Chapter 3: Project Management

Reported by: Corpuz, Jesse John Marilag, Chrystal Bustamante, Alyssa Manguerra, Fiona Sarmiento, John Felix Padilla, Rodolfo Submitted to: Professor Melinda S. Balbarino

Topics:
Reported by:

I.

Project Initiation

Corpuz, Jesse John

II. Determining Feasibility III. Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs IV. Acquisition of Computer Equipment V. Identifying, Forecasting and Comparing Costs and Benefits VI. Activity Planning and Control VII. Managing the Project

Marilag, Chrystal

Bustamante, Alyssa

Manguerra, Fiona

Sarmiento, John Felix

VIII. The Systems Proposal

Padilla, Rodolfo

I.

Project Initiation

There are important capabilities for the systems analyst to master which are called project management fundamentals. This includes the initiating of projects, determining feasibility, scheduling projects, and planning and then managing activities and team members for production.

There are two broad reasons why business people suggest systems projects.

Problems in the Organization Problems surface in many different ways. One way of conceptualizing what problems are and how they arise is to think of them as situations in which goals have never been met or no longer being met. Useful feedback gives information about the gap between the actual and intended performance. In this way feedback spotlights problems. Checking output, observing employee behavior, and listening to feedback are all ways to help the analyst pinpoint systems problems and opportunities.
To identify problems: Check output against performance criteria Look for these specific signs: Too many errors Work completed slowly Work done incorrectly Work done incompletely Work not done at all High absenteeism High job dissatisfaction High job turnover Listen to external feedback from: VENDORS; CUSTOMERS; SUPPLIERS Complaints Suggestions for improvement Loss of sales Lower Sales

Observe behavior of employees

Defining the Problem

Whether using the classical SDLC or an object-oriented approach, the analyst first defines the problems and objectives of the system. These are the components of a problem definition:

In problem statement, it should be summarized into one or two paragraphs. The issues are the current situation, while the objectives are the desired situation. The requirements contain the things that must be accomplished and may include security, usability, government requirements and so on. And lastly the constraints, that limit the development of the system. The problem definition is produced after completing interviews, observations and document analysis with the users. Major points can be identified in the interview in a number of ways.

There are things that a system analyst must remember in regards with issues and objectives: The relative importance of the issues and objectives must be determined. The identification of the most critical objectives is best done by users. Assign a weight for each issue and objective. The problem definition issues and objectives are rearranged in order of decreasing importance.

A Problem Definition Example: Catherines Catering

Selection of Projects You must be clear in your own mind about the reasons for recommending a systems study on a project that seems to address a problem or could bring about improvement. There are five specific criteria for project selection:

Organizational goals 1. Improving corporate profits. 2. Supporting the competitive strategy of the organization. 3. Improving cooperation with vendors and partners. 4. Improving internal operations. 5. Improving internal decisions. 6. Improving customer service. 7. Increasing employee morale. Possibilities of improvements

II.

Determining Feasibility

Our definition of feasibility goes much deeper than the usual usage of the term, because systems project feasibility is succeeded in three ways: operationally, technically and economically. The feasibility study is not a full-blown systems study. Rather, the feasibility study is used to gather broad data for the members of management that in turn enables them to make a decision on whether to proceed with a systems study. Data for the feasibility study can be gathered through interviews. The kind of interview required is directly related to the problem or opportunity being suggested. The systems analyst typically interviews those requesting help and those directly concerned with the decision-making process, typically management. Although it is important to address the correct problem, the systems analyst should not spend too much time doing feasibility studies, because many projects will be requested and only a few can or should be executed. The feasibility study must be highly-time compressed, encompassing several activities in a short span of time. Determining whether it is Possible After an analyst determines reasonable objectives for a project, the analyst need to determine if it is possible for the organization and its members to see the project through completion. Generally, the process of

feasibility assessment is effective in screening out projects that are inconsistent with the businesss objectives, technically impossible, or economically without merit. Although its painstaking, studying feasibility is worthwhile because it saves businesses and systems analysts time and money. In order for an analyst to recommend further development, a project must be feasible in all three of the following ways: technically, economically, and operationally.

TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

The analyst must find out whether it is possible to develop the new system given the current technical resources. If not, can the system be upgraded or added into a manner that fulfills the request under consideration? If existing systems cannot be added onto or upgraded, the next question becomes whether there is technology in existence that meets specifications. At the same time, the analyst can ask whether the organization has the staff who are technically proficient enough to accomplish the objectives. If not, the question becomes whether they can hire additional programmers, testers, experts, or others who may have different programming skills from theirs, or maybe outsource the project completely. Still another question is whether there are software packages available that can accomplish their objectives, or does the software need to be customized for the organization? ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

The basic resources to consider are your time and that of the systems analysis team, the cost of doing the full systems study, the cost of the business employee time, the estimated cost of hardware, and the estimated cost of software or software development. The concerned business must be able to see the value of investment it is pondering before committing to an entire systems study. If short-term costs are not overshadowed by long-term gains or produce no immediate reduction in operating costs, the system is not economically feasible and the project should not proceed any further. OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY

Operational feasibility is dependent on o the human resources available for the project and involves projecting whether the system will operate and be used once it is installed.

If users are virtually wed to present system, see no problems with it, and generally are not involved in requesting a new system, resistance to implement a new system will be strong. Chances for it ever becoming operational are low.

III. Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs

Assessing technical feasibility includes evaluating the ability of computer hardware and software to handle workloads adequately. First, all current computer hardware the organization owns must be inventoried to discover what is on hand and what is usable. Knowledge of the organizational structure and how users interact with technologies in an organizational setting can also be helpful in hardware decisions. Only when system analysts, users, and management have a good grasp of what kinds of tasks must be accomplished can hardware options be considered.

Inventorying Computer Hardware Begin by inventorying what computer hardware is already available in the organization. As will become apparent, some of the hardware options involve expanding or recycling current hardware so it is important to know what is on hand. If an updated computer hardware inventory is unavailable, the systems analyst needs to set up one quickly and carry through it. You need to know the following: A. Type of Equipment: model, number, manufacturer B. Operation Status: on order, operating, storage, in need of repair C. Estimated age of equipment D. Projected life of equipment E. Physical location of equipment F. Person responsible for equipment

G. Financial arrangement ESTIMATING WORKLOADS The next step in ascertaining hardware needs is to estimate workloads. Thus, system analysts formulate numbers that represent both current and projected workloads for the system so that any hardware obtained will possess the capability to handle current and future workloads. If estimates are accomplished properly, the business should not have to replace hardware solely due to unforeseen growth in system use. Out of necessity, workloads are sampled rather than actually put through several computer systems. COMPARISON OF TIMES REQUIRED BY EXISTING AND PROPOSED INFORMATION

EVALUATING COMPUTER HARDWARE Although vendor will be supplying details about their particular offerings, analysts need to see the evaluation process personally because they have the best interests of the business at heart. In addition, system analysts may have to educate users and management about the general advantages and disadvantages of hardware before they can capably evaluate it. In addition, workloads can be simulated and run on different systems, including those already used in an organization. This process is referred to as benchmarking. Criteria that the systems analysts and users should use to evaluate performance of different systems hardware include the following: o The time required for average transactions ( including how long it takes to input data and how long it takes to receive output )

o The total volume capacity of the system (how much can processed at the same time before a problem arises) o The idle time of the CPU or network o The size of the memory provided Some criteria will be shown I formal demonstrations, some cannot be simulated and must be gleaned from manufacturers specifications. It is important to be clear about the required and desired functions before getting too wrapped up in vendors claims during demonstrations. COMPUTER SIZE AND USE The rapid advance of technology dictates that the systems analyst research types of computers available at the particular time that the systems proposal is being written. Computer sizes range all the way from miniature mobile phones to room-sized supercomputers. Each has different attributes that should e considered when deciding how to implement a computer system.

