I4

Indicators
w :e're all of us L i f e , y o u k n o w , i s r a t h e rl i k e o p e n i n ga t i n o f s a r c l i n e s l o o k i n gf o r t h e k e Y ' A l a nB c n n e t t
'Take a pew' frorn Bayond the frirtge

in finding inter ested M rs a n o n sta n d a rd model of PA anclwe etr e Su p p ose for B is a I c."M h a vi n ga cer tainpr oper tyQ. An indicutor i n i t i a l se g me n ts ---> f u n c t i o n Y : M2 l vl su chth at, for eacha<b r n M, Y( a, b) > N iff ther eis an initial segmentl betweena and b and having the property Q. This notion was devisedby Paris and I(irby in the 1970sto stuclythe structureof models of.PA, but it soon becameclear that indicatorswere Par isand r esults. independence inter esting t h e k ey to se ve ra p l a rti cu l a rly of mathemaHarrington later usedtheseideasto exhibit the first examples r n PA, and that ar e tr ue in N but unpr ovable t i c a l l yi n te re sti n g sta te me n ts to this m ater ialin Section14.3below. w e s h al l p re se n ta n i n tro cl u c tion resultswere first found Although the Paris-Harringtoninclependence r-rsing indicators, indicatorshave become less popular recently as other methods have been clevelopedto prove these results. (For example, a clearaccountof the sor t of pr oofBu c h ho l za n d Wa i n e r (1 9 8 7 )contains t h e o r eti ca rg u me n ts th a t ca n be used.)Har r y Sim m onspointedout to me once that indicatorsare not used any more-that at least was the glsr of what he said-however, it seemsto me that they are still a useful tool that initial of inter esting p r o v i de sa u n i fo rm tre a tme ntof m any constr uctions about if one askscer tainquestions P A , a nd essential o f mo d e l so f. s e g m en ts property. with a certerin the cardinalityof the set of initial segments

1 4 . 1 W H A T A R E ,I N D I C A T O R S ?

D e p r N trto x. L e (. MF P A b e nonstandar dancl let O be a propertyof I o f fu |. (For exam ple, Q might be the propertythat i n i t i a l se g me n ts is an inclicatorfor o in M iff for every IEPA.) A function Y: fu12--->M tt,beM

withuel{b is.Ig".V/ Y(u,b)>N{)there t hns the propertyQ. 193

artcl

194

I nclicutors

. Let IVIF P.zlbc nonstanclitrcl. E,xnvrpr-L's (i.e., irritial c:,.fuI ro r r : t r t .Is ( a ) T h e f u n c t i o nY ( a , b ) : b * u i s a n i n c l i c u t o f ft rt n c t i o t -xl - > - i f I b u t n O t l ntler the succc:sso s e g m e n t s[ , , t h z r t u r e c l < t s e ru ' ) . l <b, a* l( b' u* )'F o r i f Y ( u , b ) ) N t l t e ru + or uln c l e r osec r r e i e s s a rc i lly b, . . . anclso we cttn titke 1:{xelvllx<aln r z eN ; . for sorne

)an be ( ]i f b > 0 , Y ( u , 0 ) : 0 o t h e r w i s ec ( b ) T h e f u n c t i o nY ( u , b ) : [ 1 o g , , ' 2 ( b ) ' , l n c l e tf a n c l f o r i f s l o s e cu fr o r i n i t i a ls e g m e n t c n PA. Y is an indiczrto c f e f i n e id c: Iog,,, 2 ( b )> l N, then u < ( u + 2 ) < ( u+ 2 ) t< ( u+ 2 ) t< ' ' ' 1 ( u - t 2 ) '< L t andue llb' The

ul n d e r * , N} is closec s o 1 : { x e M l x < ( a + Z ) " f o t 's o m er ? e argr-rment' by an easyoverspill is provecl converse

A s t h e s e e x a m p l e s s h o w , i n c l i c a t o r sa r e o f t e n w e l l - b e h a v e c la t r d t t r e clefineci6y /o-formLllas over arbitrary nodels of P,z\'

inclicutor Y ( x , y ) r s a well-behaued fo, Q in PA An indicator DenrutrtoN. iff x. l, Z, (n) Y(*, Y) : z is a 21 96-f ormula with only the fr ee- var iables ( b ) P A F V x ,y a t z Y ( x ,Y ) : z ; ( c ) P A r V x . y Y ( x ,Y ) < Y ; (cl)PAlYx, y, x', l'(x' <xAY <Y' ' - > Y ( x , y ) < Y ( x ' , Y ' ) ) ; an d > N for any u, b M, Y( u,1r ) M F PA ttncl (e ) fo r a n y n o n sti l n clarm cloclel iff th e re i s 1 c" & 1w i th o e I < b ancl1 has pr oper ty Q. Ob vi o u sl y i n d i ca to r s( when they exist) will tell tls a lot of u s efttl of ItA. The y ar e cl of uor r stiinclarmociels i n fo rma ti o na b o u t th e str uctur e with the notion of ztpr ouublyr ecur siue functi ott. a l soi n ti ma te l yco l tn e cted y,t-theory T iff an in fr-rnction recursive provably Recall that l'(x) is a Y(x,y) is a Now suppose f ( " ) : y i s a ) , f o r m u l a a n c lT F v i 3 t y f ( l ) - y '.l F T ' I. of initial segments in well-behavec l d i c a t o rf o r t h e p r o p e r t y ' functiops' ) x y lcas t tfie F,,( x) : w i th Y (r,y) is the fam ily of A sso ci a te d overN' (I write'fuuction'in s u c ht h a t Y ( x , y ) > n , w h e r er z h e r e r a n g e s PA nay not be ableto pr ovethat F ,,( x )i s si n cein gener al i n ve rte dco mma s fo r a l l x.) T h e n cl e fi n e d If p R o p o srrro l 1 q 4 .1 . L et T,Y( ", y) anclF,,( x)be as in the last par agraph' ' thetr lt I c- ,' M MIFP A a n cl a e IF T for som e pr oper initial segmer - y' ar r cl so ei tc l r rfo r e a chn e N' Henie PA + TlYxAt' yF,,( r ) IWE a cF ,,(tt): F,,(x)is provably recursivein PA + T"

lVhut ure inclicutors'?

195

Proof.lf ae1<b r,vith 1F?" t h e n f u l F Y ( a , b ) : d f o r s o m ed > N , s i n c eY a n c lt h e i n r l i c a t e is n i t i a ls e g n r e n ts sa t i s l y i n g fulFAx(Y(a,x)>rz) 7. FIence least s u c hx l u i s d , ( a ) . l l M F P A + / ' t h e n , b y T h e o r e m8 . 6 , t h e r e i s a p r o p e r e l e n r e n t a r y (> l z t c h e t ( \ & 1 Y ( 4 ,b ) > N , e r r c l - e x t e r r s iI o n M . T h u sf o r e a c h u eM a t r ce KFJx(Y(u,x)>n) so MFa.u(Y(u.x)>n)as s i n c e& 1 s a t i s f i c 7 s. Flence l v l < K " a n d a g a i nth e l e a stsl rchx is F,,( a) . in PA+T we must F i n a l l y ,t o c h e c ke a c h F , , ( a )i s p r o v a b l yr e c u r s i v e ' F,,( x) y' But to a ) , for mr .r la. is equivalent s i m p l ych e ckth a t th c fo rmu l a F , , ( x ) :y i s

Y( x ,y ) > n A V z < y ) w ( Y ( * ,y ) : wA w I n )
underbouncled w h i c h i s J,(P A ) si n ceY (*, y) : z is f , anclZ( PA) is close,d ! quantification.

T h e o th e r si d e o f th e co i n is that ever y function/( i) that is pr ovably recursive in 7"is'majorizecl'b y( x ) f o r s o m en e N . I n f a c t ,a l i t t l e m o r e i s f, of M closeduncler t r u e : no ti ceth a t i f 1 c" MF P tI is a pr operinitialsegm ent a n c la l s o I F n t - T h ( P , A ) , w h e r e * a n d . , t h e n I F B Z T( b y T h e o r e m1 0 . 5 ) that ar e pr ovablein PA. n t - T h (P A ) i s th e se t o f a l l lI1 sentences F,,( ")be as in Pr oposition14.1. 1 4 .2 . L e t T , Y( r .y) , etncl P r r crp o srl ro N - Th( PA) . Then for in T* BZt+ /- 1r S r r p p o se /(;) i s p ro va b l y re cttr sive s o r n en e N P A l V i , y(y : F,,( max( x)-)- > az< yf( i) : z) ' P r o o f . If n o t. th e n

< b-1f(a): 2 PA + b: F,,(mzrx(a))AVz

(,'. )

F,,( x) t r e a chn e N . SinceY( *, y) is well- behaved i s c o nsi ste nfo , F,t+t@) > f o r a ll ri e N i n a n y rn o d e l of PA wher e these ar e defined. Hence, by c o m p r tctn e ss.

: x)ln e N} + Vz <blf(a1: , PA + {3x < b(F,,(rnax(r7))

(+)

( + ) . T h e n M F Y ( n a x ( r i ) ,b ) > n f o r e a c h L. e t a , b e M s a t i s f y is consistent nitial M F Y ( m a x ( r i )b , ) : c f o r s o m ec > N . S i n c eY i n d i c a t e is n e N, hence Ilb ancl t c " & 1w i t h c 7 e 7 t h e r e i s a n i n i t i a l s e g n t e n1 segmentsatisfying I F T + B E t + 1 - J r- T h ( P A ) . T h d s I V f ( A ) : d f . r s o n l et I e l . I . p i r r t i c u l a r c t < b , a n c l a s / ( ; ) : y i s a . I , f o r m u l a a n c l l c , , f u l w e h z r v eI V I F f @ ) : d Il (-t-). og t r r c h o i c eo l M s a t i s f y i n g Ad.<b, contraclictin

