Mathematical tools

The ideas and concepts of physics are often expressed in the form of mathematics. It is interesting that we can accurately describe and predict events in this universe using the language of mathematics the physical universe seems to have a mathematical basis. This section offers you some help in mathematical techniques that may prove useful to you.

1.

The parallelogram method

Although vectors can be added together using the head-to-tail method, another method more closely related to resolving vectors can also be used. This is called the parallelogram method. This method can be described in the following steps. i) ii) iii) Draw two vectors (A and B) with their tails at a common point (the origin). Think of the lengths of the vectors as sides of a parallelogram and draw the two missing sides to form the parallelogram. Draw a vector from the origin to the point where the heads of the vectors meet. This vector is the resultant the result of adding the vectors A and B.

The sequence below shows what has just been described. Step 1 Vector A

Vector B Step 2 Vector A

Vector B Step 3 Vector A Resultant

Vector B 1

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2.

The cosine and sine rules

You can calculate the length of the sides or angles of a right-angled triangle by applying Pythagoras theorem and some standard trigonometry. However, adding together two vectors and drawing the resultant often results in the two vectors and the resultant forming a triangle which is not a right-angled triangle. In this case, Pythagoras theorem does not apply but the cosine rule and the sine rule do apply. 2.1 The cosine rule The cosine rule relates the three sides of a triangle to one of its angles. When you need to solve a problem that involves a triangle which is not a right-angled triangle, check that you have enough information to apply the cosine rule. The general equation for the cosine rule is c2 = a2 + b2 2abcosC This equation is associated with the diagram on the right. Note that angle C is the angle opposite to side c. a C b

2.2

The sine rule

The sine rule relates two sides of a triangle with their two corresponding angles. You need not have as much information about the sides of a triangle as for the cosine rule, but you will need to have more information about the angles of the triangle. Before trying to solve a problem involving a triangle which is not a right-angled triangle, check that you have enough information to apply the sine rule. The sine rule relates the sides and angles as follows. a b c = = sin A sin B sin C a C b

To apply the sine rule you only equate two of these terms. For example: a b b c a c = = = sin A sin B or sin B sin C or sin A sin C In physics, the cosine rule and sine rule are often applied to vector diagrams.

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3.

Solving quadratic equations

A quadratic equation has the general form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants (often whole numbers) and the variable is x. The roots of the equation are those values of x that make the equation correct. Solving a quadratic equation is really about finding the roots of the equation, which can be done by using the quadratic formula. The quadratic formula has the general form x= -b b2 4ac 2a

where a, b and c relate to the general form of a quadratic equation. Example Solve the following quadratic equation, 3 x 2 5 x + 1 = 0. Solution Follow the three simple steps below. 1. 2. Identify the constants (a = 3, b = -5, c = 1). Substitute the constants into the quadratic formula. x= 3. -(-5) (-5)2 4(3)(1) 2(3)

Simplify and solve for x. x= x 1 25 12 6 1 4.8 6

x 0.967 or -0.63 Sometimes you may find the number under the square root symbol is negative. This means the quadratic equation has no real number roots but it will have complex number roots. For stage 2 and stage 3 physics, this result can be interpreted as there being no real solution.

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