic Logic

members of the
and

class,* it

is

possible to

reach a calculus, but that this would be unnecessarily long

say,
artificial.

That
above

is

to

the

logicians

mentioned

will

be shown to have advanced in the right

direction,

inasmuch
is

as

failure

or unnecesin

sary

difficulty

to

be

met with

the

attempt to work

out

problems by

refer-

ence to nothing but attributes.

I.

Of

the

various

logicians,

whose
perhaps
is

work
of

is

based on an intensive interpretation

proposition,

the

Lambert
out

is

the most distinguished, but Castillon

the
this

only thinker who, setting

from
Sur

point of view, has attempted to be rigorously

consistent.

The memoir,
logique^

un

nouvel

algorithme

which

Castillon
in 1803,

presented to the Berlin

is

Academy
a

in

many
the

respects

remarkable

pro-

duction.
that
to

In connexion with the attempt

writer
the

made

to

utilise

symbols

represent
^

intension
**

of terms,

he

What Keynes means by

comprehension/'

On a Calculus Based
treated

on Intension

95

of

logical

problems

which

have

not until quite recently received the attention they deserve, and

some of

his specula-

tions appear even now^ almost

unknow^n

to

the general student of Logic.

(i)
first
is

Castillons Fundamental Notions,

all
it w^ill

And

of

be useful to notice w^hat

Castillon's

conception of the nature of

for

Symbolic Logic, ^

he

is

here to a very

large extent unquestionably

lines.

upon the right

a generalised

Symbolic Logic means

/.f.,

Logic,
that
a

it

is

general

treatment

of

aspect

of

thought
in

w^hich

receives

limited

treatment

ordinary

Formal
renders

Logic.

The
this

consideration

of

deduction

from
clear

higher point
processes

of view^
are

many

that
in

necessarily

described

inadequately
of Formal

the
;

ordinary
and,
w^hat

text-books
is

Logic

still

more important,
in

actual errors that

to
treat

have
sive
*

arisen

attempts

excluare

portions

of deductive
this

reasoning
is

He

does not, of course, use

term, which

not, I bein

lieve, to

be found before the publication of Venn's book

1881,


g6
exposed.
also
is

Symbolic Logic
But the idea of Symbolic Logic That implies the notion of a calculus.
is

to say, there

implied such a manipula-

tion of symbols that conclusions are reached

would be quite unattainable by intelSymbols of some sort are lectual intuition. But essential in fully conscious reasoning.
that
as

employed

in a calculus

symbols take on

an

additional

function.

They no
for a

longer
:

merely help the mind

has in the meantime

to reach a

judgment

they obtain a judgment

mind

that

been engaged upon

an

operation quite different

from that of

reflecting

upon
the

their

meaning.

As Mr.
is

Johnson has
calculus

clearly

shown, there

in

intelligent

manipulation
results are

of

symbols by means of which

intelligently reached.

un-

This view implies, of

is

course, that a calculus

very different from

illustration

being

merely

symbolical
Castillon

of

logical doctrines.

had

a clear idea

of

all

these truths.

Where he went wrong

he has had successors

on

this subject

and

who

have

fallen

into the

same mistake

On a
was
of
in

Calculus Based on Intension

the following particular.
that

97
was

He
in

opinion

symbols

can

some

way
ment
or

discover the forms of judgment, can,

for instance, indicate that the infinite judgis

not

of

the
all

essence

of
is

Logic,
apo-

that

naturally

judgment

deictic.

But symbols can never discover

to

the forms of judgment, but can only pro-

ceed

according

their

own

laws,

after

the import of the judgment has been unfolded.

We

will proceed to consider the precise

description Castillon gives of the nature of

the proposition, and to observe the primary

use he

makes of symbols.
in
a

Each

object that

we meet with
perience

the course of our

ex-

forms

mental

image,

which,

though made up of sensations, is at first not Subsequently, recognised as so composed.

however,

by

means

of

imagination,

the

individual sensations

the whole, and a

may be detached from symbol may be employed

Other sensations may G

both for the original complex and for the

sensations so separated.

gS

Symbolic Logic

be similarly abstracted, and

at

we

thus arrive

such an equation

as

0-A-B = C + D.
and the

Here
that

is

a congeries of attributes,

right-hand

member remain when

be
seen,

represents the attributes

abstracted from O.
will

A and We are
with

B have
in this

been
it

way,

dealing

nothing but
is

attributes,

and the symbol that

chosen to
in

denote

a
is

combination

of attributes
(

whole

correctly said to be

+ ), while
denote
the
(

the
that

symbol

(-)
are

is

employed

to

attributes

abstracted
start.

from

whole

with which we
(-), that
is

The

signs

+ ) and
attri-

to say, indicate respectively the

combination and the abstraction of

butes.
It

must here be allowed, then, both

is

that there
in

sound psychological doctrine,

is

that

growth of perception
and that there
that
are

seen

to

consist in progress
definite,

from the obscure

is

to the

appropriateness in
to

the

signs

used

represent

the

elements and
this has

progress of thinking,

when

once commenced.
it is

But

necessary to inquire whether

On a Calculus Based
it

on Intension
in
this

99
the

is

justifiable

to

use

way

symbol

for equivalence.

Venn

argues that

on the intensive interpretation of propositions such use

is

inappropriate, since, if a
is

group of attributes
the one from the

equivalent to another

group, there are no means of distinguishing

other.^

This criticism

appears to

me

to

be true, but only w^ithin

narrow

limits,

namely,

when

the

two
all

members

consist of one

group each, and

the attributes of each group are explicitly

recognised.

But then
there
is

in

the case of most

equations

nothing

of

this

kind.

For instance, S = P +
universal
affirmative

M,
in

the form for the

Castillon's

symand

bolism, denotes that S consists of a definite

attribute,

or

group

of attributes

P,

another group
stand for
as

Here both S and groups, whose elements are not,

present before the mind.
It
is,

M.

rule,

therefore, surely permissible to say that the

group denoted by S
that
is

is

identical with

one

specifically

mentioned, together with

p.

* Symbolic Logic,

456.

loo

Symbolic Logic
denoted

another group
only
is

by

M.

And

not

there the fact that the attributes de-

noted by S and by
but
it
is

are not enumerated,

obvious

that

is

regarded

as

one group, while the right-hand member the sign ( = is composed of two groups
:

is,

therefore,
class

quite as appropriate as
if

it

is

in

Logic

we

say that x
class
is

= xy-\rxy^
to

where, of course, one

be identical with
its

declared

two composing

classes.

Venn,

in

urging his conclusion, appears to

have confined himself to the consideration

of two simple conceptions that are declared He is correct in saying to be equivalent.
that

many

logicians

have

thought

that
really,

they were equating attributes, they were

when

merely equating

classes

whose
course,

extension happens to coincide.

Of
But,

any

such

reference

to

classes

involves

inconsistency
it
is

of

treatment.

when

said

that

the

attributes
to

designated
attributes

by

are

equivalent

the

designated

by by

P,

together
there
is

with

those
re-

designated

M,

no more

On a
flection

Calculus Based on Intension

required

loi

concerning

classes

than

there

is

concerning attributes in extension

Logic.
In

the

next

place,

we may

notice

the

description that Castillon gives of the laws

that
lie

at

the back of formal reasoning.

Some
the

logicians have endeavoured to deduce

Law

of Contradiction from the

i:ice

Law

of
if

Identity, or

versa,

but he savs that,

judgments denote respectively the synthesis

and
the
separation

of

attributes,

then
I

every judgment implies both principles.

think that those

who deduce
that

one principle
so

from the other can only do

arbitrary

bv some
is

assumption

one

"

more
Loo-ic

natural" than the other. "^

But

in

we
to

are not justified in thus acting according

our preferences.

We

have

to state

the

actual facts of the case, and in this particular

those facts are that the

Laws of Tautology
:

and Reciprocity f are equally fundamental

* Proc. of the
Ar'ist. Soc.

N.S.

vol.

ii.

p.

15.

I This term includes the of Excluded Middle.

Law

of Contradiction and the

Law

I02

Symbolic Logic
it
is

the former denotes that

immaterial to
duplicates
a

thought whether

thinker

conception, and the latter that a predication

consists,
left

and consists exclusively, of what

the conflicting ideal that
is

is

when
in

inre-

volved
jected.*

every judgment

has

been

Having maintained

to the

above extent

the independent character of the

Laws of
that, after

Identity and Contradiction, Castillon some-

what
all,

spoils matters

by suggesting

one of the two principles

may

be more

fundamental than the other.

is

His proposal

to regard the principle of Contradiction

as

expressing the fact of the composition of

a concept,

while the principle of Identity

;

denotes the reminiscence of a concept

in positing a concept

for

one thinks the presence

and not the absence of attributes (Contradiction),

but in recalling a concept

the

in-

telligence has to retrace the attributes, for

otherwise the earlier concept would not be

reinstated
(Identity).
* Mind, N.S. No.

This
i.

statement

of

pp.

IO-I2.

On a Calculus Based
what
is

on Intension

103

involved in the principle of Contrais

diction

practically the
at the

same

as the state-

ment given
But
act

end of the

last

paragraph.

Castillon's
is

account here of the principle

very unsatisfactory.

of Identity

For the
if

of recaUing certain attributes,

such

recall is

occasioned merely by the uncon-

scious fusion of certain fresh presentational

elements with
train,
is

portion

of the
is

memory
if

certainly

not what
;

meant by
the

the

principle
is

of Identity

while,
is

recall

dehberate, then there

a

contemattri-

poraneously
butes,
is

rejection

of

certain

and the principle of Contradiction

important
this

involved.

The
it
is

question

now

arises

whether on

intensive

view of Logic
has received

possible to deal
attributes,

with other than essenCastillon

tial

and

Venn's approval for consistency in not conCassidering attributes that are accidental.
tillon
s

universal affirmative

is,

as

we have

said, S

= A + M, and the universal negative The former means appears as S= - A + M.

I04

Symbolic Logic
is

that the object S

a

the sensation A, plus

sensations

group

of

other

M, which

remain indeterminate, while the symbols

for

the universal negative denote that the

object S does not

comprehend A,

that the

object S

is

an indeterminate
sight,
it

without A.

Now,
must

at

first

does appear that

we

confine

ourselves

here

to

essential

attributes, for in the case of the universal

afiimative, at

any

rate,

we

just unfold the

nature of S, state the group of attributes of

which

it

is

composed.

But then

it

seems

quite possible to do as

Venn

hints,^ namely,

to regard the essence as consisting of

is

what

usually designated

by that term, together

attributes.

with a limited number of other

If
Castillon's

methods

are

valid

on

the

narrower interpretation of the word essence

they are valid on the wider interpretation.

He
it

suggests that, by
is

means of small

letters,

possible to represent accidental attri-

butes

thus
he

= A + B + C + D+f+/ and,
certainly

though

does
p.

not
463.

recur

to

* Symbolic Logic,

On a Calculus Based
this

on Intension
I

105

method of symbolism,
reason
felt

do not think

his

for

not
there

doing

so

was because
be

he

that

would
a

anything
In

unsound

about

such

procedure.

admitting, however, this extended signification

of the
that

term

essence,

it

is

to

be
is

noted

the

number of

attributes

limited, for otherwise

we

should not have

an equation, since 00
tooo
.

is
it

not necessarily equal

denotes,
is

M,

whatever

indefinite

only, not infinite.

In close connexion with this discussion

is

the consideration of the precise interpreto

tation

be

put

upon
I

Castillon's

repre-

sentation

of the universal

negative.

His

procedure here has,

extent
better

think, been to

some
be
the

misunderstood.
to

But
a

it

will

postpone

for

moment

examination of his symbols, and to notice the classification of judgments that he

prefers
to

adopt.

The

Critical

School
it

had admitted
at

infinite terms, so that

could
into

once

throw

universal

negative

the form of a universal affirmative.

Hence

io6

Symbolic Logic

that school, Castillon says, tended to regard

judgment exclusively
tribute

as

synthesis

the at-

comprehended by the

subject could

be either affirmative or negative.

urges that
it
is

But he

preferable to divide judg-

ments into affirmative and negative, and

to reject
Castillon's

the class of infinite judgments.^

position
is

rendered

the
that

more
the

precise,

inasmuch
excelling
is

as

he

states

classification

he adopts, and v^hich he deothers

in

scribes

as

both

truth

and generality,

based upon the definition

of judgment given by
say,

Wolf:
that

that

is

to

judgment
are
to

is

" the act by v^hich

the

intelligence

perceives
to

two

concepts,

that

present

it,

can

be joined or
Castillon
this
is

ought
thus

remain

separate."

definite
it
is

enough
to

upon

matter,

and
this,

absolutely essential

to

remember
clearly

if

one

is

understand

his

treatment of the universal negative.

When,
ment
is

then,

it

is

observed

that judg-

made

to consist of synthesis or of
* Memoire,
p.
1

1.

On a
analysis,

Calculus Based on Intension

107

and not of the former only, the

explanation that
universal negative

Venn
is

offers of Castillon's

seen to be misleading.*

Venn

asserts that the expression S

is

= -

A+M

indicates that S

composed of two groups

first
is

of attributes, of v^hich the

negative
is

and the second

is

positive.
as

That

to say,

he writes the symbols

sign and the

though the minus

But
this

A
is

were bracketed.
then

view of the case must be wrong.

transformation
dealing
all

If such
shall

eff^ected,

we

be

with

universal

affirmative,

and

judgment
he

will be reducible to synthesis.

To
as

get at Castillon^s
says,

meaning we must do

namely, take the minus sign in

conjunction with the sign of equality.

expression
will

The
:

then

be

read

thus

" S

does

not

contain

A
I

but

does contain an

indeterminate
that
Castillon

M."
is

do not mean to argue

consistent
in
his

always

treatment of this universal negative, for he

certainly

does

sometimes

deal

with

the

proposition as though the bracket had been

* Symbolic Logic ,
p.

466.

io8
inserted.

Symbolic Logic

Moreover, he admits

in so many-

words that the

the

infinite affirmative

judgment
and
the

may be reduced
that
latter

to a universal negative,

may

be expressed

as

former.

But, generally speaking, he

does
a

not

adopt

the

method
:

of

making

change

to the affirmative

he proceeds on

the understanding that a proposition which

is

expressed like the above

is

to be inter-

preted as denoting a separation of

S.

from
is

In

short,

admit

that

Castillon

uncertain in his treatment of the universal

negative, but think that his intention

was
of

always to regard this proposition

of decomposition
rather
sign

as a case

than

as

one

composition.
signifies

The
not."

(= ) with him

"

is

What
when we
of these

Castillon wishes to be understood

is

by the minus sign

version and

well

brought out

look into his treatment of conof syllogism.

In some cases
able
to

processes
to
his

he
idea

is

adhere

rigorously
proposition.

of the
take

import of
Celarent^

For

instance,

On a Calculus Based
which
appears
thus
.-.
:

on Intension
"

109

M
in

= -

A +

N,"
P."

"S =
Here

M
S

+
in
as

P,"

"S = - A +
conclusion
case

4-

the

comprehends
the

P, just

was the

premise,

but does not comprehend A, and yet com-

prehends N, since these were the characteristics

of

M in the premise.
judgment.
(.-.

There

is

not

the slightest need in such a case to change the major premise into a universal affirmative infinite

Again, take Cesare

"A

= -

M + N"
+
P,"
.-.

"M

^ -

A + N"),
P."

" S = "

M
=

" S = -

A + N +
of

Just noticing in passing that Castillon gives

A + N"
his

as

the

converse

the

major

one of

many

accidental mistakes

in the use of his

symbols

we
is

see that

he
an

argues that, since no

M,
no

but

is
is

indeterminate

N,
at
as

therefore

A,

but
this

is

an indeterminate N.
conversion
I

Now, though
is

attempt

altogether

unjustifiable,
it

shall

presently

show,

helps to bring out the

way

in

which
of
is

Castillon

regarded

the
his

meaning
conclusion

the

minus

sign.

For

not

iio
"
(

Symbolic Logic

- N,"

which
universal

would

be

the converse of the

affirmative,

and which would be read "some (is

M)
the

A," but

it

is

" no

M
take

is

A."

On

other hand, for an instance where, in the

treatment
sacrifices

of

the

universal

negative,

he
:

principle,

the

following
P,''

"

= -

A+
+

N,"

"

+
it

there-

fore

"S +

P= -A

+ N,"
Here

and
is

hence
obvious

"S- -A
that
tical

N-

P."
are

two things
with

conceived

as

iden-

M,

and are hence

concluded

to be identical

with one another.

interprets

That

is

to

say,

he

here

the

universal

negative with the minus sign attached to

the A.
It follows

from these considerations that

in
Castillon's

the

minus sign

calculus

is

used in two quite

different

senses.

Take

his representation of the particular negative,

namely, S

= A M.

This denotes that

the S attributes are not the

attributes,

when

the

attributes have been abstracted

from the

latter.

That such must be the

On a Calculus Based
correct interpretation
is

on Intension
seen

from regard-

ing the particular positive,

= S -

(the

converse of the universal affirmative), w^here

the

attributes

are

equivalent

to

the

attributes,

w^hen

the

attributes

have
S.

been abstracted from those denoted by

Such,
then,

being

the

appropriate

inter-

pretation

of the expression for the partiit

cular negative,
sign
is

is

obvious that the minus

a
it

used
first

with
place

double signification.

In the
(

to

signify

"

is

coupled with the not," />., " is to be

is

kept separate from," and in the other case

the sign denotes abstraction
:

the attributes

denoted by

are to

be eliminated from

those denoted by A.
(2)

Illusory Particulars,

We

may now

pass to an examination of Castillon's peculiar

doctrine of the subdivision of particulars.

He
is

distinguishes between the real and the

illusory particular proposition.

The former
is

the converse of a universal, the latter

it is

true because
say, " S

a subaltern.

If,

that

is

to

A +

M"

represents the universal

1 1

Symbolic Logic
it

affirmative,
to

follows that

A
in

will be equal
in

minus
will

M,

and

this

Castillon's
class

view
is

represent

what
a
is

Logic

termed the accidental converse.

hand,

On
said

the
to

other

when
it

particular
a

is

be true because
stating less

subaltern,

we

are

than the truth, for

the
universal.

we might
our

adhere

to

Hence
fact,

symbols must bring out this

shall

and

have

such

form

as

+
is

we M.

This means that

(S

we
(S

affirm "
it
is

some S

A"
to

- M), whereas
is

allowable

say "all S

A"

A+

M).
of
the
illusory,

But
instead

this

conception

of introducing
less

considerations

that

involve
error,

than the truth, involves positive

and

must,
In

think,

be

definitely

rejected.
fact

discussing
is

the

matter,

the

that

the calculus

being considered
is

from the intensive point of view

kept always in mind.
class

to be

Of

course, on
it is

the

view of the proposition,

quite

allowable, provided

that subjects exist, to

its

proceed

from

to

subaltern.

But

On a
the

Calculus Based on Intension

course
is

113

same
are

not

allowable
If the

when
attri-

we
by

arguing intensively.

butes denoted by S consist of those denoted

A + M,
-

to

state

that

the

attributes

denoted by S consist of those denoted by

is

palpably
a

false.

We
at
:

do not,

in

taking
less

such

step,

arrive

something
arrive
at

than the whole truth

we

a falsity.

In deciding the fate of this illusory particular

the

fact

has

to

be

noticed

that

there

is

no question here of an alternative

rendering.

The symbol

+)

may

at
is

first

sight suggest that the proposition

to be

read either as a particular or as a universal.

But

this

is
is

not what Castillon says.

that the particular
is

His

doctrine

as a

matter

of fact taken, where the universal might

be.

So

that

an

incorrect

statement

is

accepted in place of the correct one.

is it

Nor
is

case

where the

alternative sign

used because the element of doubt enters,

because
to

we know
accepted,

that one proposition

is

be

but

we do

not

know
H

114

Symbolic Logic

which.

The
it

illusory neither offers us

an

alternative

nor

involves

an

element
a

of

doubt

compels us to accept

false

statement.

The

attempt,
the

therefore,

to

get

at

subalterns in

way adopted by

Castillon

must be relinquished.
the proofs that Castillon
logical

Hence many of
offers

for

various
as

doctrines
false

must

be regarded
tion.

resting

on a

founda-

Take,

for

instance,

his

method of
convertireal.

representing
bility

the

proof

of

the

of particulars affirmative and

for
this

The form
have
since
versal
seen,
this

particular

is,

as

we
says,

A = S-M.
proposition

Now,
implies

he
the
is

uni-

A + M which,
I

however,

not

the case, as

shall

show

presently

and
My
one

the latter implies the subaltern S =

A + M,

we

reach the desired demonstration.

criticism

of this

is

that he has proceeded

from
that

proposition

that

is

true

to

is false,

and that therefore the desired

been established.
given
this

result has not

After

having

question

of

On a

Calculus Based on Intension

115

Castillon's particulars a

good deal of conthat

sideration,
sories

thought

perhaps

illu-

correspond to propositions in which

in class
it

Logic the " some " means " some,

may be all," while in real particulars the "some" means "some only." And
had
this

been

the

correct

view

of

the

case there
bility

would
the

also

have been no possiof

illusory
parti-

of making
for

use

culars,

same

system
there
is

cannot

be

worked
would

out

where

ambiguity
:

about the meaning of " some "

say,

as

Venn

the fourfold scheme cannot be

made
scheme.

to

correspond

with

the

fivefold

But further

reflexion

upon the

matter has led

me

to

dismiss

the illusory

particular on other grounds, namely, those

given above.
cular
real

That " some

" in the parti-

denotes " some

only " there

is

no doubt whatever. If " all " in it might be substituted for " some," then the converse

of S =

A+M

might be

A = S + M,
since,

which obviously involves a if the components of S are

falsity,

and

M,

it

ii6
is

Symbolic Logic

absurd to conclude that

attributes

only can be

composed of the
being
the
case,

denoted by S

together with those denoted by

M.
a

Such

we have
is

not

converse

similar to that

which
be
all."

found in ordinary

Logic, " some,

notice

where,
it

of course, " some "

means

may

Castillon does not

that

this,

but

thinks

he has perin

formed
Logic
is

the

operation
as

that

common
state-

known
arrive

accidental
at

conversion.