196

Irulicator,s

e c tr r pr ovzr t- rrly s betweeninclicator ancl sh g w n th e connections I-l a vi n g give r ise to incicpen c l enc e r,ve n o w show how these icleas si ve fg n cti o n s, re su l ts. 4 .3 . L e t T be an yn- theor y, let Y( *,y) be a well- tr e hav ec l TI-rE ,o R e1 vr that f + B2t+ ntstlppose 7, ztncl satisfying i ca to rfo r i n i ti a l se gnr ents in cf t .h e n T h ( P A ) i s c o n s i s t e nT zSyY( x, y) > z' T + B 2 t l- [1, - Tlt( PA) ,FVx, - T h ( P A ) i s c t t n s i s t e nlte ,t hat z* Bzt+ 17r P r o o f. U s i n g t h e h y p o t h e s its L le .t ue M\N be arbitrary tVIFT+8)']_fI,-Th(PA) be nonstanciarc Clear ly we nliiy Supposethat a n cl l e t cl tt b e a l so nonstanclar cl, w e z l r ef i r r i s h e c l . M F a y Y @ , y ) 7 c , s i n c eo t h e r w i s e We now useMF [1,- Th(PA) to constrtrctI(2 hM with /(F PA. Clearly it is sufficientto show that

o,e a u a n d M F o ( d ) \ s:PA+{o@)lileM
by adding a new is a consistenttheory in the language9o expandecl then any moclel1( of this theory will constantsymbolct for eachd e M . Fc'tr substr ttc tur e y g M+ I( of M onto a A,y- elem entar h a vea n a tu ra le mb e d din

oi r. Butif 0,(d)

w t t h P A F V t v r = A 1 0 t @ ) ,t h e n M t n t - T \ ( P A ) , s i n c ev i v i = k l 0 ; ( x ) i s anc lhas S is consistent Thus, by com pactness, e q u i va l e n to t a I1 1se ntence. a mociel I<> ^,,lvl. in 1(' The formula3yY(a,y)>c is I, and is true in M,hence is trr.re i n / ( t h e r e i s a l e a s tb e l ( F Y ( a . b ) > c ' prr i n c i p l e U s i r r gt h e l e a s t - n u m b e c wllsch os en 7 ancl satisfying initizrsegments l T h e n , si n ceY (*, y) i n clicates a n c l 1 F I' But zrlso th l ,e r e i s / c . 1 ( w i t h c , o e l , b + l to be nonstanciarc of a m odelof PA. I Fn t -T \(P A ) + B 2 t, since1 is a pr operinitial segm ent t h e p r o o f. I f d e I F Y ( a . d ) > w e s h o wt h a t 1 F 3 yY ( a ,y ) > c , c o m p l e t i n g y)>z is .I'. This c , t h e n c l < b a n c l/ ( F Y ( u , d ) > c . s i n c eI c . r l ( a n d Y ( ; r , o u r ch o i ce of b being the least elem ent of K satis fy i ng co n tra cl i cts ! I ( E Y ( a ,b ) = -c . of PA anclY( x ,y ) i s extension In th e ca sewhen Tis a consistent R e u rrR r<. 14'l Z, Pr oposition for ilitial segmeltssatisfying n cl i cator d a w e l l -b e h a ve i a n clT h e o re m 1 4 .3sh ow that

T l Y x l y Y ( x ,Y ) > n e N, but for everyru '[VVx. z l y Y ( x . Y ) >z .

Whnt ure inclic:rttor:; ?

191

Exerc:ises' 14.I for Section

y is arr 1 4 . l L e t Y ( x ,j , ) b e a . I , f o r n t r - t l tP r. A F V x , y S l z Y ( x , y ) : z a n c ls u l r p o s e i n c l i r : : t t o r f o r i n ist e i lg i ln l c n t : i l r : . r v i n g t h c p r o p c r t ' t Q.By nrotlil'yirrg)'suIlr.tt(e).rrrtl ( c l )o n p . 1 9 4h t t l c l s , h o wt h t r tt l . r e r e i s a w e l l - b e h a v eic nlc l i c a t ofr or Q in Ptl. 1 4 . 2 S t r l r p o st e h t r tI ' i s a w e l l - b e h a v ci c n lc l i c a t o fr or B in ['A. u,beMEPA, uncl Y ( u , b )) N . S h o wt h a t t h e l ei s c ' e N Iw i t h a l r ' 1 b a n c lb o t l r< t fY ( u , c ) . Y ( r . b ) n o n s t a t t c l a rD c lc .cluce t h a t t h e r ea r e i r r f i n i t e l n yruny I ; , N I w i t h a e I < b [ 1 i 1 y i 1r.h rt u' p r o p e r t yQ . 14.3 Let ne N\{0} Workirrs in Prl,clefine
F , , ( - , ' : )r:n a x { g , , ( r r u,) l l . u < x } w h e r e g , , ( u ,u ) i s t h c l e a s tr y s u c h t h a t S a t ; , , ( r t , f u , w l ) ,i f s u c h N ,e x i s t s , 0 o t h e l w i s e . Also clefine

<Dl

(a) Show tl'tztt PAtYx , y(x {y - F,,(x) < F,,(y)). ( b ) S h o wt h a t ,p r o v a b l y i n P A . F , , ( x ) : y a n d Y ( x , y ) : z a r ee q u i v a l e r r to t I,,,', formulas. ( . ) L e t M F P . ua l n c lI c " l v l . S h o wt h a t 1 4 r , , M h o l c l s i f a n c lo n t y i f : [. Yu e I ab e I IVI FF,,(u) ( H i t r t : I f I < t , , t v l i s a n i n i t i a ls e g r n e n t r,r o t et h a t I F B 2 , , * 1 1 0 . 5 .U s e by Proposition your definition o f F , , ( x ) : y t o s h o wt h a t 8 . X , , f ,t -Y x - J y F , , ( x ) : y . ) (cl) Hence deducetliat Y(x, y) is an indicatorfor -I,,-elementary initial segments all theproperties satisfying n d i c a t o re , x c e pt h a t ' Y ( x , l ) : z ' i s o f a w e l l - b e h a v eid not -I'. 1 4 . 4 I n P A , d e f i n ef o r e a c hn e N ,

<y Y , , (, xy ) : Irrrtxtc

) l V l V l < c ( S a t , , , ,I(v / ,r l ) - ' t 1y * D l ar v s.t11,,( 1, [.r , I

ct t ro r i n i t i a ls e g r n e n t Is < r , , l vt , ) i s a n i n d i c a t of S I r o wt h a t Y , , ( r y l l t a ta r e i s o n r o r p h i t t r , ttt ot that YuQ,y)>z is A?(P,4)b rnodels f u l F P A .S h o wa r l s o lvl,in all countable e q u i v a l e nitn P A t o a n y I 1 f o r r n u l a . (l s e eE x c r c i s e rT h ( N ) i s n o t c o c l e c ( l - t i n t ;F o r t h e l a s tp a r t , l e t N IF P A i n w h i c hl - 1p l o p e r i n i t i a l s e g n r e n cto t r t r t i t t i t t g 1 = t V 1 a a n c l A , , d e f i r r a b l e , Let ae &1\N be 13.7). nlo cr e t lN I . L . e Ib e N I b e et t s t u t . t c l a r r . T h e n l v l F f v Y ( u , y ) > c f o r s o n l eA , , - c l e f i r r a b T h e r lJ F Y ( u ,1 1 ) > t .i ' o r u , { ' e . l ( b . a n c l r v i t h y , a r t clle t . l = " N I l e a s ts u c h tlr,e "/=,&1 ' e r cf , , t l t e nl d F Y ( u . d ) = c deJ (byA,,-cle{inabo i lf i ta y, c ' ) .I t Y ( t t . d ) > c w sonre w h i c hi s i n r p o s s i b l e . )

198

IncLicators

a t i l s f y i nT g, a n c l l; rr r r i p i t i a ls c g t n e n ts l c l i c a t tflo 1 4 . 5 L e t F ( r , y ) b e a w e l l - b e h a v ei c strchtltat t h a t o is a lI: ./..',r-serttence suppose nt that Shor,v i l t - T 1 ( P A ) + { V x f y Y ( x ,y ) > n l n e N } l - o rloclelof satr-tratecl Let 1( be a recursively (l-{irtt: Th(f,'l) t DJ' t Tl r:l.

r,r+-,. ) > M c.ns,ruc, ^^T:;)l;];::;lfli-;1iil:::),,J1'.n,,u,

I-IAVE 1 4 . 2 R E C U R S I V E L YA X I O M A T I Z F . D T H E , O R I E S INDICATORS for in i ti al of an inclicator the pr oper ties w e i nvestigatecl I n th e l a stse cti o n it s exist.This secti ot1 F T w i th o u t s howingthat such indicator s se g me n ts to proving that they do exist for each recursivelyzrxionratizecl <te"voted theory T. that one appr oac h 4.8) suggest 1 4 .1a n d 14.2( anclExer cise P ro p o si to n s t[e ftr nctions Y( x, y) is to cot- tsicler a n i n cl icator to co n stru cti n g
[lilX1;moX,,.rrIthe u exists l.v+1, if no sucl-t

, leastu { y suchthat 0( r .ru)

y): .l',,(x,

A , , s u c ht h a t t h e r e i s a f o r e a c h r t e N , w h e r e ' m z l x l fi s o v e r t t l l 0 ( t L , u ) e to de fi r r e r l tt of Vr r llu) ( n. u) fr or n T + BZt, zltld pro o f w i th Go cl e l -u u mbe <Y}. <ylf,,(x.Y) Y(*,y): max{n they have Of course,we must defineall thcsefunctionsirt Ptl (anclshow do uext' ther e) .This is whaitwe r ' vill ri g h t p ro p e rti e s al l tl -re ' p is the Goclel- num ber of a pr oof fr om , r elation si n ce T i s re cu rsi vethe anclhen c eby with Goclelnttmber4' is r ecttr sive, T + B l to f th e se n te n ce \l/ cy i a f o r m u l al v n V ( p ' c 1 ' v v ) i nP A - ' w h e r e 3 . 7 i s r e p r e s e n t eb Corollary of zrpr oof of c' fr or n 7* B) ' then i s A ,,.tfra t i s: i f p i s th e Goclel- number Ptl-FawwQ,t o1.vv) a n cli f n o t th e n PA- l-Iavv\V(p,( o1, fv)'

Rec:ursiLtaly uxiomutizerltheorie,s huue inclit:utors N o w c l e f i n e . f ' ( n , x , y ) {t zo b e t h e . / a - f o r m L r l a ( r > y + I ) V V p , c 1r, , y iI t t ( \ l t ( p . q , w )A : tYv,,3v c1 r1 lA l'onno, r,)(- V t t < x f a { z S 1 t o(,i ' , I u , p l ) ) .

