BUILDING FIREFIGHTING

INTRODUCTION 1. Fires in building cause disruption to an otherwise smooth operation besides life and property losses. 2. A major fire presents a complex operational problem and this is especially true of all major fires involving buildings or other structures. 3. An understanding of the basic divisions of firefighting strategy and firefighting tactics and techniques is therefore necessary to prevent losses due to fire. OBJECTIVES 4. On completion of this lesson the course participants shall be able to: a. List out the basic divisions of firefighting strategy.

b. Exhibit professional knowledge by explaining the significance and importance of the various basic divisions. c. List the firefighting tactics and techniques in combating building fire.

BASIC DIVISIONS 5. The basic divisions of firefighting strategy are comprised of: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. SIZE-UP 6. Size-up estimate of the situation is a mental evaluation made by the operational officer in charge that enables him to determine a course of action to accomplish the mission, a mental process of evaluating all influencing factors before committing personnel and equipment to a course of action. 7. As information is being gathered, sorted out and processed by the person doing the size-up, the data should be arranged in a way that facilitates decision making. There are five categories for grouping data that allow for the mental evaluation of information necessary for dealing with emergencies: a. b. c. Facts Probabilities Own Situation 1 Size-up Rescue Exposures Confinement Extinguishment Ventilation Salvage Overhaul

d. e.

Decision Plan of Operation

8. Facts to be considered during pre-fire planning include type of construction, type of contents, fire protection features of the building and anything else regarding the building and its contents. Other facts that need to be considered upon arrival at the scene include the nature of the emergency, the size and location of the fire, the life hazards involved and existing weather conditions. 9. Probabilities must include an estimate of where the fire may travel, preventable damage, possible hazards to personnel engaged in firefighting, effects of weather changes upon the operation, structural collapse and any other probability. 10. Own situation to deal with the emergency will include such items as apparatus equipment and personnel. Officers must have the ability to adapt their apparatus and equipment and facilities that may be available on the fire premises or available from other sources. A shortage of personnel is almost always a problem. A good officer will develop an organization that will be effective at the outset with a minimum number of personnel. The nucleus of this organization should be readily expandable in order use additional personnel who may become available (1) with greater alarms or special calls. (2) through use of the brigade employed at the occupancy, (3) as the fire is brought under control. 11. The decision step essentially involves what to do and how to do it, based upon an evaluation of the facts, probabilities and own situation. Fire ground activities are not static; fire ground situations can change very rapidly and decision may have to be re-evaluated. The officer in charge must be able to receive information and to communicate decisions. 12. A plan of operation is a mental diagram of the processes necessary to achieve the objectives. The plan should be as simple as possible so as to be readily communicated and easily understood. After the plan is activated, constant supervision is required so that the plan will consistently be directed towards the objectives. RESCUE 13. Rescue includes those operations which are required to remove human beings from an involved building or other hazardous situation and convey them to a place of safety. 14. Rescue receives first consideration at a fire. Firefighting operations should in no way interfere with or endanger the early and orderly evacuation of an involved building unless such operations are necessary to protect the lives of occupants and their safe escape. 15. A loud hailer may prove to be of good advantage in directing operations and to advise occupants who are awaiting rescue. Police assistance in necessary in a serous rescue situation. EXSPOSURES 16. Exposure protection includes those operations which are required to prevent a fire from extending to uninvolved buildings or separate units. 17. Excessive heat is the heart of an exposure situation. In this text, heat in excess of 300F will be referred to as excessive heat. If excessive heat can be controlled, particularly at the points threatening exposed fuels, extinguishment can be accomplished by allowing the fire to consume the involved fuel.

