The Historical Development of Atomic Models

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Rachael Lee. Group: Samira, Amanda, Samantha, Yeoh Hsu Yin (F4SC1)
Gold foil experiment by Ernest Rutherford
The Geiger-Marsden experiment (also called the Gold foil experiment or the Rutherford experiment) was an experiment done by Hans Gieger and Ernest Marsden in 1909 under the direction of Ernest Rutherford which led to the downfall of the plum pudding model of an atom.They measured the deflection of alpha particles (helium ions with a positive charge) directed normally onto a sheet of very thin gold foil. Under the prevailing plum pudding model, the alpha particles should all have been deflected by, at most, a few degrees. However they observed that a very small percentage of particles were deflected through angles much larger than 90 degrees; some were even scattered back toward the source. From this observation Rutherford concluded that the atom contained a very physically-small (as compared with the size of the atom) positive charge, which could repel the alpha particles if they came close enough. Early in 1911, Rutherford came forth with his own model for subatomic structure, known as the Rutherford Model. The observations indicated that a model of the atom with a diffuse charge was incorrect and that a large amount of atomic charge was instead concentrated at some point, giving it a very high electric field. He concluded that the atom might be mostly empty space, with most of the atom's mass and a large fraction of one of its two kinds of charge concentrated in a tiny center. Rutherford was unable to say from his experiment whether or not the nuclear charge was positive or negative, but considered the possibility that the high electric field seen deflecting the alphas, was positive.

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John Dalton

1) John Dalton's Atomic theory 1) All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible. 2) All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties 3) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms. 4) A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms. Source.

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Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford described the atom as having a central positive nucleus surrounded by negative orbiting electrons.he suggested that most of the mass of the atom was contained in the small nucleus, and that the rest of the atom was mostly empty space. Rutherford came to this conclusion following the results of his famous gold foil experiment. This experiment involved the firing of radioactive particles through thin gold foils and detecting them using screens coated with zinc sulfide. leading him to his theory that most of the atom was made up of 'empty space'. the gold foil experiment was interpreted by Ernest Rutherford as suggesting that the positive charge of an atom and most of its mass was concentrated in a nucleus at the center of the atom (the Rutherford model), with the electrons orbiting it like planets around a sun. Atomic Theory.

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James Chadwick
James Chadwick's research focused on radioactivity. He worked with Rutherford, who had discovered the neutron, a non charged particle within the atom's nucleus. As they studied atomic disintegration, they kept seeing that the atomic number was less than the atomic mass. Since electrons have almost no mass, it seemed that something besides the protons in the nucleus was adding to the mass. One leading explanation was that there were electrons and additional protons in the nucleus as well -the protons still contributed their mass but their positive charge was canceled out by the negatively charged electrons. Experiments in Europe caught Chadwicks eye, especially those of Frederic and Irene Joliot -Curie. They used a different method for tracking particle radiation. Chadwick repeated their experiments but with the goal of looking for a neutral particle -one with the same mass as a proton, but with zero charge. His experiments were successful. He was able to determine that the neutron did exist and that its mass was about 0.1 percent more than the proton's. He published his findings and he received the Nobel Prize for his discovery.

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History of the electron
Experiments with beams of negative particles were performed in Britain by Joseph John ("J.J.") Thomson, and led to his conclusion in 1897 that they consisted of lightweight particles with a negative electric charge, nowadays known as electrons. Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize.

J.J. Thomson
The word "elektron" in Greek means amber, the yellow fossilized resin of evergreen trees, a "natural plastic material" already known to the ancient Greeks. It was known that when amber was rubbed with dry cloth--producing what now one would call static electricity--it could attract light objects, such as bits of paper. **William Gilbert**, a physician who lived in London at the time of Queen Elizabeth I and Shakespeare, studied magnetic phenomena and demonstrated that the Earth itself was a huge magnet, by means of his "terrella" experiment. But he also studied the attraction produced when materials such as amber were rubbed, and named it the "electric" attraction. From that came the word "electricity" and all others derived from it. During the 1800s it became evident that electric charge had a natural unit, which could not be subdivided any further, and in 1891 Johnstone Stoney proposed to name it "electron." When J.J. Thomson discovered the light particle which carried that charge, the name "electron" was applied to it. The many applications of electrons moving in a near-vacuum or inside semiconductors were later dubbed "electronics."