199

S o / ( n , x , y ) < z i sL , ( P t l ) ,s i n c e S a t . 1 , , ( x i, s yA ) ,(l'A) ancA l , ( P A ) i sc l o s e c l luncler [ro u ncle c'lq uant i ficat i o n . VI o r"e over, PAIY n,x, y(fQt,x, y)<y + 1) ancl P A F Y n .x , ! , z , z ' ( z ' D z A f ( n , x , y ) a 7 - - - > f ( r xt,, y ) { z ' ) . T h u s w e ma y cl e fi n e f(n , x, y): z to be the for nr ula , ) < a) f(n, x, y) < zAVri < z-l(.f(n,xy w h i c l r i s a l s o A r ( P A ) , a n c lP A I Y n , x , y a r . z f ( n , x , y ) : 2 , b y a p p l y i n gt h e pr i n c i p l e leirst-numbe t o f ( n , x , y ) < z . T h u s f ( n , x , y ) i s a p r o v a b l yr e c u r s i v e f u n cti o ni n P ,4 . L e r v r v rn 1 4 .4 . P ro va b l yi n P A,.l' ( ,t,x,y) has the followingpr oper ties: (a) /(0, x, y) :0; ( b ) r ' > n - - " f ( n ' ,x , y ) > f ( , r , x , y ) ; ( . ) x ' > x -->fQt, x', y)>f(r, x, y) ; > (d) y' > y fQt,x, y')> f(r. x. y); ( " ) f ( n . x , y ' ) > f ( , r ,x , y ) - f ( n , x , y ) : y * t . sincethere ttre no p, q , r. fv <0 with \l/(p . cl, w) Ilolcling. ProoJ'.(a) holcls, p.q,r"w.--n'satisfyirrg a sn t a n y ( b ) l f n ' > n t h e nt h e r ea r e 1 t l e a s t l for r n.1,,( r ) ,Il (p , q , vr)Ac1: r Vv,,3v,rA a s t h e re a re su chp , q , r, w --tt. , i n c er f x ' > x t h e n t i { x - - > L t { x ' . ( c ) h o l d sf o r a s i m i l a rr e i l s o l l s t h a t i f y ' > y a n d/ ( n , x , y ' ) { z t h e n e i t h e rz > y } - l o r For (d),notice , i n c et h e o n l y w a y sh a t ( e ) h o l c l ss z < y a n cfl ( n . , x , y ) < 2 . T h i s a l s os l 1 o w t I . ,y')<z) isil z>y+ l. t h a tw e m i g h th a v e / ( i z , x . ) , ) { zb u t l ( / ( r r x in Ptt B y Le n rma t4 .4 (a )w e ca n clefir r e ,' y) <y}. Y ( * , y ) : m a x { rItn < y . Q f ( r rx

2U)

IncLicutors

Y(r.y): z to be the ZIPA) forprtrla For cxamplew , e rlay tal<e , )>yVz+ I >y) f ( z , x , y ) < y A z < y A ( f ( z * 1 , , ry by Lemmai4.4(b). properties h a st h e a p p r o p r i a t e rvhich of ra ( a) - ( d) in the clefinitiorthe conclitions i 4 .5 . Y (x,y) satisfies L e rvrvr,r givcll on p. 194. in cl i czttor we .l l -b e h a ve cl I tro ctf.We h a vese e nth zitY( x,y) has) , gr aphand is pr ovablya func ti on i n P A . T h u s( a ) a n c l( b ) h o l d . B u t ( b y d e f i n i t i o n ) Y ( * , y ) < y , s o ( c ) h o l c l s , a n c li f x ' { x A y < y ' w i t h Y ( x , y ) : z t h e n f ( z , x ' , y ) < f ( t , x , y ) < y b y by Lemma Ia.a@)' Flence and f(t,*"y):f(z,x.y') Lemma 14.4(b), n Y ( * ', y ' ) > z . 1c.M an initial segmento f N I 1 4 .(t.If M F P ,/t is nonstar r dar cl, Le rvri vrn , a n d a , b e M w i t h u e l 1 b , t h e n Y ( 4 ,b ) > N ' s a t i s f y i nIg t o s h o w t h a t Y ( 4 , b ) > n f o r e a c hr z eN . F i x n e N ; w e ProoJ'I .t suffices ' )t a l l t h e is s h o w t h a tt v l F f ( n , u . b ) 1 b . L e t g , ( u , , , v ' ) , . . . , 0 , , ( v , , ,lv nrust thart sr-rch Ar,-formulas r V , r , , l l0 v, r( r r , v , ) r (n and , ',),1 ,w ) l v l E V ( p , I V v , , a v r 0 , ( vv

p , w {n . S i n cether ear e finitelymanyp < n ther ear e only fini tel y fo r so me 0,( r r , v1 )for T+ BttFVvly3vl ma n ys,,.hg ,, a n clb y o u r choiceof \U we hzive e a c hi < k . N o w 1 FZ a n cl , a s 1 is a pr oper initial segm er ltof NI, lF B> t T hus I F V u a u ? i Q tu , ) f o r e t t c hl , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r I F Y t t < c t a u ru , z ,. , D k A l = ,0 , ( u , u i ) .

H e n c e ,b y B Z , i n 1 , t h e r ei s c e . l s u c ht h a t I F Y u < a a u t ,u z ,. , i), . u k < c / A f = , 0 i ( uu

is A,, ancl1g,,M) an clso (si n ceth i s fo rmr' r la M F V u < u 3 u t , u 2 ,. ,) ' , t ) k < c A l = t 0 1 ( uu

n ( ' I < b , Y ( 6 ,b ) > n a s r e q u i r e c l ' l ince f n ,a , b ) < c , a n c s T h u sl v l F ( s h o wt h a t Y ( , r , y )h a sm o s to f t h e p r o p e r a,n d 1 4 . 6 14.4,14.5 Lemmas T. satisfying for initialsegments inclicator of a well-behaved tiesrequirecl (anclmost importantpropertyis suppliedby the following The tzrst theorem. a n c 'Y l ( u , b ) > N ' T h e n t h e r ei s t ith(t,l't&1 T r r p o n E r1 v1 r . 7 .L e t M F P , z w l FT. I c . , , l vw l i t ha e l < b a n c 1

RecttrsiucLy ttxiomutizedtheorie:; huue incLic'utors Pr o o f. S u p p o se fi rst th a t l V l i s countatr le, ancllet T' be the theur y

201

T + B E t + { V r 7 , (c ;, ) l y e L 0 & AF 4V i < b v , G , a ) }
in the language 9o expanclecl by acldinga new constant symbol c'. T' is c o n s i s t e ns t ,i n c ei f n o t T + B 2tF f;x7i= , ttp,( i. c) for sorne Vr, . , t r c ht h a t M F V i < b V , ( i , u ) . B u t t h e n , t p L eL 1 s T + B Z t FVy3xy i=1- lt1t,( y) i.
since n cloes not o c c r r ri r r T o r B Z , , s o t h e r e a r e p , q , r , v i , 1 1 N with P,4,f,W1n,

<vr Vl=,-1tp,(2, v,,)1, rJ: rVv,,3v,,az

v11) r: t3 2 < vr \Yf=,- 1tlt,( 2, , 1 rf a p r o o f o f a n d P A - f \ l / ( p, q , w ) ( s op i s t h e G o d e l - n u m b eo { vr V l- ,- 1t1,,(v,,) V v,,3 v13Z 2, , that M E f ( n , a . b ) < b t h i sm e a n s from T+ BZ). Since ,f), M F Y t t < c t l u { b S a t o , , ( r , l uu a n d h e n c et h a t

I l F 3 z < b V l - , - 1 r l t(,u ,2 ) ,
a c o n t r a cl i cti o n . c)1lr !e AnlkMFVi< btp( r . a) } is codeclin M. ( lt N o t e a l soth a t {tY *t1 t(x, is cocledby any d realizing the I' type A r ,i : t V i t p ( i , c ) r } u {(d),+QeVx <btp(i, a)11.'e fV*12( i,r ) l for tr nytp e Ar } . {(d )i -_0 l 7 e N n o t that ( anclr emt' .mber ir r g Putting[i( - - SSy( lvl) T h i s t yp e i s cl e a rl yre cu rsi ve.) ar e countable)we w e a r e a ssu mi n g fo r th e mo m ent that &1 anclhence!11 m oclelI( FT. by c o n c l rrcl T e ' e ff . H e n ce th e re is a countable9f- satur atecl with SSy( i( ) : satur atecl T h e o r e m 1 3 .6 . In p a rti cu l ar 1( is r ecur sively in the par agr aphpr ececling SS y ( &I),b y L e mma 1 3 .5 a n clthe ar gr .r m ent 12.3 ( or Exer cise12.2 it Z is t- totar t T h e o r e m 1 3 .6 .T h u s b y T h eor en- r 1( onto ar l ir litial h: I( - >M sencling extension o f P A ) th e rei s a n e r nbeclcling

2oz

Inclicutors

segnrent I c.,,M such thatb SI ancl theelemcnt of K rcalizing thecorrstzint c is serrt to u e M . (To seethat KFlia! ,1 , c ) ) M FJ i < b t t 7 t u

f o r a l l A , ,f o r m u l a s 0, notethatif I(F=i1(i,c:) then T'IYyYi<y-|0(i,c'), so IV IF l y < b Jt < y0 (i . c) . The r ecur sive satur ation of K wasonly neec l ec l to e n su re th a t 1 ( i s sl- r or tIf,- r ecur sively satur atecl, ancl hence can be e mb e d cl e i d n to M.) B e fo re w e p ro ve th e case for uncountable M in gener al,we no te ul p a r t i c u l ac r a s ew h e n t h e t h e o r e mi s e a s y :n a m e l yw h e n Z e x t e n d sP A . l n t h i s ca se , b y th e L o wenheim - Skolem theor em ther e is a count abl e M'< & 1co n ta i n i n g a , b , anclby the abovear gum entther e is 1' c" ful' w i tl 't a e I ' 4 b a n dI ' F T . B u t t h e n y e I'l c"M I : { x e M l x ( y f o rs o m e is a cofinae l xtension o f 1 ' . S o a s . 1 ' { o , , M ' 1 7 , 1 2 n u |I,' 1 o , , 1 ,h e n c cb y Theorem 7 . J , 1 '< 1 , a n d t h u sl F T w i t h u e l < b . l se , w e againtakeM' < M to be countable with a, b e M ' In th e g e n e ra ca ' < an d1 'F 7 'a n i n i ti a lse g ment of M with a e I' b. W e alsotakea ^I, for mul a gi n P A - ) ' t - t r i 1 ' w h e r e { r u , r , , . . . } i s s o m e 3 ! t 1 t ( t , i , y )r e p r e s e n t i n ( recursiveaxiomatizationof ?t. We shall assumethat each r, is in prenex of zr ) ,and n o rma lfo rm (i ..., a l l th e quantifier s in r , appearon the ' outside' 'x : we write e y' for the 9a-formula f I < len(y) (, [y]'). Then usingthe PA o f .I ' c , , M ' w i t h a . 1 '< b a n d a x i o m sr n M ' t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e the followingfo r al l to check that M' szitisfies I 'F T , i t i s stra i g h tfo rwar d eeN: : eA [ s ] 1 , :a A 3 s ,t I l e n ( s : ) len(r)

Vi<e- 1((ls+ l , 1 ) ' < [ r ] , * ' <b ) A y(form(/)A(f , y):.r))n Yi<eYx(xe [r],-- 3./, Y i ,x , y < e ( t p ( xi,, t ) - \ x , 0 ) e [ r ] , ) A e [r],* Vi<e - \Vx(xe [r],--+x ')A Vi<eVf, y((f , yl e [r],Aformo,,(.f)-Sato,,(/, /))A ylwljl)e y). [l,],' Awl [t],.'(,f, Vi < e - 1 V i , [r]'.')A f , y((t3r,ft, , ) . [ r ] , * Y w 1 [ t ] , o , ( / ,y l w l j ) ) e[ r ] ' . ' ) 1 . ,, y ( ( t Y r i f t y Yi < e - 7 V i f a e: [ t ] , , < [ t ] ' < " ' a n c lr t c o c l e s i s t h a t s c o d e sa s e q u e n ca The iclea of (f , yl where of pairs secluence / is the Goclel-ntrmber [r],,, Ir]r, . of sets 'trLre' I:{xlx<[s], for in the initialsegrnent thoughtof as an 9.p-formuli

