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Principles of Biomedical Systems & Devices
Principles of Biomedical Systems & Devices
http://engineering.rowan.edu/~polikar/CLASSES/ECE404
Clinical Laboratory: Analyze patient specimens for diagnostic and therapy efficiency measurements
Chemistry section: Blood, urine, CSF, etc. determine how much of a clinically important substance is present Hematology section: Number and characteristics of formed elements in blood (RBC, WBC, platelets, etc.), blood clotting tests Microbiology / Hematology section: test blood and tissue cultures for presence of microorganisms Blood bank section: Determination of blood type
Clinical instruments must be: exceptionally accurate and precise, with fast response!
Clinical Instrumentation
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Colorimeter
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Measures the color concentration of a substance in a solution by detecting the color light intensity passing through a sample containing the substance and a reagent Optical color filters are used to detect the color wavelength of interest. E.g., urine passes yellow light and absorbs blue and green Laser LEDs are preferred if their wavelength is suitable due to purity of the monochromatic color.
Colorimeter
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Transmittance
I1 T= 100% I0 I 2 = TI1 = T 2 I 0
Absorbance
I0 1 A = log = log I1 T
IF the path length or concentration increases, the transmittance decreases and absorbance Unknown / known increases, a phenomenon expressed by Beers Law:
Absorbtivity related to the nature of the absorbing substance and optical wavelength (known for a standard solution concentration).
A=aCL
Unknown concentration
C = Cs
A absorbance As
Colorimeter
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Focusing lenses
Wavelength selector
Flame Photometer
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Measures the color intensity of a flame supported by O2 and a specific substance. Samples emission of light is measured (rather than the absorbance of light). Typically used to determine the conc. of pure metals and/or Na+, K+, Li+ and Ca++
Spectrophotometer
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The general name given to the group of instruments whose principle of operation is based on the fact that substances of clinical interest selectively absorb or emit EM energy (light) at different wavelengths. Depending on the substance being measured, the wavelength used is typically in the ultraviolet (200-400 nm), visible (400-700nm) or infrared (700 to 800 nm) range. Spectrophotometer can be used to determine the entity of an unknown substance, or the concentration of a number of known substances. The type of source / filters used typically determines the type of the spectrophotometer.
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Rays of light bend around sharp corners, where the amount of bending depends on the wavelength! This results in separation of light into a spectrum at each line
Diffraction Spectrophotometer
Spectrophotometers
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Blood Measurements
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Resistance is low when there is no blood cell passing, and high when a blood cell does pass.
External electrode
-
75 m
Sample beaker
Aperture
Aperture tube
How are different cell types differentiated from each other? WBC stabilizing
Various lysing / mixing agents are added to the blood that selectively ruptures or transforms the cells so that they can be separated from each other either by volume or by pattern recognition techniques
agent Lysing mixing Triple
Diluter I Lysing agent Lysing/ WBC mixing bath Hgb Meter Hgb
RBC bath
Printer
Video scanner
Stage and focus motor drives
Color analyzer
Image memory
Reference memory
Keyboard
Cytoplasm Neutrophils morphology Bands Normal Nucleus morph. Eosinophils cell Granularity Basophils counters Pattern Monocytes Nucl./cytop.ratio Morphological Recognition Lymphocytes analyzer Chromatin pattern "Suspect Algorithm Atypical lymphocytes Blast-like cells cell Color Nucleated erythrocytes counters Other immature cells Vacuolization Video display Ticket printer
Flow Cytometry
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The blood is actually split into different chambers, where in each chamber it is diluted / mixed to differentiate different cell types. WBC and RBC are separated (using lysing)
Chromatography
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A group of measurements for separating a mixture of substances into components parts The chromatograph utilizes an adsorptive medium, which when placed in contact with a sample, adsorbs the various constituents of the sample at different rates. In this manner, the components of a mixture are separated.
Discovered by the Italian-born Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett. Tswett separated plant pigments (chlorophylls) by pouring petroleum-ether extract of green leaves over a column of powdered calcium carbonate in a vertical glass tube. As the solution percolated through the column the individual components of the mixture migrated downward at different rates of speed, so that the column became marked with horizontal bands of colors, called a chromatogram. Each band corresponded to a different pigment. Today, the name chromatography is a misnomer, since the rate at which the substance percolates, not the color, is used to separate the compounds.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/CHROMO/chroanim.html
Chromatography
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A chromatograph consists of a mobile phase, comprised of a solvent into which the sample is injected the solvent and sample flow through the column together - and stationary phase where the material in the column for which the components to be separated have varying affinities. The materials which comprise the mobile and stationary phases vary depending on the general type of chromatographic process being performed.