He

could

a "

converse

ment concerning "

all

supposing
(

for the

moment
have
a

that the

symbol

= ) would then
were
not
equal
give
to

meaning
But
hint

M
if

nothing.
slightest
this

he
that

does

the

he had
in

contemplated
speaking
of

possibility.
as

Always
that

an indeterminate

number of
there

attri-

butes,

he

means
are

actually

are
as
I

attributes denoted

by

this letter.

And,
it
is,

these

points

clear

enough,

think, equally clear that the illusory particular

it

makes no statement about " some,

be
all

may

"

this proposition

is

incom-

On a Calculus Based
patible

on Intension
with

117

with

the

universal,
ill

which
to
dis-

Castillon's

Logic can

afford

pense.

Castillon certainly has a very ingenious

argument by which he attempts

that subalterns
in his calculus.

to
a

show
place

should be allowed

He
to

takes the description

of

an

object

be

symbolized

thus

= A+B + C + D. Then he says that from this we may conclude that 0-A = B + C + D.
Here
is

O-A

will denote the species

under

which the

object

is

comprised.

This

quite reasonable.

But he then proceeds

are

to say that since

B+C + D
Hence,

marks of the

species,

much more
is

will they be the

if a

marks
is

of the object O.
true,
so

universal

the subaltern.
falls
is

The

error into

which
is

he here

obvious.

There

no more reason

that

B + C + D should

be
to

among

the attributes that are equated

than that these attributes should be

equated to

O-A.
all

When
that
is

it

is

said
is

that that

O- A = B + C + D,
if

meant

be taken from the congeries

the

ii8

Symbolic Logic

remainder will be the right-hand member.

If then the attribute

is

put back again,

be
they

the

three

attributes

will

no

more
of
as

characteristic

of

O
to

than

were

O A.

To

argue on
is

h fortiori lines,

does Castillon,

introduce other than

formal considerations.
It

may be

noted in passing that on the

assumption that in intensive Logic

we have
the

only universals and real particulars, and that

the
latter

may

be converted in

way

Castillon lays
will

down, two important

or

results

follow with respect to arguments in-

volving three
result will

more

terms.

The

first

be that

we

shall

be able to in-

clude

inferences

that

have

nothing

corclass

responding to them in the ordinary

Logic, and the second will be that

many
As an would
quoted

arguments, which in the

latter find a place,

as valid.

can no longer be regarded

instance of one of the inferences that

be

admitted,

take

that

which

is

by

Venn, and which was

exhibited
:

by

Castillon in a previous

memoir

" some

On a Calculus Based
is

on Intension

119
C."

B, some
it

is

C, therefore some
is is

is

This,

will be observed,
class

given in the
not, of course, to Castillon,

language of

Logic, but

valid in that Logic.

According
is

however, the conclusion

quite justifiable,

for each of the three propositions

may be
as

expressed
universal,

by means
and then
.-.

of

conversion

C = B + P,
lieves

we have "B = A + M, C = A + M + P." As an in-

stance of a demonstration that Castillon be-

may

be admitted, but which must be

rejected, take the following:

"M = A + N,
S=

M=S+P
/>.,

(or S

= M-P),
illusory

.-.

A + N-P

making

+N-P=+Q, we
The

conclude
here

= A + Q."

particulars

being inadmissible, this form of argument

must be regarded

as untenable.

In drawing inferences involving illusory

particulars, Castillon,
is

it

may

be remarked, of

sometimes

led

by the

associations

quantitative mathematics into further error.

For instance, he does not

the sign + into .
It
is

hesitate to

change

true he does not

:

mean anything by the change

in present-

I20
ing the sixth
says

Symbolic Logic

mood

of the third figure, he

of

that

the

subaltern

M=S+P
makes no
a

is

M = SP, so
he ought not

that he clearly

dis-

tinction between this and

to

M = S + P.

But

make such

change, for

what
is

his

reversed

symbols must actually

be taken to mean,
that

when
a

strictly interpreted,

he

is

using
is

universal
in

proposi-

tion

where
a

he

warranted
is

using

particular,
justifiable.
I

course that

obviously un-

have attempted to prove that Castillon's

illusory particular

must be

entirely rejected,

for

it

cannot be retained without involving

the logician in self-contradiction.

necessary here to observe
that

But
Dr.

it

is

Venn
Dr.
first

has

expressed

the

opinion

that

Castillon

did actually reject these propositions.

Venn, soon
obtain

after the publication

of the

edition of his Symbolic Logic^

a

was able

to

copy of

Castillon's

memoir, and
Mind,^
as

sent a short account of the system to

The account

is

substantially
vi. p.

the same

* Vol.

448.

On a Calculus Based
that

on Intension

121

given

in

Venn's second edition, but

contains a statement to the effect that in

the

memoir

particulars are divided into

two

kinds, one of v^hich Castillon " rejects " as

" illusoires."
rejection

But
said

in w^hat sense can such to

be

have
all

been

made

lUusories are used in

arguments, just
real.

as

much
version

as

are

particulars

When
offered,

the

demonstration of the validity of the conof

is

real

particulars

is

no

hesitation
seen,

felt in
;

making

use, as

we have
illusory

of illusories of
the

and constantly in the

proofs

syllogistic

moods

particulars

occupy an important

place.

In

several cases

we

are told that precisely the

illusory

same
a real

results
is

are reached if for an

I

substituted.

think

it

must be
reI

concluded that Castillon admitted both kinds

of particulars.
jected, as

The

illusories

were not
to

Venn

affirms they were, and, as

have attempted to show, they ought

been.

have
as

They were
fact

certainly

regarded
;

never making the best of themselves

the
that they

but

might have developed

122

Symbolic Logic

into universals and did not do so

was not
was

considered a reason

why

they should not be

employed

in

logical

proofs,

when

it

found convenient to resort to them.

(3)

Inconvertibility

of Real

Particulars
said

and of Universal Negatives, pages back that Castillon

in to

is

few

not justified

drawing an inference from

S

A=S- M
is

= A + M.^
as

Of

course
seen,

he
in

quite

justified,

we have

proceedif

ing from the latter to the former, but

he commences with the former he

proceed to the
this
latter.

may

not

To
is

attempt to draw

second inference

equivalent to the

attempt to get an
conversion

A
I

proposition by the
proposition.

of

an

Had
to

Castillon been arguing in class language he

would never, of course, have attempted

draw such
started
a conclusion,

but, as

when he

with the intensive representation of

he obtained the form
letters
attention

a universal affirmative
for the particular
*
I

by taking over the

my

am

indebted to Mr. Johnson for directing

to this important point.


On a Calculus Based
start

on Intension

123

with changed sign, he thought he might

with

the

form

for

the

particular

affirmative,

and then transfer

letters

with

changed

signs.

We
is

shall see

in

the next

paragraph that he

not justified in per-

forming the process corresponding to conversion

of the universal negative, so that

not in general, but only in a special instance,

is

he

justified in

changing signs and

transferring terms to the other side of the

sign of equality.
Castillon's

universal

negative

need

not

detain us long.
in addition to

The main
its

thing to notice

what has already been meninconvertibility.

is

tioned

is

the reason for

The
S

proposition

symbolized
means,
attributes
as

thus

=
are

A + M,

which

we have
by

explained,

that the

denoted

to be separated

from those denoted

by A, but are

to be regarded as co-existing

with those denoted by

being the case,
it is

M.

Now,

such

quite unwarrantable to

conclude that the attributes denoted by

may

consist of those denoted

by

M.

But

124
this

Symbolic Logic

would be

asserted if

we were

to

admit

the converse

A=

+ M,

a procedure that

Castillon considers to be valid.

From

the

above discussions
is

it

will

be

seen that Castillon

not justified in making

use in his calculus of

more than the

follow-

ing
(in

universal

affirmatives, real

particulars

which "some" means "some only"), and universal negatives, of which the
second and third are inconvertible.
(4)

Castillon s

Treatment of Hypothetical

and
with

of

Problematical

Judgments,

It

is

necessary finally to consider

two questions
on
in-

which the

logician
as

arguing

tensive lines, as

much
is

he

who

proceeds
or of

from the point of view of the

the proposition,

class

concerned, namely, the

questions as to the relation of hypothetical

and problematical judgments to categorical,

and the possibility of there
quantitative
position.
really

being any
a

element

involved

in

pro-

To commence with
Venn remarks
that
it

the former subject.

need hardly be said

On
that

a Calculus Based on Intension

the
distinction
is,

125

between hypothetical
undoubtedly Cas-

and categorical
rejected.
tillon's

on the intensive view,

is

And

this

view of the

case.

But
it

I
is

should like

to

point out that, though

attempted

in this

way

to get rid of the purely

hypofeels

thetical

element,
is

Castillon

evidently

that there

something wrong
it is

in the pro-

cedure, and

interesting to
in

watch the

device

that

he adopts

order to escape

from the

difficulty.

" In the case of the

it is

hypothetical

judgment
if

evidently

necessary that the intelligence has the per-

ception that,

the attribute

belongs to

the subject, the attribute

it,

also

belongs to
this

and the intelligence can only have

as
it

perception in so far

perceives that the

concept of the subject comprehends, or can

comprehend^ that of the attribute A, and the
latter the

concept of the attribute B."

have
this

italicized the

words by means of which

logician

conceptualist

escapes

from

the difficulty of the situation.

His intro-

duction of these few words shows that he

126

Symbolic Logic

recognises that in a hypothetical

really

what we

have

is,

as

conjunction of

known two phenomena, but we are

Venn would
is

say, a

not sure whether there

pair before us.

an instance of the

In proceeding to consider the facts relating to problematical judgments,

we
at

can-

not but be struck by the circumstance that,

though Castillon had

were being made

not

arrived

an

adequate account of these judgments, his

efforts tion.

in the right direc-

Maimon had

been willing to accept

the problematical judgment, but Castillon

holds that this should not be considered as
part of the material that
is

manipulated by

the logician,^
has
reference

for
to

the so-called

judgment
the

the

state

of

mind

previous to the formation of a

judgment,

to the preliminary indecision as to

whether
faithful
strictly

an attribute does or does not belong to a

subject.
to

Castillon
principles.

was here quite

For he could,

his

speaking, only
*

make

a categorical statement

He means, of course,

the person

who treats of "pure" Logic.

On a Calculus Based
concerning
the
subject

on Intension
and
its

127

attributes,

and

if feeling

prevented his doing this there

would

be, of course,

no proposition.
alternative

There

was with him no

to

but to form

a certain subject-predicate

combination and
failed

refuse

to
to

form

it.

Where he

to

come
subject

up
was
an

modern thought upon the

in not perceiving that, besides

having

implication,

we may have
implication.

statement
thinker

as

to the relation in
to
this

which the

stands

that

The
supply-

statement

of

relation

would

material upon

work.

which the pure logician could Sometimes the facts occasioning the

thinker's mental attitude

may
that

be such that

they admit of being stated in quantitative

terms, sometimes
stated only

such

they can

be
as

by means of such vague terms

" probable," " possible."

When

numerical

elements enter, the statement must be handed

over to the mathematician, but,
quantitative

when nonthe

terms

are

retained,

proit

position can be dealt with in Logic,

where

will be necessary to symbolize the relation

128
in

Symbolic Logic
stands to the impliis

which the thinker cation with which he

(5)

confronted.

Derrcation of the Notion of ^lantity.

in

We

now come
doctrine

to

what
are

is

perhaps

the

most striking of the proposed changes

logical

that

involved
proposition In
all

in

the

course

of

treating

the

from

the intensive standpoint.

ordinary

presentations of Logic the division of propositions

into
as

universal

and

particular

is

regarded

obviously justifiable.
is

same division
tions
It
is

made in the with which the svmbolist

And the common notais

familiar.

true that, with this classification, the

singular proposition gives rise to

some

dis-

cussion, but the symbolist does not hesitate

to regard such proposition as a special case

of the universal,

i.e.,

the class

may

shrink

down

to an individual.
is

Further, the classi-

fication

not invalidated when, in dealing

a dis-

with multiply-quantified propositions,

tinction has to be

made between "some

in
fact,

or

other" and
tation

"a
this

certain some."

This limionly

and

subdivision,

On a

Calculus Based on Intension

129

bring out more prominently the apparentlyindispensable

character

of the

distinction

between the universal and the particular.

It
is,

therefore,

strange to hear

Castillon

denying that propositions can be divided

up

in this

way.
it,

The
he

equation S =
says,

A +

M
:

carries

with

no

information

either

of universality or of particularity

what we have is merely a statement that the subject S comprehends the attributes A
together with those denoted
order
to

by

M.

In

join

to

this

statement

the idea

of

universality
is

or

of

particularity

some

other act
thesis.

required than this act of synof course he would argue that

And

the converse

= S

M
is

has similarly no
it.

notion of quantity attaching to

It

must be confessed
manner,
Castillon

that, in

arguing in
in

this

proceeding
But,

accordance with his principles.

when

he comes to justify his opinion that the

notion of quantity
gistic
is

derived from a sylloat

process,

it

is

once seen that his

very
quantitative

reasoning

involves

the

1^0

Symbolic Logic

element, the origin of the idea of which

he wishes
certain

to

explain.

He
the

agrees

with
by
the

reservations

to

syllogism
to

which Maimon endeavours

desired deduction.
sality,

make

The
is

notion of univer-

for

instance,

derived
:

from such
the conattribute

an argument as the
cept

following

"

man

"

comprehends

the

" animal," the representation of such and

such an individual, say Caius, Titius, &c., comprehends the concept "man," hence the
representation of any individual whatever

comprehends the concept " animal

all

''
;

i.e.,

men

are animals.
this

Castillon objects to
as

regard

reasoning

containing

no

notion of quantity, for

at least

he considers that
the

the

second

premise contains
is

notion of unity.

He

inclined, moreover,
carries

to believe that every

it

judgment

with

the notion of " one " and " two," since

is

there

supposed the concept of the subject

concept
of the
attribute.

and

the

But

with

this qualification of the statement of

Maimon, who had maintained

that

the


On a
Calculus Based on Intension
131

above reasoning contains no notion whatever of quantity, Castillon agrees that

possible
it
is

thus to arrive at

the conception
obvious,
it

of universality.

But

it

is

when

we
of

consider his argument, that

involves

a petitio principii^ for, unless every attribute

B were among

those of A,

wc

could
are

not infer that the

attributes,

which

some of the B
of A.
this

attributes, are

among

those

Directly a three-term argument of

is

description
is

analyzed

we
and

see

that

there

no longer any rigid rejection of

of universality
particua
is

the

notions

larity.

Even when we perform such

as

simple process

that

of conversion
is

it

obvious that the notion of a part

plied.

im:

Indeed, Castillon says as

much

"

S= A +

gives

S -

M, which

in-

dicates

that

does

but a part of

S, that

comprehend S, which remains when

not
Castillon s

from S one
(6)

abstracts

M."
Symbolism

Comparison

of

with Mrs, Bryant' s.

Before
I

proceeding to

more general

considerations,

may

here

call

132
attention
to

Symbolic Logic
the
points of correspondence

between
briefly

Castillon's

symbolism
Mrs.

and

that

sketched

by

Bryant.*

For
and
in-

the

proposition,

when

read

intensively,

Mrs.

Bryant

gives

^--a-^+Z^^^-^,
,

hence a-f
terpreted
dicates
a

(go -/S)

= 00

which may be
of a
class,

the

act

of comprehension

pre-

and

not-/3

and thus

reaches the same result as if oo were predicated

of the

class.

That
exist.
is

is

to

say,

the

class
is

ab

does

not

Castillon's

form

= A + M.
~/S)

This

evidently the

same

as

a+(GO

be written thus:

= go, for the latter may a = /3+ao~GO, where, as

00
as
is

Mrs. Bryant

shows, the oo
;

either

zero or positive

but Castillon,

we have

pointed out, regards only the positive value.

Mrs. Bryant's form for the universal negative

is

^--/^ = 6'~,
is

and
also

this

when
the
I

written

a=-^ + ao

clearly

same

as

S=-A + M,
for

except that
I

do not think,

the

reasons

have mentioned, that

Castillon's

did or could
* Loc.

mean an

infinite

dt.f p. 130.

On a
number

Calculus Based on Intension

of
attributes
:

133
only

the

is

indefinite.

As
has

Castillon,

when

critically

examined,
the
I

nothing

corresponding
it
is

to

and

of the ordinary Logic,

not

possible to institute a comparison

between

the

two symbolisms
So

as

regards particular

propositions.

far as

one can

tell

from

the matter of her paper, and from the fact

that she quotes the
first

edition of Venn's

Symbolic Logic, Mrs. Bryant,

when

writing,

was

not
;

aware

of

the

work

done

by

Castillon

but, in any case, her treatment of

is

the subject

original.
is

To

the extent,

how-

ever, that there

identity

between the conit

is

clusions of the

impossible
Castillon

to

supposing my proceed be
valid
to

two

logicians,

of course of

criticisms

on the

lines suggested

by Mrs. Bryant.

II.

We

have

now examined somewhat

underlying
Castillon's

fully

the

principles

procedure, and the investigation shows that

a calculus
is

not workable on the plan he

unfolded.

He

proposed

system where

134

Symbolic Logic

the notions of universality and particularity

could be reached only by means of a

principii^

petitio

where universal negatives could not

v^here

be

converted,

on conversion of a
universal

particular affirmative v^e reach a

affirmative,

where " some

and where
to
is it

"

is is

inaccurately

employed,
consistently

not

possible

deal

with

hypotheticals.

Such

system

certainly one that cannot

lay claim to general acceptance.

(i)
it

Logic based on

Connotation,
a

But
at

will be well to look for

moment

the question of an intensive Logic without

reference to Castillon's work.

My

view on
his

the general question

is

in

close

agreement
in

with

that

which Venn

reached

chapter on this subject.'^

That

is

to say,

where the

attributes are taken that are de-

noted by the name, the available stock of

propositions
is

too limited to

make

it

worth

while to attempt to elaborate a calculus. The only proposition in the ordinary Logic
that

would

find a counterpart in this intenSymbolic Lo^'tc, p. 453,

On a Calculus Based
sive

on Intension

135

scheme

is

the

universal

affirmative.
it

To

represent the universal negative

v^ould

not do to refer to two different groups of

attributes,

and to represent the particular

it

propositions

would not do

to

have two

groups of attributes, of which some were

found in both groups.

This

is

the meaning of intension

that

Couturat has in mind

when he
only

holds that
built

Symbolic

Logic

can

be

up

from the standpoint of extension, and Mr.

Russell

adopts

the

same
if

meaning when

he

asserts that

though,

we must
is

choose

either pure intension or pure extension as

a starting-point,

Couturat's view

correct,

we may commence by assuming

mediate position, and that
necessary if
diction,
classes.^

an intercourse
is

this

we wish to avoid self-contraand if we wish to deal with infinite

That
it is

this

meaning of

intenis

sion

which
clear

these logicians tacitly adopt

made

from
an

considering

Couturat's

statement
'^

that

examination
p. 66,

of

the

The Principles of Mathematics^


136

Symbolic Logic

system of Leibnitz " proves that algorith-

mic Logic

t.e.^

exact and rigorous Logic

cannot
has

be founded on the confused and

;

vague ^ consideration of comprehension

only

it

succeeded

in

being
it

constituted
rest

by Boole because he made

on the

exclusive consideration of extension/' f

Now

intension

can
it is

be

confused
to
|

and

vague only when

said

embrace
and not
is

the conventionally fixed attributes,

when
to

the totality of the attributes

the
intension.

held
case

constitute

In

the

of some names there

certainty

may
and
at

be always un-

what

is

the conventionally fixed

in

number of
others,

attributes,

the

case of

even
is

though

one

period

the

intension

well known, there will gene-

* Italics mine.
j"

L,a Log'tque de Leibnitz^

p.

387.
indeed be applied to that

:{:

These two

adjectives

might

conception of intension which includes the attributes " that are

mentally associated with

actually

name, whether

or

not

they are

impHed by
uses this

it,"
;

i.e..,

to the conception of intension as

Keynes

word

but that Leibnitz

attributes
is

and
text.

so Couturat

was not thinking of such

example which
is

clear, I think,

from the

quoted immediately in the

On a Calculus Based
rally

on Intension

137
the

soon

be

uncertainty,

owing

to

changes that

scientific
;

researches effect on

popular thought

but the totality of the

attributes, positive

and negative, known and

unknown,

is

obviously a fixed quantity.