Recur.; iuely axiornutized theo ries huue inclicutors

203

s o m e ie N l w h e n V ' , V r , , a r e s u b s t i t L rb te l ] , ,[,y ] , , . . . . 1 n p a r t i c r . r l a r yc [y oneof theclausei sn t h e f o r m u l aa b o v e s a y st h a I t h i s i d e ao f ' t r l r e ' a g r e e s w i t h t he u su a lo n e fo r A ,, fo rnr ulas as clefinecl by Satu,,( x,y) . t s y o v e r s p i l lt , h e r e i s a tn o n s t a n d a r e cl eful'satisfying t h i s f o r m u l a ra ,nd s i n c eM ' < & 1 i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r ea r e . r ,t e f u l s L r c h t h a t t h e f o r m u l ai n s q L r a re b ra cke ts a b o vei s tru e in M . W e claim that, for suchs,

[ : { x e l v l l MF[ r ] , > r s o m ei e N ]
i s a n i n i ti a lse g me no t f M w i th a e I< b and ^f FT. I is incleed an 9o- str uctur e < [ r ] , * , since + 1 ) ' f o r a l l l e N ; a n d a < [ r ] , < b f o r z r l il , s o a e I 1 b . [r]'<([r], T o c h e c kt h a t 1 FZ , n o t e t h a t ,f o r a l l i e N , ( r z , ] , 0 ) e [ r ] ,f o r s o m e ie N . T h u s it suffices to prove that f o r al l l ,7 e N a n cl a l l su b for m ulas . . . , vr ) of 2,, if E( v,,, (tE(u,. , ,. . , v r ) r , y ) e { t l i t h e n l F r p ( [ y ] u ,.. . , [ y ] * ) . T h i s i s p ro ve d b y i n d u cti o non the com plexityof for mulas.If g is A,, it above,by insidesquar ebr ackets f o l l o w sb y th e 7 th co n j u n cto f the for mLr la y), of A,,for m ulasbetween t h e p r o p e rti e s o f S a to ,,(x, and the absoluteness for some 0 and somevariablev/, by M and L lf cpis not A,, it is 3v19or Vv19 o u r a ssu mp ti o n th a t e a chr; i s in pr enexnor malfor m. Thus, by the last two of 1, and the c o n j u ncts o f th e fo rmu l a i n si desquar e br ackets, our definition i n d u c ti o nh yp o th e si s:

1 fo @ , y ) e[ r ] ; ) ( 0 , y l w l l l l e [ r ] 7 * , r s o m ew < [ s ] , * i e

) I r E ( l y l , ,.,. . , [ y ] * ) ,
w h e n c pi s 3 v 1 0 ; and (rp,y) e [r]7) @, ylwlll) [r],,,*1 for all ,( e 1 zrnd all m >7 in N [s],,,

= )I F c p ( [ y l o , wlren E rsVv10.

, []l*),
T

incli8o-theory T hzrsa well-behavecl Conollnnv t4.8. Any recursive n T in PA. satisfying cator,Y(r,y), for initialsegments C o r o l l a ry l 4 .B ca n b e moclifiedin sever al ways. For exam ple if a 7 ( but not necessar ily rn o cl eM l F P A i s givenwith Ze SSy( tV1) n o n s t a n cl a rcl of iV1 Y( ",y) for initial segm ents th e n th e re i s a n incliczr tor r e c t r r si ve ) 7. 7 ; h o l ve ve r,Y (x,y) will contain a par am eterae M coc- ling s a t i s fyi n g of PA. to M, anclnot to an ar bitr ar yn- r oclel r n l y a p p l ies T l r t r st h i si n cl i ca too

204

Indicators

in l,,- elem en tar y S i mi l a rl y,i f w e a re g i ven r ueN iind we ar e inter estecl theor y 7, then ther ewill be an a givenr ecur sive sa ti sfyi ng i ni ti a lse g me n ts (b)-(e) in h i s i n c l i c a t olr' w i l l s a t i s f v s. i n d i c a t oY r f o r s u c hi n i t i a ls e g n r c n t T o n p . I g 4 , b u t ' Y ( x ,l ) : z ' w i l l b e ) , , r , r a t h e rt h a n) , . T h u s t h ed e f i n i t i o n conditionof being' wellbchav ed'. the technical Y (x, y) fa i l sto sa ti sfy zrgain givenaboveof the inclic ator It i s a l sow o rth re ma rkingthat the clefinition on the I12sentenc es T only clepended satisfying Y(x, y) fo r i n i ti a lse g me nts in 7* BI', that is on provable n r-T h (T + B t): s.t. T + BZ,F o} " { o e |Itlo an 9n- sentence

l w i th on the initial segm ent a n d th e p ro o f o f L e mma 14.6only depended T, T ' theor ies a e I <b i a ti sfyi n E IIz-T h( f+ BE) .Thus any two r ecur sive . wi th IIz-T h (Z + B I',) : fI.,- Th( r ' + B.tr ) have the sam e indicator s Put c" a n o th e rw a y, th i s sa ysthat if.MF PA anda, b eM then ther e existsI M J="M with a eJ<b and w i t h a e I < b a n c l1 F Z i f a n c lo n l y i f t h e r ee x i s t s T and satisfying by sayingthat initial segm ents J F T '. (T h i s i s d e scri b ecl satisfyingT' aresymbiotic-see Exercise14.6-) initial segments consequenc es A s o n e w o u l d e xp e ct,Cor ollar y14.8hasm any inter esting from the structureof modelsof PA' For example,

axiomatized9o-theory that is Conor-rnnv 14.9. Let T be any recursively Then ther e is an t r u e (i .e ., N F f), a n d l e t M FPA with ae M non- standar d. tF T o f M w i t h a 4 1 * N . i n i t i a ls e g m e n I

a) > n for T. Then IVIFY( n, indicator Pro o f. L e t Y (x,y) b e a well- behaved lhere is i o r a t t n e N , s i n c et z eN ( a , N c " M a n d N F f . B y o v e r s p i l t IFT. O a n d Ni t h M F Y ( c , a ) > c . S o t h e r ei s 1 c " M w i t h c e l l u c e . 4 2 1 \ .w model of PA has ar bitr ar ily sr nall nonI n p a rti cu l a ra n y n o n s tandar cl PA. satisfying i n i ti a l se g me nts sta n cl a rd i n th e p roof of Theor er n\4.7 was that tf n, b e ME P' 4 w i th On e sttrp ri se scttur c tted y (a ,b )>N a n d M i s countable, then ther eis in fact ar ecur siuely i n i t i a ls e g m e n tI g " M w i t h a e l < b a n d/ F T . ( T h i si n i n f a r cttr u e e v e ni f M 14.9 and 15.10- but we shall r estr ic tour is u n co u n ta b l e -se eE xer cises di scu ssi o to n co u n ta b l eM her e.) Also, by Theor em 12' 1, ther e ar e 2n" 1. Thereforewe hzrve suchinitiztlsegments

ancl cl countable'and l et T Co n o rra n v 1 4 .1 0 . L e t MFPAbe nonstanclatr Then the following are ecluivalent: ed 9o-theory. axiomatiz be a recursively

haue indicutor.s theorie.s Recttrsiuely axiom.atizecL ( n ) t h e r ee x i s t sI c " M w i t h a e I < b a n c l1 E[ I . - T h ( - f+ I ] 2 ' ) ; ( b ) t h e r ee x i s t sI c , N l w i t h r re I < b a n c l1 Ff ; ( c ) t h e r e e x i s t s2 N " c l i f f e r e r ri t 1FT with a e I<b nitial segments r e c r , r r si vesa l y tu ra te cl . to follow. w i l l b e founclin the exer cises O t h er a p p l i ca ti o n s

205

a n c lI !

Exerci.ses for Sectiort 14.2 itt lvlEPA ttre:;yntbiotic of a givennroclel P, Q.of initialsegments 14.6 Two classes i.e. iff for all u, b e lvl P, Q have the sameindicators, a l e P ( a e1 < b ) 3 1 e Q @ e J < b ) . ancl szrtttratecl, PA suchtlrat 1is recursively of alll=.M satisfyirrg Let P be the class t h z t tP S h o w s a t u r a t e c l . l not recursively sf a l l - /c " M , J E P A a n c J t e t Q b e t h e c l e r so a n d B a r es y m b i o t i c . T i s c o d e di n M . S h o wt h a t t h e r ei s dn d s u p p o s e 1 4 . 7 L e t M F P A b e n o n s t a n d a ra za that,4u1FVx,y,n'atzY(x,l,w ) :n c l w h e n e v e r Y(*,y,w):z inf1 such a formula s e g m e n to sf M i n i t i a l f o r i n d i c a t o r Y ( x , y , c ) i s a n c e M c o d e sT t h e n t h e f u n c t i o n T. satisfying .9ntheory. Defineo I,,.'-formulzt y xiomatized 14.8 Let T be any recursivela Y ( x , y ) : z s u c h t h a t P A l Y x , y a r . z Y ( x , - Y ) : zs u c h t h a t Y i s a w e l l - b e h a v e c l ss atisn i t i a ls e g r n e n t o r l , , - e l e t n e n t a riy i n c l i c a t o(re x c e p t h a t Y ( x ,y ) : z i s n o t ^ X 1f) fying T. 1 4 . 3h e l p f u l . ) ( H i n t : U s e B f , , * 1 i n p l a c eo f B f , . Y o u m i g h t f i n c lE x e r c i s e a n c lS t a v i 1 9 8 0 )t h a t i f Tih e o r e r n( S m o r y n s k i 14.9 Prove the Smorynski-Stav then N is rectrrsively saturatecl, of P,4 ancllvl is recursively Mc,1N are moclels too. saturated isa ey p eo v e r N , w h e r e ( H i n t: I f p ( . r ): { q i ( x , r z |)I e N } i s a r e c u r s i v t /(i) :' rp,(r,rr)1 the type image,consider function with recut'sive recursive

i)-t;iYk:;,^ h(cpi '(tvl'' : b}u q(y):{ren(y) (2, r)))1,..} {o''

cp-r(x,i) is,r:x sziy.) wlrere T of P'tl,evenif M extensiotrs for all recursive that Corollaryl4. L0holcls Decluce is not countable. large t t 'F d P ' t l h a sa r b i t r a r i l y o p r o v et h a t e v e r yn o n s t a t t c l z M 1 4 . 1 0 U s e i n c l i c a t o rts cc nl c l ztturztte ly I F P t I a n c lh a s r e c L r r s i v es r e c r r r s i v e ls ya t u r a t e ciln i t i a l s e g m e n t s e x t e n s i o nJ sFP A . & c1 l F P . z l 't l l U s i n g E x e r c i s e1 4 . 7 ,t h i s m a y b e i m p r o v e ctlo : f o r a l l n o t t s t a n c l a r r e cursively 1 , / a r e n e N a n c l a l l a e M , t h e r e a r e 1 c . & 1 a r r c lN I c . , J s u c h t h a t bl e in gettcr;r l 1 r , , M 4 : , , J .S h o wt h a t ' ( " , , ' c l l l l l l o t I ,l J satrrratec , F P A , a e l , a t t c1 '('. f lu r t h e rt o irnorovec