IV. Acquisition of Computer Equipment

In acquiring computer equipment, there are 3 main options- buying, leasing, or renting. For each option, there are advantages and disadvantages to be weighed for each of the decisions. Some of the more influential factors to consider in deciding which option is best for a particular installation include initial versus long-term costs, whether the business can afford to tie up capital in computer equipment, and whether the business desires full control of and the responsibility for the computer equipment. 1. Buying- implies that the business will own the equipment. This is the best option for acquiring computer hardware if the system will be used longer than four to five years. 2. Leasing- the company doesnt own the computer equipment but it pays a monthly payment for the use of the hardware for a fixed duration of use. 3. Renting- this is synonymous to lease but the difference is that it only lasts for a short period of time. A lease is usually given for a specific period of time such as 6 months or years during which both the landlord and tenant are bound by the terms of the lease while rent has no defined period of residence and the landlord and tenant can make changes to the rental agreement. Below are the advantages and disadvantages of the options for acquiring computer hardware. Advantages Buying Cheaper than leasing or renting over the long run Ability to change system Provides tax advantages of accelerated depreciation Full control Disadvantages Initial cost is high Risk of obsolescence Risk of being stuck if choice was wrong Full responsibility

Leasing

No capital is tied up No financing is required

Company doesnt own the system when lease expires Usually a heavy penalty for terminating the lease Leases are more expensive than buying Company doesnt own the computer Cost is very high because vendor assumes the risk (most expensive option)

Leases are lower than rental payments

Renting

No capital is tied up No financing is required

Easy to change systems Maintenance and insurance are usually included

To fully understand the comparisons, here is an example of acquiring computer hardware using the three options:

From the above data, it shows that the cost of purchase after 3 years is lower than that of leasing or renting. When a company chooses to purchase the equipment, it will gain full control of it and they will have the ability to change the system. As systems become smaller, more powerful, and less expensive, more businesses are deciding to purchase equipment. However, its initial cost is high and it has a risk of being stuck if choice was wrong. Meanwhile, when a company uses the computer for less than four years only, they should lease the equipment. And if significant change in technology is imminent, leasing is a better choice. It also allows the business to put the money elsewhere where it can be working for the company rather than be tied up in capital equipment. But leases are more expensive than buying. It usually has a heavy penalty or terminating the lease and the company doesnt own the system when it expires. When the company decided to rent the computer hardware, none of the companys capital is tied up, and hence no financing is required. It also makes easier to change system hardware. This is a best option when the company contemplated it only for a short-term move to handle nonrecurring or limited computer needs or technologically volatile times. But as you observe from the above example, cost is very high because the vendor assumes the risk. Whether to choose any of the options, the company must identify the period of time they will use the system, if they afford to tie up capital in computer equipment and if they desire the full responsibility and control for the computer equipment. EVALUATION OF VENDOR SUPPORT FOR COMPUTER HARDWARE What is the reputation of the manufacturer in terms of technical support, maintenance and industry position? Hardware manufacturers are increasingly designing all equipment to support and function in the client server environment on which Internet technology is based. Several key areas ought to be evaluated when weighing the support services available to businesses from vendors. Vendors of comparable quality frequently distinguished themselves from others by the range of support services they offer. Here is a list of criteria in evaluating vendor support:

Vendor Services

Specifics Vendors Typically Offer

Hardware Support

Full line of hardware Quality products Warranty

Software Support

Complete software needs Custom programming Warranty

Installation and Training

Commitment to schedule In-house training Technical assistance

Maintenance

Routine maintenance procedures Specified response time in emergencies Equipment loan while repair is being done

Vendor support services should include routine and preventive maintenance of hardware, its quality and if there is an equipment breakdown, a warranty which will replace permanently the hardware or repair is required. In software support, it must have all the needed software, customized programs and warranty that will repair the software breakdowns. In installing and training, the vendor should provide technical assistance and they must have a commitment to schedule. Lastly, in maintaining the hardware, vendor should have a routine maintenance procedures and a specified response time in emergencies. Because of the competitions among vendors, it has made the idea of producing hardware that is compatible with competitors hardware important for vendors survival. In deciding which vendor will suit your needs, it is better to do enough research to feel confident that the original vendor is a stable corporate entity. SOFTWARE EVALUATION Software availability is probably the most significant factor in evaluating hardware for instructional applications. Be aware of the hardware requirements of any software you are considering. Prior to even looking at available software options, make sure you thoroughly define your needs and what the application you select should be able to do for you. Nonprofits are process-driven. They receive, acknowledge, deposit and track donations; they identify, serve and record transactions with clients; and they recruit, hire and manage employees. Technology facilitates the way your organization manages these processes. A successful software installation will make this work easier, more streamlined and more effective. But a new system that doesnt take your processes and needs into account will only make running your organization more difficult.