Another way of showing that Couturat has in mind the view of intension here
ascribed
to

him
it

is

to

consider

the

ex-

pressions of Leibnitz, for

we

shall thus see

what
Logic.

precisely

is

that

Couturat thinks

cannot be made the basis of a generalised

Now
then

Leibnitz

says

if

repre-

sents " triangle,"

lateral,"

and B represents " equirepresents the concept

/>.,

A+B

" equilateral triangle," *

the attributes

denoted by this term are conceived of as two in number, viz., triangularity and
equilateralness.

But

this

is

the

conven:

tional idea of an equilateral triangle

totality

the

of the

attributes

embraces
e,g,,

many

more

attributes than these,

the quahty
quality of

of being equiangular, and

the

having each angle equal to sixty degrees.

*

La

Logique de Leiiniiz,

p.

376.

138

Symbolic Logic
is

Thus Couturat

thinking of the number

of attributes implied by the name, or of

the connotation in the sense that this word
is

used

by

Mill and

Keynes.
that
that

And

this

must be the
adopts, since

meaning
in

Mr.
there
is

Russell
is

stating

Couturat's

the

correct

position,

were

not

an

intermediate one available, he

evidently

thinking of extension and intension in the

same sense
(2)

as is

Couturat.*

Logic based on Comprehension,

to

The
Logic
the

only

way

reach

an
says,

intensive
to

would

be, as

Venn
are
It

take
to

all

attributes that

common

the

mem-

bers of a class.
to

would then be

possible

draw

diagram that would be similar

used in compartmental Logic,

to the one
* I

may

here remark that, though with Mr. Russell I should

is

hold that

it

useful

for

the symbolist

for

the

purpose of

defining infinite classes to retain the conception of intension, I

think
its

it is

somewhat misleading

to say that

Symbolic Logic has

lair

in

a position intermediate

between pure intension and

it

pure extension.

When

the calculus comes to be worked,

is

necessary definitely to take up either the one position or the

other, and, as the reasoning of this chapter shows, the extensive

interpretation

is

the appropriate one to be adopted,

On a Calculus Based
but whose

on Intension

139

compartments would represent

combinations of attributes instead of groups

of individuals.
But, in order that such a calculus could

be developed,

it is

to

be noted that certain

important

assumptions would

have

to

be

made, and that even with the help of these

it

would not be

possible to deal with

all

the
are

processes corresponding to those

which

found

in class Logic.

The

assumptions in

question are that negative attributes

freely admitted,

may be

and that every combination

of attributes mentioned in our scheme does

not
necessarily
exist. "^

The

process

that
is

cannot be symbolized on intensive lines

that of class subtraction.

Even
has

for addition

no intensive

logician

suggested

any

symbolism, but Venn has pointed out that

this operation

can be represented by means

of a symbol denoting alternation, for instance

traction
for,

by the symbol

*-

In case of sub-

no symbol could be correctly used,

though

we

might

place

symbol

* Venn, Symbolic Logic, pp. 469-473.

140

Symbolic Logic

between

two

groups

of

attributes,

we

should not

be dealing with an operation

that affected attributes, but with one that

affected the corresponding
classes.
I

pre-

sume, however, that

class subtraction

could

be dealt with by means of the following device.

Supposing that the premises are given

in a

form that involves the subtraction of

classes,

we

could turn this expression into

as

one denoting multiplication, inasmuch

x xy^xy.

Then

this

product

could

be

symbolized by the addition of positive and

negative attributes.

Now,

if

the rules of class Logic have

reference to the four processes of addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division, and
if

these

processes

can

either

directly

or

indirectly

be represented by symbols that

it

stand for attributes,

seems to

me

to be

demonstrated that the rules of

class

Logic

can be adapted to deal with the respective

groups of attributes.

M.

Couturat affirms
is

that a Logic based wholly on intension

impossible,

and

Mr.

Russell

agrees

with

On a
him.^

Calculus Based on Intension

But
though,

141

when

the

narrower
is

conception of the word intension

this

taken,
estab-

impossibiHty
I

may

certainly be
for

lished,

do

not

think,

the

reasons

have given, that there cannot be a calculus on the adoption of the wider
that
I

interpretation.

am

here only discussing

the possibility of the case, not the naturalness or simplicity of such a calculus.

In

both of these qualities such

an

intensive
far

Logic

as

the one described

would be
with

inferior to that
a direct

which
the

deals

classes in

manner.
results of this chapter.

To sum up

We

have shown that the most consistent

reasoner from the intensive standpoint was

led into

many and

serious errors, and that a

calculus

cannot be elaborated in the way

that he described.
if

Then we observed
is

that,

our attention

confined

exclusively to

the attributes that are

commonly denoted
deal

by

the

name, we

can

only

with

universal affirmatives, so that nothing of the

* The Principles of Mathematics^
p.

66.

142

Symbolic Logic

nature of a calculus can be reached on this

view of intension.
seen that,

And,

finally,

when all the attributes to the members of the class denoted by the name are taken as our starting-point,
would
be
possible
to

we have common

it

reach

correct

conclusions, but that the process

would be
the

long and

artificial,
it

when compared with

is

one in which

classes

or propositions

that are symbolized.

CHAPTER
MR, MacCOLL
It was explained
the object
in

THE DOCTRINES OF JEVONS AND OF

the Introduction that

of this
last
fifty

work
years

is

to

show

that

during the
a distinct

there has been

advance made in Symbolic Logic.

three chapters

In the

first

we were

occu-

pied in tracing the earlier portion of this

development.

In

the

fourth

chapter

we
in

demonstrated that the logicians

effected

who

have

the

advance

were

justified

taking an extensive view of the import of

the proposition.

The

present chapter will

be occupied with an examination

of the

work of two logicians, viz.^ Jevons and Mr. MacColl, who have proceeded by way of extension, but who have, I think,
fallen into several serious errors.
143

144

Symbolic Logic
these

Of
rate,

two writers the former unEngland,

than
at

questionably exercised in
a

any

greater

influence

any other

logician
in
all

of his time, while the latter has

his

work
of a

shown
very

an

ability

and
In

inventiveness
spite

high

order.
I

of

these

facts,

however,

cannot

but think that Jevons and

Mr. MacColl
is

have not

assisted

to

any great extent in

at

erecting the symbolic structure that

present available.

In the case of Jevons

the

reason

of this
in

seems to

be

that

he

was wanting
he
failed

the

power of originating
the
full

important logical generalisations, and that

to

appreciate

signifi-

cance of the work done by other logicians.

The

smallness in the

number of Mr. Mac-

Coirs contributions to the creation of a useful

calculus that
it
is

is

apparently due to his conviction

impossible for
symbolists,

him

to co-operate

with

other

since

their

prolimi-

cedure involves, in his opinion,

tations

many

and

errors.

It

becomes necessary,

therefore, for

us

to

look at the

work of

The Doctrines
these
in

of Jevons

145

two

logicians,

and to make evident,

that

the

first

place,

the

reputation of

Jevons must not be based upon the fact that he contributed in any important degree to the creation of a Symbolic Logic,
and,
cesses

secondly,

that

Mr.

MacCoU's
that

pro-

have not

the

advantage

he

claims for them, but that they are based

on views that

imply errors from which

is

the ordinary symbolic logician

free.

I.

To
be

begin

then

with Jevons.
his

It

will

not

necessary in
detail,

case

to

go
his

into very great

deficiencies
in various

since

most of

have been
parts

sufficiently

examined

of Venn's Symbolic Logic,

as
full

But

have drawn up
I

a statement
to reach.

of the case as

have been able

Jevons' doctrine of the superiority of the

equation x = xy to represent the universal

affirmative
is

erroneous, for

this

form

is

immediately reducible to
It
is

x= ^y
his

ov x:=v y.

impossible to adopt
-THE

method of
K

^A UMIVERSITY
I

Fw^ft>^i:;v

;/

1^6

Symbolic Logic
for,

denoting particular propositions,

though
in

he avoids the

difficulty

apparent
is

the

Boolian system, where ^

taken to denote

complete
effected

indefiniteness,

such

escape

is

by employing the postulate that

shall

no term whatever

be equivalent to

0.

This would exclude the possibility of a

calculus, for a collection of consistent pro-

positions

may
I

eventually be found to have

established the entire destruction of a certain

term.*

should agree with this criticism

I

of Venn's, but

do not think that Jevons

so
;

would have done

have replied
that

he would probably
such
collections

if

of

propositions resulted in such a destruction

then the group was not perfectly consistent.

Again,

we have
Logic
is

already seen that Jevons'

argument against using the exclusive notation in

not valid, though, since his

alterna-

time, this
tives

method of dealing with

:

has been largely adopted

his point

was that we do often think

* Venn, Symbolic Logics
p.

in

the non-

156.

The Doctrines
we

of Jevons
is

147

exclusive manner, but this

no reason

why
a

should do so in our symbolic reasoning.

certainly

He

drew up

a table

by which

type of proposition

may be

reached for the

in the case
assist

solution of the inverse

problem

of three terms, but

he did not

in

removing the difficulty involved in solving Morethe inverse problem in general.

over, his doctrine that Induction
identified
is
is

to

be

with

this inverse

method
series

quite

erroneous, for, as

Mr. Johnson has most

of
reach
proare
to

perspicuously
positions

shown, the
of the

that Jevons desires

only
is

determinants
say,

data

are,

that

to

neither

more general nor more

Jevons' concep-

conjectural than the data.

tion of Boole's idea of the scope of

Mathe-

matics was, previous to the second edition

of the Principles of Science^ altogether mistaken, and hence the attempts in the earlier
edition
to

"divest his (Boole's) system of

a mathematical dress" could not result in

much

that
*

is

useful.^

But even
p.

in

the

G. B.

Halsted, in Mindy No. 9,

134.

148
second

Symbolic Logic
edition

the

inaccurate

notion
is

has
a

only partially disappeared.

Boole's
:

now

quasi-mathematical system

it still

requires

" the manipulation of mathematical symbols

in a very intricate

and perplexing manner."

the same
as

Jevons, in holding the view that the process

of subtraction
operation
restriction,

is

useless because

can

be

represented

one of

passes

over the fact that each

may

be useful

at times.

His objection

that,

because he admits the

his system,
it
is

Law

of Unity into
for

was necessary

Boole to

do the same

without force, since Boole

in the

was not guilty of any inconsistency

omission.

Jevons declared that ^ cannot

be

understood

without

reference

to

the

mathematics of quantity, an assertion which

is

refuted

from the simplest

:

logical

con-

siderations
class

the expression represents " the

if

of which

we
I

take

'

no part

'

we
be

obtain 'nothing.'"
this
list is

do not profess that

but
it

complete,

must

confessed

that,

though Jevons stimulated


The Doctrines
logical

of

Mr. MacColl
more
the

149

thought

much
are
to

extensively
to

than
actual

most

men

enabled

do,

his

contributions

development

of

Symbolic

Logic

were
His

few
great

and

re-

latively

unimportant.
short,
less

powers
occupied

were,
in

in

successfully
in

the

logical

than

the

mathematical

realm.

In pure economic theory and in

currency investigations, where in both cases

the argument
quantities, his
is

almost entirely concerning

and has

work is of the utmost value, placed him in the very first rank

of thinkers upon such subjects.

II.

Coming now

to

Mr. MacColl,
I

wish to point out wherein

into
error.
is

think he

falls

My
get

object in
at

considering his

work

to

the
so

truth
I

on

certain
at

debated

questions,
I

that

proceed

once to these.

readily admit that there

are several points in

which Mr. MacColl

to

and the same remark applies

agrees

Jevons
to

with

the

other

writers

whom

we have had

occasion in previous chapters

i^o
to refer.

Symbolic Logic

Of
first

course, if
to give

Mr. MacColl had

to these
it
is

been the
points,

prominence

in

which there

agreement,

would have been necessary for us to dwell upon them here in some detail, but with one exception they had been well considered
(i)

by other symbolic

logicians.

Mr, Mac Co IPs Employment of Literal The question that Mr. MacColl Symbols,

was the

first

to bring to the front

is

that
to

respecting

the

use

of

literal

symbols

denote propositions rather than to denote

classes.

In

his

papers
the

published

in

the

Proceedings
Society^

of

London

Mathematical
to

and in

his

contribution

Mind
And,
Logic
pro-

in

1880, he clearly showed that symbols

may

be

employed
as

in

this

way.^

inasmuch
regards

the

newer Symbolic
of

the

process

symbolizing

* Mr. MacColl was not the first person to utilise symbols in this manner, for sometimes letters are made to stand for propositions by Boole, De Morgan, and others, but he undoubtedly gave prominence to such employment, and, moreover, as stated immediately in the text, he considered that

symbols should always stand for propositions.

The Doctrines
positions
as

of

Mr. MacColl
we
are

151
that

more fundamental than

classes,

of
to

symboHzing

indebted
less

Mr. MacColl

for

emphasizing the

usual application of symbols.

At
I

the same time, even

that

on this point
astray.

think

Mr. MacColl goes

view
to
is

In the

first

place, his
restricted

that symbols

should
use.*

be

the

prepositional

But, so far as the earlier Symbolic

is

Logic
point. t

concerned, no such restriction

I

is

necessary.

have

already

argued
the

this

Provided
it

we employ

appro-

priate rules,

makes no

difference

whether

the problems solved by Venn, for instance,

are treated in the one

way

or in the other.

And,

in

the

second

place,

Mr. MacColl

allows his symbols indiscriminately to represent propositions and prepositional functions

;

but, in so far as
assisted in

he has done

so,

he has not

producing the newer

in this
it is

Symbolic Logic, for

* Mind, No. 17, pp. 10-22.
p.

matter
492.

49

Venn, Symbolic Logic,

p.

j-

;j:

Russell, The Principles of Mathematics, pp. 12, 22.

152

Symbolic Logic

of fundamental importance to draw a clear

line

of distinction between the two uses.

Mr.

MacCoirs
use

view,

therefore,
is

of

the

prepositional

of symbols

both

un-

necessarily at variance with the older, and

does

not

fit

in

with

the

more

recent

doctrine.

Mr, MacCoirs Treatment of Modal Propositions, Mr. MacColFs two chief

(2)

errors

consist

in

his

treatment

of modal

and kindred propositions, and

trine

in his doc-

of logical existence.

Each of

these

questions

may now
in

be carefully discussed.*
is

The
ing

subject of modals

constantly turn-

Mr. MacColl's writings, but perhaps he has nowhere more clearly stated
up
his

view

as to

the treatment of such pro-

positions than in his second and fifth papers

in

Mind^ and
The

to these

we may
second
the
first

give our

chief attention.
*

In his
in

paper he
my
in

former was referred to

chapter, and

general opinion upon the subject was stated, but Mr.

MacCoU's

work claims more

that place.

detailed examination than

was possible

t N.S. N08. 24 and 47.

The Doctrines
asserts

of

Mr. MacColl

153
or

that

" sometimes
are

we have
7iot

data

premises
or

P which
to

always

certain

admitted

be

true."

But

this

con-

ception of certainty impHes a relation that

Mr. MacColl has not

an
obligation

observed.
part

It

implies

on

the

of

thinker

to accept the truth of an assertoric proposition.

Pure

Logic cannot deal separately

:

with these certain propositions

deal with the relation in

it

can only

which

a thinker
is

stands towards the statement that

certain.

Similar remarks apply to the treatment of

propositions
that

Mr. MacColl

classes

as

variable or as impossible.

We
way

do not in
rules.

the

case

of these
instance

employ
the

special
in

As

an

of

which

statements described by these three terms

are to be
dealt with, take
is

the following

"

It is

impossible that x

yT

This would
thinker

appear in such a form

can
believe that
is
;c

as "

who
cerall

is

^ does not
that

exist.'*

That

to

say,

statements

are

tainties, impossibilities, or variables

may

appear in the form

AB = 0.

154
It
is

Symbolic Logic
because he has not perceived the
these

method of deahng with

frequently
falls

statements

respecting probabiHties that

Mr. MacColl

into the mistake of speaking

as

of propositions
times
false.

sometimes true and somebe the case

It

may sometimes

phenomenon a is followed by the phenomenon b^ but it is not the case that

that the

the

proposition
false.

is

sometimes true and

sometimes and

Like Mrs. Ladd-Franklin

Mrs. Bryant, Mr. with

statements.
clear

events
is

MacColl confuses That this is so

his interpretation

made very
H.

from

of

Here each of

these letters represents

is

a statement,

and the expression

as
it

" called

a causal implication,
causal connexion

indicates

some
But

between

and

^S."

a statement cannot be the cause of another

statement
to

the term " cause " has reference

to

two phenomena, not about phenomena.

two propositions

The same

considerations

show why Mr.

p.

* Mind, N.S. No. 24,

498.

The Doctrines
MacColl's
use

of

Mr. MacColl
term

155

of

the

" strength,"
is

when appUed
inappropriate.

to propositions,

decidedly
/3,

When
a,

implies

but ^

does not imply

is

said to be stronger

than

,8.

Of

course the distinction between

is

what implies and what

fundamental
ence
latter
is is

implied by

is

of

importance.

But the

differ-

one of kind, not of strength.

The

term suggests that an entity which

consideration
possesses
different

under

amounts of force

at different times.

But an
weaker

argument containing the

so-called

proposition would be an entirely different

argument from one containing the stronger.

The same
bility,

statement cannot be said

at

one

time to reach the strength of an impossi-

and

at

another to sink

down

to the

weakness of
It will

a certainty.^

now

be apparent what was meant

by saying that Mr. MacColl confuses propositions with propositional functions.

The
calls

variable " a implies

/3,''

which he

proposition,

is,

as

Mr. Russell points

p.

out,

* Minc/y N.S. No. 24,

499.

156
a

Symbolic Logic
function
truth
:

propositional

the

statement

does

not

affirm

or

falsehood,

but

when

special values are given to the

a proposition.
/5

x in a

and P we get

Mr. MacColl
"
is

maintains that " a implies

certain circumstances. therefore,
radically

true under
are,
it is

The two views

In one
/3

distinct.

held that " a implies

occasions

"

may on
as

certain
true,
this

be
the
is

spoken
other
it

of
is

being
that

while

in

held

implication
since the

neither true nor

false.

And,

newer Symbolic Logic proceeds

propositions

on the understanding that the distinction

between
functions

and

propositional
it

must be constantly observed,

follows that

Mr. MacColl cannot be

in

said

to have definitely assisted

the

advance

that has recently been made.

It

cannot be said that Mr. MacColl in paper has made his position on

his fifth
this

question

more

tenable.

He

there

institutes a

comparison between his views

in the course

and those of other symbolists,

of which he says
:

"

divide propositions

The Doctrines
not

of

Mr. MacColl
and
false,

157
into

only

into

true

but

various other classes according to the necessities

of the problem treated

certain^
to
to

as,

for ex;

ample, into
into

impossible^ variable
true^

or

known

be

known

to

be false
;

neither

known

be true nor

known

to be false

or

into

formal
or

certainties^

formal
those

impossi-

bilities^

formal variables
;

(/.^.,

which

are

neither)
(i,e,^

into

probable^
;

improbable^

even

with chance even)

and so on

ad

libitum^

But

reflexion

shows

that

every proposition which he has in view,

when
that
rise
it

taken in conjunction with the fact

occurs in the respective
a
class,

gives
since

to

true

or a false statement,
stated
is

what is in each case in which a thinker

tion,
is

the relation
to
this

stands

an

asser-

and the statement

assertoric

of

relation
all

an

proposition.

Hence
can

Mr. MacColl's
Logic.

propositions

be dealt

with by the rules of ordinary Symbolic

Mr. MacColl thinks that other symbolists make no difference between the

158

Symbolic Logic

true and the certain, and between the false

and the impossible.

that
ferent.

But

it

is

quite clear

the assertorics in each pair are dif-

For instance, taking

proposition,
as

true

and

taking a certain

these

would

assume forms such

a triangle are equal

" All the angles of

to

two right

angles,"

and "

thinker

is

so constituted

that he

must believe that the angles of

are equal to

a triangle

two right
are

angles."

Variable

propositions

not

overlooked

by

the

ordinary symbolist, but

he cannot accept

the view that they " are possible, but uncertain, propositions

whose chance of being

fraction
is

true

is

some proper

between

and 1."

While

there

meaning

in

speaking of the chance that a phenomenon

will occur, there
is

no meaning in saying
is

that the chance that a proposition

is

true

greater or
that

less.

At

least the

only mean-

ing

such

an

expression

could

have

would be where an individual was known

to

be a partial deceiver

we

could then

of course speak of the chance that some

The Doctrines
assertion of his
is

of

Mr. MacColl
true.

159
this

would be
arguments
correct
to

But

not what

Mr. MacColl means.

it

From
that
it

these
is

will

be clear
the

not

say

" that

whole world of new

this

ideas

opened up by

exponential
is

or

predicative system of

notation

world with which they (ordi;

nary symbolists) are utterly unable to deal

the bare attempt on the part of logicians

would

lead

to

general

break-up

of

all

the systems

now
I

taught, and a recasting of

the whole of logic on different principles."

I

hope that

have made
it is

it

evident, in the

first

place, that

inexpedient to speak
systems rather

of

many

antagonistic

than
of

of a calculus that has evolved

as a result

efforts in different directions, and, secondly,

that

this

calculus

can

deal with

all

the

statements that Mr.

MacColl has
the

in view.

Mr. MacColl
tion

attributes

non-adop-

of his doctrines to the perversity of

human
sional

nature
logicians

in

general

and

of profes-

in

particular.^
p.