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Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford was widely referred to as Lord Rutherford and was a chemist. He had a Bachelor's Degree in Chemistry and Geology. He became known as the father of "Nuclear Physics". He pioneered the orbital theory of the atom through his discovery of Rutherford scattering off the nucleus with his gold foil experiment. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908. Ernest Rutherford had demonstrated that radioactivity was the spontaneous disintegration of atoms. He noticed that a sample of radioactive material invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay its "half-life" and created a practical application for this phenomenon using this constant rate of decay as a clock, which could then be used to help determine the actual age of the Earth that turned out to be much older than most scientists at the time believed. He was appointed to the chair of Physics at McGill Universitry and a few of his notable students include : Neils Bohr and James Chadwick.

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John Dalton - imagined the atom as a small indivisible ball similar to a very tiny ball. J.J. Thompson - discovered electron. He described the atom as a sphere of positive large which contains a few negative charged particles called electrons Ernest Rutherford - discovered proton, a positive charge in an atom. Neils Bohr - proposed that the electrons in an atom move in shells around the nucleus. James Chadwick - proved the existence of neutrons (the neutral particles in the nucleus)

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History
The concept that matter was composed of tiny discrete particles have been first recorded in Ancient India (6 BC) although it was more abstract in reasoning and solely based on philosophy. The particles were thought to have been made up of the 'classical elements' like fire, water, air and earth. The name 'atom' first appeared in around 450 BC, when Democritus coined the term atomos, meaning uncuttable, to describe this abstract thought. In 1661, Robert Boyle argued that matter was formed from various 'corpuscules', the closest theory resembling the modern-day atom. However, the basic concrete idea of the atom only came about at around 1803 when John Dalton proved the theory through science and experimentation as seen below.

John Dalton

John Dalton's portrait

In the 1800s, John Dalton had released a series of scientific papers, titled Experiment

John Dalton's atomic model

al Essays, which indirectly explained the atomic theory. Using the theory that matter consists of discrete atoms, he explained why certain gases dissolved in water better than others and why elements would combine in certain ways. His explanations covered how chemical reactions involved 'moving atoms around', how each element consists of atoms of a single, unique type, and that these atoms could join to each other, to form chemical compounds. However, his model of the atom was described as a simple ball (albeit very tiny) that could not be created or destroyed.

J.J. Thomson

The plum pudding model

J.J. Thomson's portrait

Sir Joseph John "J.J." Thomson, a physicist, discovered the electron as a subatomic particle in 1897 at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, winning the Nobel Prize in 1909 for this breakthrough. This discovery was made during his extensive work on cathode ray tubes. In 1904, he proposed a new atomic model to replace John Dalton's over-simplified model. Thomson proposed that atoms were composed of many of these electrons in the 'soup of a positive charge' to balance the negative charges of the electrons. This was dubbed the 'plum pudding model', likening the electrons to 'plums' embedded in the 'pudding' of the positive charge. But this model would later be disproved in a 1909 landmark experiment.

Ernest Rutherford

Photograph of Ernest Rutherford

In 1909, Lord Ernest Rutherford directed an experiment in the Physical Laboratories of the University of Manchester to observe how particles pass through an atom. Named the Geiger-Marsden experiment (named after the two scientists, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, who executed the experiment), or more famously known as the 'gold foil experiment', it involved shooting alpha particles onto a thin gold foil and observing the scattering of the particles under a low power microscope. Following the plum pudding model, it was predicted that the alpha particles would pass through the atoms of the foil undisturbed. But during the experiment, a startling revelation was made. He observed that alpha particles deflected off at the center of the atom. At that time, this result was so unpredicted that Rutherford quoted "It was almost as incredible as if you fired a fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." This concluded that since alpha particles are positive, there must be a concentrated positive charge repelling them at the center, or nucleus, of the atom. Hence, this was the birth of the proton.

The top diagram shows the expected results of alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model. The bottom diagram describes what was actually observed, showing particles deflecting off

the proton at the center of the Rutherford atomic model.

The Rutherford model was defined to be a proton surrounded by a diffuse cloud of electrons. Naturally, he assumed that the electrons orbited the proton like planets to the Sun. Hence, this was also called the planetary model. It's worth noting that the orbits were not orderly and Rutherford thought that the electrons were still in random motion.This would be the only incorrect proposal of the model as pointed out by the next contributor to the development of the atomic theory.

The Rutherford model. Red particles denote protons while blue particles denote electrons. Note that the orbits are random as opposed to the Bohr model.