206

In.tlicutor.s

I t t 3 T F I E P r \ R I S - I I A R I ? . l N G T OT NF I E O I I E N 4 I r r t h i r ;s c c t i o t tw c s l r a t le x h i b i t' m a t h e r n a t i c a l l iy n t e r c s t i n g('r a t h e rt h a n ' t n i t t i t t n u t h e t n a t i c a l l y jttst i r r t e r e s t i r r gi 'n )c l i c a t o r s Y ( x ,y ) l o r r r r r t i a s l egt - n cn tsszrti sfyi n g P .tl . The chie f conse clucnce will be the celebr a tec l Pa ri :;-l -l a rri rrg to th n e o rem ,that u cr ' :r tain senter r ce com binator ial oi 9- l oi s in PA. truebLrt noi provable T l re se t-u p w e n e e dto c onsicler involves a mclclel M EPA with a < b in l Vl , r r n cw f c w i s h t o f i n c la c o n c l i t i o n Y(u.b)>N thut is trLre i f 1t h e r e i s I c - , M r , vi th a e l <b a n cl1 F P A . The fir stsinr plification is to look for cotletlini ti ul 1 of tlre form seRnrcnts

I : l x e l v l l MF x< [ c : ]s , o m ei e N ] , : r))N, where c e lvl, len(c) c< fc],,< [r], :rrrc l ' ] ; * , - [ , , ]f , ' ] , * ' > [ c ]w l i l l m a k e1 a n [r i o r a l l i < d - l . ( T h ec o n d i t i o ln
T.) o ma ke 1a r nodelof PA we aim to choosec so thnt the J /a -stru ctr-rre c l e fn i i t i o n 'h o l d s . following'truth T ru th cl e fi n i to n fo r ,1 : 6 ( x , , . . . , x r , , l ) , f o r i e N , a n d a l l r i e . 1 ,i f F c r ra l l A , , f o r m u l a s < ri [c'],then I F a x , V x 2 3 x i.. . Q x r0 ( x , .. . . , x r , d ) -l or V) just in case that h o l cl s(w h e re Q i s . . . Q x r < [ t ] , * *0 ( * , . . . . . x * , a ) . MFaxl< [t],*1Vx,(|.],*, th , e nI F P A . l 4 . l l . I f ^ I .a s a t r o v e h . a st h i s t r u t h c l e f i r r i t i o n Lsrlvrzr P r o o J 'S . i n c eI c , , I V Ii s a n 9 o - s t r u c t u r eI,F P A - . l f is eclr"rivalent to then r7r r7r is an J.'rr-fornrr.rla, Yy tay ' ' ' Q/r 0(x. y r* ThLrs 0 e 4,,,. ftrr some /r e N :tnclsctttre I E A x Y y , a y t " ' Q y r0 ( x , y r , ,lr,.d). IFlxtp(x,a), where c7e

x1,, d)

sa y,then by the tr tr th clefinitior l He rrce , i l tl < [c1 ,,

M I F S x < [ , ' ] , r , V - y , ( [ t ] , * 'r '' Q / * ( [ t ] , n ^ * ' 0 ( t , l r , . . . . ! r , d ) .

7'hc Puris-l-lurrington theorem

Z\j

[-/sirrg t l - r el c a s t - n u r n t r r :p r r i n c i p l c i n M I t h e r e i s a l e a s tx < f c : ] , r , s u c h t h a t .' Qy,,"i I V I F Y y , . ([ r , ] , u . *,,,0 ( x , ! r , . . . , ) , t , ( , [,:.],* , j). I h i s l e a s ts t - t c h x i s a c t u a l l yt h c l c a s tx e / s u c h t h a t l F l t ( x , t l ) . ' l ' t -s t cc this, n o t e t h a t , b y t h c t n - r t hc l e f i n i t i o n l, c l o e ss a t i s f y q t ( x , a ) , a n c l t h a t i f x ' { x w i t h l F r l t ( x ' , r 7 )t h e n b y t h e t r L r t hc l e f i n i t i o n agairr,

l V I E Y y , < [ . ] , * .. ' e ] , , { [ , ' ] , * , , r , 0 ( x ' , 1 t , . . . l r , ,( 1 ) contraclictin og ur choice of x. n

T h e trL rtl cl i cfi rri ti i rt fctr/ i s equivaler rto t sayingthat the elements oI the ' i n c l i s c e r n i b l e ' sequencI ec ] , ,I,c ] r r are ( i . e .c a n n o t hre clistinguishe f rc ol m . . 1 r t 1 , t t n c l eaclr o t h e r )i n t h e f o l l o w i n g seltse if n1{n,41.,(. m,1m21 g t r t t l ' ' ' 1 tn 1 ,a re p o si ti ve i n teger s and k e N, and if is ziA,,for nr ula,then f o r i r l l u e M s r - r cth h a t A< m i n ( [ c ] , , r ,_ ,[c],,,, r_ ) MF3x,< [r:],,,Vx[ .c , ,].,:,.. . ' Q x r ( [ . ] , ,0 ^ ( * , , . . . , x t ,a ) holcls if andonly if { [c],,,, M F3x,.1 [c'],,,,V-r. a s t h e sea re b o th e q L ri va l e nt to IF a xtV x- , Qx1,o( x,,
, X1r, C7).

0(x1, Qxr( fcf,,,,

, X 1 r ,Q ) ,

( T h i s is p ro ve cl b y a n e a syi n cluction on k.) ln moclel theor y, indiscer nible i ke th e sea re u su ally s e q u e n cels constr ucted fr or n com binator usingr esults ics, especiallyRurnsey's thertrem(see belor,v), nnclthis is what we will do h e r e . Th e e n cl -re :;r"w rlitl l b e that an inter estingvar iation of Ramsey' s t h e o r e rni n cl e p e n cl e o nf t PA. F i r st, th e r-r, w e n ru stg i ve someclefinitions concer ning the com Lr inator ia l w i l l n e ccl . n o t i o nsr,ve the r z is a nzr tur al nunr ber ,lxl" clenotes If D r , r . r r.rrrrr)N s.X i s a s;e tz r ncl of u sr "r bset r i. UsuallyX will Lr e o f a l l su b se ts o f X of car clir r ality c o l l e cti o rr tnelernn e t S : { x r, . Y 2., . . , x , , }o f nl u m b e r sa , n d w e w i l l i c l e r r t i fiy thenaturer ' ( J , , o f e l e m e n t st t f X . ylx',(' ga q u e t r c :xe l X ) " w i t h a n i n c r e u s i t ts r :[X]"-+N, we writeJ(x,,"t,. ,x,,) for S i r n i l a r l yg , i v e n a f u n c t i o rf l'({','J,,..,x,,|)withttrcttnclerstandingthatx,1X,<'.. n r r m b c r n w i l l t r e i d e n t i f i e dw i t h t h e s e t { 0 , 1 , ,tl- l} of its prel ts e s e t { i z z . n t *1 , . . . , n - l . r t \ 1 ; a n c lN w i l l c l e c e s s o r[s ; ,n] cienc-rte m N f .n , k , c a r e e i t h e r c l e n o t c ' b o t h e s e t{ 0 . 1 , 2 . . . . } a n c il t s c a r c l i n a l i tIy o f N , X - r ( / c ) i l m c a n st h a t w h e t r e v efr , l X l " - - + c ' t h e r ei s a or elements

208

Intlicutor.s

t n f H ] " . ( T h e s e tH t h a t / i s c o n s t a no ycs L r c h s u b s eH t c-X withcardinalit/ for f .) as being hornogeneous lrere is often clescribecl Ra mse y(1 9 1 0 )p l o ve c ithe well- knowr l vn r "ce N N--+(N):1, R n v s E yr r r E o r ( E.rV INrrrurle from this the and clerivecl . vr Yn, c, k e N ant e N m - t ( /c) il. F r urrn R n u se v rrrE o r{E r of the finiteRam seytheor em.Noticeth at r o va riations W e sh a l lco n si cl etw ('it r efer s to al l theor em is ' second- or cler i n fi n i te R a msey w h i l st th e in the theor em can be expr essecl f u ncti o n s[N ]" -c), th e finite Rzr nr sey of PA, using G o d e l ' sl e m m a( L e m m a5 . 8 )o r s o m eo t h e rs u i t a b l e language of lengthn sequences notionssuchas incr easing c o d i n gd e vi ceto e xp re ss quantify cocles for . functions a n d to all . . .,ffi }, over f r om {0 , 1 , [r n]"- - >c . in from now on that thesenotions have beeu fornralizecl We shall assLlme ---> are way, and in particularthat notionssuchass (b)',1 PA in somesuitable d e scri b e db y A t(P A ) fo r m ulas. ( Note also that' u- - - ( [) ) ' ,,i is in fact a codesfor functio ns p re d i cate, statingthat all possible p r i mi ti ve re cu rsi ve lo)' - cl have a certainproperty,so there is indeeda A '(PA ) formula for it, that thesenotior tsbehavein the 5 .1 0 .)We shall also assum e b y E xe rci se to cer tainpr oper ties. w a y i n mo d e l sof PA, with r espect e x p e cte d theor emis actuallypr ovablein PA. It ttrrn so u t th a t th e fi nite Rar nsey of this r esult.The fir stof thes e in str engthenings w e w i l l b e i n te re sted T h r,rs fur ther that t he pr inciple( PH) , which stipulates i s th e P a ri s-H a rri n g to n ' r elatively lar ge' . Let X' ?( k) ' ,' Itr eanthat se t sh o u l d be h o mo g e n e o u s for / and w h e n e ve rf :l X l " --s ther e is H= X thttt is homogeneoLts -card(H ) max(k, min(H )) . R NCIPL EH ) . V n , c , k N f r z z eN r n } ( l c ) ' , ' (P P n r r . r s - H n r { R . r N Gp T oIN by Kanantc' rand r i M cAloor r ( 1987) . va ri a ti o nw zlsconsicler ecl T h e se co n cl y->(k)'i " g that i s me a n th at whenever.f : [X]"- +N is r egr essiue, Let (x, fo r all x1- - x,,< . , xu ) f ( " r, xr., ( x , , fr o m H . with cardinality k such that for all x11x,( on xt, i.e., if xr/-ltl " ' 1y,, r'vith ,x,,,) only depencls f(*r,*'t, . 1 2 , . . . , 1 , , H a l s o t h e n / ( " r ,, x 2 , . . . , r , ) : f ( x t , l 2 , ' . . , ! , , ) ' ( l ( a n a m o r i for/.) H min-homogeneous and McAloon call surch (Klvl). Vil, /ce N am e N m -' (,t)i:* I(rrunvror<l*McAlooN I,t{tN(:rnr-e T 'h e P a ri s-H a rri n g tonpr iniciple follows fr om the infr nite Rar n s ey . morancl i M cAloor rptlinttlut that U<M ) t l re o re m(se eL e mma 1 4 .15) Kanzr

The Puri.y-H urrington theorent

209

f c l l l o wsfro rn a va ri a ti o no f the infiniteRam seytheolem due to E,r clijs ancl R a d o . Ob vi o u sl y b o th (P F 1 )ancl( KM ) ar eexpr es.yible in the language o{ P A ; we sh a l lsce th a t n e i th e rar e pr ouublein PA. l n f act w e w i l l l i rst sh o wh ow the l( anam or i- M cAloonpr inciplem ay be u s e dt o o b t a i ni n i t i a ls e g m e n tls s a t i s f y i ntg he'truthclefinition'above W .c w i l l t h e n sh o wh o w (K M) ca n be declur cecl fr om ( PH) , zr ncl finallyshowthzr t ( PH , , ):V c, l cA mm=r(l c)',' i s pr ovable in P,4 for each stanclar cl natur al n u m b e r n . T h i s w i l l n o t o n l y let us cledLr ce that ( PH) is tr ue ir r N but u n p r o va b l e i n P A , b u t i t will also give us inclicator sYpsl( ct,b)ancl Yy 1 , 1 (o ,b ) r i n i ti a l se g me n ts fo ( PH) satisfying PA basecl on the pr inciples (l(M) and respectively. T h e n e xt l e mmai s th e fi rst step in this pr ogr am m e:it appear ecl fir ' stin I ( z r n amo ri a n d McA l o o n (1 987) ,zlndsimplifes the clir ectar gumentfr om (PH) considerably.