But

this

* Mind, N.S. No. 47,

356.

i6o

Symbolic Logic

cannot be the true cause.

to study the writings of

One such men

has only
as

Venn,
readily

Johnson, Keynes, and Russell, to see that

every really valuable logical truth
is

welcomed.
to

For instance, Venn long held

it
is

the view that

better to

draw up
thought

rules

on the understanding that symbols

joined by (+) are exclusives.

it

He

highly important to keep to this renbecause

it

dering,

was

essential

for

the

introduction of those inverse processes to

which he attached such

in spite of his preference

great value.

But
in his

he writes

second edition
other,
I

"

shall

now

adopt
:

the

or non-exclusive notation

partly,

must admit, because the voting has gone

way, and in a matter of procedure
are

this

there

reasons

for

not

standing

out

against such a verdict."*

Then, again, Mr.

Johnson readily accepts Keynes' methods

of solving the Inverse Problem, and with

one of them produces a

tive

still

more

effec-

way of reaching

the solution.

This

* Symbolic Logicy 2nd ed. p. 46.

The Doctrines of Mr. MacColl

improvement
quent edition.

i6i
subse-

Keynes
the

inserts

in

Once more,
(in
as

Boole, Venn,
exto
it

and Schroder
press
zero.
is

Operation skreis)

their

premises

terms equated
that

Then Dr. Mitchell shows

possible, instead of equating to zero, to

equate to unity, and Venn, in his review

of the Johns Hopkins Studies^^ and in the

second edition of his Symbolic Logic^ adopts
this

suggestion, while

Mr. Johnson

states

that Dr. Mitchell, by the introduction of

certain processes,

among which comes

this

one of taking the affirmative form of expressing premises, has been " enabled both
to

simplify

and

to

extend the
in
a

range

of

logical

symbolism

most

suggestive

way." t

If such writers reject

Mr. MacI

ColFs doctrine the cause must be found,

think, not in their prejudices,
untenability.
(3)

but in

its

Mr. Mac ColPs

Unrealities,

Doctrine of a Universe of

will

now examine
I

the other

important point
* Mind
for Oct., 1883.

on which

think
2, p.

Mr.
241.

t Mind, N.S. No.

62
falls

Symbolic Logic
into error, viz,^ that respecting

MacColl
tion

logical existence.

His views on

this ques-

were

fully stated in his sixth

paper in

Mind^^ but he

called further attention to the

subject in a note in the following

of the review. t

number In the subsequent number

gave our reasons for hold-

Mr.

Russell and

ing that the doctrine expounded in those

places contained fundamental errors.

Mr.

MacColl has replied to both criticisms, and in the last number of Mind\ I referred to
the points in this reply.

The

subject

may,

therefore, be said to have been pretty fully

discussed.
I

shall

here briefly state

shall

Mr.

MacColl's opinion, and

then mention

the two arguments, quite distinct ones, by

which

in

my

opinion
in

it

has been refuted.

sixth

We
"
'

are

told

the

paper

that
(or

we assume

our

Symbolic
')

Universe

Universe of Discourse
* N.S. No. 53,
p.

to consist of our

74.
also given a short

+ Mr. MacColl has

on
ylppllcattons^ pp.

summary of

his

views
Its

this subject in his recently

published Symbolic Logic and

76-78.
p.

X Jan., 1906,

143.

The Doctrines

of

Mr. MacColl
e^,

163

universe of realities,

e^,

e^,

etc.,

together
0.^,

with our universe of unreaUties, 0^

etc., w/ien both

O3,

these enter into our

argument.

But when our argument deals only with realities^ then our Symbolic Universe S^, Sg,
S3,

etc.,
e
^

and

our

Universe

of
;

realities,

etc., will

be the same

there will

be no universe of unrealities
Similarly, our

0^, Og, O^, etc.

Symbolic Universe may con-

ceivably, but hardly ever in reality, coincide

with our universe of

statement
very

unrealities."

This

definitely

represents
:

Mr.

MacCoirs view on the

two

subject

there are

universes, one consisting of realities and

the other of unrealities, and the Symbolic

Universe may, according to the argument,

consist

of

either

or

of

both.

Among

realities will

man whom you see in the garden " and " my uncle," when we utter such a proposition as " The man whom
come "
the

you

see in the
say,

we
ing

my uncle " " The man whom you see

garden
is

but, if
in the

garden

is

really a bear,''

we

shall

be speakthen of a

firstly

of an unreality and

"

164
reality.*

Symbolic Logic

Such objects
here,

as

" round squares

are unrealities.

Now
outjf
fused,

as

Mr.

Russell has pointed

two quite
viz,^

different

things are
that
exist

conin
a

the

things

philosophical
exist

sense

and
sense.

the

things

that
a

in

logical

To

say that

thing exists in the former sense means that

the

thing

has

phenomenal

existence,

or

other existence of a philosophical character,

whereas " to say that

sense
least

exists in a logical

means that

is

a class

which has
question

at

one member."

The

then

arises

how

it

is

possible

that

two such
be con-

notions of existence should

ever
to be

founded, and the answer

considering those classes

is

found by

which have members, and whose members do exist in the For instance, the class philosophical sense. horse is one which has members, and these But then appear in the phenomenal world. there are some classes which have members
* Mind, N.S. No. 53,
p.

77.

I Mtndy N.S. No. 55,

p.

398.

The Doctrines

of

Mr. MacColl
in

165
e.g.^

and these do not appear

matical principles.

such world,

the class of numbers, or the class of mathe-

The
so

difficulty that

Mr.
by
are

MacColl
round
noticing
identical

raises

with and

regard
on,

to
is

centaurs,

squares,

solved

that

classes

of

such

things
is

with the

null-class, that

to say,

the class that has no members.

Having thus explained the nature and origin of the confusion between the two kinds of existence, Mr. Russell is able to show that in the logical sense of the term
existence
(for

with

the

other

sense

the
I

logician has nothing whatever to do) the

and
be

O propositions
is

require that there should

is

at least

one value of x for which x

S,

that
in

to say, that S should exist,

whereas
is

the case of

and

such existence

not necessary.

Thus Mr. Russell's method of demonstrating that Mr. MacColl is involved in error amounts to making the fact indisputable that Mr. MacColl has identified two totally
different

things,

viz,^

philosophical

and

66

Symbolic Logic
reality.

logical

Another way of proving

Mr. MacColl's position is untenable is to show that it involves him either in selfcontradiction or in the necessity of making
that
unjustifiable
line of

assumptions.
I

This was

the
dis-

argument that
and which
I

pursued in the

cussion,

will here describe, but

by a somewhat
then,

different

method from the

In the
first

one previously adopted.

it
is

place,
to

certainly

self-contradictory

speak of two universes of discourse.

The

Universe of Discourse in Symbolic Logic

means

all

the things that

we

are

talking

about, and there cannot be

two such groups

Within the Universe of Discourse there may certainly be two comof "all."
partments, one of realities and the other of
unrealities,

but this

is

a very different thing

from saying that there may be two universes. The question is one of principle, not one
of mere words.

Next,

consider

the

passages

in

which
assump-

Mr. MacCoU has made

tions.

unjustifiable

He

believes

that

his

fundamental

The Doctrines
division
plies

of

Mr. MacColl

167

into

realities

and unrealities suprid

method of getting
that

of certain

paradoxes
to

ordinary
says
to
is

symbolists

have

accept.
are

He
led

that,
state

whereas these
" every

thinkers

round
he can

square
say

(a

null class)

a triangle/'
is

"no round

square

a triangle."

But

such a universal negative can be reached

only

by labelling some of our compartreal

ments
this

and some unreal, and

are

to

do

assumed, viz.^ " no round squares are real," and " all triangles

two premises
It

are
that,

real."

is

surely
at

quite

apparent

having arrived

the possible

com-

partments, which are indicated in the case

of two terms,

we have no
to
state

right without

further information

go over such comthat

partments

and

some of them
not, exist-

have, and some of

them have

ence in a philosophical sense.

I

think these arguments are quite sufto

ficient

show

that

Mr. MacColFs docof existence

trine

on the subject

cannot
ordinary

be

accepted.

But

he

accuses

i68
symbolists of
in

Symbolic Logic

becoming involved
It
is

in

error

holding their view.

necessary,

therefore, finally to prove that

he

is

mishis

taken
note
it

in

making

this

assertion.

In

in

Mind^ Mr. MacColl

will

holds that

cannot be right to say that the formula

apply
stand

0A =
For,
let

whatever
for

A may

be.

" existent."

Then
is

we

shall

have

" every
this,

non-existence
says,
is

existent,"

and
is

he

absurd.

But there

no absurdity here.

For with
into

two terms
of
discourse

and " existent " the universe

is

necessarily

divided

four compartments, namely,

not-existent,

existent, not-0 existent, not-0 not-existent.

Whether
less

the

four
is

may

be

expressed

as

than four

not a point that

we need
happens

here consider.
non-existence
is
is

Now, when we
is

say " every

existent,"

what
no

that

the

first

of

these

compartments
absurdity.
in

erased.

This

implies

Where

self-contradiction
if

would come
that
this

would be

we were

to say
p.

or

* N.S. No. 54,

295,

The Doctrines
and occupied.
has
are

of

Mr. MacColl
Mr.

169

any other compartment was both

So
that,
as

erased

MacColl
symbolists
in

not
guilty

shown

that

ordinary

of self-contradiction

stating

that

every

non-existence

is

existent,

he

has not proved that the formula (0A

= 0)

cannot be accepted.
I

may

notice

also

in passing

the argu-

ment advanced by Mr. MacColl in his criticism of the ordinary employment of His in prepositional Logic* and 1
object
to
is

to

show

that

such

usage

leads

absurdity.

To

do

this

he commences

by affirming that since

true

and

denote

and

false

propositions

respectively,

these symbols represent

two mutually ex-

clusive classes of propositions.

definition
false

Hence

the

<
on

should assert that every

is

proposition
is

true

proposition,
to
this
is

which
that
1
it

absurd.
a

My
do

reply

rests

misunderstanding.
represent
true

For
and

and

never

false

propositions,

and

consequently
p.

two

* M'lnd^ N.S. No. 47,

357.

I/O

Symbolic Logic
classes

mutually exclusive

of propositions.

The symbols
possibility

denote respectively the only

:

and no possibility
class
at
all.

we do
is,

not

refer

to

The

introduction
therefore,

here of the definition

altogether unjustifiable.

<

From
the
case

these considerations

think that

subject

Mr. MacColl on the of existence must be said to have

against

been

established.

On

the

one hand, he

has been show^n to have been wanting in

discrimination between two totally different
things,

and, on

the

other,

his

statements

have been demonstrated either to involve

him

in

self-contradiction

or

to

rest

on

unjustifiable assumptions.

Also the charge

that he brings against ordinary symbolists

of unwarrantably generalising

is

seen to be

without foundation.

But before leaving

it

this

subject

think

desirable to clear

up

a point

on which
reply
to

the

reader

of

Mr.

MacCoU's
still
p.

Mr.

Russell *

may

feel
401.

uncertain.

* Mind, N.S. No. 55,


The Doctrines
Mr. MacColl
like
is

of
:

Mr. MacColl
various

171

says

" that the word

has
I

existence,

many

others,
;

meanings

quite

true
'

but

cannot

admit that

any of these

lies

wholly outside Symbolic

Logic'

Symbolic
itself
it

Logic has

right

to

occupy

with any question whatever

can

on which

throw any
that

light."

It

would
lems

thus

appear

Mr.

Russell's

symbolism cannot deal with certain probwith

to

which
deal.

calculus

may
said

be

expected
sure that

But we may be quite

when

Mr.

Russell

that

some meanings of existence lie "wholly outside Symbolic Logic" he did not mean
that

the

logician
that

cannot manipulate pro-

positions

give information respecting

the

various

kinds

of

existence.

What

was meant was that Symbolic Logic, in occupying itself " with any question whatever on

which

it

can throw any light,"

questions of existence

among

others

does

not adopt any special meaning of existence

that

may

be found in Philosophy.

CHAPTER

VI

LATER LOGICAL DOCTRINES

In the present chapter
I
:

propose to deal
(i)

with the following topics

the doctrine
the impos-

of multiple quantification,
sibility

(2)

of establishing a Logic of Relatives

in the sense of a generalised

treatment of
Logic,

copulas,

and

(3)

the

new Symbolic
is

the ideal of whose exponents

strate

to

demoncalculus

that
is

there exists

logical

which

capable of dealing with any prob-

lems whatsoever of a deductive character.

When
the
will
t\e,,

these

topics

have

been
in a

unfolded
this

arguments

contained
to

book
that

have been brought

conclusion,

we
has

shall

have
a
real

demonstrated

there

been
to

advance from the

1903,

year

1854
of

the

year

when

77/^

Laws

lUiought

and
172

Hhe

Principles

of

Later Logical Doctrines

Mathematics were
respectively
first

173

published.

The
is

elucidation of the

and third topic

of obvious importance for our purpose.

discussion of the second
:

The

is

of indirect

assistance

v^e

shall

show

that

modern
treats

logicians have been justified in maintaining

that

" no

Formal

Logic

really

of

Relatives in general qua Relatives." ^

First of

all,

then,

we

will refer to

the doctrine of multiple quantification.

This
in the
in the

question was taken up by

Mr. Peirce
'SiXii.

American Journal of Mathematics

Johns Hopkins
Mitchell
recently
in

Studies
latter

in

Logic,

by Dr.

the

work,
in

and

more
idea

by Mr. Johnson

Mind,
as

The

of multiple quantifications,

Mr. Johnson

shows, naturally follows from starting our

logical investigations with the consideration

of singular or molecular propositions.

We
these,

may, that
" Socrates

is

to say, synthesize a

two of
as

and get such

is

simple statement
?

that

mortal and Greek

* M'md, N.S, No.
I, p.

"

Here the

26.

174

Symbolic Logic

subjects of the synthesized propositions are

the same, and the predicates are different.

Or we may have
propositions with
different subjects.

set

of such

singular

the same predicate and

These

yield the proposiis />,"

tions "

Every S
as

is

"

and " Some S

according

the synthesis of the singular

is

propositions

of

determinative
as

or
it

of
is

an alternative description. Then, possible to have a determinative

alternative synthesis of

or

an

two

universals or of

two

particulars, or to

have either of these

proposition
is

kinds of synthesis

when one

universal and one particular, there will be

presented for consideration a total of six cases.

Three of
ing.

these, viz,^ the determinative syn-

theses, cover the

ground of syllogistic reasonFinally, instead of having to synthesize

propositions with one aggregate of subjects,

it is

possible that

we may have

to deal

with
It
is

two
is

or with

more than two

aggregates.

in the last case that

the proposition

said to contain multiple quantifications.

One

of the

problems

here

met with.

Later Logical Doctrines

175

which Mr. Johnson has shown how to solve, concerns the method of synthesizing these Another multiply-quantified propositions.
problem
thesis
is

where we

are given such a synleast

and have to find the

determinate

alternant that implies

the given synthesis,

or the most

determinate determinant that

the synthesis implies.

He

draws attention
first

to the fact that in the solution of the

problem the important point

is

to

remember
must
subject,

that

" the

external

quantification
as quantified
it

be regarded primarily

and

all

that

is

internal to

as

the predicainstance, the

it

tion for that subject." ^

For

synthesis of " All nis love

different

some

may be
ns^'
s
is

ns

"

and " All rns serve

all

"All
serve

ms
all

(love

some

it

may be
it

different n

and

n s)^' and this reduces to " All nis

(love and serve

some
ns)r

may

be different ns

and serve

all

Here the "All ms^'

is

which
subject,
is

is

the external quantification,

is

the

and what

internal to

it, />.,

what

in

the bracket,

is

the predicate.
3, p.

With

* Mind, N.S. No.

353.

176

Symbolic Logic

regard to the second problem, in selecting

a determinant

from

a synthesis of multiply-

quantified propositions the expression

first

must

be stated

as

a series

of prepositional

alternants.

Then each

of these

may be
In
the

synthesized into a single proposition.

effecting this synthesis

we must make

particular quantifications as far

as possible

external to the universal, the reason being

that

we want minant as we
finally,

to get as determinate a deter-

can, and

it

is

a principle that

internal synthesis has potency over external.

Then,

symbols,

we must and make our

obtaining
the

reject

unnecessary

selection

from the

resulting determinants.
rule
for

From
least
if

this rule the

determinate
interchange

alternant

may be found

we

the words determinative and alternative, and

the words universal and particular.^

It will

be seen that here

we

are dealing

with a subject upon which Boole and Venn So that Peirce, Mitchell, give no hints.
and Johnson,
*

in unfolding the doctrine,

N.S. No.
3, pp.

have

MW,

347, 356, 357.

Later Logical Doctrines

made
But

177

distinct contributions to the Logical

it is

Calculus.

to be
all

noted that, though

this subject,

these writers have

treated

Mr. Johnson shows an advance upon Mr.

Peirce and Dr. Mitchell in the following
respects.

Mr. Peirce did not make

is

it at all

plain that this doctrine of multiply-quantified propositions

a natural continuation of

the doctrine of singly-quantified propositions.

He

first

of

all

worked out the theory of

and
relative multiplication,

relative addition

and showed

how

double quantifications

may

be dealt with by means of these processes.

Then, when he came

to

deal

with cases

where "
plural

relative

and non-relative operations

occur together," and with those involving

relations,
i.e.,

relations
objects,

subsisting

between three or more

he argued

from the point of view of the singular

proposition."^

According

to his treatment,

therefore,

it

would appear

that there

is

no

unity running throughout the Logical Cal* Mind,'^.S. No.

in l^ogic, p. :ioo. 2, pp.

249, 250

Johns Hopkins Studies

178
cuius
:

Symbolic Logic
Boolian principles apply to singlypropositions,

quantified

and

to

cases

of

multiply-quantified propositions, but double

quantifications
principles.

are

dealt

with on different

Mr. Johnson, on the other hand, has shown that the Boolian principles are applicable throughout the whole treatment of the three kinds of
propositions.

Mr.

Peirce's relative addition

and
and

relative

multiplication

may

be expressed in the form

addition

of ordinary
plication.

Boolian

multi-

For

instance,

benefactor of y "
that z
jy,'*

may

" x loves some be read " for some z

is

is

loved by x and
all

a benefactor of

while " X loves

''

but the benefactors

is

of y

may be
a:

read " for every z that z

is

loved by
clearly

or

a benefactor of ^."

It

was

an

advance

when

Mr. Johnson
is

showed
the

that, since

nothing

involved in

Calculus but pure

is

synthesis and pure

in

negation, there

no need for treating

any exceptional manner the cases of double

quantification.

As regards Dr. Mitchell, whose

treat-

^,

Later Logical Doctrines

ment of doubly-quantified
admirable,

179
is

propositions
it

and
that

of
his

whom
work

has

justly

been

said

contains

" the

most important simplification of the Boolian Logic that has appeared," * the one fault
to

be found
that

is

that
is

he seems always
the

to

consider

time

ferentiating

mark.f

He
of

secondary dif" Let \J says

:

stand for the

before, and
let

universe

class

terms,

as

represent

the

universe
in
as

of time,"
case

and in his examples

signification.
is

each

has

this

But,

Mr.

Johnson holds, there

to

no need whatever

limit

the reference in this way.

instance, deal

We
as

can, for
tions as

with such proposijust

"every x loves every ^,"

much
as

as

we

can with

such
ill

propositions

"

all

the

Browns were
year."

during every
in

part

of the
his

Mr. Johnson
doctrine
the
subject

unthis

folding

own
and

avoids

restriction,

treats

in

* Mind, N.S. No. 2, p. 240.

t Mind, N.S. No. 2, p. 247 n, \ Johns Hopkins Studies in Logic,

p.

87.

f
i8o
perfectly

Symbolic Logic
general

way.
is

The

Calculus

as

presented by

him

thus of a
for

more

useful
are in-

character than

that

which we

debted to Dr. Mitchell.

During the
this section I

discussion that has occupied

have not referred to the work

of
the

De Morgan.
first

But he was undoubtedly

with the subject that
it

to deal

we

have been considering,^ and

sible

will be pos-

now to see how far he had advanced. De Morgan was firmly of opinion that
generalised

Logic

ought

to

consider
that

all the

formal laws of relation, and

is

syllogism
ticular

to

be considered
relation.

as

one parasserted

form of

Having
to

this conviction,

he proceeded

deal

with

* See the Trans, of the Camh. Ph'ilosoph. Soc. vol. x. p. 331. f That the work of pioneering was not easy may be inferred

from
form
with

his assertion

"
to

have had to work

my way through

trans-

formations as
is

new

my own

mind,

as far as the separation

of

concerned, as the

beginner.

If there be any person

confidence,
*

common moods who can

what
classes

of syllogism to the
see at a glance,

and

justifiable

of

men, including
all

women,
fusions

are specified in

the non-ancestors of

non-descend-

ants of z,' I should not like to submit to his criticism the con-

and blunders through which

[Loc.
cit. p.

arrived at the following

results."

334.)

Later Logical Doctrines

syllogism from the point
relational
a table

i8i

of view of the

proposition.

First

he drew up

which shows what

are the converse,

the contrary, the converse of the contrary,

and the contrary of the converse, of the

propositions that express such
relations as are involved
in

compounded
this question

the conclusion

of a syllogism.

He

deals

with

of conversion and contrariety in quite the

modern way.
the law

Then he

affirms

that

the

" supreme law of syllogism of three terms,

and

to

which governs every possible case, which every variety of expression

this

must be brought before inference can be

made,
is
:

any

relation

of

compounded with any

gives a relation of

relation

X of Y

to

Y
Z

to

to Z," or that " the

universal and all-containing

form of

syllo-

gism
is

is

seen in the statement of

the necessary consequence

X of X
.