Niels Bohr

Photograph of Niels Bohr

As an improvement to the Rutherford model, Niels Henrik David Bohr produced the Bohr atomic model to explain what seemed like inconsistencies in the previous model. Apparently, if Rutherford's model is true, the electrons would lose energy and spiral towards the nucleus, proving that all matter was unstable, which was definitely untrue. To counter this effect, Bohr proposed that the electrons move in certain motions only, otherwise known as 'shells' around the nucleus. These 'shells' are like specific orbits at specific distances from the nucleus. This is further elaborated by proposing that these orbits are discrete and that the number of electrons traveling on the outer orbit largely determines the chemical properties of the element. This model would then become the basis of the highly advanced quantum mechanics theory, earning him the Nobel Prize in 1922.

Simple schematic diagram of the Bohr model depicting the orderly manner of the shells.

James Chadwick

Photograph of James Chadwick

In 1920, Lord Ernest Rutherford suggested the existence of a neutral subatomic particle in the atom. Many experiments were carried out in search of this particle. For instance, in 1928, a German physicist, Walter Bothe, and his student, Herbert Becker, shot alpha particles into beryllium and found out that it gave off a neutral radiation. This experiment was somewhat repeated by Irene Joliot-Curie and her husband, Frederic Joliot-Curie. However, all of them misinterpreted the neutral radiation as gamma rays. Later in 1932, James Chadwick repeated the experiment meticulously and after some more experimentation, he proved that the radiation in fact did not contain gamma rays, but instead, they contained a neutral component with a mass approximately equal to that of a proton. This was then called the neutron. He eventually received the 1935 Nobel Prize for this discovery.

The widely accepted modern-day atomic model depicting a nitrogen atom. It has the neutrons from Chadwick's discovery and the shells from Bohr's model.

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Edited by Tan Sien Yi (F4SC1) on Jan 14, 2008.
John Dalton -all elements are made up of small indivisible particles called atoms -atoms are neither created nor destroyed during chemical reactions -the atoms of an element are alike but differ from the atoms of other elements - when atoms combine, they do so in a simple ratio -all chemical reactions are the result from the combination or separation of atoms J.J Thompson -discovered negatively charged particles which he called electrons -suggested that an atom is a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it Ernest Rutherford -most of an atom is empty space -all positive charges of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus -he called the positively charged particles protons -proposed that an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus with a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus Niels Bohr -electrons in an atom are arranged in permitted orbits called electron shells surrounding the nucleus James Chadwick -discovered rays of electrically neutral subatomic particles called neutrons -suggested that the nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons and the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons

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A detailed description of John Dalton's discovery.
Modern Development on The Atomic Theory Modern atomic theory is generally said to begin with John Dalton, an English chemist and meteorologist who in 1808 published a book on the atmosphere and the behavior of gases that was entitled A New System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton's theory of atoms rested on four basic ideas: chemical elements were composed of atoms; the atoms of an element were identical in weight; the atoms of different elements had different weights; and atoms combined only in small whole-number ratios, such as 1:1, 1:2, 2:1, 2:3, to form compounds. Not all of these ideas were new; the Greeks had already introduced the idea that elements were composed of atoms and that atoms of different elements had different physical properties. Dalton's particular contribution, which distinguished his work from what had been done before, was his method for actually determining atomic weight. In an essay published in 1805, Dalton had included a list of atomic weights for 21 elements. Dalton was also the first to propose standard symbols for the elements. Subatomic Structure Dalton's work was mainly about the chemistry of atomshow they combined to form new compoundsrather than the physical, internal structure of atoms, although he never denied the possibility of atoms' having a substructure. Modern theories about the physical structure of atoms did not begin until 1897, with J. J. Thomson's discovery of the electron.

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A detailed article on Niels Bohr
In 1913, a Danish physicist named Niels Bohr put Rutherford's findings together with the observed spectra to come up with a new model of the atom in a real leap of intuition. Bohr suggested that the electrons orbiting an atom could only exist at certain energy levels (i.e., distances) from the nucleus, not at continuous levels as might be expected from Rutherford's model. When atoms in the gas tubes absorbed the energy from the electric current, the electrons became excited and jumped from low energy levels (close to the nucleus) to high energy levels (farther out from the nucleus). The excited electrons would fall back to their original levels and emit energy as light. Because there were specific differences between the energy levels, only specific wavelengths of light were seen in the spectrum (i.e., lines).