Some of the decision making surrounding purchase of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software, rental of the software from an application service provider (ASP), or creation of custom software for the project is analogous to the hardware decision process. Below are the advantages and disadvantages of creating custom software, purchasing COTS packages, and outsourcing to an ASP: Advantages Creating Custom Software Specific response to specialized business needs Innovation may give firm a competitive advantage In-house staff available to maintain software Pride of ownership Refined in the commercial world Increased reliability Increased functionality Often lower initial cost Already in use by other firms Help and training comes with software Organizations that do not specialize in info systems focus on what they do best (their strategic mission) There is no need to hire, train or retain a Loss of control of data, systems, IT Programming focused; not business Disadvantages May be significantly higher initial cost

compare to COTS software or ASP Necessity of hiring or working with a

development team Ongoing maintenance

Purchasing COTS Packages

focused Must live with the existing features Limited customization Uncertain financial future of vendor Less ownership and commitment

Using an ASP

employees, and schedules Concern over the financial viability and

long run stability of the ASP Security, confidentiality, and privacy

large IT staff There is no expenditure of employee time on nonessential IT tasks

concerns Loss of potential strategic corporate

advantage regarding innovativeness of applications

After studying all the advantages and disadvantages of the three options, it is advisable for a company to identify what they really need. There are situations when to create custom software, when to buy COTS software and when to outsource software. When to create custom software Original software should be created when the organization is attempting to gain a competitive advantage through the leveraged use of information systems. This is often the case when an organization is creating ecommerce or other innovative application where none existed. The drawbacks of developing your own software include the potential for a significantly higher initial cost compared to purchasing COTS software or contracting with an ASP, the necessity of hiring or working with a development team and the fact that a company is responsible for the ongoing maintenance because it is the company who created the software. When to buy COTS software Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) solutions are designed to be easily implemented and interoperate with existing systems and do not require the need for services or heavy customization. COTS software is prevalent for its standardized functionality and cost savings, leading to many governments and organizations mandating COTS software. COTS offer an alternative to developing custom-made solutions, which tend to be inflexible with other systems and do not often provide the openness required. Since organizations invest much time and money in custommade applications, these solutions are used for long periods of time and are not frequently updated. When to outsource software services to an Application Service Provider An ASP (Application Service Provider) is a company that delivers applications - software - through the Internet and charges a monthly fee. Traditionally, software is sold. You physically receive a CD and you install it on your hard drive or your office's server. ASPs don't operate this way. They deliver software as a monthly service and use the Internet as the medium. This is better to choose when a company is not responsible for upkeep of the service provided. They can save money and eliminate the hassle that comes with support, maintenance and upgrades. When choosing ASP, there is a potential loss of strategic corporate advantage that might have been gained through the companys own deployment of innovative applications created by their employees. The company generally guaranteed better application availability, better data security, more frequent data backups, disaster recovery and basic, centralized technical support.

EVALUATION OF VENDOR SUPPORT FOR SOFTWARE AND ASPS Whether a company decides to buy COTS software or outsource software service to an ASP, they will be dealing with vendors who may have their own best interests. A company must evaluate the vendor and not base on the vendors sales talking. There are six main categories on which to grade software: Software Requirements Specific Software Features

Performance Effectiveness

Able to perform all required tasks Able to perform all tasks desired Well-designed display screens Adequate capacity

Performance Efficiency

Fast response time Efficient input Efficient output Efficient storage of data Efficient backup

Ease of Use

Satisfactory user interface Help menus available Read Me files for last minute changes Flexible interface Adequate feedback Good error recovery

Flexibility

Options for input Options for output Usable with other software

Quality of Documentation

Good organization Adequate online tutorial

Website with FAQ Manufacturer Support Technical support hotline Newsletter/email Website with downloadable product updates

Vendors typically certify that software is working when it leaves their supply house, but they will not guarantee that it will be error-free in every instance or that it will not crash when incorrect actions are taken by users. Evaluate packaged software based on a demonstration with test data from the business considering it and an examination of accompanying documentation.

V.

