Clean, high performance materials

Challenges and developments

Peter Morshuis

Delft University of Technology

Challenge the future

Materials used in Electrical Power Engineering

The building blocks of electrical power components
Metals (conductors, housing) Dielectrics (electrical insulation, power electronics, support structures, cooling)
Gasses Liquids Solids

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Material challenges (clean, high performance)

Environment friendly during entire life cycle
High efficiency/Low losses Long life Smart, self-healing High energy density Non-flammable High operating temperature In case of fire, low smoke production and non toxicity

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1.
Metals
Reduction of losses using superconducting materials Reduction of losses using carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes
Length to diameter ratio > 107

Source: wikipedia

3D model of three types of singlewalled carbon nanotubes. Source: wikipedia

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Ballistic conduction
As the length of a conductor approaches zero, the conductance approaches a finite
value, and not infinity This conductance is determined by the interface between conductor and contact pads If the length of the conductor is much smaller than the mean free path, all resistance occurs at the interfaces For a carbon nanotube: 6454 /tube Closely packed parallel-connected tubes, 4 m long, 1.2 nm diameter: resistivity = 0.88 cm Copper: resistivity = 1.67 cm

Ultra low resistivity in practice

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Calculated resistivity of composites of CNT and copper

Source: O. Hjortstam,et al, Applied Physics A, Vol. 78, No. 8, 2004

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The importance of size

Take a sphere, with radius R The surface/volume ratio increases with decreasing R
The effect?

Ultracapacitors
A cross section of an electrode made with carbon nanotubes. Source: MIT

Ultracapacitors can store only a fraction (5%) of the energy of an equivalent-size lead-acid or lithium-ion battery. The recipe for a better ultracapacitor is more surface area.

By using tightly bunched nanotubes, the surface area can be increased drastically.
MIT believes the storage capacity can be increased to between 25 and 50 percent ofabatterysenergy.Atthatpoint,itbecomesacompellingdeviceformany applications.

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The ultracapacitor increasing active surface area

Plain Old Plates: In a typical capacitor, electrons are removed from one plate and deposited on the other. Polarized molecules in the dielectric concentrate the electric field. One major factor determining capacitance is the surface area of the plates.

Plated Packed with Ions: An ultracapacitor can store more charge than a capacitor can, because the -activated carbon has a pocked interior, much like a sponge. This means that ions in the electrolyte can cling to more surface area.

Enter the Nano-World: With finer dimensions and more uniform distribution, carbon nanotubes enable greater energy storage in ultracapacitors than activated carbon does.

Source: Joel Schindall, IEEE Spectrum Nov 2007

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2.
Electrical insulation
Development of green and high performance alternatives

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Gases SF6
Electrical insulation Arc interruption Cooling

(sulphur hexafluoride)

SF6 is used world-wide in electric power industry for

Examples: Gas insulated systems, switchgear, transformers, capacitors, cables

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Gases - SF6
In spite of its advantages:
High dielectric strength Thermal stability SF6 has significant disadvantages: Harmful for environment Decomposes into toxic substances

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SF6 a greenhouse gas

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, SF6 is the most
potent greenhouse gas that it has evaluated, with a global warming potential of 22,200 times that of CO2 when compared over a 100 year period. However, due to its high density relative to air, SF6 flows to the bottom of the atmosphere which limits its ability to heat the atmosphere. Its mixing ratio in the atmosphere is lower than that of CO2 about 6.5 parts per trillion (1012) in 2008 versus 380 ppm (106) of carbon dioxide, but has steadily increased (from a figure of 4.0 parts per trillion in the late 1990s). Its atmospheric lifetime is 3200 years.