Bohr models of various atoms.

The major advantage of the Bohr model was that it worked. It explained several things:

Atomic spectra - discussed above Periodic behavior of elements - elements with similar properties had similar atomic spectra. o Each electron orbit of the same size or energy (shell) could only hold so many electrons. First shell = two electrons Second shell = eight electrons Third shell and higher = eight electrons o When one shell was filled, electrons were found at higher levels. o Chemical properties were based on the number of electrons in the outermost shell. Elements with full outer shells do not react. Other elements take or give up electrons to get a full outer shell.

As it turns out, Bohr's model is also useful for explaining the behavior of lasers, although these devices were not invented until the middle of the 20th century. Bohr's model was the predominant model until new discoveries in quantum mechanics were made.

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James Chadwick's Discovery
The article written by James Chadwick's discovery of the existence of a neutron can be read here. The summary of his article is that the properties of the penetrating radiation emitted from beryllium (and boron) when bombarded by the a-particles of polonium, have been examined. It is concluded that the radiation consists, not of quanta as hitherto supposed, but of neutrons, particles of mass 1, and charge 0. Evidence is given to show that the mass of the neutron is

probably between 1005 and 1008. This, suggests that the neutron consists of a proton and an electron in close combination, the binding energy being about 1 to 2 x 106 electron volts. From experiments on the passage of the neutrons through matter the frequency of their collisions with atomic nuclei and with electrons is discussed. In his conclusion, he mentioned the case for supposing that the radiation the effects of which have been examined in this paper consists of neutral particles rather than of radiation quanta. Firstly, there is no evidence from electron collisions of the presence of a radiation of such a quantum energy as is necessary to account for the nuclear collisions. Secondly, the quantum hypothesis can be sustained only by relinquishing the conservation of energy and momentum. On the other hand, the neutron hypothesis gives an immediate and simple explanation of the experimental facts; it is consistent in itself and it throws new light on the problem of nuclear structure.

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Democritus
- a pre-Socratic Greek materialist philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace ca. 460 BCE - died ca 370 BCE). - Democritus was a student of Leucippus and co-originator of the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called atoma (sg. atomon) or "indivisible units", from which we get the English word atom. It is virtually impossible to tell which of these ideas were unique to Democritus and which are attributable to Leucippus. - He holds that, "spherical atoma move because it is their nature never to be still, and that as they move they draw the whole body along with them, and set it in motion." In this way, he viewed soul-atoma as being similar to fire-atoma: small, spherical, capable of penetrating solid bodies and good examples of spontaneous motion. - Democritus was among the first to observe that a cone or pyramid has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base and height. - he extracted the essence of every known herb and then devoted the rest of his life to researches into the properties of minerals and plants - first philosopher we know who realized that the celestial body we perceive as the Milky Way is formed from the light of distant stars. Other philosophers, including later Aristotle, argued against this. Democritus was among the first to propose that the universe contains many worlds. -He is the first thinker on record to argue for the existence of an entirely empty "void". In order to explain the change around us from basic, unchangeable substance he created a theory that argued that there are various basic elements which always existed but can be rearranged into many different forms. Democritus' theory argued that atoms only had several properties, particularly size, shape, and (perhaps) weight; all other properties that we attribute to matter, such as color and taste, are but the result of complex interactions between the atoms in our bodies and the atoms of the matter that we are examining. Furthermore, he believed that the real properties of atoms determine the perceived properties of matter--for example, something that is solid is made of small, pointy atoms, while something that has water like properties is made of large, round atoms. Some types of matter are particularly solid because their atoms have hooks to attach to each other; some are oily because they are made of very fine, small atoms which can easily slip past each other. In Democritus' own words, "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour: but in reality atoms and void."

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James Chadwick

James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, England on October 20, 1891, to John Joseph Chadwick and Anne Mary Knowles. He went to Bollington Cross C of E Primary School, attended Manchester High School, and studied at the Universities

of Manchester and Cambridge. Chadwick and Rutherford had worked together at Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory. After experimenting many times, they both struggled with an inconsistency. They saw that almost every element had an atomic number that was less than its atomic mass. Rutherford suggested this might be due to the existence of a particle with the mass of a proton but with a neutral charge. However, their attempts to find such a particle were in vain. But in 1932 Chadwick found the answer in the work of the Joliot-Curies, who observed that beryllium had become radioactive after being exposed to alpha particles. When paraffin wax, or other matter containing hydrogen, was placed in front of the window, the ionisation in the vessel was increased, in some cases as much as doubled. Further explanation requires the understanding of quantum equation. Anyway, Chadwick showed, by using a cloud chamber filled with nitrogen, that the radiation caused the nitrogen atoms to recoil with such energy as could be imparted only by collisions with uncharged particles having approximately the mass of protons. And thus, that particle was given the name electron. Having proven the existence of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1935. James Chadwick had discovered that neutron: (a) is a second type of particle found in the nuclei of atoms (b) has no electric charge (c) has approximately the same mass of protons.