LMZ
.

LY
of

and

MZ.'' ^

When
to
is
p.

this

idea

relation

is

brought

bear on syllogism,

he shows that Figure

* Loc,
cit.

important, " but

347.

82
as

Symbolic Logic
connected with
the place
say
is

not

of the
.

middle term.
or

Whether we
the
figure

X
the

LY
by
the

LY

X,

same.

Change of
this,

figure can be effected only

conversion of relation."

Having explained
tabular

he

exhibits

in

form

conclusions that

may

be reached with two

premises expressing relations.

Here each
by the
finally,

figure has four " phases/' determined

quality only of the premises.

And,

he shows
quantified

how

the ordinary syllogism with

is

subject

resolvable

into

the

simple relational

propositions that he has

been discussing.

Thus

it

will

be seen that

De Morgan

had comprehended the all-important character of singular propositions and of their

synthesis,
for
in

the
his

propositions
table

that
are

he

combines

second

really

the molecular propositions upon which

Mr.

Johnson

lays so

much

emphasis.

And De

Morgan, having shown how two of these may be synthesized, lays it down, though
not
in
so

many

words, that

syntheses of

Later Logical Doctrines

these propositions,
ferent
subjects

183

when
the

consisting of dif-

and

same

predicate,

yield the quantified propositions with

which
But

ordinary Formal Logic

is

concerned.
this.

he did not get any further than

is

to

say,

he did not show that

That the same

principles will explain

how

inferences

may
This

be

obtained

from

propositions

involving

double or multiple quantifications.

subject

was

first

treated

Dr. Mitchell, but in

has

by Mr. Peirce and different ways, and

a
in

been presented

in

complete
the

form

by Mr. Johnson, who,

in question rest

course of

demonstrating that inferences of the kind

upon the principles which we have shown De Morgan was able up

to

certain

point to apply, has

made

it

how the logicians may

clear

writings of the two American

be brought into harmony.

IL Perhaps there Logic which the reader

so perplexing as the
tives."

is is

no

term

in

Ukely to find

term " Logic of Relaunreasonably

supposes

He

not

184

Symbolic Logic
to this part of the subject
to

when he comes
that

he

is

going

consider

all

those

expressions

whose
other

subject and predicate are

is,"

not connected by the copula "

the

but by
that

many

words

or

phrases

frequently join these fundamental portions

of a proposition.
copulce
is

Such general treatment of certainly what the term in

is

question suggests to the mind, and this

the extension that

De Morgan
in
is

at

any rate

had
this

in view.

But

modern
given up

logical
as

works

investigation
it

hopeless,

and instead of
subject

we

are introduced to the

quantifications.

of

multiple

Of

course, such alteration in the subject-matter

need not have involved any confusion, and

some
gated

writers have

made

it

perfectly clear

to their readers
is

that

the problem investi-

no longer the wider one.

But

Mr. Peirce calls the new inquiry by the old name " Logic of Relatives," and such
a procedure
is

very misleading. "^

in Logic^ p.

* Johns Hopkins Studies

192; American Jour,

of Math,

vol.

iii.

Later Logical Doctrines

185
arises

The important
to

question

at

once
is

whether the larger investigation

be
fruitless,
I

bound
is

and, if

so,

why

such

the

case.

think that a general treatment of

logi-

copuls cannot be undertaken bv the

cian, because
a

we need

in

every case to have

piece

of special
the

information
that
is

given

us

beyond
premises.

propositions

form

the

Such information
is

necessary

whether the conclusion

tically

reached syllogisthe
use

or

intuitively without

of

syllogism.
tion
is

That such additional proposibefore copula other than

rules of syl-

required

"

is

" can be
is

brought under the

clear.

logism

very

Take
says
:

the case

menargue,

tioned by Jevons.
for instance, that

He

" If

because Daniel Bernoulli

was the son of John, and John the brother

of James, therefore Daniel w^as the nephew of

James,

it

is

not

possible

to

prove

this conclusion

by any simple
also
is

logical pro-

cess "

we need

to
a

be informed that

the son of a brother

to take a case

nephew.
:

Again,
" If the

mentioned by Venn

86

Symbolic Logic

distance of
mile, that
sired)

A
of

and of B from

is

exactly a

from B

(the

relation

de-

may
;

be anything not exceeding two

the
additional

miles "

here

proposition

would have

to contain information concern-

ing the angular measurements of the triangle

made by

joining the points

occupied

by

the three persons, and to declare in general

terms what, under such

the distance between
as are

circumstances,

is

two persons

situated

A and
a

B.

In

still

more

indefinite cir-

cumstances of relation
possess
still

we

should have to

more complicated piece of

since

information along with the original statements.

Now,
this
as

we must undoubtedly
was once frequently
viz,^

reject the doctrine that

held

on

subject,

that

such

an C,
in

argument
therefore

"A

equals B,

equals

C,"

is,

B equals when put

another form, an actual case of syllogistic

reasoning,

the

opponents of such a view

were quite right when they argued that this putting into another form involves a
petitio principii:

De Morgan,

for

instance,

Later Logical Doctrines

made
this

187
is

reioinder,

and

Keynes
all

in

agreement with
with

him

before
in ot

possible

premises of the kind

dealt

question
there

can be
will

svllogistically
infinite

be

needed an

number

such special

pieces of information, and this

amounts

to

saying that a general treatment of relatives

is

impossible.

If,

on the other hand, the

as

validity of such

arguments

we

are

con-

sidering

is

declared not to be established by

to

means of syllogism, but

evident
as

be

as intuitively
itsell,

the validity of Barbara

I

the

statement means,
there
is

take

it,

that in each case

involved a separate dictum, correto

sponding

the

dictum of the svllogism.

Since, however, the

number
Logic,

of such cases

is

unlimited, there will be an infinite

number
again
is

of

dicta

in

our

which

impossible.

The wav
be
the

out of the difficulty appears to

It

following.

must be admitted
manipulated
syllogistic

that such propositions as the above are not

susceptible

of being

so

that

they

shall

be

put

into

form.

88
it is

Symbolic Logic
absurd to suppose that

Also

we have

at

our disposal an infinite number of major

premises or of dicta. treatment
of
copulas

Hence
is

the general

impossible.

But

what we can do is to admit an arbitrary number of general propositions other than

the dictum de omni^ and the propositions thus

admitted allow of our dealing with a limited

number of arguments
is

like the above.

There
in

special

group of such statements of

the

great

importance, and they occur

region of quantitative mathematics.

to

I refer

the

axioms of

Geometry.

pre-Peanesque point of
regarded either
necessary in
as

From the view these may be

the assumptions that are

order to allow of the appli-

cation of syllogistic reasoning to propositions

of that science, or as of the nature of

i.e.,

dicta^

statements that allow of our drawing

conclusions

by

reference

to

them,

and

without employment of the dictum de omni.

But, inasmuch as some of the assumptions
are

used

only
better

occasionally,

it

seems deof

cidedly

not

to

speak

them

as

Later Logical Doctrines

dicta,

189

but as propositions that are required

for

the

employment of the syllogism

that
is

to

the

material

the

subject

of

the

argument.
It

may

indeed be said that the syllogistic

is

treatment of relative reasoning

priate one

the appro-

on another ground,

viz,^

because

there

is

between the dictum de omni and the

give unique importance to
is

other

general propositions a difference of

as to It

such a kind
the former.

sometimes asked,

as

by

De Morgan,* whether

the axioms of mathe-

matics are not " equally necessary, equally

self-evident, equally incapable of

demonstra-

tion out of
dictum^

more simple elements " with the and, if so, whether the two are not
?

equally important
ever

My view

is

that,

what-

may

be the character of the two kinds

as

of axioms

regards

derivation

and

self-

evidence, they are not of equal importance.

For

in all reasoning

concerning quantities

the dictum de omni

in reasoning
"^

may be employed, while

qualities,

concerning

where, of
338,

Trans, Camb, Philosophy Soc, vol, x.

j).

190

Symbolic Logic
is

course, the dictum

also

needed, the axioms

assist-

of quantitative mathematics afford no

ance.

De Morgan

in

another place * en-

deavours to show that questions of equality

and of identity are formally on an equal

footing, since " the
in

word
''

equals

is

a copula
to

thought, and not a

^"^

notion
is

attached

predicate

and that

logic

an analysis of
actual,

the form of thought,

possible and
to

and the logician has no right

that other than the actual
is

declare

actual."

The
the

answer to
the

this appears to

be that, though
regard
so only

individual

does

actually

" equals "

process
fully

as a copula,

he does
:

by

of abbreviation
is

the

form when

expressed
is

one

of identity.

The

logician

not bound to treat as of funda-

mental importance each kind of abbreviation

that
for

mankind has adopted. him to deal with the

and
to

It

is

enough

fully

expressed

form,

explain,

as

we have done
really

above, that in the case of arguments con-

cerning quantities what

we

have

is

* Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic, pp. 31, 32.

Later Logical Doctrines

a
syllogistic

191
material

process

plus

some

assumptions.
In this discussion

we have

been considerare

ing

cases

in

which only three terms

involved, and the matter has been regarded

from the point of view of ordinary Formal

Logic.
is

In this narrower region the dictum

unique.

But from such statements

it

is

not to be concluded that

we

shall not

when

discussing the generaHsation of logical processes reject the dictum.

It will
it

be rejected,

however, not because

is

not in a unique
it

way of
adopt

formal character, but because

terms, and
are

applies to only three

we must
and

axioms

that

"necessary

sufficient" for

dealing with

arguments of

any degree of complexity.

At

first

sight the above statement of the

case appears perhaps to agree

with the view

is

that Boole adopted.

But there

really

no

such agreement.
logic
is

Boole held that general

quantitative mathematics with the

left

quantity element
class

out,

that

is

to

say,

logic

and

quantitative

mathematics

192
participate
in

Symbolic Logic
the nature of general logic,
addition
It

and

have

in

their
to

own

special

characteristics.

seems

me, on

the

other hand, that there are not two species of the genus general logic
logic,
logic,
is
:

there

is

one

and

that
all

is

class
is

or
in

propositional

and

that there

mathematics

such logic, together with some material

assumptions concerning quantitative objects.

No
in

argument whatever can be carried on quantitative mathematics without the

or implicit application of class or

explicit

propositional logic at every step.

Certainly

Boole appeared to establish two species of

reasoning,

when he
to

applied the symbols of

mathematics

the manipulation of arguclasses

;

ments involving
really

but what he was

doing was to show

if

how
in

qualitative
it

reasoning,

we employ

symbols

analogous to those that represent quantitative objects

far

and processes,

may

be extended

beyond the

limits of the old syllogistic

arguments.

To

put the matter in a word,

even from the standpoint of pre-Peanes(^ue

Later Logical Doctrines

notions
it is

193

better to recognise only the so-

called specific logic of quality,

and to regard

quantitative reasoning as merely qualitative

reasoning together w^ith certain assumptions

concerning the relations of quantities.

As

Dr. Shadv^orth H. Hodgson says,"^* formal logic " is a system wholly unrestricted in its
range," or, as he adds, class Logic
is

" the

Logic of the whole nature of any and every

object of thought, of
^z//^,
its

What,

rl ea-nv,

of

its

which includes both its ^ak and its ^antumr That is to say, class Logic has to do with the relation of classes whether
qualitatively or quantitatively determined.
It

need hardly be said that though Jevons

of
the
necessity

speaks

of

there

being
pro-

additional

information,
I

before

the

position that

have quoted from him can

be

manipulated,

he

does

not

make any

general statement on the subject.

evidently considers that
all

And

he

such arguments

form

a class distinct

from the miscellaneous

brings
vol.
ii.

selection

which

he
N.S.

forward
N

in

* Proc,

Ar'tst, Soc.

pp. 135, 136.

194

Symbolic Logic

illustration of his principle of Substitution.

My

view

is

rather that his illustrations are

special

cases
is

of

relative

reasoning,

and

that this

not in general possible except

that
I

on the
indicate.

lines

have endeavoured to

So long
doctrines

as

we do
is,

not

make

use of the

which

have
I

been

unfolded

by

Peano, the above

believe, the best

is

way

to regard the reasoning that

involved in

quantitative mathematics.
as

Peano's method,

will

be explained in the next section,

allows of our dispensing with these arbitrary

assumptions

all

the material that

is

is

dis-

cussed in Mathematics
pressible in terms

regarded

as

ex-

of variables and logical

as

constants,

and so

susceptible of being

manipulated by the rules of Symbolic Logic.

Such

way of approaching
improvement.

the subject

is

a great
it
is

is

At the same time obviously desirable to observe what

the proper

reasoning if

way to we are

regard mathematical
confined to the pre-

Peanesque point of view.

The important

Later Logical Doctrines

matter, however, for
is

195

our
this

present
discussion

purpose
about

to

notice

that

Mathematics arose because we found that

it
is

impossible

to

estabhsh

Logic of

Relatives in

the sense of a general treat-

ment of copula.

When

it

is

stated, as

was the case

section,

at

the

commencement
ally

of

this

that

the

expression " Logic of Relatives " as gener-

used refers only to the operations per-

formed upon propositions involving multiple

quantifications,
it

is

not meant to suggest

is

that

this

investigation

not

important.

On
I

the contrary, as will have been gathered

earlier

from the

portion

of this

chapter,

think that

we have

here a development

of the greatest interest.

An

investigation

of the principles, according to which results

concerning multiple quantifications

may be

reached, naturally follows the study of the

subject-matter of ordinary Symbolic Logic,
in

which, of course,

we

are concerned

with

singly-quantified propositions.

196

Symbolic Logic

III.

We

have

now

traced the developto the furthest

ment of SymboHc Logic up

by Frege, Peano, and
this

point that was reached before the

Russell.
I

work done
propose in

section

to

these writers

make clear in what way have shown that the subject

was supposed up
to

can deal in a direct manner with material

with which
time that
it

it

their
all,

could deal either not at

or

only in an indirect manner.

in the last section

We

have seen

that

Boole,

Venn, and

Schroder could not bring within the scope

of their procedure the deductions of Mathematics, except

by making arbitrary assump-

tions concerning the

are related.

way
dealt

certain quantities

That
be

is

to say,

mathematical

material

could

with

by
so

these

logicians only in an indirect manner.

alternative
to

this

procedure

The
far
as
is

pre-Peanesque doctrines are concerned

to

adopt

Kant's

view

that

mathematical

demonstrations

owe

their certainty, just as

to
special

do

syllogistic

inferences,

exer-

Later Logical Doctrines

cises

197
validity

of an intuitional faculty.

The

of the dictum de omni and the validity of

the axioms of Mathematics must on this
viev^ be held to stand

on an equal footing

each must be held to be intuitively obvious.

There v^ould thus be

tative

tw^o branches of de-

ductive reasoning, that concerned with quali-

and that concerned with quantitative

to

objects.

Concerning these two views

involves
us
in

it

is

be

noted that they are not satisfactory.

first

The
uncer-

obviously

an

tain
7nay

number of assumptions.
be
based

The

second

on

faulty

philosophical

analysis.

For there

are

many

philosophers

who

hold that the facts of experience do

not justify us in asserting the existence of a

faculty such as that

which Kant

described,

and, therefore, do not permit us to declare

that the validity of the truths assumed in

Mathematics
philosophers

is

intuitively obvious.

Such
felt

explain

the
as

certainty

in

adopting these truths

due

to the accu-

mulated

results

of

special

experiences.

198

Symbolic Logic
both
of
these

Now

explanations
true^

of

the

mathematical axioms cannot be

both Kantians and their

though
con-

critics

may

tinue to hold that their respective statements

correctly account for the characteristics of

mathematical reasoning.
In short, since the earlier Symbolic Logic could not deal in a satisfactory manner with
the deductions of Mathematics, and since
it

may be
relation

that mathematical axioms do not

really rest

on intuition, the subject of the

of

Logic

to

Mathematics was,
This

previous to the time of Peano, in a state

that

demanded

careful consideration.

consideration has been given by Peano and

his followers.

What

they have done

is

to

take mathematical ideas and analyze them,

so as to arrive at the general notions that

are

involved

in

the

various parts of the

all

science.

Then

these notions are

shown
and

to be expressible in terms of variables

logical

constants,
all

the latter being notions

in

that are
fied

definable

terms of a speci-

number of

indefinables.

The

resulting

Later Logical Doctrines

with by the ordinary
Logic,
seen
that
to
it

199

propositions are susceptible of being dealt

rules

of Symbolic
is

and

in

this
its

way Mathematics
validity

derive

from the

fact

depends on principles of a logical

character.

This view of the subject has been

fully
T!he

expounded by Mr. Russell

Principles of Mathematics,

in his

work

He

thinks that

the

analysis

of mathematical

conceptions

reveals the fact that there are

some eight or
by which

nine of these general notions, and he maintains

that

the logical constants

such notions

may be
:

expressed require only

these indefinables

implication between pro-

positions, relation of a

member

to

class

of which
such
that,,

it

is

member, the notion of

of relation, and the

the notion

notions involved in formal implication.*

To
his

put the matter in a sHghtly different

is

form, Mr. Russell

occupied throughout
his

book

in

justifying

definition

of
:

Pure Mathematics, which runs

* The Principles of Mathematics^
p.

as follows
1

1.

200

Symbolic Logic
is
""

" Pure Mathematics

positions of the

the class of

all

pro-

form

implies q^ where

p and
or

are

propositions

containing
in

one

more

variables,

the

same

the

two

propositions, and neither

p nor

q contains

any

constants

except logical

constants.'' ^

Here the notion of implication connecting p and q involves some of the indefinables of
Symbolic Logic, and, when
observe of what
find

we come

to

p and

q are composed,

we

that they are

composed of
in

variables,

the same in

each, and

of certain logical

constants that are expressible

terms of

the other indefinables.

Now

on

this

view

it

is

clear

that

the

which Symbolic Logic stands to Mathematics is quite changed. Previous to the work of Peano the two disciplines
relation in

were regarded
qualitative

as

occupied respectively with

quantitative
objects.

and with

Symbolic
with
matics
the
is

Logic

could

not

deal

directly

material

upon

which

Mathe-

occupied, and Mathematics could

*^

Loc.

c'tt.

p. 3.

Later Logical Doctrines

201

not of course solve problems with respect

to

qualitative

objects.

But on the new

solve both kinds

view Symbolic Logic can

of problems,
kinds are
or,

more
to
deals.

correctly,

the

two
this

reduced

one,

and with

Symbolic

Logic

Symbolic

Logic

may

thus be regarded as synonymous with

deductive reasoning.

Perhaps the most important of the notions

of the
relation

new
it
is

doctrine

is

that respecting the

to

of an
a

individual

the

class

of

which
bolist

member.

The
is

older

sym-

considered that there

a

no need to
this

make

distinction
a
class

between
to

relation
;

and that of

wider

class

in

other words, he held that the singular proposition

may

be treated

as a special case

of

the universal.
this

Venn,

for
it

instance,
in

adopts

view, and applies

p.

working the

example on

345 of
is

his

Symbolic Logic,

As

it

happens, there

no

difficulty in that

problem
any

in passing over the distinction in

question, for the premises do not contain

alternatives
in

the

predicates.

But,

202

Symbolic Logic
disjunctive
at

when

predicates

do

occur,

it

becomes
tradictory

once apparent that the conof

the
predicate
as
is

not

of

the
tory

same

description
classes

the

contradic-

where
are

are

involved.

When
classes

we
the
this

dealing

throughout
of
(x-^-y)

with
is

contradictory

xy,

and

may

be combined with

the

subjectzero.

term, and the whole be equated to

But when the subject-term

is

singular the

contradictory of the predicate

(x+y) will

not be xy, but either this combination or

one of the two impossible combinations of

the three xy^ xy, xy
;

or, as Vailati

puts the

matter, in the case oi cea

are classes,
it

+ b^ where
in

a and b

follows that one of the two,

is

cea or ceb^
where
either
c c

true,
class,

whereas
there
to
is

c>a-\-b^
for
Still

h
>a

no need
true.^'

or

>b
is

be

another

way of

distinguishing the relation

where an individual
relation of classes
is

involved from the

to say that the relation

in the latter but not in the

* Revue de Metaphysique
et

former case
vii.

is

de Morale^ vol.

No.

I, p.

97.

Later Logical Doctrines

transitive."*'

203
to

Peano was the

to this

first

give

prominence
reference

unique character of the

class,

of an individual to a

but

Frege

in the Grundgetze der Arithmetik

had

recognised the existence of the great difference between the

two

relations. f

The
in

importance

of

making the

distinction

question becomes especially observable

the attempt
is

when

made

to bring

mathematical

conceptions within the scope of Symbolic

Logic.
to

For these conceptions

implications
/.f.,

are

found

be equivalent to

between
classes,

prepositional functions,

between

whose elements
a

are propositions stating the

relation of an individual to a class of

it is

which Mr.
to

member.

It

may

here

be
that

remarked

that
is

Whitehead holds
identified

Mathematics

be

with

deductive

reasoning,:]:

and
all

that the discipline can take the place of

intellectual
exercises,

except
p.

philosophy,
19.

* The Principles
t
Russell,
loc.

of

Mathematics^

c'lt.

pp. 19, 512.

i.

Treatise on Universal Algebra^ toI.

p. viii.