Identifying, Forecasting and Comparing Costs and Benefits

Systems analysts have to identify the system that fulfills various information requirements and decisions to continue with the proposed system. Forecasting Forecasting in the simplest meaning is predicting a certain event and in the world of systems analysis and design, systems analysts are required to predict certain key variables before the proposal is submitted to the client. There are five key variables that systems analysts should consider: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Scope- the things that the particular proposed project deals with. Cost- cash flows of the project. Quality- performance or the benefits that will be received. Time- the questions when in the proposal project. Risk- foundation of the proposed project that is needed to answer the question How sure are we regarding the outcome of the particular project?

The systems analyst has many forecasting models available. The main condition for choosing a model is the availability of historical data. If they are unavailable, the analyst must turn into one of these judgment methods: 1. Estimates from the sales force- a sales forecasting technique that predicts future sales by analyzing the opinions of sales people as a group. 2. Surveys to estimate customer demand- set of questions are given to the customers regarding to the project in order to calculate the best choice of project. 3. Delphi Studies- gathers, evaluates, and summarizes expert opinions as the basis for a forecast, but the procedure is more formal. 4. Creating scenarios- another method that is used by making some scenes to predict what will be the outcome if that particular step will be done. 5. Drawing historical analogies- ties what is being forecast to a similar item.

If the historical data are available, systems analysts may choose between: 1. Conditional- there is a casual relationship among variables in the model. Common methods in this group are: Correlation- statistical technique that can show whether and how strongly pairs of variables are related. Regression- statistical technique for estimating the relationships among variables. Leading indicators- used to predict changes in the economy Econometrics- statistical method used by the economists Input/output models- quantitative economic technique that represents the interdependencies between different branches of a national economy or different regional economies. 2. Unconditional- causal relationship doesnt exist. Graphical Judgment- simple and depends on individual judgment. Moving Averages- seasonal, cyclical, or random patterns may be smoothed, leaving the trend patterns. Analysis of time-series data- predicts the future sales by analyzing the historical relationship between sales and time. Identifying Benefits and Costs Benefits and costs can be either tangible or intangible and both must be taken into account when systems are considered. Tangible is something that can be felt or touched unlike intangible it cannot be felt or seen. Tangible Benefits. Those are measurable in dollars, resources, or time saved. Intangible Benefits. Difficult to measure but are really important factor in considering whether to proceed the system or not. Tangible Costs. Costs that can be determined quite easily and those are costs that require cash outlay of the business. Intangible Costs. Costs that are difficult to estimate and sometimes may not be known and are not quantifiable. Comparing Costs and Benefits There are four techniques for comparing costs and benefits of the proposed system: 1. Break-even Analysis- systems analyst can use break-even analysis to determine the break-even capacity of the proposed information system. The point at which the total cost current system and the proposed system intersect is the break-even point that represents the profitable point of the business. The figure on the right is an example of break-even analysis on a small store that maintains inventory using manual system. The graph shows that the computer would be cost effective if the business sold about 600 units per week.

2. Payback- A simple way to assess whether a business should invest in a proposed information system and the number of years of operation that the information system needs to pay back the cost of investing in it. On the figure below, the payback time of the business is three and a half years.

3.

Cash-flow Analysis- This analysis examines the

direction, size and pattern of cash flow.

This figure shows a cash-flow analysis for a small company that is providing a mailing service to other small companies in the city. Revenue projections are that only P5000 will be generated in the first quarter, but after the second quarter, revenue will grow at a steady rate. Costs will be large in the first two quarters and then level off. 4. Present Value Analysis- Consideration of Time value of money. We can use this formula in order to analyze the proposed system is worthwhile on your business:

FV= Future Value i= Discount rate n= number of periods

Consider this example: If we use present value analysis using an assumed discount rate, 12%, we will end up in this:

As you can see, the total Benefit is P179, 484, and thus less than the costs, which is P183, 855. So, we will end up in the conclusion that the proposed system is not worthwhile if present value is considered. Guidelines for Analysis 1. Use break-even analysis if the project needs to be justified in terms of cost, not benefits. 2. Use payback when the improved tangible benefits form a convincing argument for the proposed system. 3. Use cash-flow analysis when the project is expensive relative to the size of the company. 4. Use present value when the payback period is long or when the cost of borrowing money is high.