CONFINEMENT 18. Confinement includes those operations, which are required to prevent a fire from extending to uninvolved sections of a building. EXTINGUISHMENT 19. Extinguishment includes those operations which are required in attacking and extinguishing the main body of fire. 20. Extinguishment can be achieved by any of these methods direct, indirect of a combination of these methods. a. Direct Attack

In an unventilated setting or where there is inadequate ventilation, the most effective method would be direct attack on the base of the fire with solid streams or jets. The water should be applied in short bursts directly on the burning fuel until the fire darkens down. However if the water is applied for too long, it may upset the thermal balance. b. Indirect Attack

If the within the structure is too intense and firefighters are unable to enter, an indirect attack should be made. However, this attack is not desirable when victims may still be trapped in the structure. An indirect attack involves directing the structure. An indirect attack involves directing the water jet or spray directly at the ceiling, sweeping back and forth in the superheated gases at the ceiling level. This will produce large quantities of steam (1 cu.ft water to 1,700 cu.ft of steam. Streams should be shut down before it upsets the thermal layering. c. Combination Attack

The combination attack uses the direct and indirect attacks together. This is done by moving the nozzle in a T, Z or O pattern. The O pattern is the most commonly used method. Wrongful application of water to smoke will only cause unnecessary water damage and disturb the thermal balance. 21. Thermal layering (Thermal Balance) of gases is the tendency of gases to form into layers, according to temperature. The hottest gases tend to be in the top layer, while the cooler ones form the bottom. Smoke is a heated mixture of air, gases and particles, and it rises. If a hole is made in the roof, the smoke will rise from the building or room to the outside. Thermal layering is critical to fire fighting activities. As long as the hottest air and gases are allowed to rise, the lowest levels will be safer for firefighters. 22. If water is improperly applied to the fire area and the area is not well ventilated, the water will cool and condense the steam generated by the initial fire attack. This reaction causes the smoke and steam to circulate within all levels of the fire area resulting in a disruption of the thermal layering (Thermal In balance). Once there is thermal in balance, forced ventilation is needed to clear the area. VENTILATION 23. Ventilation is the systematic removal and replacement of heated air, smoke and gases from a structure with cooler air. The cooler air facilitates entry by firefighters for rescue and other firefighting operations. The importance of ventilation cannot be overlooked. It increases visibility for quicker location of the seat of the fire. It decreases the danger to trapped 3

occupants by channeling away hot, toxic gases. Ventilation also reduces the possibilities of flashover or back draft. Improper ventilation may contribute to the fire spread. 24. Ventilation during firefighting aids in meeting firefighting objectives. Proper ventilation has the following advantages: a. Rescue Operations

Proper ventilation simplifies and expedites rescue by removing smoke and gases that endangers trapped or unconscious occupants. The replacement of heat, smoke and gases with cooler, fresh air helps victims breathe better. Proper ventilation also makes conditions safe for firefighters and improves visibility so that unconscious victims may be located. b. Fire Attack and Extinguishment

Proper ventilation above the fire area will create a chimney effect and localize the fire. The displacement of smoke, heat and gases will enable firefighters to move rapidly to locate the fire and extinguish it. Proper ventilation reduces obstacles such as limited visibility and massive heat that may hinder firefighting operations. b. Property Conservation

Rapid extinguishment will reduce water, heat and smoke damages. Ventilation reduces smoke damages because fuel vapours and carbon particles are removed. When smoke, gases and heat are removed from a burning building, the fire can be quickly confined to an area. This will permit salvage operations to be initiated while fire control is being accomplished. c. Fire Spread Control

Proper ventilation of a building during firefighting reduces the possibilities of mushrooming. This turn will reduce the rate of fire spread. However, even with proper ventilation, if the fire is not extinguished down after ventilation is accomplished; the increased supply of fresh air will feed the fire and eventually allow it to grow. Ventilation should occur when the houseline crews are ready to move and attack the fire. d. Reduction of Flashover Potential

Flashover is a condition that may occur due to an excessive amount of heat. As the fire continues to burn combustibles in the room are heated to their ignition temperatures. Once ignition temperature is reached, the entire room will be involved in flames. Ventilation will remove the heat before it reaches the necessary level for mass ignition. e. Reduction of Back draft Potential

When sufficient heat is confined in an area, the temperature of combustible materials rise to their ignition points. However, these materials will not ignite unless sufficient oxygen is available to support combustion. In this situation, the admittance of an supply will explosively change superheated area into an instant inferno. This sudden ignition is referred to as a back draft. Top ventilation must be provided to prevent this critical situation from occurring. Firefighters should proceed cautiously in areas of excessive heat and watch out for the following signs of back draft: (1) Smoke-stained windows 4

(2) (3) (4)

Smoke puffing at intervals from windows Pressurized smoke coming from small cracks Not much visible flames from exterior of the building.