204

Symbolic Logic

inductive reasoning, and imaginative

positions.

com-

In

the

earlier

portion

of this

statement Mr. Whitehead does not identify

SymboHc
ing, but
latter. It

Logic

w^ith

deductive

reason-

makes the former up precisely the

Russell,

a species of the

will thus be seen that

he does

not take
as

same position
deductive

Mr.

v^ho

identifies

reasoning with Symbolic Logic, and represents this discipline as

somewhat wider

in

character than Mathematics.

The

second
I

portion
think,

of the

above statement needs,

I

some

elucidation.

presume Mr.
Logic

Whitehead
deductive

means
is

that

Symbolic

(when the term

time

used as equivalent to

reasoning)

cannot

at

the

same
the
this
this

work problems and enunciate principles upon which it rests, and in

I

should

agree
us

with
in

him.
stating

But
that

hardly justifies

philo-

sophy

is

excluded from
latter

Symbolic Logic.
any others.

For the

can manipulate philosophical

as

arguments quite

much

as

That

is

to say, if our premises give informa-

Later Logical Doctrines

tion

205

of a philosophical

character

we

can

deal with them, and

we

shall arrive in

our

conclusion
character.

at

information

of

similar

As

regards inductive reasoning, the ques-

tion arises
different
is

whether

this

is

really

anything

from deductive reasoning.

to

There

good deal

view when

be said for Mr. Russell's " What is called he remarks

:

induction appears to
guised

me
a

to be either

dis-

deduction
plausible

or

mere
this

method of
I

making
myself
truth

guesses."*
that

do

not the

consider

expresses

of the

matter,
is,

for

the

process

of

generalisation
clear in his
as

as

Venn

makes

quite

'Empirical Logic^ as

important
subsequent

the original insight or the

verification.
is

Mr.

Russell's view,

however,

that in induction

we

are really concerned

to those

with statements similar

which

are

found in pure Mathematics.

He

would

thus consider that the statement

conditions of

" If the

the
* Loc,

Method
clt, p.

of

Difference

II w.

2o6
are
fulfilled,

Symbolic Logic
the
cause
that
will

always
investi-

produce
gation
similar

the

phenomenon

under
is
:

has
to

been

discovered "
as

precisely

such a statement

" If two

sides of a triangle are equal

each to each,

and

if

the included angles are equal, the

bases are equal/'

And

just as the principles

of Peano will allow of our manipulating

the
bolic
latter

proposition by means of

Sym-

Logic, so Russell would argue that

by the same means may the former be

manipulated.

The

other

doctrine,

asserted

by

Mr.

Whitehead, namely, that Symbolic Logic

cannot be of service in the production of
imaginative literature,
is

undoubtedly

true.

The

statement
the

holds
earlier

whether
or

we
the

are
later

speaking of

of

application of the Calculus.

tion
is

For imaginacomparatively

most effectively employed when the

of

faculty

pure

reason
and,
is

is,

speaking,

quiescent,

therefore,
a

when
for

the

Calculus,

which

substitute
is

the exercise of pure reason,

not being

Later Logical Doctrines

employed.
forces are

207

In other words, the associative

more important

for

enabUng the
forces

individual to reach conceptions of beauty,

while, for reaching the true, such

must be held
In order to
the school

in check,

and there must be

an observance of logical rule.

make

clear the
treats

way

in

which

of Peano

mathematical

conceptions

we may

refer to the subject of

integers and of their addition and multiplication.

possible

Mr. Russell demonstrates that it is to define numbers in such a way

the
rules

that they are seen to be susceptible of being

manipulated by

of Logic.

number may be
classes,
/>.,

defined as a class of similar

of classes whose members are

;

correlated one to one

and, since classes

may
Thus

be

logically

treated,

numbers

are

brought within the scope of Pure Logic.

the
various

arithmetical

operations

that are performed

expressed

in

upon numbers may be For inlogical language.

is

stance, addition

definable

thus

" If k

* The Principles of Mathematics ^ pp. 113, 115.

2o8
be a
class

Symbolic Logic
of classes no two of which have

any

common
sum
of k

terms

(called

for

short

an

exclusive class of classes), then

the arith-

metical
classes

of the numbers of the various

is

logical

number of terms in the Mr. Russell calls sum of k^ ^

the

special attention to the fact that in bring-

ing addition of numbers within the scope

of Pure Logic

it

is

essential

to

speak of

the numbers as classes of

there
is

classes.

Unless

such reference

to

the latter,

we

should
a

never be able to take account of

term.
If
a

repeated

sum of numbers
of numbers,
is

be spoken of merely
then, supposing the

as a class

number

repeated,

we

cannot take account of this repetition,

in

since

Logic

+ 1 = 1.
in

On
mind
class,

the
a

other

hand,

when we have
class,

class

of
in

classes, if 1

occurs in one

and again

another

such number

may
all

be taken

account of in each case, for

the terms of

the one class are different from the terms of the other.
* Loc,
cit. p.
1 1

8.

Later Logical Doctrines

Just as addition of integers

209
ex-

may be

pressed as a logical or

sum of terms
multiplication
a

of two

more

classes,

so

may

be

expressed
class.

as

sum of terms of
Mr.
is

single

The

definition of the latter process

Russell,
:

as

presented by

who

follows

Mr. Whitehead,
a class of classes,

as follows

" Let k be

no two of which have any

term

in

common.

Form what
k, ie,,
is

is

called

the multiplicative class of

the class

each of whose terms

a class

formed by

choosing one and only one term from each Then the of the classes belonging to k.

number of terms
of k
the
is

in the multiplicative class

all

the product of
classes

the numbers of
k.''

various

composing

This

definition has the advantage of introducing

no order among the numbers multiplied, and it applies both to finite and to infinite
classes."*

It is

thus seen that from the Peanesque

point of view numbers

may

be defined

as

classes of a certain kind,

and addition and

p.
1
1

* The Principles of Mathematics,

9.

2IO

Symbolic Logic

multiplication of
as logical

numbers may be expressed

In a similar

addition of terms.

way

it

may
which

be shown that the other proare

cesses

performed upon numbers

as

may be
And,

expressed

logical

processes.

just as

numbers may be
so,

dealt

with by

the pure logician,

Mr.

Russell shows,

may be
mental.
I

the

other

general

mathematical

notions that analysis reveals to be funda-

have

mentioned

three
as

writers

who
just

expound such doctrines

been considering.

we have
that

My

object has been to

show the advanced

Peano,
regard

position

Frege,

and
to
It

Russell

have

assumed
of

with

the

application
not,

Symbolic

Logic.

must
there

however, be supnot
considerable

posed

that

are

differences
writers.

between the

views

of

these
is

The

points

in

which there
call

disagreement are

numerous, and

for

some

consideration.

As
IS

regards the

two

latter writers
first

there

a difference, in the

place, as to the

Later Logical Doctrines

211

notions that are to be taken as indefinable,

and, secondly, as
are
to to
as

the propositions that

primitive.

be taken

We

have
as
as

already

enumerated
by
:

the

indefinables

given
follows

Mr.

Russell.

Peano's

are

" Class, the

relation
it
is

of an
a

indi-

vidual to a class of

which
contain

member,

the notion

of a term, implication where

the same varithe

both propositions
ables,
/>.,

formal

implication,

simul-

taneous

affirmation

of

two
These
as

propositions,

the notion of definition, and the negation

of a

proposition." *
part

are

for

the

most

the

same

those

given

by

Mr.

Russell, but
to

the latter writer rightly

as

prefers

take

ultimate
all

the

simulta-

neous affirmation of
a
class,

the propositions of
that

and maintains

formal

and

material implication

should be both

men-

tioned

among

the indefinables.
is

Moreover,

he thinks there
tion
a

no need
idea,

to

make negaif

primitive

since,

we

start

with propositions rather than with

* The Principles of Mathematics,
P-

classes,

27.

f
'

212
it
is

Symbolic Logic
possible to

show

that

all

propositions

respecting

negation

are

only other forms

This prinof the principle of Reduction. " If /> implies p and ciple runs thus
:

implies

q^

then

'

"/>

implies q'' implies

/>

implies ^,"

where
to

of

course

nothing

is

involved but implication.*

Coming
Russell

primitive
that
it is

propositions,

Mr.
to

urges

not

desirable

have one merely to describe the product

of two
classes,

but

that

instead

of such

proposition one should be stated respecting

the

product

of

class

of

classes

for,

unless the latter procedure be adopted,

we

cannot describe the product of the

contained in an
there
is

classes

infinite to

class.

Similarly,

no reason

have two axioms to

is

say respectively that ah

contained in a
in

and

b^

and that ba
:

is

contained
class

each

of these

then

we when we
if

speak of a

of

classes,

obtain the logical product

classes,

of the contained
reference
*

there will be no

to

the

order

of

the
j-

terms.
c'tt.

On

this last point see loc. at. pp. 17, 31.

Loc.

p. 30.

Later Logical Doctrines

Finally,
in

213

connexion with

his

discussion
is

of primitive propositions, Peano

define

led to
is

the null-class as the class

in

which

contained
does

every

class.

Mr.
this

Russell

not

disagree

with

definition,

but he points out that, in order to accept

it,

Peano must be
a

explicit

as

to

what
is

is

meant by the
implies "a;
is

assertion

that "
all

zn a

"

^
to

for

values

of x,

Peano

hesitates

say

whether

this

im-

plication does or

does not involve that x

must be an
view that
case,
all
it
is

a^

but inclines to adopt the

But, if such were the
'

does.
a

" X
'

implies

'

is

for

values of x "

(which, following Peano,

as

we must
for to

take

equivalent
as

to

<

i)

could not be
utter

taken

definition

of 0,

such

an

implication
has

would
if

be to say that

both
the

and has not

hand,

members.

On

other

we
all

adopt the view that in the " ;c is an a' implies x is

*"

implication
a
/^
'

'

for

values of x "

we

are not

confined to the

xs

that

actually

are

aSy

no

contradic-

214
tion
is

Symbolic Logic
involved in dealing with the null-

class.^'

From

these considerations
that, w^hile

think

it

may

safely be said

Peano has gone

further than his predecessors, on the above-

mentioned points Mr. Russell occupies the

correct position, and so shows an advance

upon Peano.

The

other

logician

who

has seen

that

Symbolic Logic may deal with more problems than were contemplated by Boole,

Venn and
looked.
in

Schroder,

is

Frege.

This writer's

importance has until

lately

been quite over-

Venn, whose

historical researches so productive

Logic have usually been

of valuable results, passes

him over with

but scant attention, merely remarking that " Here again we have an instance of an
ingenious

man working

out a scheme

this case a very

cumbrous one

in

in apparent

ignorance that anything better of the kind

had ever been attempted before.

obvious defect in this scheme
* Loc*
cit,

The

is

the inor-

pp. 32, 38.

Later Logical Doctrines

dinate
display.

215
for
its

amount of space demanded

Nearly half
a

page

is

sometimes

expended on an implication which, with

any
reasonable
notation,

could

be

comno

pressed into a single line." *

This obseris

vation

upon Frege's cumbrousness

justified,

doubt fully
trines,
as

but his logical dochas

Mr.
of

Russell

shown,

are

deserving

much more

attention

than

Venn
firstly,

has given to them.

I

Frege's chief excellence consists,

in

think,

recognising
propositions

the

importance

of

considering

and their impli-

cations as fundamental,t and, secondly, in

perceiving that, without making arbitrary

assumptions,
it
is

possible to bring certain

mathematical arguments within

of Symbolic Logic.
In the
first

the scope

chapter

contended that,

so far as

we

are concerned
(say)

with the problems discussed

it

by Venn,

does not matter whether symbols repre* Symbolic Logic, pp. 493, 494. f
It should be noted that
to
this

Mr. MacColl had drawn

atten-

tion

importance

two years before the

Begriffsschrift

was published.

2i6
sent
I

Symbolic Logic
terms or
represent
that

propositions,

but
to
is

quite admit

when we attempt
it

extend the scope of Symbolic Logic

preferable
to
let

symbols

represent

pro-

positions rather than classes."*

Frege's prothat

positional

calculus

closely

resembles

adopted by Mr. Russell.

There

are,

how-

ever, certain important differences

between

the

two.

For instance,

Frege considers

that if a occurs in a proposition, the latter

may
that,

always be resolved into a and a statea^

ment about

whereas Mr. Russell holds

analysis
is

though such

possible in the

case of an expression of the

is

form " Socrates

a man,'' the analysis to deal

is

is

not possible

when
as
is

we have
" Socrates

with such a statement

implies Socrates

man

mortal." f

With
that

respect to Frege's extension of the

it is

scope of Symbolic Logic

to

be observed

he made

a start in the direction that

Peano and Russell have pursued with such

* See note on
t Loc.
cit.

p. 9.

pp. 84, 85.

Later Logical Doctrines

important
is

217

results.

Especially

noteworthy
numbers.
they are

his

treatment

of

cardinal
as

These he defines very much

defined above,
really
classes.
i.e.^

he shows that they are

But he makes the strange

the

assertion

in

Grundlagen der Arithmetik

to actually

that

numbers cannot be applied

Russell
\w

existing things, but only to class-concepts.^

I
is

think with Mr.

incorrect,
since,

that

this

view

those
set
is

cases

where

Frege says that the same

have
difi^erent

of objects

may

numbers,

it

not really the

same objects that

are being considered.

That there

are several points of difference

set forth
as

between Frege's doctrine and that

by Mr. Russell
latter writer

is

very certain, but,

the

remarks, they are few as com-

pared with the points of agreement.

Of

the truth of one statement of fundamental

importance both writers are

namely,
that
a

fully convinced,

" proposition

concerning

every does not necessarily result

from enucatalogue."
519.

meration

of the

entries

in

a
p.

* The Principles of Mathematics y

21

Symbolic Logic
as

They hold as against Mill, and Kelly who in attacking Frege

against

practically

takes

up Mill's position

that general pro-

positions

may
a

frequently be established by

means of
cases

procedure which does not in-

volve previous reference to the individual

that
are

covered

by the

universal

term.*
In concluding this account of the newer
doctrines,
I

think

it is

important to show that

in

their acceptance

agreement with the

to unfold in
I

view that

endeavoured
of this
it

the

second section

chapter.

there

maintained that

has been correctly held

is

that a Logic of Relatives

impossible.

In

the present section

Russell
takes
as

we have
It

seen that

Mr.

one

of his

indefinables

the

notion

of relation.
that

may

appear,
a

therefore,

there

is

here
is

involved

contradiction.

But such

not the case.

is

What was
a logic a general

proved above to be impossible

deal with
all

that can

copute in

manner,

just as ordinary
p.

Formal

* The Principles of Mathematics,

522.

Later Logical Doctrines

219

Logic can by means of the dictum deal with

whose terms are connected by the copula "is." It was shown that,
all

propositions

owing
a

to

the infinite

number of
to

different

kinds of copula that exist, there cannot be

dictum by reference

which any two

any
of

or

more
in

propositions

containing

these

copute can

be synthesized.
be
a

There
that

cannot,
rests

other words,

logic

upon what may be called a Universal But it is quite true that the Dictum. subject of relations, when by this is meant
the
doctrine
of

multiple

quantifications,

forms part of the material with which the

symboHc
mate,

logician has to deal.

The
that

notion
ulti-

of relation will thus for the logician be

and

the

propositions

contam

the quantitative terms as subjects

synthesized
scribed
in

may be
was
de-

the

way
first

that

above in the

section.

Thus
so

mathematical notions
volve
the

may

quite well in-

notion

of relation,

and

be

treated logically, and yet a Logic of Relatives in

any other sense than the doctrine of

220

Symbolic Logic

multiple quantifications
bility.

may

be an impossi-

And, once more, there is no contradiction between Mr. Russell's view that classes,

owing
consist

to

the

fact

that

they

sometimes
terms,

of

an

infinite

number of
that,

should be defined by reference to intension,

and
be

Mr. Johnson's doctrine

synthesized,

multiply-quantified

propositions
is

when come to
to
classes.*'

there

reference

the individuals that constitute the

This

reference

is

essential

whether

the

classes contain

an infinite or a finite

number

of members, and whether

the classes are

formed by enumeration of objects or by

reference to attributes.
* See on
this
i.

point an important note

p. 28.

by Mr. Johnson

in

Mind, N.S. No.

CHAPTER

VII

THE UTILITT OF SYMBOLIC LOGIC

I

PROPOSE

in

this

concluding chapter to
is

indicate

briefly

what

the utiHty of the

Symbolic
have traced
educational

Logic whose
in the

development

we
the the

preceding pages.
arising

Of

advantages

from

concentration of thought, that the discipline

demands,

it

is

impossible to speak too

the educational utility
is

highly.

On

all sides

of mathematical ^ study

recognised, but

venture to state that Symbolic Logic takes

no second place
also,

in this respect.

Probably,

every one would allow that the general-

ised

treatment

of

thought throws
that

much
in

light
special

upon problems
or
syllogistic

appear

the
re-

treatment.

As

gards the direct utility of the discipline,

*
I

am

here using this term

221

in

the sense in which

it

was

understood previous to the time of Peano.

222
the question
readily

Symbolic Logic
is

somewhat complex.
that

It

may

be

granted

natural

science

cannot make any direct

Logic.

use of Symbolic

Mathematics
science

is

absolutely necessary

for an insight into

many
is

of Nature's laws,
not

but

natural

immediately

furthered by the rules of the logical calculus.

Jevons seemed to think that the

in

facts point

the other
is

direction,

for

he held that

science

advanced by means of the Substi-

tution of Similars.

But the truth

the

is

that

science

must

supply

premises

upon

which the symbolic

It
is,

logician

may

bring to

bear his mechanical contrivances.

I

think, quite true

to assert that
assists

Jevons believed that Symbolic Logic

in the

advancement of
is,

science.

His posiC.

tion on the subject

however, not always

E.

perfectly

clear.

As Mr.

Benecke
elabo-

points out,* while in

the former part of

is

the Principles of Science a calculus

rated, there
is

no reference
the
later

to

such con-

struction

in

parts,
ii.

where the
p.

Proc. of Arist. Soc, N.S. vol.

141.

The Utility
are
discussed.

of Symbolic Logic
in
Still,

223

methods employed
that

the various sciences

Jevons

definitely

asserted
is

" the

Substitution

of Similars
to

phrase
the

which
capacity
in

seems
of

aptly

ex-

press

mutual

replace-

ment
are

existing
like

any two objects which

to a
sufficient

or

equivalent

degree," * and " in every act of inference

or scientific

method we

are

engaged about

a certain identity, sameness, similarity, likeness,

resemblance, analogy, equivalence or

equality apparent between

two

objects." f

Nothing could be We must ments.

regard Jevons
cal
as

clearer than these state-

not, therefore, I think,

first

developing a logias

calculus,

and then

proceeding

to

deal

with

scientific

methods.

Rather the
do

whole of

his Principles of Science has to

(as

with the methods of science

Robertson
than
the
says,

Croom
rather

" the

Methods,
Science,

Principles,
a

of

would,
title

perhaps, be

more appropriate
Science^ p.

for

* The Principles of
j*

17.

Loc.

cit. p.

I.

224
the

Symbolic Logic

book

as

it

stands'*),

and the
is

latter

portion

of the

volume

engaged
distinct

not

upon an investigation quite

that

from

which occupies the former part, but with the work of ascertaining " when and for what purposes a degree of similarityless

than

complete

identity

is

sufficient

to

warrant
is

substitution."

This substitube the funda-

tion

all

along

held

to

mental process.

To resume the main discussion of this section, we have said that Symbolic Logic
does not directly lead us to any
in natural science.
It
is,

new

truths

however, by no
at all,

means the

case that

no new truth
the

but

only a recognition in another form of the

information

contained

in

premises

is

reached

by means of the
a

calculus.
is

For

what

is

new

truth

It

an accurate

subject-predicate combination that an indi-

vidual forms, but

which has never

the
history

till

then

been formed

in

of the race.

Now

such a combination

deductively or

may be reached It was a new inductively.

The Utility
truth

of Symbolic Logic
I.

225

when
truth

the conclusion of Euc.

was
a

for the first

time reached, just

as it

47 was
a

new

when Adams and

planet

Leverrier
In

discovered

the

Neptune.

second sense a truth

when, though well

full force

may be said to be new known to science, the

time grasped by the

of the subject-predicate combinathe

first

tion

is

for

mind of

a student.

Here again the above-

mentioned

combinations

may

take

equal

rank in their claims to be designated new.

And,
results

just

as

in

pure

Mathematics

the

may

constitute

new

truths in both of

the above senses, so in Symbolic Logic

we

may new

be said in the same senses to reach a

truth.

For instance, the

first

difficult

prob-

lem that was

result that

solved by Boole * gave a

was true and altogether new, and

this solution,

which

is

well

known

to

all

symbolists,

is

the occasion of the experience

of a

new

truth in the

mind of each
it

student

of the subject.

Moreover, though
* Boole,

be correct,

as

we

Laws

of Thought, pp. 146- 148.

226
have
seen,

Symbolic Logic
to

say

that

SymboHc

Logic

cannot directly

assist

the individual in his

scientific pursuits or in his daily affairs, the

indirect

help

of

the
is

discipline

in

such
insig-

spheres of practice
nificant.

by no means

Mankind

is

consciously or semi-

consciously
that turn
that the

much

occupied with questions

relations of classes, so

upon the

manner of looking at things which the logical study makes habitual cannot
to

fail

be of service in practical concerns.