Ng <2e-FI < u<1b, Lcunn 14.72. Let MEPA witha,b,cl,eeM szrtisfyin a n d s up p o se M sa ti sfi e s

ln, bl -- (d)?:;r

ancl

+ l) 1..' 61"> ( 3e

t h e n t he re e xi sts ce M co cl i ng a sequence a<[c]1;<[r]' s u c h t ha t [r],*,> [c]l fo r a l l i < lel2l, a,ncl I:{xeMlMFx<[c], h a s t h e 'tru th d e fi n i ti o n 'g i ven above. f o r s o m ei e N ]

to checkthat the the reacler in an informalway, leaving Proof. We argue out in PA. canbe carried arguments
o ( a c c o r c l i nt g L e t Q , ( u , , , ,u ., . . 7 u " ) ( i < e ) b e t h e f i r s te * I A , , f o r m t t l a s fr eevar iables t h e G o d e l -n u mb e ri n g i ve n in Chapter 9) in at m ost the v,,) is pr ovablyr ectr r sive u, r e ftrn c tioni- - > ' t/ti( u,,, s h o w n .In p a rti cu l a th every stanclarcl A,, fortnltlit in Ptl zrncl, since e is nonstarnclard, , , r , . , v , . )f o r s o u l el ( c . N e x t w e c l e f i n e two , V , , )i s ' p , ( v , V e(vr,Vr, . . . , x z , ) ,w h i c hw i l l b o t h b e c o d e ciln I V I . functions f ( r u , . . . , x 2 . ( ) a n c li ( x , , , (r2,,<b, clefine Giverra{,yr{x'( J(xu,xt, . . , xz,) to be the least y t1 x u su chth a t ,( 3i < e[ 1Sato, ,r l lV r 'rx L , r t V i lr, l p , r r , . . , , r , , ] ) * t S z r t o ,,,t( xr"])]

210

Intlic:tttors

a n c 'll( . r , , , . r r , .. , x 2 , ) t o t r e t h c l e a s tl { e s L r c h that l S a t o , , ( r.y f ,rl,rl* ,, ,r ,* x,r , . l ) . , ' : " 1 ) . - S a t , 1 , , ( I tx7 , lr,,f,p

p : f ( x r " . . . , x 2 ) . 1 1n o s r " r c ph e x i s t s w e s e tJ ' ( r r , . . . , x , . ) : 0 a n c l wlrere i(*r,...,x,):el-1. r ay checlq that I'anclI are cocled i n l V L T h e r r ' b y[ n . t ] - , The reaclem d, anc li s in lVI,o[ cnr clin;Jity ( / ) i " Jr th e re i s a se t l -l rclu, b] tliat i:; coclecl -r -, coclecl in M, of (3e l):'.,*'' for/. By d there is H, g ,I1,, min-homogeneous valueth at be the consttr nt 3 e* 1 , a n clh o mogeneous for i. Let 1,, c a rd i n a l i ty ' . ve x t t h a t i , , m u s t b e e * l . i ( r , , , .. . , x 2 ( ) t a k e s o n L H r f t ' ' * W e s h o ' u n t h a t i , , < e , e t n d t h a t x 1 , < x , 1 Suppose 1 n d H u i s min- homogeneoLr for s ./, ther e is p,,( x,, suchth at Si n ceL Il c L I1 a p o : " f ( x o ,t f, . . . , y 2 , ) f o r a n y x 0 l y r l y t c o n si d e ri n g
f(*r.*r).. f (xu, *t . )X,Xa+lr. . X. ,Xzr),

X 2 r + t r. . . , X y ) ,

and
f(*u,*rnl, . .,X2n,X2r+lr . . .,,V:,,),

t h e th re efo rmu l a s ,, S i r t o , , ( r 7 , , , l ,x lx r. . ., x,,f), x,.*1, . , xz.r)), Sato,,(r'7,,,,1 ,1x11, ancl , ,x *1 .r,r ,r S a t o , , ( l - r 2 , , ,x 1-,,1 1 ,. 1 " ] ) , tr u th as ther e ar e only tr ,vo a r e i n e q u ri vzrl ei n t p a i rs,which is im possible values,trtte antlfalse.
Now let 21122 H,\{2, ,. . . i z,}. We ciairnthat:

w h e n e v ec r, , 1 c , l (c,,, then o f I - { , 7 < ea n cp I ( l r , d , . ) ) . . . . , .1 c , , l ) . > S a t o , , ( t ? i l , ) iVlFSato,,(',l,it,llr,o , f-p, "

To see this, notice sirnplythat ( c, t',,

f"l

so by the lastparagraph , ... . , z , , f ) ., . . , c " ] ) * S a t o , , ( r 4 t , 1z , ItP r l,l,r7 Sato,,(rrlrr, . - t S a t o , , ( t V l , t{ ,! L r ,. . , , 1 , , 1 ) ' 1l..

The Puris-l-lurrington theorem

211

N I e , xs t ,u p p o s e c 1 , ( c ,( c . , ( r - ' r A r ee l e m e n t o 1c , s i n c ei f s f H . T h e n c 1 1 * c< ( r:,, whicl- r { : ,*, r : ,> c, th e re w o ttl cl b e 1 .r with p * r :,: ( r ,,so by ( "' )p - l cr : c;1, is impossible B . y ( " ' ) a g a i nl v e a l s oh a v ec , - F c , ( r : . , r , v e c a n also From this . c r ( c , , l o r i i c , 1c c l c c l u cte h a rc l ,y c le p < . c 0w i t h p . c t < . t v c z t h e r er , v o u l b c t < ( p + l ) . c 1 .T h e n u s i n g ("'), ( p + l ) . c , > c t > c r * c . , )( p + 1 ) ' , , , , c ' i ' c , , , ( c ' 's .oby a c o r t t r a d i c t i oF r rl . ence c o .c o ( c , s o , b V ( " ) . c i < r : , . T h L t s ( " ' ) a g a i nc , ; l < c 1i ,l n c ls o o r - rI.t f o l l o w st h a t , f o r a l l r : l d i n H a n c la l l r u eN , c "1 ( l . wher ecr 1c, N o w l e t I-l: {co , ct, . . , c2 ,,} , c; of even indexT, t h e s r . rb se q L re no f c,,, ce s ct, . ,c2,for m ed by elem ents th i . e . ,[ c ] , : c . > ; f oa be y l a s tp a r a g r a p h , rl l l < e . T h e n [ r ] i : c | 1 1 c , 1 p , ( [ r : ] , , - 1 : (ri ) < <fcl ,th e n a n c li f d [t]j ' clilc,;".1for soffr er ze N, wher e ( x) denotes t h e c o cl i n g fu n cti o n b a secl on the pair ing function ( x, y) : ( * + y + 1 ) ( x + y ) 1 2 * y . T h L r st,y ( " ' ) t h e s e q u e n c[e c ] , , , . . . , [ r ] . h a st h e t holcls, r e c l u i re d i n cl i sce rn i b i l i co ty n clition, and so the' tr uth clefinition"for tl as requirecl. te l l sus th' at( l( M) is not pr ovablein PA. The next a l re a cl y L e r nrn n1 4 .1 2 (l(M) to (PH). l em r n ar c l a t e s 1r4 . 1 3 .P A F ( P H ) - - ' ( l ( M ) . [ n f a c t ,p r o v a b l yi n P A , g i v e na , k , e , Levrvru a n d b s a ti sfyi n g

Itt* e, bl-., (t f /c)i*'

we hzrve
[n, b)---' (/c)il"u.

Proof. Let by

-' b b.' r e g r e s s i v e ,a n c l defineg' : lla -r e, bf)''*'-- 3 f , llo,bll''

0 if/(x1ye , x r
-e..'.rXr,-r-e)

g'(x,,,

,'lr')

: f ( x u - e, X 2 - , . . . r X r , - e ) i f f ( x ,-, " x r - e , . . , t r , , , t - e ) 1J'(x"- e' x z - , if /(r,,- ,x I

,.rXr'-g) ,Xr-t-)

>l@r-c,x"-e, ...x,.-e).

272

Indicators

Then, using la I e, bl;, (e+ l< ) 5 * ' , t l r e r ei s H ' c . f a + e , b l w i t h l f t ' l = ' e * lc, anclF1 ' homogeneou t-t min(F1' sr g ' . T h e n c l e a r l yH : lo ), I l> I-l'} hornr)geneoLrs elh e is for {h
0 if /(x,,, xt,
, Xr- l)

: f( xu' ' xz' . . . r X r ' ) 8 ( x r , .. . , x , ) : 1 if /( x,,,xt, 1f(x,,, xr., . 2 if f( x,,,xt, ) f( xn, x2, .
, Xr-t) ' . r X n ) , Xr-l) ,,,X,),

w i t hI H l : l H ' l > m i n ( H ' ) : m i n ( H + ) e.Writing H a s { x , ,x , ,,

w h e r ex u l x t

, X . r , , n " -t i

.x e + E ( x u , x t ) ... , x , ) : B ( x u , x 2 , . . , ) ': ' '

' : E ( x u , x . , r r. , , x , , , * " - , ) ,

a n d so g mu st h a ve co n s tant value0 on [H]"*' , sinceother wise

f(xr, xt, . . . i xr- t)<f(x0t x2t . . . .x,,)

or f(*n,*, x , - r ) > f ( * u , x 2 , .. . , x , )

and sof(x,,,,x,,...,xi+"-r)=-xu f o r s o m ei , c o n t r a d i c t i n g our assumption that/ is regressive. Now let H,,be the lirst /celementsof LI , so I H \ Hrl> e, a n d l e t z r , z 2 , . . , 2 , , b e t h e l a s te e l e m e n t s gr d e r .W e o f H , i n a s c e n d i no min-homogeneous claim that H11is for /. e l e m e n to sf I f x 1 y ( x r ( . . . { x , - r a n dx o l y < . . . ( y o - r a r e a r b i t r a r y H , ,,th e n si n ceg h a s co n stant value0 on IH]' *r ,

: : : , rr . . . . Zr-z) f ( x r . X , , - 1Z f(xu, zt, . , Z"-r)

: f ( x u ,l , . r ,z r . . ' , z r - z )
: :f(xr,lz. . .', lr-t, Zr) :f(xu,Yt,...,1,-t)

a s re q tri re d .