If any signs of back draft are present, firefighters should stay away from windows and doors until vertical ventilation has had the chance to reduce the severity of the situation. SALVAGE 25. Salvage includes those operations which are required to protect buildings and its contents from preventable damage due to fire, water smoke or other elements during and after fires. Some of these damages cannot be avoided because of the need to do forcible entry, apply water, and vent the building, and search for fires throughout the structure. However, improved techniques in fire extinguishment plus prompt and effective use of good salvage procedures will minimize the total loss. OVERHAUL 26. Overhaul includes those operations which are required to complete the extinguishment of hidden or remaining fires and prevent rekindling. It places the building, its contents and the fire area in a safe condition to determine the cause of the fire, recognize and preserve evidence of arson. 27. BEFORE THE FIRE a. All fire service personnel must be completely familiar with the layout of the airport and water supply systems. b. Particular note should be made of the function of each building and its contents. c. Fireman should familiarize themselves with the local topography during routine work and movement around the airport. d. Duty personnel should be detailed at the commencement of each watch, to their respective duties. e. The driver of the designated fire appliance is responsible for the serviceability and availability of the fire appliance and fire equipment. 28. ARRIVAL AT THE FIRE a. Immediately on arrival, the fire crew commander should make a quick appreciation of the situation. Time spent in this way is never wasted. b. Points to consider during the appreciation are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) whether life is in danger. Ask, and if in any doubt, search; use of special equipment; type of fire, i.e. substances involved; available water supplies; direction and force of the wind;

(6) (7)

building involved and likely to be involved, and (exposure risk) dangerous hazards.

c. The first task is to rescue all casualties but it will probably be necessary to attack the fire at the same time in order that fire spread will not hamper rescue operations. d. Fire trucks should be sited as near as possible to the most accessible entrance to the building or installation, compatible with safety, and availability of the type of water supply. This has four main advantages: (1) (2) (3) (4) a. short delivery hose lines reduced loss of pressure due to friction fire equipment on truck near at hand orders can be acted upon quickly

Roads should be kept as clear as possible to avoid congestion.

f. Hoses should be rammed securely across roads, i.e. if ramps are carried on the vehicle. g. Where open water is used, pumps should be sited to allow other pumps sufficient working room on their arrival. ATTACKING THE FIRE 29. A fire attack must be coordinated to be successful. Depending on situations, the fire officer may choose to perform rescue operations immediately or to protect the exposures rather then attack the fire. It is crucial that crews performing different tasks must be coordinated. For e.g. ventilating a fire before attacks lines are in place may result in the unwanted spread of fire due to the increased air movement through the structure. When properly performed, ventilation will substantially aid entry and fire attack by the hose-line team. 30. Advancing hose-line team should also carry equipment or tools that may be necessary to force open doors etc. All fires at the doorway should be extinguished before entry. 31. When there is a need to open a door to the fire area, hose team members should position to one side of the entrance. Firefighters should stay low before entering the fire area to allow fire, smoke of heated gases to exit above them. Do not open the nozzle unnecessarily. Unless a protective stream is needed or fire is encountered. Remember, discharging water at smoke will decrease visibility and increase water damage. If fire is localized, use direct method in short bursts. If area is well involved in fire, and sufficiently ventilated, use combination method. 32. If you need to back out of an area, keep operating the water stream until all personnel are out except in imminent building collapse when everyone must exit immediately. 33. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS a. A fire will spread by any or all of four ways: (1) (2) convection conduction 6

(3) (4)

radiation direct contact with flame

b. Doors and windows should be kept closed for as long as practicable. It may, however, be necessary to: (1) (2) open selected doors or windows in order to effect ventilation. Remove roof section to facilitate venting and prevent spread of fire by convection.

c. Avoid driving the fire towards a dead end where it will ignite other combustibles. d. In some circumstances, it may be necessary to check the spread of fire before attacking the centre. e. Where the structure of the building is involved, close watch must be maintained for signs of collapse. Symptoms of collapse are as follows: (1) falling pieces of mortar or stone, spelling of concrete.

