Appendix B: Hemispherical projection

Hemispherical projection methods

These methods enable three-dimensional orientation data to be displayed in two dimensions and manipulated graphically.

Fundumentd geometry
Directions are vectors with unit length. We assume that these vectors emanate from the origin of a Cartesian co-ordinate system. It is convenient to use east/north/down for rock mechanics.

Directions are measured in terms of the angles a = trend /3 = plunge a is measured with a compass, p is measured with a clinometer. Note that OB = sin a c o s p oc = cos a c o s p AD = sin p.

Because every vector has unit length, the tips lie on the surface of a sphere. We are usually only interested in downward-directed vectors, lying on the lower hemisphere.

Projection onto two dimensions

One way to form a two-dimensional plot associated with vectors on the lower hemisphere is to project the tips of the vectors onto the horizontal

432 Appendix 6: Hemispherical projection

plane that passes through the origin (i.e. the centre of the sphere), assuming the point of projection is the North Pole of the sphere:
North Pole

/\

/ '

oniu norizontal

plane

hemisphere

vector

A l l points on the lower hemisphere can be projected in this way. This type
of projection is called equal angle projection and is used exclusively in rock mechanics for engineering.

Equal angle projection

of a plane: great circles

We regularly use planes in rock mechanics analyses and so it is important to determine the projection of such features. The mathematics of the projection are tedious, but the result is simple: a circular arc is developed.
Plane of projection

......... 0
Inclined plane passing through origin of
SP'

'...

projection of plane, called a great circle

Generation of small circles

If, instead of the plane itself, we consider a single vector on the plane, we see that this vector traces a circular path on the surface of the hemisphere as the inclination of the plane changes. The projection of this trace is called a small circle.

Hemispherical projection methods

Inclined plane Small circle results on projection
1
/ .

433

................. .~ 0

9.. ....

.'.....

Trace of P on surface of hemisphere, as inclination of plane varies

' u
.......

Rather than draw great and small circles for every application, we use pre-printed grids showing these circles at angular separations of, say, 2". These grids enable us to plot and measure lines and planes of all orientations. They are called equal angle equatorial projections (because they look like a globe viewed from a point above the equator), but commonly are known as hemispherical projection nets.

434 Appendix 0: Hemispherical projection

Using a hemispherical projection net: plotting vectors
Never write on the net: always use a piece of tracing paper over it. Carefully pierce the centre of the projection with a drawing pin, and then push the pin through from the reverse side of the net. Use the point of the pin to hold a sheet of tracing paper in place. Mark the north point as a datum.
N

Mark, with a tick on the perimeter of the net at the correct azimuth, the vector to be plotted. Write on the projection the orientation. Only write on the tracing paper, not the net.

Rotate the tracing paper so that the tick is on the E-W l i e . Count in an amount equal to the dip o f the vector. Mark the position of 219168 the vector. Only write on the tracing paper, not the net.

Rotate the tracing paper back to the datum: the position of the vector is now correct relative to north.

Hemispherical projection methods

435

Using a hemispherical projection net: plotting planes

Start by marking a tick on the perimeter of the projection in the same way as for 'plotting a vector'. The azimuth should correspond to the dip direction of the planes.

Rotate the tracing paper so that the tick lies on the E-W line, and count in an amount equal to the dip amount of the plane. Count a further 90" along the E-W line, and mark this new position.

Trace the great circle that passes over the first point: this represents the plane. The second point represents the normal to the plane 149137 (i.e. the vector that is perpendicular to the plane). The first point represents the line of maximum dip; the second point is termed the pole.

Rotate the tracing paper back to the datum: the positions of the plane and the normal are now correct relative to north.

436 Appendix B: Hemispherica/projwtion

Determining h e line of intersection of two p h e s

For any pair of planes, there is a line of intersection: it is where the two great circles cross. Finding its orientation is easy.

2W36

Rotate the tracing paper so that the intersection of the great circles lies on the E-W line. Mark the azimuth of this with a tick on the perimeter of the projection. Measure the plunge of the line by counting in from the perimeter, along the E-W line.
146159

Rotate the tracing paper back to the datum, and measure the azimuth of the intersection. Thus we can see that the planes 266/36 and 146/59 have an intersection of 219/26. YOU should be able to measure graphically all such angles to the nearest degree.

266/36

2 19/26

Hemispherical projection methods

437

Determining the bisector of two vectors

Any two orientation vectors have a bisector (the line that is halfway between the two of them). Because the bisector must lie in the same plane as the other two vectors, finding its orientation is straightforward.

We start with the two points plotted on the projection (note that these are the normals to the planes used in the previous example).

32H3 1

Rotate the tracing paper so that both the vectors lie on the same great circle: this is the plane that they lie in. Using the small circles, count along the great circle to determine the angle between the vectors. Divide this by 2, and count from one vector to find the bisector. Mark it.

Rotate the tracing paper so that the bisector lies on the E-W line, mark its azimuth and measure its plunge. Rotate the tracing paper back to the datum and measure the azimuth of the bisector. Thus we see that the bisector of 326/31 and 086154 is 008l60.

086l54

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Appendix 6: Hemispherical projection

Rotution ubout an urbitrury uxis

Consider this scenario: a borehole is drilled with a trend of 305" and a plunge of 65", it intersects a plane with orientation 145/73, but the core has rotated through 55" clockwise (looking down the hole) during recovery. What is the apparent orientation of the discontinuity as it emerges from the hole? The simplest way of solving these sorts of problems is to use the net to perform the various rotations.
N

Start by plotting and labelling the data: here it is BH for the vector corresponding to the direction of the borehole, D corresponding to the line of maximum dip of the plane, and N for the normal to the plane.

BH 305165

145i73

Rotate the tracing paper so that the borehole is on the E-W line. Then move BH to the centre of the net-in this case through an angle of 90 - 65 = 25". Move the normal N through the same angle, but along the small circle. Label the new points BH' and N'. In effect, the net has been inclined to be perpendicular to the borehole.

Rotate the tracing paper so that N is on the the E-W line. Mark its azimuth and measure its dip. Count round the perimeter the amount of the rotation (55" in this case), and put a new tick: call this N .

N'

14sn3

Points to remember

439

145/73

Rotate the tracing paper so that the tick for N is on the E-W line, and N count in to get the rotated normal N. In effect, we have modelled the rotation of the core.

BH
30516.5

BH
305165

145/73

Now put the point BH on the E-W line, and move the point N along the small circle by the same amount but in the opposite direction to that used in step 2. This puts the projection back to its starting position, and N moves to NR: the rotated normal.

Put NRonthe E-W line, count across 90, and mark DR Measure the dip of DRand mark its azimuth. Finally, put the tracing paper back to the datum and measure the azimuth of DR. Thus, we see that the apparent orientation of the discontinuity is 187/58.
BH
305165

Points to remember
1. Never write on the projection itself: you should always write on the tracing paper. 2. Use pencil, not pen, as you will make mistakes that need to be erased. 3. Adopt-and use always-a simple but clear naming convention for

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Appendix 6: Hemispherical projection

vectors. For example, N for normals, D for lines of maximum dip, superscript R for rotation (about the drawing pin), superscript prime or I for inclination (Le. movement along the small circles), subscript numbers to identify particular vectors (or planes). 4. Make notes on the tracing paper as you go: this helps others understand what youve done, and gives you a valuable revision guide. 5. When rotatindinclining planes, always use the normal to the plane, never the l i e of maximum dip (this is because the normal is unique, whereas the line of maximum dip is arbitrary). 6. Never write on the projection itself: you should always write on the tracing paper.