The Puri,s-Hurrin.gton theorent

213

W e t r cl w tu rn to co n si cl e ri npr ( I' H) ancl g ovable ver sions of the pr inciples (KXI). For each rue N, (l'F1,,) clenotes the -/o-sentence Yx,z)y[*,y]-.122)': arrcl( I<A4,,) cleltotes

Yx,zAyl*, yl-, (z)i'"*.

t ) t . r v i i r L rsl p y, ro va b l yi n P A , ' 1K A'1,,7, ( PH , , n ' ) V x , z a y l x , Y ]- . , ( r ) ' 1 * ) b y L e r n ma1 4 .1 3 We . p ro ve th at PAt ( PH,,)for eachn. ( The pr oof is basecl o n R a r n se y'so ri g i n a l p ro o f of the infinite Rar nseytheor enr ar r cl the r e c i r , r cti o on f (P H ) to th i s th e or er n.) L e v t v t a1 4 . I 4 . S u p p o s e e M E P . t l ,n * 0 , n e N . A e M a c o f i n a c l lefinable --e sr-rbse ot f M, a n clF : l A l " Lr definable function.Then ther eis a clefinable s t r b s eB t c:A , co fi n a li n M, su chthzr t,F is constanton [B]". Proof. By incluctionon n. axiom s.W e wr ite ' z e.A' elncl T h e ca se n : I i s p ro ve cl u si ng the collection 'F(z)-y'for theformulas fails in M.If thelernma hese relations c l e f i n i ntg f o r n : 1, th e n & 1sa ti sfi e s F(z) + y). z> x(z e A --> Vy < eAxV Tlren, by collection,ful satisfies S rV y< e Vz) t( z e A- - - F( z) +y) w h i c h c le a rl yco n tra cl i cts Y ta y1 e l z > t( z e A A F( z) : y) . that the resultholclsfor n - l> L Workin gin M we clefitre Irlow slrppose z i i u n c t io n G: M ->A a s fo l l o ws.Let 0( z,x,g) be the for mr .r la 'gcoclesafunctio x li s l e a s t f rn o m t 0 ,1 , . . . , d \ t o A f o r s o m ec l > 2 , z l t t c s a t i s fyi n g :

x e A A x >g ( z - 1 )
AVzrlzz (F(g(t') F ( g ( z ' ) , .. . , 8 ( 2 , , - ' ) , ' v ) ) g(2,,)):

AYwSy>w(yeAAYz, (F(g(z'), . . . , 8 ( 2 , , - , ) , x ) :F ( S Q ' ) . . . . 8 ( 2 , , - , ) , . 1 ' ) ) ) ' '

214

Indicator.t

We tl re n cl e fi n e G(z):x by the for m r tlzt 3 9 , t h e c o c l co f a f L r n c t i o r {r 0, I for all u{z z)nA s L r c ltrh a t ,

.q(u: ) t h e ( u * 1 ) s te l e r n e n tc t t rz l " g,( u ) ,g ) , 0(r., and G(z): g(z).

il'u 1n ilu=n-

i .,e . M F Y z a t . x G ( z ) : x . o s h o wt l i a t G i s w e l l - c l e f i n e d W e u s e i n d L r c t i otn 2 ) of A,then by I elements g Q t n g ( 0 ) , . . . , a r e t h e f i r s t if Clearly, 9 ( 1 )1 we hav e axior ns as in the last par agr aph u si n gtl -re collection a n a rg l rme n t

t u l F S x Y w a yw > ( F ( 8 ( 0 ).,. . " g ( n- 2 ) , x )

: r(g(o)

x. lf z>na n d G Q t - 1 ) w i l l b e t h e l e a s ts t t c h then there is g e M suchthat for all u < z on nt/ , g(u):the (u+ 1)stelettre O(u,g(u),g) S o , cl e a rl y VwAx>w{yeAAVz,{ (f(g(z')

I i s g i v e na n c lC ( z ) e x i s t s ,

i f r r ( r t - 1 ,a n c l ttuTn-l'

g ( 2 , , ) ) :F ( g ( z ' ) ,. . . , 8 ( 2 , , - ' )t,) ) )

x h o l d s. T h u s b y th e c ollectionaxiom s again, of the cofinitely- lnany th e fo rmu l a in cur ly br ackets ) above,ther e is som es uc hx sa ti sfyi n g i satisfying

, ))) , g ( 2 , , - ' )Y

sincethereareonlyM-finite|ymanypossibleSeclLlenceSz11Z"<. for 2 , , - 1 1 2- l 1 a p c t t h u s o n l y M - f i n i t e l y m a n y p o s s i t r l e v a l u e s g n i q u e l ycl e te rmi n e cso l, ther efor edefiles a function.

y ( z+ 1 ) i s x i s C ( z + 1 ) ' C l e r v lG le tuch ittC'),. .. ,B(2,,-,),").Th ea ss

The Paris-Harrington theorem

z1{ zt

215

The function C clefinedabove has the special property thiit for zrll

in U s i n gou r rn a i ni n d u cti ve h yp othesis ther eis a set C = M tir atis defir - r able &1 ,c o f i n a li n M a n d h o mo g e neoLls for the function F ( G ( x t ) ,. . . , G ( x ^ - , ) , G ( * ^ - '+ 1 ) ) clefined by o n f M l ' - ' . I t f o l l o w st h e n t h a t B c A d e f i n e d

xe Befy eC(x: G(y)) is cofinal in M and homoseneous for F.

the quantifier complexity of B Rnvranr. Notice that, in Lemma 14.1,4, (measuredin terms of its position in the Z,,ln,, hierarchy)*oy be greater than that of A. L e u u a 7 4 .7 5 .P A I(P H ,,) fo r all neN, and hencealsoPAI( KM ,,) for all neN. Proof. Assume that, in some model MF PA ancl for some n N, Yb-1(la, bl= (2r)'). Then for each b e M we can define.fr,: the leastcode f o r a f u n cti o n l l o ,b l l " --+c su ch that ther e is no Hcla,b] that is hom og e n e o u sf o r f 1 , w i t h l H l > m i n ( H ) , 2 c . N o w d e f i n e F : [ l a , * ) ] " * ' ' - > c ( w h e r el n , * ) : { r e M I M F x > a } ) b y
F(*r, . . t x t r + ' ): 1 . , , , . , ( x , , . ., x,,)'

By Lernma 74.14there is B c la, * ) cofinaland definablein M suchthat F o n [B ]'n r. B y i n d u ctionwe can define:ft( 0) : the leastelem ent i s c o n sta n t o f B, a n dh (x+ 1 ) : th e l e a stelementof B gr eaterthan h( ") . In par ticular h o : h (Z c+ mi n (B ) + 1) . The set H : { h( x) lx<Zc + m in( B) } has c o n s i cl e r a n d f , , , i s c o n s t a n to n [ H ] " , 2c+min(B):2c+rnin(H) many elements, sincefor .r, fn,,(*, x,,): F(*,,. . .,x,,,h,,).

Moreover it is easy to see that H is codecl in lvl, contraclictingour a s s t r m p ti o nH . e n ce P A I(P H ,,) for all neN, and by Lemm a 14' 13,PAF n (l(M,,) for all n e N too.

2t6

Irtdicutors

and tl - r e up, and obtainotr r indicator s We n o w w a n t to ti cl ytheser esults re su l ts i nd e p e n d e n ce P r om isecl.

Tneonerul14.16.The fur-rctions Yu u ( a ,b ) : ( p e )( l o . b l - a ( 2 e ) \ ) and Yn r ,( a,b) : ( pr ) ( lo, bl- ' ( Ze) i"r ) PA in modelsof satisfying for initial segments indicators are well-behaved PA. checkingthat thesefuncproof . we leave the (easy,but rather teclious) and concentltateon the ti o n s h a ve Z t g ra p h 'and ar e well- behaved, properry concerningthe existenceof initial segments(property (e) on

p .l e a ) . ^ a , b e M F P A w i t h c t e l c u l v l ,I r . P A a n d b e M \ / . Suppose L e m m a1 4 . 1 5 ,
IFac(la,cf -: (2n)',',) for eachn e N, and in Particular

Then, by

cl_: (2n)4). IFac(la, Sincelo, rl-t (zx)i i s equivalentto a Zr for mula in PA, Ic- "M and b e& 1 \ 1 ,
MFac<b([o,c)-t (2n)\)

for all n e N, hencebY oversPill

NIEAc<b(lo,cl+(2e)\) ' for somee > N, anclhenceY,r,(a,b) > N ' Sirnilarly

') < b(ln* n, cl=:(3rz)i. M Fac

The Paris-Hurrington theorem f o r e a chn e N , h e n ce

211

M F l u* e , l t l - ' ( 3 e ) 5 ' '

f o r s o m ee > N " h e n c e MFla, b)- (Ze)i"r b y L e m m a 1 4 . 1 3a , ncs l o Yypl(a,b)>N. F o r th e co n ve rse s, su p p o se fir stthat a, b e M F PA with [a, b]t ( 2e) \ ancl e) N. Obviously w e m a ya s s u m e e > N a n d e < l u l 2 l . B y t h e f i n i t eR a m s e y t h e r o e mi n N a n d th e fa ctth a tx - ( y) i,is equivalent to a I, for mulain PA,

M FZn+ 1 < eA e --> (3n+ 1)7,'\*r' for all n e N. Hence by overspill thereis,f> N suchthat

M Ezf+ 1< eA e ---> (3f+ Di/;'

a n ds i n c e 2 f+ 1 { e w e h a v e

M F l a ,b l - l Q f + 7+ e ) T *,t
s o b y Le mma 1 4 .1 3

MFla- 2f- I, bf ---> (r),X[' .

H e n c e b y L e m m a 7 4 . 1 2t h e r e r s I c " M w i t h 1 FP A a n d a - z f - 1 e I < b . B u t 2 f + I <[a l 2 ] so d - 2 f- 1> ]a, hencea e 1 also. F i n a l l y, su p p o se th a t e , a , b e M Fla, bl- ( 2e) i", with e > N. Then by an o v e r s p i l la r g u m e n ta s b e f o r e t h e r e i s / e N w i t h 2 f + I ( e and MFe--( 3 f + I ) i |.r'. H e n ceMF l a ,b l -->( e) ' zj,[r and by Lemr na 14.72againther e is I c.,fuIsatisfying < n P-4 with a e I b. C o n o l l e n v 1 4 .1 7 .T h e sta tem ents

Vx, zay(lx , yl-?(Zr)i)

ancl

yl-.> (zt)i*) Yx,zAy(fx,

a r e t r u e , b u t u n p ro va b l e i n PA.

218

IncLicutors tr

14.i6ancl14.3. By Theorems ProoJ'.