(2) cracking of facings, walls and dropping of arches over doors, windows and openings. (3) leaning or bulging walls.

(4) projection of girders and steelwork through brickwork and displacement of steel columns. FIREGROUND CONTROL 34. In a fire emergency where life is at stake and every second counts, the fire officer must be firm and assert his authority. The democratic process of consensus does not work at the fire ground.

35. An officer cannot afford to show any sign of weakness at the fire scene, he must maintain an appearance of calm and self-confidence. It is his responsibility to see that the fire crew works in harmony to achieve the common goal of saving lives and putting out the fire. 36. The fire officer must adhere to the following principles in order to carry out his function properly: a. Ventilation should generally not begin until hose lines are charged and ready for use. b. Hose streams should not oppose each other.

c. Who should advance and who should withdraw should be decided by the fire officer. d. Orders should be obeyed immediately.

37. Finally to be an effective fire ground commander, a fire officer must have sufficient knowledge of fire behavior, firefighting strategy and tactics and how tactics and fire behavior interact. 7

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SALVAGE AND LIMITATION TO DAMAGE a. Every effort must be made to avoid undue damage by fire appliances and extinguishing agents. b. Where it is not possible to remove furniture and fittings, they should be covered and protected. c. The first branch into the building should be hand-controlled i.e., a diffuser or spray nozzle or domestic hose reel line. d. Excessive use of water should be avoided because of the danger of floor collapse. Where this is not possible, excess water should be drained off.

39.

BEFORE LEAVING THE FIRE a. b. c. d. e. Make sure there is no chance of re-ignition. Leave a watch detail if necessary. Close down hydrants securely. Replace fire alarm glasses and reset alarms. Refill tank for hose reel equipment. Replace activated sprinkler heads and reset sprinkler installation.

40.

AFTER THE FIRE a. b. Immediately on return to the station, reservice the fire trucks. Complete entries in the Occurrence Book with references to: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) time outbreak discovered; time call received; time appliances left the station; time of arrival at the fire; time water on; time assistance called (and arrived); time by-pass valve opened and closed (if applicable); time fire extinguished; short narrative on type of fire and description of action taken.

CONCLUSION 41. Building firefighting to be effective must be well coordinated. Fire attack and ventilation need to be done together as either one without the other could result in fire spread. Rescue should always be the main priority. All other efforts e.g. confinement, ventilation, fire assignment etc should be directed towards easing rescue operations. Fire attacking teams should maintain the Thermal Balance to ensure tolerable condition in the fire area for operation to continue. Firefighters should look out for signs of flashover or back draft. Vertical ventilation can reduce the possibility of flashover or bank draft. Firefighters should control the situation and prevent it from getting worse.

SUMMARY 42. Size-up or information gathering based on facts, probabilities, own situation, decision and plan of operation. 43. 44. 45. 46. Rescue must be given priority. Exposures protection to prevent extension of fire to uninvolved parts. Confinement to limit fire to area already involved. Extinguishment using direct, indirect or combination attack as appropriate.

47. Ventilation combined with fire attack and extinguishments are effective to perform rescue operations, fire spread control and reduction of flashover or back draft potential. 48. Salvage and overhaul operations to be carried out before leaving the fire scene.

REFERENCES a. Fire Brigade, Training Manual David T Gold.

b. Manual of Firemanship Book 12 Practical Firemanship II (Her Majestys Stationery Office). c. d. e. f. g. Fire Service Training (Ohio Trade and Industrial Education Service) Salvage and Overhaul IFSTA Firefighting Tactics Lloyd Layman (NFPA) Essentials of Firefighting IFSTA Fire Fighting Principles and Practices Fire Engineering