Copper, tin, lead and other metals carry an old association with humans.

Copper is
considered the oldest and first discovered metal, almost 10,000 years old, and
throughout history, the metal has served in a multiple applications and usages.

The first sign of metals was found in Sumerian and Egyptian civilisations. Man
used metals for his many daily needs and developed metallurgical methods, so that
they could be used according to requirements. The unmatched craftsmanship that has
been discovered in the pre-Columbian American cultures of the North American
Indians, Aztecs, Mayans, and Incans, and as a whole, the instances of royal
jewelry and ancient jewelry from anthropology, sociology and archaeology from the
ancient societies of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome is enough to give
sufficient account for early human advancement in this sphere.

Egyptians are not only credited with their contribution to the copper culture, but
they also transformed the Stone Age into Bronze Age. In fact, they were the prime
developers of bronze, which is a mixture of tin and copper. The Egyptians were
also responsible for successfully developing copper parts which helped a great
deal in popularising the use of copper in general household items like pots that
were used in food preparation.

A few historians also believe that the origin of bronze did not begin with the
Egyptians, but give credit to Mesopotamian metallurgists for this achievement. It
is assumed that the Mesopotamians put a small quantity of tin ore in the copper
ore during smelting. They later found out that the resultant mixture was harder
than the two basic components. This led to greater utility of bronze.

Moreover, the adding up of the Cassiterite (also known as tinstone — light yellow,
red-brown, or black mineral, SnO2 that is an important tin ore) reduced the
temperature requirement for melting of metal. Furthermore, the metal and — once
having been melted — was more fluid and more conducive for casting.

The hardness that resulted in the blending of two basic metals did not go
unnoticed by the warmongers and boot camps for long. In fact, bronze served as the
first and foremost metal to substantiate ancient weaponry, and was used by the
Greeks and nearly every other culture of that time. A rather simple method of
forging, coupled with durability and strength that established its superiority
over other options (such as stone, wood, tin, copper, or lead) that were available
at that time for the development of tools of warfare.

The most primitive, large-scale Greek bronze statues were usually developed and
manufactured with technique that is known as sphyrelaton in which parts of a
statue were sculpted separately. By hammering the sheets, the sculptor built
parts, and later on, joined them with rivets to form a complete statue. With the
passage of time, the sculptors also found ways to embellish the statues in the
shape of wooden patterns, and made statues by hammering the bronze sheet over
patterns.

In the late Archaic Period (500-480 BC), a new method of bronze casting was
introduced that ended the process of sphyrelaton. The fresh technique of lost-wax
casting turned out to be the key system for bronze statuary production.
The lost-wax casting of bronze is further classified into three distinct
categories: solid lost-wax casting, hollow lost-wax casting by the direct process,
and hollow lost-wax casting by the indirect course of action.

The first method, which is the earliest and simplest process demands for a model,
shaped in solid wax. Clay was used to envelop the model, and then it was exposed
to heat with the intention to remove the wax, along with hardening the clay. After
that, the mold was upturned and molten metal was poured into it. The sculptor
allowed time to cool it down, and then broke open the clay model to reveal a solid
bronze sculpture.

Since the physical properties of bronze do not permit solid casting on larger
sizes, the use of solid-wax-method of casting was restricted to miniature models.
To overcome this shortcoming, the ancient Greek sculptors devised and implemented
the process of hollow lost-wax casting to create large, self-supporting bronze
statues. Characteristically, they used to cast large-scale sculptures in more than
a few pieces, for instance the head, torso, arms, and legs.

In the indirect method for hollow-wax casting, the sculptor fundamentally created
clay core according to the appropriate dimensions of the modelled figure. A
framework, usually built with iron rods, was employed to help and stabilise clay
core in cases of large statues. The wax was used to coat clay core, and it was
ensured that vents were added in necessary sizes, in required numbers and at
proper distance of each other to permit correct flow of molten metal and allow
emission of gases to guarantee a uniform casting.

Next, the model was covered completely with coarse layer of clay before heating in
order to remove all the wax. This resultantly creates a hollow mold. The matrix
was again heated for the second, longer duration of time to strengthen and harden
the clay further. Afterwards, the sculptor let the molten metal completely fill
the mold. The molten metal was then left to cool before any attempts were made to
break the mold open. After unveiling the clay, the statue was ready for the next
job.

A great advantage that the third method, the indirect method of lost-wax casting
had, and which gave it clear distinction over the rest, is that the original
master model was not lost during the casting process. Due to this reason, it
became feasible to recast sections where multiple castings of the same statue
could be created.

Firstly, a model of the statue or the shape was designed and created. The medium
that the sculptor usually preferred was clay. To reproduce the model's form, a
mold of clay or plaster was then coated around the model. To ensure safe handling
of the mold and to protect it from any possible damages during managing processes,
it was coated in separate sections.

After the drying process, the pieces of the mold were removed individually,
reassembled, and secured together. Afterwards, a thin layer of beeswax was applied
to each section of mold.
As the wax cooled, the matrix was separated, and the sculptor closely examined to
make sure that all the necessary details had been transferred from the master
model and whether it needed any further corrections. Then a system of funnels,
channels, and vents was put together to the wax model before the sculptor covered
the entire structure in one or more layers of clay.

The clay mold was now heated in the same manner as the process of direct method,
which resulted in pouring out the wax. It was now exposed again to a greater
temperature, with the purpose of firing the clay. Here, when the molten metal was
to be poured in, it was heated again.

After the diffusion of the excessive heat from the metal, the mold was broken and
the cast bronze segment of the statue was revealed and any protrusions developed
due to pouring channels were removed. The small imperfections or deficiencies were
levelled with the help of abrasives. The casting parts, which were produced
individually, were then joined together to form a single and a complete statue.