Gas Chromatography: The mobile phase in gas chromatography is generally an inert gas. The stationary phase is generally an adsorbent or liquid distributed over the surface of a porous, inert support. Liquid Chromatography: The mobile phase in liquid chromatography is a liquid of low viscosity which flows through the stationary phase bed. This bed may be comprised of an immiscible liquid coated onto a porous support, a thin film of liquid phase bonded to the surface of a sorbent, or a sorbent of controlled pore size.
Chromatography
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1. N2 or He, carries and sweeps the sample and the solvent in which it travels through the separation 5. After the sample is flushed or displaced from the stationary chamber (the column), this constitutes phase, the different components will elute from the column at the mobile phase of the measurement different times. The components with the least affinity for the stationary phase (the most weakly adsorbed) will elute first, while those with the greatest affinity for the stationary phase (the most strongly adsorbed) will elute last. 2. Temp / pressure / pH are controlled in a particular sequence for maximal efficiency of separation 3. Introduces the sample into the column 4. The column is where the separation takes place. A glass or metal tube (1 m / 7 mm) of sufficient strength to withstand the pressures applied across it. The column contains the stationary phase. 6. A detector analyzes the emerging stream by measuring a property which is related to concentration and characteristic of chemical composition. For example, the refractive index or ultra-violet absorbance is measured
Chromatography
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A continuous flow of solvent carries a solution of solutes A and B down a column. (a) As the solvent carries the two solutes down the column, separation of the solution begins. (b) Later in time, solute B starts moving faster rate than A. (c) In (d), solute B emerges first, while solute A finally emerges in (e). Solute A has a greater affinity for the stationary phase than solute B. By varying the pH of the solvent or temperature of the column, the output of the column can be significantly altered, such as the timing of when individual species emerge. http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/CHROMO/chromintro.html
The Chromatogram
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Since the sample is separated in the column, different peaks on the chromatogram correspond to different components in the sample mixture. The chromatograms show the results of separations of protein mixtures by ion exchange chromatography. The lettered peaks correspond to different proteins (A = ovalbumin, B = conalbumin, C = cytochrome c, D = lysozyme). The separation corresponding to the chromatogram on the left was performed at pH 5.85, while the one on the right was performed at pH 6.5. It is evident that operation conditions such as pH and temperature have a significant effect on the output.
Chromatography
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Various types of chromatography are available, each differing with the mobile / stationary phase, or the type of the column / detector\
Liquid chromatography Gas chromatography Adsorption chromatography Ion exchange chromatography Partition chromatography Molecular exclusion Affinity chromatography
See http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/CHROMO/chromtypes.html for more information
Chromatography
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Mass Spectroscopy
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A mass spectrometer produces a stream of charged particles (ions) for the substance(s) being analyzed, separates these ions into a spectrum according to their mass-to-charge ratios, and then determines the relative quantity of each ion present in the substance.
Gas mixture is drawn into an ionizing chamber kept at very low pressure (10-6 torr) The gas molecules to be measured are bombarded by a stream of high velocity e- to produce (+) ions, which are then accelerated into a dispersion chamber in a beam form The ion beam is then sorted into its components on a molecular mass basis The high velocity ion beam is subjected to a high magnetic field H, which causes the ions to deflect and follow a curved trajectory under the field. The curve is least for heaviest ions. By strategic location of an electrode, individual species of ions can be collected. The radius of the trajectory depends on the speed (accelerating voltage), mass, charge and the strength of the magnetic field:
r=
m H2 e
2V
Mass-to-charge ratio
Mass Spectrometer
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Mass Spectrometer
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The ion current measured by the collector is proportional to the partial pressure of the sample substance in the gas mixture.
Advantages / Disadvantages
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The MS can identify a single individual gas species in a complex gas mixture. Incredibly small amounts of gas would be adequate, However; MS is unable to distinguish different gases with the same molecular weight, e.g., CO (12+16) and N2 (14*2) cannot be distinguished from each other, nor O2 and CO2 in the presence of N2O. For a demo of MS see http://www.colby.edu/chemistry/OChem/DEMOS/MassSpec.html
Autoanalyzers
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An autoanalyzer sequentially measures blood chemistry through a series of steps of mixing, reagent reaction and colorimetric measurements. It consists of
Sampler: Aspirates samples, standards, wash solutions into the system Proportioning pump: Mixes samples with the reagents so that proper chemical color reactions can take place, which are then read by the colorimeter Dialyzer: separates interfacing substances from the sample by permitting selective passage of sample components through a semi permeable membrane Heating bath: Controls temperature (typically at 37 C), as temp is critical in color development Colorimeter: monitors the changes in optical density of the fluid stream flowing through a tubular flow cell. Color intensities proportional to the substance concentrations are converted to equivalent electrical voltages. Recorder: Displays the output information in a graphical form.
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Autoanalyzers
Commercial Autoanalyzers
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