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Dalton's Atomic Theory
How did Dalton form this theory? His work was influenced by 2 French men: Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Louis Proust Lavoisier: Matter is neither gained nor lost during a chemical reaction. (Law of Conservation of Matter) Proust: In compounds, the constituent elements are always found in definite amounts. (Law of Constant Proportions) Defect in Dalton's Theory 1. Atoms of an element are identical in size, shape, mass and in other properties. Atoms of an element may be different in their masses = ions (TRUE) 2. Atoms combine with each other in small whole numbers. All compounds do not have small number of atoms. Ex: starch - C6 H12 O6 (TRUE) External link

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James Chadwick
Achievement Chadwick discovers the neutron in 1932 Biography For four years, James Chadwick was a prisoner of war in Germany. When World War I ended, he returned to his native England to rejoin the mentor of his undergraduate days, Ernest Rutherford. Now head of Cambridge University's nuclear physics lab, Rutherford oversaw Chadwick's PhD in 1921 and then made him assistant director of the lab. In 1913, he received a scholarship to study in German, placing him in Germany at the beginning of World War I. After Chadwick

was detained as a civilian prisoner of war, he returned to England in 1919 to carry out research at Cambridge University. In 1923, he became the assistant director of research at the Cavendish Laboratory. (5) Research Chadwick's own research focused on radioactivity. In 1919 Rutherford had discovered the neutron, a non charged particle within the atom's nucleus. But they and other researchers were finding that the neutron did not seem to be the only particle in the nucleus. As they studied atomic disintegration, they kept seeing that the atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus, equivalent to the positive charge of the atom) was less than the atomic mass (average mass of the atom). For example, a helium atom has an atomic mass of 4, but an atomic number (or positive charge) of 2. Since electrons have almost no mass, it seemed that something besides the protons in the nucleus were adding to the mass. One leading explanation was that there were electrons and additional protons in the nucleus as well -- the protons still contributed their mass but their positive charge was canceled out by the negatively charged electrons. So in the helium example, there would be four protons and two electrons in the nucleus to yield a mass of 4 but a charge of only 2. Rutherford also put out the idea that there could be a particle with mass but no charge. He called it a neutron, and imagined it as a paired proton and electron. There was no evidence for any of these ideas. Chadwick kept the problem in the back of his mind while working on other things. Experiments in Europe caught his eye, especially those of Frederic and Irene Joliot-Curie. They used a different method for tracking particle radiation. Chadwick repeated their experiments but with the goal of looking for a neutral particle -- one with the same mass as a proton, but with zero charge. His experiments were successful. He was able to determine that the neutron did exist and that its mass was about 0.1 percent more than the proton's. He published his findings with characteristic modesty in a first paper entitled "Possible Existence of Neutron." In 1935 he received the Nobel Prize for his discovery. His findings were quickly accepted and Werner Heisenberg then showed that the neutron could not be a proton-electron pairing, but had to be its own unique particle -- the third piece of the atom to be found. This new idea dramatically changed the picture of the atom and accelerated discoveries in atomic physics. Physicists soon found that the neutron made an ideal "bullet" for bombarding other nuclei. Unlike charged particles, it was not repelled by similarly-charged particles and could smash right into the nucleus. Before long, neutron bombardment was applied to the uranium atom, splitting its nucleus and releasing the huge amounts of energy predicted by Einstein's equation E = mc2.