Instead of confining himself to things that

are seen, the logician spontaneously
is

led to
It

regard the things that are not seen.

has

become
as

custom with him

to consider the
x.

x
is

of equal value with the

The

truth

not that his logically developed habits are

not applicable to the
affairs

of practical

life,

but rather that he will so weigh the pros

and cons of a question that his active forces

will be apt to suffer

from

a certain paralysis.

The man
a

of strong will,

who

is

possessed of

vivid idea of one

is

aspect of a practical
likely to achieve a

problem,

much more

The Utility
both

of Symbolic Logic

227

great deal than the

sides.
it is

man who
the

sees accurately

Hence

dilemma

faces

us

whether

better to act vigorously, and

that has to be revised and

accomplish

much

largely undone, or to produce only a small

amount, but such

as

needs

little alteration.

Now,
is

if

the study of Symbolic

Logic

thus indirectly of use in natural science

in
is

and

ordinary

affairs,

then a fortiori the

study
I

of service to the philosopher.

it

For
in

take

that

we

philosophize rather

order to

know

than in order to act, and

is

therefore in Philosophy there

no danger
side

whatever arising from seeing the other

of a question.
principles
striking
I

think, moreover, that the

of Symbolic Logic

point

in

manner

to the fact that in Philo-

sophy
a

we

can reach nothing simpler than

duality,

however
to

far

we

press our inves-

tigations.

to
for

unity

God, instance appear

this

Attempts

to to

reduce the world

Self,

to

Nature,
to
fail.

to be

doomed
1

In

extreme case

our

means

the

totality of the existent, the universe in the

228

Symbolic Logic
acceptation

common
necessity

of that

term.

As
this

before, x-\-x = l of necessity,

and with
stop.

we

are

obliged

to

We

cannot estabHsh the existence of x only, for

at the outset

of an attempt

at

such demonin

stration

we become

involved
let

self-con-

x stand for "God," then x will stand for " not-God."

tradiction.

For instance,

we attempt non-existence of x^ we

Now,
in

if

to

demonstrate

the

shall be

proceeding
shall

an

absurd
if

manner,

for

we

be

assuming,
reasoning,
X,

not ourselves, at any rate our

is

which evidently
this

a part of the

An
be

opponent of
regarded

argument might
form of Divine
thus

perhaps affirm that the

well
as

human proof may

a

reasoning.

God would

be

proving
it

His own exclusive

existence.

But

is

obvious that the circumstances under which

such Divine ratiocination would be taking

place

would be such

that a

human
as

thinker
his

was recognising the argument

construction.

own

and his

Hence the human thinker thought would still be distinct from

The Utility
the Divine.

of Symbolic Logic
similarly, in

229

And,

our other
is

efforts to reach unity, the

argument

based

on the assumption of an ultimate duality.

It

should be observed here

that

do
this

not

maintain

that

the

existence

of

duality can be proved

by

logical rule, but

only that the principles of Symbolic Logic

point to the circumstance that

we

cannot
is

demonstrate the fact of unity.

say, if a

That

to

Calculus of the kind v^e have de-

scribed

be

accepted,
necessity

such

acceptance

in-

volves the

of our being content

to stop short v^ith a philosophical duality.

In

other v^ords, if

wt

adopt the formula

the whole of

x-\-x

=l

as

we do throughout

the Calculus

then

in the limit, />.,

where

means the
object

totality of the existent,

whatever

may

represent, there will always

it

appear along with

another object

x.

The remarks
bolic

that

we have made with

SymLogic

respect to the utility of the ordinary

Logic apply

also to the so-called

of Relatives.

In this further study

we do
or con-

not arrive at anything

more general

230
jectural

Symbolic Logic
than the
multiply-quantified
start.

prois

positions with

which we

There

here,

therefore,

no instrument by which

the

problems of natural science

may
and
in

be

solved.

But the educational advantage and

assistance

indirect

of the

study,

the

possibility of reaching

new

truths,

the

sense that

we have
with

just

mentioned, are the

same
that
tions.

as in

the case of the Symbolic Logic

singly-quantified

deals

proposi-

Up
truths.
in

to this point

Symbolic Logic cannot

be said to be able to reach

But,

new
in

scientific

when we

consider the relation

recent years

which Mathematics has

been shown to stand to the discipline, and

when
is
it
is

it

is

remembered

that

Mathematics
no

essential in

many

scientific investigations,
is

observable that Symbolic Logic

longer confined to the uses just mentioned.

New
now
logical

propositions
seen
to

in

certain

sciences

are

be

derivable

by applying

rules to

propositions that represent

mathematical notions.

Part of

Mr. White-

The Utility
head's

of Symbolic Logic
his
is

231
on

object

in

work,
to

'Treatise

Universal Algebra^
scientific value

demonstrate

the

of Symbolic Logic. "^

The

book

is

occupied in exhibiting the Algebras

as

"both

systems of symbolism, and also as

engines for the investigation of the possibilities

of thought and reasoning connected

with the abstract general idea of space."

And
relation

just as,

on the modern view of the

to

of Logic

Mathematics,

Symin

bolic

Logic

may

reach

new
to

truths

science, so

by the same means may truths

already

that

are

known

science

be
is

reached by the mind of a student.

This

well brought out in a suggestive article by

Mr. T.
the

P.

Nunn.f
for

He

shows that when

the

formula

finding

Centigrade
is

reading from the Fahrenheit reading

re-

garded purely

as a statement,

such formula

may, by means of the Logical Calculus,

be
*

transformed

into

another,

by which,
(p.

He

does not, however, as

have pointed out

Russell,

204),

take up quite the same position as

j"

Mr.
iv.

See the periodical

School, vol.

No. 22,

232

Symbolic Logic

given the Centigrade reading, the Fahrenheit reading

is

may be
elements

obtained.

Here

there
to

direct

appHcation of logical rules

of a
statement.

the

verbal

student, therefore,
rules,
is

by making use of these

him, and which are
ol a

enabled in such cases to reach truths

are

which

new

to

scientific character.

INDEX
Accidental
tillon's

attributes,

Casof,

symbolization
R.,

104.

Adamson,

processes, 68 n.

on intermediate on Schro;

der's solutions, 68 n. Addition, Russell's definition

of,

207

symbolization
least

of,

139-

Boole, G., brackets used by, calculus constructed by, 55 formula of simplifica5 tion adopted by, 66 fractional forms used by, 67 inconsistency of, 52 Jevons' criticism of, 67, 147 mathematical symbols used by, method of elimination 35
; ;
;

Alternants,
175.

determinate,

adopted
logical

by,

69,

71

on
;

Alternatives, Boole's symbolization of, 42 ; exclusive method of representing, 38 ; F. H. Bradley on, 43 ; non-exclusive method of representing,

39

tion ; bolization of, 51, 160.

Schroder's symbolizaof, 42 Venn's sym-

" And,"

W.

E.

Johnson

on

particle, 16.

Assertorics,

Symbolic

Logic
of,

confined

to, 24.

Attributes, abstraction

combination

of,

ventionally fixed, ex; istence of, 139 intension constituted by totality of, 136; negative, 139.
;

98 ; 136

98 con-

expansion, 74 on symbolization of particulars, 56 problem worked by, 75 ; process of squaring adopted by, 65 ; progress since time of, 6 propositions symbolized by, 150 n. representation of premises by, 161 symbolists anterior to, symbolization of alter3, 4 natives by, 42 transposition of terms by, 64 Venn's explanation of forms used by, 67 view of general logic
; ;
; ;

adopted by,
Boolian

191. principles,
of,

Johnson
178.

on application

Brackets, use of, 55. Bradley, F. H., treatment of

alternatives by, 43.

Axioms,

De
in

Morgan
Geometry,
treatment

on
preof,

mathematical, 190.

Bryant,

S.,

confusion of state-

Axioms
188.

Peanesque

Benecke,

ments and events by, 154; intensive symbolism adopted by, on origin 131 of imaginary results, 49 on
: ;

E.

C,

criticism of

propositions frequently true,

25, 26.

Jevons by, 222.

233

234
Calculus,
2
;

Index
available logical, Boole's, 5 ; nature of a,

31, 48, 49, 96. Castillon, G. F., brackets used

from, 202, 203 symbolization of, 11, 12. Compartment, universe distinguished from, 166.

guished

by, 55 conception of Symbolic Logic held by, 95 consistency of, 94 erroneous proofs offered by, 114; inconsistency of, 102 invalid inferences admitted by, 118 memoir by, 94 on classification of judgments, 105; on conversion of particulars, 122; on hypotheticals, 124; on illusory particulars, iii
; ; ;

Compartments,
66.

salvation

of,

Comprehension,
on,

Logic

based

of term, 91. of Conclusions, character Venn's, 78. Conditionals, hypotheticals disnature tinguished from, 60

138;

signification

of,

60, 61.

on on

infinite

judgments, 47 logical laws, loi on

;

Connotation, Keynes' view of, 138; Logic based on, 134; Mill's view of, 138; signification of term, 91. Contradictory, De Morgan's

nature of propositions, 97 on notion of quantity, 129; on syllogism, 108 on symbolization of accidental attributes, 104 on symbolization of essential attributes, on transposition of 103 terms, 123; on use of minus sign, 46 representation of universal negative by, 46 S. Bryant's symbolism compared with that of, 131; treatment of problematical judgments by, 126; treatment of universal negative " by, 123; use of word " some by, 115; Venn's criticism of, 99,107,120.
;

rule

for
for,

finding,

symbol

22

79, 80 Venn's rule

for finding, 80,

Contradictories, interpretation representing, of symbols 13; two types of, 202. Conversion, Castillon on, 108,
122.

Copulae, general treatment

184, 218.

of,

Couturat, L., examination of Leibnitz by, 136 on a Logic of intension, 140; on meaning of intension, 135. Critical School, infinite terms
;

admitted by, 105.

" Certain," distinction

between

"true" and,
" Certainties,"

158.

Deductive
treat-

reasoning. White-

common
158;

head
204.

on

scope
A.,

of,

203,

ment

of,

nature

of

MacColl's, 153.

De Morgan,
158.

advance made
181
;

Chance, propositions and,

Class-concepts, application

of
as,

number
208. Classes,

to, 217.

Class of classes,

number

individuals

distin-

of Figure on a generalised Logic, 180; on axioms of Mathematics, 190 on contrariety of relational on conpropositions, 181
by,

182;

notion

adopted

by,

Index
version of relational propositions, 181 on finding con;

235

tradictories,

79,

80

on

Event, proposition distinguished from, 26, 27. Events, statements confused

with, 154.

of Logic, 190; on supreme law of syllogism, 181 propositions symbolized by, 150 n. Destruction, compartmental,

nature
;

Existence, logical, 164 MacColl on, 171 philosophical,

;
;

164.

59-

Determinants, most determinate, 175. Diagrams, disadvantages of,

83
;

employment

of,

']']^

81

Dicta

solutions effected by, 82. in relative reasoning,

187.

Existence of attributes, 139. Existential import of universal, 54. Expansion, analytical treatment of, 74 Boole's formula for, 74 geometrical justificaPeirce's formula tion of, 74
; ;

for, 75.

Dictum de
of,
;

oinni^

importance
of,

"False,"

sphere of, 191. 189 Disjunction, interpretation

Disjunctive

distinction between "impossible" and, 158. Figure, De Morgan's notion

of, 181.

predicates, contradictories of, 202 Vailati on, 202. Disjunctives, symbolization of,
;

Formal Logic,
on nature

S.

H. Hodgson

of, 193.

.5?-.

Division,

and, 39

Double

chell on, 177.

exclusive notation sign of, 48. quantifications, Miton, 178, 179; Peirce
;

Formulae, modification of, 19. Fractional forms, Boole's, 67. Frege, G., differences between Russell and, 216; on dis-

and
217

tinction between individuals classes, 203; on formation of general propositions,

;

on fundamental charof
implication,

acter

215

Elimination, Boole's method of, C. Ladd71 69,

;

on scope of Symbolic Logic,

215
of,
;

prepositional

calculus

83 in case of particular propositions, 72 Johnson's formula Schroder's method for, 73

;
;

FrankHn's formula 73 diagrams useful

;

for,

58,

216;

for,

dinal

treatment of carnumbers by, 217

;

Venn's criticism

of,

214.

General
of,

Logic, Boole's view

of,

70,

71

Venn's formula
of
54,

191.

for, 70, 72.

General

propositions,

forma;

transposition Equations, terms in, 45. Equivalence, symbol for,

99.

tion of, 217,

Generalised

Logic,
a, 180.

95

De

Morgan on
Habits,
226.

Essential attributes, 103. Eulerian diagrams, 81.

logically

developed,

236

Index
by, 220 ; Couturat's interpretation of term, 135 ; Leibnitz's interpretation of term, 137; Logic based on, 140; Russell's interpretation of term, 135; signification of

Hodgson, S. H., on nature of Formal Logic, 193.

Holland, G.
adjutor,
4.
J.,

Lambert's co-

Hypotheticals, Castillon on, distinconditionals 124; guished from, 60 nature of, symbolization of, 59 61 treatment of, 61, 62.
; ;
;

term, 91. Intensive Logic, minus sign

in.

Intermediate

processes,

in-

Illusory particulars, Castillon

on. III.

telligibility of, 48, 49.

Internal synthesis, potency

results,

of,

Imaginary
50.

origin

of,

176.

Implication, Frege on fundamental character of, 215. of Implications, relation thinker to, 30. " Impossible," distinction between " false" and, 158. Inconsistency, Boole's, 52. Indefinables, logical constants imply, 198 Peano's list of, Russell's list of, 199. 211 for. symbol Indefiniteness,
; ;

Inverse operations, possibility of, 38 reliable results of, 48

;

utility of, 48.

Inverse

Problem,

improve;

ments

in solution of, 85

in-

duction distinguished from, 89; Jevons' treatment of, 85, 147; Johnson's solution of, 87, 160 Keynes' solution Schroder's of, 86, 160, 161 methods of dealing with, variety of answers to, 87
; ; ;

85.

Induction,
;

of connexion with, Jevons, W. S., criticism of principles Peano's Boole by, 67, 147 interpreInverse Problem dis206 tation of propositions by, tinguished from, 89 Jevons pure on Inverse Problem, on nature of, 147 7 and, on Law of Unity, 148; Mathematics 205 147 on nature of induction, 147 Russell on nature of, 205
;
;

;i^.

Whitehead on
204.
Infinite

position

of,

on on

classes, synthesis of propositions containing, 220.

judgments, Castillon's treatment of, 47. Infinite terms. Critical School

Infinite

admits, 105. Integers, logical treatment

reasoning, 185; symbolization of alternatives, 146 on Substitution of Similars, 224 on symbolization of particulars, 56; on non-exclusive thinking in representation manner, 39 of universal affirmative by,
relative
; ; ;

of,

207. Intension, assumptions in logic

of, in,

symbol for indefinite145 symbolness used by, 52 ization of particulars by,

;

139; changes produced 136; classes determined

146.

Johns Hopkins Studies^

89.

Index
Johnson,
; ;

237

W. E., criticism of on logical sequence, 18, Peirce by, 178 formula for on use of literal 19 symbols, 16; symbolization elimination given by, 7^ Problem solved of particulars by, 57. Inverse Mitchell criticized Lambert, J. H., brackets used by, 87 by? 55; coadjutors of, 4; by, 179; on application of Boolian principles, 178 on intensive system of, 94 work done by, 3, 4. hypothetical and condion modal pro- Law of Unity, Jevons' view of, tionals, 60 on molecular positions, 27 148. on nature Laws of Thought, problem propositions, 173 worked in, 75. of a calculus, 31, 96 on "and," on Leibnitz, Couturat's examinaparticle 16; tion of, 136 influence of, selecting determinants, 176; on meaning of intenon synthesis of multiply4 sion, 136 ;/., 137 symbol quantified propositions, 175.
;

Judgment, symbols cannot disWolf's cover forms of. 97

;

for

indefiniteness
case,

used

by,
of,

definition

of,

106.
classifi-

Limiting
19.

instance

Judgments, Castillon's
cation
of, 105.

Literal symbols, MacColl's use

of,

150
;

primary use

of,

Kant,
of

critics

of,

197

mathematical adopted by, 196. N., compact Keynes, J. employmethods of, 69 ment of diagrams by, 81 Formal Logic, 34 on conno35tation, 138; on meaning of Logic
;
;

view reasoning
;

10 variety of, 22. the Logic, connotation as basis of, 134 De Morgan on nature of, 190 generalisation of common, 33 use of mathematical symbols in,
;
;

of
of,

intension,

possi-

136 ;/., predicative standpoint adopted by, solution Inverse of 53 Problem by, 85, 160, 161 symbols of operation not used by, 31 ; use of bracket
intension,
;
;

bility

ness
141.

unnatural140; and complexity of,

relatives,
;

Logic of
;

notion

of

by, 55-

Peirce on, relation and, 219 184 utility of, 229. problems calculus, Logical

solved by,

2.

Ladd-Franklin, C, answer Logical

to

constants,

nature

of,

Schroder

by,

19,

20

198.
;

confusion of statements and Logical existence, 164, 171 MacColl's views on, 162. events by, 154; criticism of Schroder by, 17, 18 ; for- Logical laws, Castillon on, lOI. mula for elimination proinverse Logical machinery', double use posed by, 58, 73 of, 14. processes rejected by, 50
;

238

Index
H., Johnson's Mitchell, O. criticism of, 179; on change of terms into factors, 89 on double quantifications, representation of 178, 179
; ;

matheprocesses; Logical matical and, 36. singular sequence, Logical propositions and, 18, 19.

MacColl,
168,

H.,

criticism

by,

treatment 169; formula adopted of, independent work 152; Pure Logic and, 29 on classification of of, 23 153 Johnson's treatment of, on expropositions, -728 on statements Molecular propositions, 173. istence, 171 Multiple quantifications, 173. propositions, and 9 n. on Universe of Discourse, Multiplication, Russell's definiof literal tion of, 209. use on 162 proposisymbols, 21, 150; symboliza- Multiply - quantified
by,
;
; ;

premises by, 161. Modals, MacColl's

tion of propositional functions by, 151 ; treatment of modals by, 152. Maimon, S., on notion of universality,

tions, synthesis of, 175.

Negation, Russell

on, 211.

130; on problepositions, 54. matical judgments, 126. Marquand, H., employment of Negative terms, symbolization

Negative attributes, 139. Negative interpretation of pro-

diagrams by,
Material

82.

of, 45.

consequences, C. New truths, nature of, 224. Null-class, 165 Peano's definiLadd-Franklin on, 18. tion of, 213. Mathematics, Logic involved new treatment of Numbers, Frege's treatment in, 192 Russell's definition of, 217 propositions in, 9 n. Peano's relation of cardinal, 207. treatment of, 194 Nunn, T. P., on utility of Symof Symbolic Logic to, 200 bolic Logic, 231. Russell's analysis of concepRussell's defitions of, 199 propositions, nition of, 199, 200; validity Particular saved by, compartments of, 199. elimination in case of, 66 Mathematical conceptions, anexistential character of, 72 alysis of, 198, 199.
;
;

;
;

Mathematical reasoning, Kant

on, 196.

58 tion of,
57,
;

Mathematical symbols, Boole's

use
76. Mill,
of, 35.

of,

56

Jevons' representasymbolization 146 Venn's symbolization

;

of, 57.

Methods of
J.

solution compared,

Peano,
;

S.,

on
45
of,
;

connotation,
Castillon's
10.

138.

Minus

sign,

G., connexion of induction with principles of, 206 indefinables enumerated null-class defined by, 211 distinction on by, 213
;
:

double use

between

individuals

and

Index
primitive propositions enumerated by, 212; Russell's criticism of, treatment 211, 212; of Mathematics by, 194. Peirce, C. S., formula of simplification adopted by, 66; Johnson's criticism of, 178; on double quantifications, on Logic of 177 Relatives, 184 on logical expansion, on plural 75
classes, 203
;

^UNIVERSITY
27
;

239
extensive of, 92
;

tion

interpretaexistential
;

import

of,

54

MacColTs
;

classification of, 28 ; indefinite element in, 51 negative

interpretation of, 54 nonexistence of probably true, physical combination 25 of, predication view 11;
; ;

32; strength of, 155; symbolization of, 150 n. Propositional calculus, Frege's,
of,

symbol for subsumption used by, 53. Philosopher, Symbolic Logic

relations,

177

216.

Propositional
sell

on,

155

functions, Russ>Tnbolization
;

useful to, 227.

of, 151.

Philosophy,
relation
to,

Whitehead
of Symbolic

on Logic

204.

Pure Logic, formulae of, ^o modals and, 153. Pure Mathematics, induction
and, 205.

Philosophical duality, Symbolic Logic and, 227. Philosophical existence, 164. Ploucquet, G., Lambert's coadPlural
jutor, 4. relations,

Quantity,
of, 129.

Castillon on notion

Peirce

on,

" Possibilities,"

nature

of
in,

Realities, Universe of, Relation, mathematics

163.

and

MacColl's, 153. Potency, syntheses

176.

vary

notion of, 219. Relational propositions, conof, trary 181 converse

;

Premises, symbolic representaof, tion Venn's treat9

;

of, 181.

Relative addition,

Peirce on,

ment
212.

of, 65.

Primitive propositions, Peano's,

Probability of an event, 26. Probabilities, propositions respecting, 27.

Relative multiplication, Peirce

on, 177.

Relative reasoning, dicta in, sylJevons on, 185 187 logistic treatment of, 186
; ;

Problematical judgments, Castillon on, 126.