Source: Wikipedia, Earth System Research Laboratory

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Time development CO2 and SF6 concentration in air

(http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/iadv/)

Note the difference in y-axis scales: picomol/mol (left) versus micromol/mol (right)

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Alternatives for SF6

SF6-N2 mixtures (5% ... 20% SF6), high pressure air insulation, vacuum insulation
Solid dielectric insulation Fluid insulation (for instance esters, seed-based fluids)

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Liquids
Insulation systems consisting of a solid and a liquid are the most frequently used
systems in high voltage apparatus, where components have to be insulated and loss heat has to be dissipated. The requirements on the liquid part of the insulating system are not only the electric and dielectric performance but also the performance regarding requirements concerning the environment and low flammability.

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Liquids mineral oil

Mineral oil is used world-wide in electric power industry for
Electrical insulation Cooling

Examples: Transformers, cables

W4 W2

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Submarine cable links

Oil-impregnated insulation

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Liquids mineral oil

In spite of its advantages:
High dielectric strength in combination with solids High thermal conductivity Proven technology

mineral oil has significant disadvantages: Harmful for environment Toxic Low fire point

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Liquids alternatives for mineral oil

Use ester liquids (vegetable oils) instead of mineral oil
Esters are a class of chemical compounds and functional groups. Examples: rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, biodiesel (natural); synthetic esters

A carboxylic acid ester. R and R' denote any alkyl or aryl group. Source: Wikipedia

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Ester liquid vs mineral oil

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Ester liquid vs mineral oil

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nanofluids
Thermal and electrical properties of liquids can be further improved by adding small fractions (1%) of nanoparticles

Source: MIT

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Solids
Oil-impregnated paper is used world-wide as insulation in
Transformers High voltage cables Capacitors

Epoxy resin is used in

Insulators Cable accessories Switchgear

Polyethylene is used in high voltage cables

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Solids - challenges
Designcleansolidinsulationmaterialsto
-partly- replace oil insulated systems Allow the construction of compact, light-weight insulation systems Increase efficiency Create self-healing properties

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Solids polymer insulation

In spite of its advantages:
High dielectric strength Low losses clean

polymer insulation has significant disadvantages: Bad heat conductivity Susceptive to electrical degradation

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Solids designing new/better properties

We can add fillers to existing materials to affect properties but we have reached the limits of what can be achieved on microscopic to macroscopic level

Move to nano

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Nano dielectrics
Carbon nano tubes

When we shrink the dimensions of a material we notice a change in material properties In dielectric systems in which one of the length scales is below 200 nm, i.e. nanodielectrics, the surfaces and interfaces between dielectric elements become increasingly important.

Take a spherical particle with radius R:

Surface = 4R2 Volume = 4/3R3

surface/volume-ratio increases with decreasing R

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Importance of the interfacial zone

Material properties may change drastically within the interfacial zone which may even become more important than the bulk dielectrics.

In one cubic meter of a material containing 10 volume % of 10 nm spheres, the total interface area is approximately 60 km2

*from: Lewis,

Transactions on DEI, October 2004

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Surface area; from micro to nano (same volume fraction)

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Nanocomposites
Nanocomposites consist of a dielectric matrix (host) and a disperse phase (nano-scale filler) Small size, 1 nm 100 nm small distance between neighbouring filler particles (for the same volume fraction) Very large surface area much more interaction between filler and host New mesoscopic properties (between atomic and macroscopic scale)

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New/improved properties
Higher mechanical strength Better thermal properties

Higher electrical breakdown strength

Decreased flammability, gas-tight Better adhesion Anisotropic character of certain nanomaterials provides new opportunities for design: smart behavior

As yet, very few explanations for the behavior of nanocomposites

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3.
Developments
Building macroscopic structures with nanosized bricks

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Developments

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4.
Summary
Theres plenty of room at the bottom
1959, Richard Feynman

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Summary
Conductors
Prospect of lower losses using carbon nanotubes Ultra capacitors using large surface areas

Insulating systems
Alternatives for greenhouse gases such as SF6 Alternatives for mineral oil Prospectsofcreatingclean,highperformancematerialsusingpolymericinsulationand nanotechnology Sensors and smart materials

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