VI. Activity Planning and Control

Systems analysis and design involves many different types of activities that together make up a project, one of those activities are planning and control. Planning includes all the activities required to select a system analysis team assign members of the team to appropriate projects, estimate the time to complete the task, and schedule the project. Estimating Time Required

The lowest term level into defining activities is the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) itself, whereas the highest extreme is to include every detailed step, the optimal answer to planning and scheduling lies somewhere in between. System Analyst breaks the process into three major phases: analysis, design, and implementation. The analysis phase is further broken down into the data gathering, data flow and decision analysis, and proposal preparation. The design is broken down into data entry design, input design, and output design and data organization. The implementation phase is divided into implementation and evaluation. Systems analyst must also break down these tasks into further steps to describe it in more detail. In the figure at the right, data gathering is broken down into five activities, from conducting interviews to observing prototype. This particular data type requires data flow analysis but not decision analysis, so the system analyst has written in analyze data flow as the single step in the middle phase. Finally, proposal preparation is broken down into perform cost-benefit analysis, prepare proposal and present proposal. Together with these steps systems analyst must have to estimate the time required to complete each task or activity. Using Gantt Scheduling chart for Project

A Gantt chart is an easy way to tasks. It is a chart on which bars each task or activity. The length of represents the relative length of task.

schedule represent each bar

In the figure, this is an example of twodimensional Gantt chart. The time is the horizontal dimension while the activities are the vertical dimension. The chart signifies that the current week is week 9 by using the symbol triangle. You can put a legend on the side that shows the activities that are already completed, or incomplete or partially completed.

Using PERT Diagram PERT is an acronym for Program Evaluation and Review Techniques. It is represented by network of nodes and arrow that are then evaluated to determine the critical activities, improve the schedule if necessary and review progress once the project is undertaken. Comparing Gantt chart with PERT Diagram using the two pictures below, we can see that the activities expressed as bars in Gantt chart are the arrows in the PERT

diagram. The length of arrows has nothing to do with the duration of the activity. Circles on the PERT diagram are the events and can be identified using numbers, letters or other arbitrary from the designation. Path 10-2040-50 has a length of 15 days, while the 10-30-40-50 path indicates 11 days to be completed. The longest path is referred to as the critical path. The critical path in the example is 10-20-40-50 path, while the leeway to fall behind somewhat noncritical paths is called slack time. Occasionally, PERT diagrams need pseudo-activities, referred to as dummy activities. Lets use this picture to explain the dummy activities:

In project 1 activity, C can only be started if both A and B are finished, because all arrows coming into a node must be completed before leaving the node, whereas project 2, activity C requires only activity Bs completion and can therefore be under way while activity A is taking place. Therefore there are many reasons to use PERT diagram over Gantt chart. Those are: 1. Easy identification of the order of precedence. 2. Easy and thus 3. Easy PERT Example. First, list the accomplished example of estimation of activities that need to be along the way. This is an some activities and time.

identification of the critical path critical activities. determination of slack time.

In constructing the PERT diagram, the analyst looks first at those activities requiring no predecessor activities, in this case A and C. Analyst chose 10, 20, 30 and so on as a node. This how it goes after you followed the flow of the list by looking at the predecessor column.

Now, we can identify the critical path, and that is the 10-20-30-50-60-70-80 path because it takes 22 days to be accomplished.

Source: http://managementinnovations.wordpress.com/2008/12/11/methods-of-sales-forecasting/ http://en.wikipedia.org/

VIII> The Systems Proposal

The systems proposal is a written proposal that summarizes the systems analysts work in the business and includes recommendations and alternatives to solve the identified systems problem. It is essential that great care is given to writing and presenting it. Organizing the Systems Proposals While the charter serves the purpose of identifying objects, determining scope, and assigning responsibilities. The analyst still need to prepare a systems proposal that includes much of the detail about system needs, options and recommendations. This covers both the content and the style that makes up the systems proposal. What to include in the systems proposal:

1. Cover letter 2. Title page of project 3. Table of contents 4. Executive summary 5. Outline of systems study with appropriate documentation 6. Detailed results of the systems study 7. Systems alternatives 8. Systems analysts recommendations 9. Summary 10. Appendices COVER LETTER The cover letter lists of people who did the study and summarize the objectives of the study are provided in your cover letter. Also, prearranged time and place for oral presentation of the system proposal can be included. Keep your cover letter concise (one page maximum) and friendly. TITLE PAGE In the title page is include the name of the project, the names of the systems analysis team members, and the date the proposal is submitted. The title of the proposal must accurately express the content of the proposal, but it can also exhibit some imagination. TABLE OF CONTENTS If the proposal is very short (less than ten pages), you can omit the table of contents since it is unnecessary on such a short document. The purpose of your table of contents is to indicate the contents of your proposal. The table of contents can be a great help to readers of long proposals because they can easily locate where each topic in the proposal is. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (including recommendations) Usually, the executive summary is 250 to 375 words and can answer the questions such as who, what, when, where, why and how of the proposal. It should also include recommendation of the system analysts since some people will only have time to read the summary. It should be written last, when the rest of the proposal is complete. OUTLINE OF THE SYSTEMS STUDY (with appropriate documentation) The outline of system study with appropriate documentation provides information about all the methods used in the study, and who or what was studied. Any questionnaires, interviews, sampling of archival data, observing and prototyping used in the systems study should be discussed here.

 DETAILED RESULTS OF THE SYSTEMS STUDY It includes the details that the system analyst has found out about the system through all of the methods described. It also presents problems or suggests opportunities that call forth the alternatives presented in the systems alternatives. Conclusions about problems workers experience when interacting with technologies and systems that have come to the fore through the study should be noted here. SYSTEMS ALTERNATIVES The analyst will present two or three alternative solutions that directly address the aforementioned problems. Each alternative should be explored separately. Describe the costs and benefits of each situation. Be sure to include the advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives. Each alternative must clearly indicate what the users and managers do to implement it. SYSTEMS ANALYSTS RECOMMENDATION After the system analysis team has weighed the alternatives, it will have a definite professional opinion about what solution is workable. The system analysts recommendations section expresses the recommended solution. Include the reasons supporting the teams recommendation so that it is easy to understand why it is being made. PROPOSAL SUMMARY The proposal summary is a brief statement that mirrors the content the executive summary. Meaning it also gives the objectives of the study and the recommended solution. The proposal should be concluded on a positive note. APPENDICES The appendix is the last part of the system proposal, and it can include any information that the analyst feels may be of interest to specific individuals, but that is not essential for understanding the systems study and what is being proposed. USING FIGURES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Tables and graphs as well as words are important in capturing and communicating the basics of the proposed system. Good design should never be underestimated. Integrating figures into your proposal helps demonstrate that you are responsive to the different ways people absorb information. Figures in the report supplement written information and must always be expressed in words. They should never stand alone. Effective Use of Tables. Tables provide a different way of grouping and presenting analyzed data that the analyst wants to communicate on the readers. Tables use labeled columns and rows to present statistical or alphabetical data in an organized way. Each table must be numbered according to the order in which it appears in the proposal and should be meaningfully titled.

There are some guidelines for the effective use of tables:

1. Integrate into the body of the proposal. Dont relegate them to the appendices. 2. Try to fit the entire table vertically on a single page, if possible. 3. Number and title the table at the top of the page. Make the title meaningful and descriptive. 4. Label each row and column. Use more than one line if necessary. 5. Use a boxed table if room permits. Vertically ruled columns will enhance the readability. 6. Use footnotes if necessary to explain detailed information contained in the table. Effective Use of Graphs. There are many types of graphs: 1. Line graphs Used to show change over time Changes of up to five variables on a single graph May also show when lines intersect

2. Column Charts Can depict a comparison between two or more variables over time Used more often to compare different variables at a particular point in time Easier to understand than line graphs

3. Bar Graphs Used to show one or more variables within certain classes or categories during a specific time period Sorted or organized: Alphabetical, Numerical, Geographical, Progressive order and Magnitude

4. Pie Charts

Used to show how 100 percent of a commodity is divided at a particular point in time Easier to read than 100 percent stacked column charts or 100 percent subdivided bar charts Disadvantage is they take a lot of room on the page

There are some guidelines for the effective use of graphs: 1. Choose a style of graph that communicates your intended meaning well 2. Integrate the graph into the body of the proposal 3. Give the graph a sequential figure number and a meaningful title 4. Label each axis, and any lines, columns, bars, or pieces of the pie on the graph 5. Include a key to indicate differently colored lines, shaded bars, or crosshatched areas Much of the details that go into a systems proposal is obtained from interviewing, providing questionnaires, sampling, discovering other hard data, and by observation.