Proof,

Castillon's

methods

of.

Propositions, Castillon's description of, chance 97 and, 158 combination of,

; ;

on, 185. may Restriction, subduction be replaced by, 45. Results, equivalence of, 55. Ross, G. R. T., on disjunctive

Venn

judgments, 41.
Rules, mechanical application
of, y:,.

64; concerning probabilities,

240
;

Index
Science, Symbolic Logic and, 230. of, Self-contradiction, nature
168. Simplification, Boole's formula Peirce's formula of, of, 66
;

Russell, B., definition of addidefinition tion given by, 207 of numbers given by, 207 ; differences between Frege

mathematical indefinables enumerated by, 199 on analysis of mathematical conceptions, 199 on

and, 216
; ;

66.

Singular
logical

propositions,

173;

sequence and, 18, of, 201. treatment ; 19 Solutions, diagrammatic, 82 space occupied by, 21, 22. 203 on formation of general on logical " Some," Castillon's use of propositions, 217 word, 115. on meaning existence, 171
definition

of multiplication, 209 ; on distinction between individuals and classes, 202,

;

of intension, 135 of induction, 205

;

on nature Squaring, Boole's process of, on posi65. confused tion occupied by Symbolic Statements, events dispropositions with, propositions 154; Logic, 138 n. on
;
;

respecting existence, 171 on propositional functions, Peano criticized by, 155

;
;

tinguished from, 9. Strength of propositions, 155.

Subalterns, 112, 117.

Pure Mathematics Subduction, restriction may replace, 45. defined by, 199, 200; view by, Substitution, liability to error of negation adopted
211, 212
;

211.

in, -jZ.

Schroder,

Adamson's E., criticism of, 68 n. ; C. Laddanswer to, 19, compact methods of, Inverse Problem solved by methods of, 87 method
Franklin's
;
;

Substitution of Similars, science and, 222.

Subsumption,
53-

symbols

for,

20 69

Subtraction, exclusive notation treatintensive and, 38 ment of, 140 symbolization

;
;

of elimination
70, 71
;

adopted by,

of, 139-

on

intelligibility of

Syllogism,

Castillon's

treat-

intermediate processes, 40, on logical expansion, 48 74; on method of finding contradictory, 39; on secondary use of literal symbols, 17, 18 Operationskreis^ representation of pre34 symbolizamises iDy, 161 by, alternatives of tion
; ; ; ;

ment

of,

108

supreme law
;

of, 181.

Symbols, exclusive use of, 151 primary use of literal, 10 by, denoted results 36
operations
36.
;

represented
.

by,

Symbols of operation, frequent use of, 34 Keynes dispenses

with, 31.

42.

Schroder's methods, tages of, 67.

advan-

Symbolic
notion

Logic,
.of,

Castillon's

95

contributors

Index
to

241

Universe of Discourse, Macdevelopment of, 6 Coll on, 162. educational advantages of, 221 Frege's conception of Unrealities, Universe of, 163. scope of, 215; imaginative indirect Vailati, G., on disjunctive literature and, 206
;
;

Jevons on 226 utility of, 222 new truths reached by, 224 Nunn on
utility
of,
; ;
;

predicates, 202.
" Variables,"

common
;

treat-

ment
Venn,

of,

158

nature of

Mac-

utility of, 231

philosophical
;

Coil's, 153.

duality

and, 227

relation
;

of

Mathematics to, 200 Russell's view of position of,

;

plained

science and, 222, 138 n. 230; use to philosopher of, 227 ; Whitehead on utility
of,

230, 231.

Symbolic
on, 162.

Universe,

MacColl
3,

Symbolists,
4-

pre-Boolian,

Boole's forms exCastillon by, 67 criticized by, 99 conclusions reached by, 78 criticism of Frege by, 214 employment of diagrams by, 81 formula for elimination given by, 72 ; interpretation of Castillon by, 47, 120 method of elimination described by, 70 on Boole's oriJ.,
;
; ;

Synthesis of molecular propositions, 173.

ginality, 3

71.

on Castillon's
;

Synthesis of multiply-quantified
propositions, 175.

Systems, logical,
superficial

real

and
be-

differences

tween, 23.

on universal negative, 107 elimination from particulars, 72; on exclusive use of literal symbols, 21 on finding on contradictories, 80 hypothetical and disjunc; ;

tives,

Terms,
of,

Boole's transposition

64.

Things, application of numbers

to, 217.

Transposition of terms, 123. " True," distinction between "certain" and, 158. Truth, prepositional, 13.

Universal affirmative, Jevons'

representation
of, 145.

Universal dictum, non-existence of, 219, Universal negative, Castillon's

representation
123.
of,

46,

105,
dis-

on intelligibility 59 intermediate processes, 49; on interpretation of alteron Keynes' natives, 40, 160 methods, 32 on Logic based on comprehension, 138; on of interpretation negative on performuniversals, 54 ance of inverse processes, 40 on relative reasoning, 185 on secondary use of literal on symbolizasymbols, 15 tion of negative terms, 45 on symbolization of particulars, on treatment of singular 57 treatment propositions, 201 of premises by, 65, 161.
;

of

Universe, compartment tinguished from, 166.

Whitehead,

A. N., on mul-

242
tiplication,
;

Index
;

209 on position of inductive reasoning, 204 on relation of Mathematics to deductive reasoning, 203 on relation of Philosophy to
;

imaginative literature, 206 on scope of deductive reason utility oning, 203, 204 Logic, of Symbolic 230,
; ;

231.

Symbolic Logic, 204 on relation of Symbolic Logic to

;

Wolf, Ch., influence judgment, 106.

of,

on

THE END

Printed by

Ballantvne, Hanson
Edinburgh &^ London

Co.

A
Williams

Catalogue
of

&

Norgate's

Publications

Divisions of the Catalogue

PAGE
I.

THEOLOGY
PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY

3
2i9

II.

III.

ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND HISTORY

PHILOLOGY,

34
39

IV.

MODERN LANGUAGES
ARCHAEOLOGY,
LITERATURE,

V. VI.

SCIENCE, MEDICINE, CHEMISTRY, ETC.

46

BIOGRAPHY,

MISCEL
56

LANEOUS

FULL INDEX OVER PAGE

London
Williams

&

Norgate
W.C.

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden,

INDEX,
Abyssinia, Shihab al Din,
37.

Alcyonium, Liver/>ool Marine

Biol.

C.

Meis., 50. Algae, Cooke, 47. America, Creation Myths of, Curtin, 57. Americans, The, Miinsterberg, 30. Anarchy and Law, Brewster, 29. Anatomy, Cleland, 47 Cunninghavt
;

Mettioirs, 48 Lockwood, 51. Anthropolog-y, Prehistoric, Avebtiry, 56 Engelhardt, 57 Laing, 59. Evolution of Religion, Farnell, 57. Apocalypse, Bleek, 8 Clark, 16.
; ;
;

Princ. of Sociology, II., 31. Chaldee, Grammar, Tnrpie, 38. Lexicon, Fuerst, 35. Chemistry, Berzelius, 46 Diitmar, 48 Faraday, 49 Van't Hoff, 49. Hindu, ^aj', 52. Christ, Early Christian Conception of, Pfleiderer, 13, 23. Life of, Keifn, 8. No Product of Evolution, Henslow, 19.
; ;

Ceremonial Institutions, Spencer,

Apostles and Apostolic Times, Dobschiitz, 4 Hausrath, 18 Weinel,

; ;

Study of, Robinson, 24. Teaching of, Harnack, 6, The Universal, Beard, 16.
;

11.

Weizsdcker, 7 Zeller, 9. of, edit. G. Horner, 26. Apostolic Succession, Clark, 16.
5
;
;

Christianity, Evolution of, Gz7/, 18. History of, Baur, 8 Dobschiitz, 4

Statutes

Harnack,

6,

11,

Arabic, Grammar, Socin, 37. Poetry, Faizidlah Bhai, 35 Lyall, 35 Ndldeke, 36. Ascidia, Liverpool Ma?-ine Biol. Mems.,
;

19 ; Johnson, IVernle, 3.
in

18; Hausrath, 8, 20 ; Mackay, 21 ;

19.

Talmud, Herford,
of,

Liberal, Rdville, 11.

50.

Assyrian, Dictionary, Muss-Arnolt, 36

No7-ris, 36.

Grammar, Delitzsch,

Language, Assyriology, Brown, 56 Delitzsch, 10, 34 Evans, 35 Sayce, 13 Schrader,

; ; ;

34. Delitzsch, 34.

9-

Astigmatic Tests, Praj/, 52 Snellen, 54. Astronomy, Cunninghavt Mems., V., Memoirs of Roy. Ast'ronom. 48
;

Martineau, 22. of, D7-uvimond, 14. Harnack, 5. What is? Harnack, 6, 11. Church, Catholic, Renan, 14. Christian, Baur, 8; Cla?-k, 16; Z)^3schiitz, 4 Hatch, 14 IVernle, 4. Coming, H%inter, 20. Civic, Apathy, Hunter, 20. Codex Palatino-Vaticanus, rt?^*^ Z^cRoots
Simplest form

Spread

of,

tiires, III., 44.

Soc, 62. Augustine, St., Confessions

18.

of,

Harnack,

Co6.mra,LiverpoolMarineBiol.Mems.,s^. Coleoptera, Murray, 52. Communion of Christian with God, Herr-

Assyriology. Belief, Religious, Upton, 15. Beneficence, Negative and

i^^^

Babylonia,

mann, 19. Comte, Spencer,

Positive,
II., 31,

32.
56.

Spencer, Principles of Ethics,

Bible, 16.
.S"^^ a/i^(7

Testament.

Constellations, Primitive, Broion, Cornish, Stokes, 43. Creed, Christian, 16. Crown Theological Library, 10. Cuneiform Inscriptions, Schrader,

Beliefs about, Savage, 25.

Daniel and
Critical

his
28.

Prophecies,
on,

Hebrew
Plants,

Texts, 19. History of Text, Weir, 27.

Wright,

Commentary
28.

C C

9.

//.
//.

//. //.

Henslow,

Problems, Bibliography, Bibliographical Register,56. Biology, Basiian, 46 Liveypool Marine

;

19. Cheyne, 12.

Wright,

Danish Dictionary, Rosing, Darwinism, Schunnan, 30.

43.

Biol.

Mems.,
;

50

Spencer,
;

31.

Botany,
;

Bentham

and Hooker,

Church, 47 Cooke, 47 49 /our. of the Linnean Soc, 49 Prior, 52. Brain, Cimningham Me7its., VII., 48.

46 Grevillea,
;

Denmark, Engelhardt, 57. Doctrine and Principle, Beeby, 16. Dogma, History' of, Harnack, 5.
Domestic
of Virgin Birth, Lobstein, 10. Institutions, Spencer, of Sociology, I., 31.
Princ.

Duck

Tribes, Morphology

of,

Cunning-

Buddha, Buddhism, Davids,

Oldenberg, 36. 35 Calculus, Harnack, 49.
;

14

Hardy,
Trans.

VI., 48. Dutch, Cape, Oordt, 43 Werner, 45.

;

ham Mems.,

Dynamics, Cnnninghavt Mems.,

d?^

IV., 48.

Canons

of Athanasius, TVjt^
38.

Soc,
so-

Cardium, Liverpool Mar-ine Biol. Mems.,

Celtic, j^t ^<? Irish. Stokes, 43 Sullivan, 44.
;

Chemical, Van't Hoff, 49. Ecclesiastes, Taylor, 26. Ecclesiastical Institutions,

of Holland, Wicksteed, 27.

Spencer,

Princ. of Sociology, III., 31, 32.

Echinus, Liverpool Marine

50.

Biol.

Mems.,

Heathendom, Rhys,

15.

;;

INDEX continued.
Economy,
Political,

Education,

Mackenzie^ 30. Herbert, 57 ; Lodge,

see

Hebrews, History
42
12
;

of,

Kittel, 6
;

Peters,
14.

Spencer, 32.

Educational Works,
logue.

Special Cata-

Sharpe, 25. Religion of, Kuenen, 9 Montefiore, Heterogenesis, Bastian, 46.

Hibbert Lectures,

14, 15.

Egypt, Religion of, Renouf, 15. Egyptian Grammar, E7ian, 35. Enoch, Book of. Gill, 18. Epidemiology, Trans. 0/ Epidemiolog.
Soc, 55. Epizootic Lymphangitis, Treatise on,
Pallin, 52. Ethics, and Religion, Martineau, 22. Data of, Spencer, Principles of E.,

Hygiene
44-

How

to Live, Caton, 47.

;

Hymns, Jones,
.

20.

Icelandic, Lil/a, 42

F^^a Gluvis Saga,

Dictionary, Zoega, 45.

I.,

Induction
I., 31.

of,

Spencer, Principles of E.,

Grammar, Bayldon, 40. Individualism, Spencer, Man z/. State, 32. Irish, Atkinson, 40; ^i^^ of Ballymote, 40 i5o(?/^ <y^ Leinster, 41 Hogan, Leabhar Breac, 42 Leabhar 41 na H- Uidhri, 42 O' Grady, 43
; ; ; ; ;

Stokes,

43

Todd
;

Lectures,
45.

44

Kantian, Schurman, 30. of Evolution, Schurman, 30. of Individual Life, Spencer, Principles ofE., I., 31. of Reason, Laurie, 29. Principles of, Spencer, 31. Ethnologfy, Cunningha?)i Menis., X., 48. Evolution, Spencer, 31, 32. of the Idea of God, D' Alviella, 14. Alviella, 15. of Religious Thought,

Yellow Book of Lecan,

Isaiah, Diettrich, 34
35-

Hebrew
;

Texts, 19,
;

Israel, History of, Kittel, 6

Peters, 23

Sharpe,

25.

Religion of, Kuenen, g. in Egypt, Wright, G. H. H., 28. Jeremiah, Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22.

Jesus, Life

The

of, Keiin, 8. Real, Vickers, 27.

of,

Exodus, Hoerning, 20. Ezekiel, Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22. Faith, Herrmatin, 12 Rix, 24
;

Times

Hausrath,

8.

6"^^ a/5tf

Christ.
of,
;

Wim-

Job, Book
19,

Ewald,

Hebrew Text,

nter, 27. Fisheries, British,

35

Wright, G. H.

H,

28.

Johnstone,

49.

Flinders Petrie Papyri, Cunningham

Mems., VI 1 1., IX., 48. Flora of Edinburgh, Sonntag, 54. French, Bo'ielle, 40 Delbos, 41 Engine, Hugo, 41, 42 Rogct, 43 also 41
;

Rabbinical Comment, on, Z'^jr^ &* Trans. Soc, 38. Justice, Spencer, Princ. of Ethics, II.,
31, 32.

Special Education Catalogue. Literature, Roget, 43. Novels, Ar-niy Series, 39. Fungi, Cooke, 47 Grevillea, 49.
;

Kant, Schurman, 30. Kindergarten, Goldammer, 57. Knowledge, Evolution of, Perrin, 30. Schloss, Labour, Harrison, 57 59
;

Vynne, 60. Leabhar Breac,

42;
46.

Atkinson,

40;

Genera

Plantarum,

Bentham
;

and

Hooker, 46. Genesis, Hebrew Texts, C. H. H., 27.

Hogan, 41. Leprosy, Abraham,

19, 35

Wright,

Geography, Ancient, Kiepert, 58. Geometry, Spencer, W. G., 54. German, Literature, Nibelungenlied,
Phillipps, 43. Novels, Arfuy Series, 39.
42
;

Life and Matter, Lodge, 21. Lives of the Saints, Hogan, 41. Schroen, Logarithms, 5a^, 53
;

54

^t'^, 55-

London Library Catalogue, 57. Lumbar Curve, Ctmningham Mems.,

II., 48.

Germany, Marcks,
God, Idea
of,

59.

Mahabharata, Sdrensen,
Malaria, Annett, 46
43
;

37.
;

D' Alviella, 14. Gospel, First, Plain Commentary, 23. Tayler, 26. Fourth, Dru7>imond, 17 Gospels, Lost and Hostile, Gould, 18. Old and New Certainty, Robinson, 24. Greek, Modern, Zompolides, 45.
;

Boyce, 47
;

Duttoft,
;

Mems. of Liverpool School of

^d?^j, 55 Tropical Medicine, 51 Stephens, 54. Maori, Dictionary, Williams, 45.

Gymnastics, Medical,
Health, Herbert,
49.

Sch?-eber, 54.
35.

Manual, Maori, 42. Materialism, Martineau,

22.
;

Hebrew,

Biblical,

Kennedy,
34.

Language, Delitzsch,

Lexicon, Fuerst, 35. New School of Poets, Albrecht, Scriptures, Sharpe, 25.
Story, Peters, 23.

36.

Synonyms, Kefinedy, 35. Text of O.T., ^^^i>, 27.

Texts,
19, 35-

Mathematics, Hamack, 49 Spencer, 54. 5^? /^(? Logarithms. Mediaeval Thought, /"t?^/?, 23. Mesca Ulad, Todd Lectures, I., 44. Metaphysics, Laurie, 29. Mexico, Religions of, Reville, 15. Micah, Book of, Taylor, 26. Microscopy, Journal of the Roy. Micro. Soc. 50 Journal of the Quekett
,

Micro. Club,

50.

; ;

;;

INDEXcontinued.
Midrash, Christianity in, Iler/ord, 19. Mineral Systems, Chapman, 47. Monasticistn, Harnack, 18. Mosquitoes, Mems. of Liverpool School
0/ Trop. Medicine,
51.

Religion, Philosophy of, Pfleiderer, 9. Struggle for Light, Wimmer, 11. ^'^^ to Christianity, History of. Universal, and National Religions,

Kuenen,

21.

Mythology, American, Curtin,

57. Greek, Broivn, 56 ; St. Clair, 59. 60. Stephens, Northern,

of Authority, Sabatier, 4. Resurrection, Macan, 22 ; Marchant, 22.

Reviews and Periodical Publications,

61.

Cooke, 47. Natural Selection, Spencer, 32. Nautical Terms, Delbos, 41. Nennius, The Irish, Ilogan, 41.

Myxomycetes,

New Guinea, Cunningham Mems., X., 48. New Testament, see Testament, 26. New Testament Times, Hausrath, 8, 19.
Nitidulariae,

Rigveda, IVallis, 38. Rome, Renan, 15. Runes, Stephens, 60. Ruth, ^Fr4-A^, C. //. //., 27. Sanitation, in Cape Coast Town, Taylor,
55in Para, Notes, 52.

Murray,

52.

Larsen, 42 Dictionary, Rosing; 43. Ophthalmic Tests, Pray, 52 Snellen, 54. Origins, Christian, Johtison, 20. of Religion, Hibbert Lectures, 14, 15.

Norwegian

Ahhidha^iaratnamala, Sanscrit, 34; Sorensen, 37. Self-Aid, in War, Caver-hill, 47. Sermons, Beard, 16 Broadbent, 16. Services, Common Prayer, 16 Jones, 20
; \

Pali,

Dipavamsa, 34 Milanda Panho, Vinaya Pitakam, 38. 36 Handbook, Frankfurter, 35.

; ;

7"^ Services, 26.

Silva Gadelica, O'Grady, 43. Social Dynamics, Mackenzie,

Statics, Spencer, 32.

30.
32.

Miscellany, 36.

Pathology, Inflammation Idea

soni, 52.

in,

/vrt-

Sociology, Descriptive, Spencer,

Principles

Paul,

^^. St., IVeinel, 5.

8;

Pfeiderer,
34.

9;

Study

of,

Spencer, Spencer, 32.

of,

31.

Persian, Avesti Pahlavi,

Solomon, Song of, Reville, 23. South Place Ethical Society, Conway,
17-

Plaits, 37. Peru, Religions of, Reville, 15.

Grammar,

Spanish Dictionary, Velasquez,

Spinal Cord, Bruce,
47. 52.

44.

Philo Judaeus, Dnanmond, 29. Philosophy, 29. and Experience, Hodgson, 29. Jewish Alexandrian, Drtim/notid,
of Religion, Pfleiderer,
9.

29.

Sternum, Paterson, Storms, Piddington, 52. Sun Heat, Cunninghavi Mems., III., 48. Surgery, System of, &<? Bergmann, 46.
Diettrich, 34 Syriac, Ber-nstein, 34 Noldeke, 36. Taal, Afrikander, Oordt, 42 Werner, 45. Talmud, Christianity in, Herford, 19.
; ;

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;

31.

Plague, Boghurst,

46.

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;
*,

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Textual Criticism, Nestle, 7. Times, Hausrath, 8, 19. 6"<r^ rt/^o Gospels. Testament, Old, Cuneiform Inscriptions, Schrader, 9.
Literature
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Test Types, /"r^^, 52 Theism, r^y^-o', 27.

History
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;

Theological Translation Library, Theology, Analysis of, ^/^^, 18.

Pfleiderer,
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3.

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Faith,

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Rtoille, II.

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IVundt,
33.

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Weissmann,

Spencer,

32.

Woman's

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Englishwoman's
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Reformation, Beard,

14.
9, 15.

Religion, Child and, 13. History of, Kuenen, 9, \/^;RSville, of Philosophy, Perrin, 23.

Review, 57; Harrison, 57 I'ynne, 60. Suffrage, Blackburn, 56. Yellow Fever, Durham, 48. Zoology, Fasciculi Malayenses, 49 Journal of the Linnean Soc, 49 Liverpool Marine Biology Com;

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