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Biography Early life Niels Henrik David Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1885. His father, Christian Bohr, a devout Lutheran, was professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen, while his mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, came from a wealthy Jewish family prominent in Danish banking and parliamentary circles. His brother was Harald Bohr, a mathematician and Olympic soccer player who played on the Danish national team. Niels Bohr was a passionate soccer player as well, and the two brothers played a number of matches for Akademisk Boldklub. Bohr studied as an undergraduate, graduate and, under Christian Christiansen, as a doctoral student at Copenhagen University, receiving his doctorate in 1911. As a post-doctoral student, Bohr first conducted experiments under J. J. Thomson at Trinity College, Cambridge. He then went on to study under Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester in England. On the basis of Rutherford's theories, Bohr published his model of atomic structure in 1913, introducing the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the atom's nucleus, the chemical properties of the element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits. Bohr also introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy. This became a basis for quantum theory. [edit]Physics In 1916, Niels Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen, and director of the newly constructed "Institute of Theoretical Physics" in 1920. In 1922, Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them". Bohr's institute served as a focal point for theoretical physicists in the 1920s and '30s, and most of the world's best known theoretical physicists of that period spent some time there.

Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein debating quantum theory at Paul Ehrenfest's home in Leiden (December 1925). Bohr also conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties. For example, physicists currently conclude that light is both a wave and a stream of particles two apparently mutually exclusive properties on the basis of this principle. Bohr also found philosophical applications for this daringly original principle. Albert Einstein much preferred the determinism of classical physics over the probabilistic new physics of Bohr (to which Max Planck and Einstein himself had contributed). He and Bohr had good-natured arguments over the truth of this principle throughout their lives (see Bohr Einstein debate). One of Bohr's most famous students was Werner Heisenberg, a crucial figure in the development of quantum mechanics, who was also head of the German atomic bomb project. Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Nrlund had six children. Two died young, and most of the others went on to lead successful lives. One, Aage Niels Bohr, also became a very successful physicist; like his father, he won a Nobel Prize. When awarded the Order of the Elephant by the Danish government, he designed his own coat of arms which featured a yin-yang. In 1941, during the German occupation of Denmark in World War II, Bohr was visited by Heisenberg in Copenhagen (see section below). In 1943, shortly before he was to be arrested by the German police, Bohr escaped to Sweden, and then traveled to London. [edit]Atomic research He worked at the top-secret Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico, U.S., on the Manhattan Project, where, according to Richard Feynman, he was known by the assumed name of Nicholas Baker for security reasons. His role in the project was important. He was seen as a knowledgeable consultant or "father confessor" on the project. He was concerned about a nuclear arms race, and is quoted as saying, "That is why I went to America. They didn't need my help in making the atom bomb."[1] Bohr believed that atomic secrets should be shared by the international scientific community. After meeting with Bohr, J. Robert Oppenheimer suggested Bohr visit President Franklin D. Roosevelt to convince him that the Manhattan Project should be shared with the Russians in the hope of speeding up its results. Roosevelt suggested Bohr return to England to try to win British approval. Winston Churchill disagreed with the idea of openness towards the Russians to the point that he wrote in a letter: "It seems to me Bohr ought to be confined or at any rate made to see that he is very near the edge of mortal crimes."[2] After the war Bohr returned to Copenhagen, advocating the peaceful use of nuclear energy. He died in Copenhagen in 1962. He is buried in the Assistens Kirkegrd in the Nrrebro section of Copenhagen. [edit]Contributions to physics Bohr's model The theory that electrons travel in discrete orbits around the atom's nucleus, with the chemical properties of an element being largely determined by the number of electrons in its outer orbit. The idea that an electron could in fact drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy (this became the basis for the quantum theory). Much work on the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. The principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analyzed as having several contradictory properties. [edit]Kierkegaard's influence on Bohr It is generally accepted that Bohr read the 19th century Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard. Richard Rhodes argues in The Making of the Atomic Bomb that Bohr was influenced by Kierkegaard via the philosopher Harald Hffding, who was strongly influenced by Kierkegaard and who was an old friend of Bohr's father. In 1909, Bohr sent his brother Kierkegaard's Stages on Life's Way as a birthday gift. In the enclosed letter, Bohr wrote, "It is the only thing I have to send home; but I do not believe that it would be very easy to find anything better.... I even think it is one of the most delightful things I have ever read." Bohr enjoyed Kierkegaard's language and literary style, but mentioned that he had some "disagreement with [Kierkegaard's ideas]."[3] Given this, there has been some dispute over whether Kierkegaard influenced Bohr's philosophy and science. David Favrholdt[4] argues that Kierkegaard had minimal influence over Bohr's work; taking Bohr's statement about disagreeing with Kierkegaard at face value, while Jan Faye[5] endorses the opposing point of view by arguing that one can disagree with the content of a theory while accepting its general premises and structure. 873fdef8ea0f18

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