Wc have presentecl herearereally onlythe tip of the iceberg. The resLrlts that seen Yx, yaz(lx, yl-? (22).)
if this r esultcatr l r e to asl< in PA. It is inter esting i s tru e b u t u n p ro va b l e 1 9 8 0w ) c r e a b l et o ( s e eQ t r i n s e y a n dQ u i n s e y H a r r i n g t o nP , aris, improved. sh o w th a t

VxayQ-" (x + lX)
' 3' by i n P A , b ut it is still unknownwhether may be r eplac ed is trn p ro va b l e '2'here. the str engths of is that of classifying l ine of r esear ch A n o th e r i n te re sti n g b) : It tur nsout that Y,,( u, o f th e o ri esIZ,,bytheir indicator s. th e h i e ra rch y r ) i ndi( e ) i . t ' ) a r e b o t h ( p e ) ( [ n , b ) b, ) : anclY',,(a ( p e ) ( l a ,b ) t k ) ' i . anclit followsthat, for eachn7l , .1.I,,, satisfying ca to rsfo r i n i ti a lse g ments and p ro ve s(P H ,,*') a nd ( KM ,,*' ) but 1) ,, doesnot. ( See( Par is1980) 1 2 ,,+r (K a n a mo ria n d McA l o on, 1987)r espectively.) r esults with Go c l el 's C o mp a ri n g th e se com binator ial independence Godel' sinde penwe see an obviousdiffer ence: th e o rems i n co mp l e te n e ss in Cor ollar y 14.11ar e [Ir . a re II,, wher easthe sentences d e n t se n te n ce s i,t to initiersegments l clownwar ds pr eser ved ar e In cl e e d si , n ce1 1 ,se n te nces could be obtaine d by II1 sentences is d i ffi cu l t to se e h o w independent ther e is one im por tantconnec ti on Flowever , i n i ti a l se g m ents. c o n stru cti n g b e tw e e n Go d e l 's result and the Par is- Har r ington r esult: the ( KfuI) )is pr ovablyeq ui v a( PH) ( equivalently sta tement Pa ri s-H a rri n g to n of PA, that is the statementthat I-consistency lent in PA to the so-callecl ' th e re i s n o p ro o f o f 0 : 1 fr om axiomsof PA and 11,sentences o suchttr at ( KM,,* t) ( PH,,*' ) and Sim ilar ly S e eMcA l o on ( t9B0)for cletails. Sa tr1 ,([o ])'. (in 1) ,,) to tl- r e of 12,,. 1- consistency tu rn o u t to e q tri vzrl e nt Exercises for Section14.3 on as a short guide to some of the literattrre (Theseexercises are intencled tt-ro hard to be of P,A.They are probably indepenclent statements conrbinatorial cl a tte mp L e di re ctl Y .) antl the hydra.(l(irby and Parist982).A hytlruis a finitetrec, Llercules 14.11 joiningtwonodes, with a segnrcnt,s of stlaight-line asa finitecollection consiclerecl to exactly whichis acliacerlt is a nocle of thehydra theroot.A head called node fi,red ( See Fig' 6' ) segment. r ith thisuniqtr e t, g e th ew o n ese g me nto

The Puri:;-Hurrington theorem

219

heircl

The root

Fig.6 A hyctra. In a battlebetweenFlercules ancla hyclra,Herculesattemptsto clecapitate the hycf ra, reclr'rcing it to a singlenocle. At stage n (n> 1), Hercules chopsoff one heacl from the hydra which then growsnew heacls in the followingway: from the nocle that usecl to be attachecl to the headjust chopped off, traverse one segment towarcls the root, and from this nodejust reached sproutrzreplicas of that part of the hydra ju a b o v et h e s e g r n e n t st traversed. F o r e x a m p l e i,f a t s t a g e 3, Hercules removed t h e h e a di n d i c a t e c l Fig. 6, then in the hydra would grow new heacls beconring as shown in Fig. 7. It is comparatively easy to show that Herculescan erlways win. In fact, if he continues t o c h o po f f h e a d s f i l r l o n g e n o u g h ,h e c a n ' t h e l p w i n n i n g .S h o w t h a t : (a) for each hyclra/z there exists ru such that whenever h: h1s, h1 h,, are hydra:;o , o , o r , . , o , , - , a r e h e a d so f t h e s eh y d r a s( s u c ht h a t o ; i s a h e a d o f t h e hydra h , , o r o i : l ' t ; i fh l i s t h e ' c o r n p l e t e l y d e c a p i t a t e d ' h y d r a r ) a n c l / 2 , * l i s t h e r e s u l t of Flercules choppingoff head o, from the hydra ft, at stagei * l, then h1:t fc)r sonrel { lz; ( b ) t h e s t a t e m e nitn ( a ) a b o v ei s e x p r e s s i b lie n thelanguago e f a r i t h m e t i cg , o, but not provable in P,4. (Hint. For (a), associate an ordinal a(ft) with each hydra h and use incluction on o r c l i n a l sS . e eF i s . U . )

heads

Fig. 7 The hydra of Fig. 6 after rernoving a heacl.

220

lndicators
(l

0n

'a'+t
(t) T |

(t)

,rrto""+t,tt4 0)('

ordinalsto the nodeso f a h Y d r a . Fig.B Assigning (Goodstein,!t)zl4;I(irby and Paris, I9B2)' See also seqLtences Itl..l2 Gooclstein l a i n e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) .F o r e a c h n t > l a n c lr z > 2 w e c i c h o n ( 1 g g 3 )a n d d u c h h o l za n c -w of rn as follows' define thepttre basen representotion ^ . p o w e r so f n ( e ' g ' i f m - 2 6 6 ' n : 2 ' w e w r t t e o f First write In as o ,urn as a sttmof powersof rz(for example' ZOi:Zt +23 +2r.) Now write eachexponent T stabilizes . h e r e s u l ti s t h e ;;e:2t, +Zt,+2i) and so on until the represe.tation I +21 is the pure cn f m' (For example'266:ztt'*'+22'n p u r e b a s e, ?r e p r e s e n t a t i o of 266') base2 representation Gp(m):m' lf tn:0' G"(nt):0' andif G , , ( * ) 1 n e r u ;a s f o l l o w s : We nowclefine p u r e b a s en r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ' m * 0 t h e n G , , ( m )i s ' t h e r e s u l t o f w r i t i n g m i n i t s setluence for rn one. The Goodstein eachn by n* 1, and then subtraCting replacing startingat n is the sequence
ffi,= t?'1, m1: G,,(tn11), t'tr2: Gn1,(m')' tfl1: G'.ar(mz)'''''

for 266startingat 2 hasits nrst termsequalto sequence the Goodstein For e,xample +I2 2660:22"'+22+ *' I 2661:31' + 3r+ : 1g:tlr I - l06r() :44'n' + 44+ 266, (x,.)' I266\:55"' -F5s+ 10ro

at n eventr'rally for rn starting sequence (a) Provethat for alln, m> I the Gooclstein 1944)' h i t sz e r o ( G o o d s t e i n 'for all nzthe Gooclstein for rn startingat 2 eventr'r:tlly sequence (b) The statement in PA' hits zero' is not Provable l 4 . i 3 T h e e x t e n t L e c l G r z e g o r c z y | c h i e r a r c h y . ( L o b a n di W ainer,lgT()a,1970 for gooclntrodr'rctions' R o s e( 1 9 8 4 ) o r ( 1 9 8 7 ) w a i n e r a n d B u c h h o l z 1971).See may be e' 1 1 (orclinae l xponentiation) luch,6o,,r'(|:e11 e o i s t h e l e a s to r c l i n z is : 1l ' a n c lp u t t i n gt i t : U , e o ( o , ' (o,,:lp(otarn c lr u 1 b ly s e t t i n g clefinec

The Puris-Hurringtctntheorern ( a ) Sh o wth a te ve rycr1 e ,ca nbe wr itten as

61: 74t'. y * 6 ( ll < c.r, y 1ot, r\ < r,ttt) f o r s o n r e L r r t i c l u e lc yl e t e r r n i n e c l i,,r). f, trniclrre Cutttor normal J'ornt,
e-

221

F I e n c ec l e c l r . r c te h a t e a c h 0 < r . r < e , , h z r sA

1l,t + tolt.+ . . . * Orltr

w h e r eu l B t > f r ' t > ' ' ' > 0 , , , k : N . T h i s p r o c e s s c a n b e r e p e a t e cw l , r i t i n ge a c h n o n - z e r o Bi t n C a n t o rt r o r r n aflo r n r ,a n c l s o o n u n t i lt h e p r o c e ss t a b i l i z e s t t t l ' t cp t t r a Cuntor normal form I'or a. (This is obviously analogctus to the pure base rz r e p r e s e n t a t i oo rf r m i n E x e r c i s e1 4 . 1 2 ,a n d t h e s en o t i o n sa r e r e l a t e c l s : ee the r e f e r e n c eb sy B r , r c h h o a lz n c lW a i n e ro r b y C i c h o na l r . e a c g iven.) ly (b) Define the fiLncLunte ntal .tequence for eacha I eu, {a} (0), {r-r} (I) {n} (n), " ' . . . ( , t e N ) b y :{ 0 } ( r ) : 0 f o re a c h t t ; a n di f o - r t ) t + +ott^, a>0,> "'>0*, tlren
{"}(")-u-ttt,+ "'+ and '" {u}Qt)- ot"+ +rofir'ta6lttil0t if [3k:0 or 13i 1s, a l i r n i t o r d i r r z r l . rltt-tlu)'.11 if P:)/f 1 i s a s u c c e s s oo rr c l i n a l

S h o w t h a t , f o r a l l a ( t t ) .c t : U , , . x 1 { n } ( n ) . (c) Defirre the extenclctl Grzagorczyk hierarchy of functions F,,: N-rN :;r * I F1;(x)

(a<e,,) by

F".'(x): Fli)(x) F r ( . r ) : 4 r r r , r ( * ) ,i f r l i s a l i r l i t o r d i n a l , w h e r eO ' t t t ( x-) F " F " . . ' " F ( r ) ( / c f s ) . S h o wt h a t F , ,i s p r o v a b l y recursive in Pzl for all ar< e,,,anclthat Y ( u . b ) : n l r x { c 'F l , ,(,u )< b } is irn indicatorfor initial segments PA. FIenceclecluce F,,,(t): {,,.(x) is satisfying r e c t r r s i vb eu t n o t p r o v a b l y recursive in PA. (l(etonenanclSolovayt9til). A set ScN is 0-largeiff 14.14 Largeness properties c a r c l ( S> ) l . F o r o r c l i n a lc sL l t r , c l e f i n e S i s ( a + l ) - l a r g ei f f S \ { m i n ( S ) } i s a - l a r g e

222
ancl

Indicators

iff S 1{min(^l)} is {,1}(n)-large S is .tr-large r. {nrin(S)}). , 1 ,w h e r er z : r n i n ( S for limit ordinals ( a ) S h o t vt h a t F , , ( x ) : t h e l e a s ty s . t , l * , y l : { x . x + l , . l * 2 , . . . , y } 14.13). ( w h e r eF , ,i s a s i n E x e r c i s e ( b ) S h o wt h a t Y ( a , b ) : m z l x {lc ln, bl is a'r,-large} PA. satisfying is an indicatorfor initial segments (LIint: See Ketonenand Solovay(1981)or Paris(1980).) is a"-large