SENSORS FOR SPACE APPLICATIONS M.E.

Koniger Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm Technology Research ZTA Postbox 801109, D-8000 Munchen 80

ABSTRACT Solid state sensors comprising several detector elements or highly integrated detector arrays play an important role in all spacecraft, be they manned vehicles or unmanned satellites. Sun sensors, earth sensors and star trackers are employed for attitude and orbit control of the vehicles. In rendevouz and docking manoeuvres of vehicles microwave sensors, laser rangefinders and optical senSOKS are used for the different phases. Depending on the mission requirements of the spacecraft, mainly optoelectronic sensors operating in numerous spectral ranges (visible, near IR, middle IR and far IR) and sensors for X-ray and y-ray measurements are put to work. The exact, reliable operation of these sensors at all times is a prerequisite for the success of the mission.

SENSORS FOR ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL Earth Sensor As an example a sensor which was developed for attitude control of 3 axis stabilised communication satellites is discussed /l/. It is a sensor with very low zero drift. Its standard version is designed for orbits which do not deviate substantially from the geostationary orbit. The sensor is made of pyroelectric material (LiTaO,) and operates in the spectral range 14-16 pm. Optical principle Infrared radiation of two opposite horizons of the earth is focussed by a Ge objective lens and reaches a circular chopper disc at the focal plane of the lens (Fig.1 and 2 ) . After passing the oscillating disc which has the same diameter as the earth image, the radiant flux from both opposite earth horizons is directed via secondary optics to the pyroelectric detector. Its entrance window acts as filter defining the optical bandwidth of the system. Only chopped IR radiation is converted into an electrical signal, which is a measure of angular misalignment. Automatic correction of external (e.g. seasonal variations) and internal (temperature gradients) radiation differences is possible via chopper amplitude modulation.
lens 1

INTRODUCTION Many kinds of sensors play an important role in spacecraft be they manned vehicles or unmanned satellites. For exact attitude and orbit control of the vehicles mainly sun sens o r ~ earth ~ sensors and star trackers are employed. In rendevouz and docking manoeuvres of 2 spacecraft or unmanned platforms, microwave sensors, lasers and optical sensors are used or being developed for the guided phase, for homing and for the final approach. Depending on the mission requirements of the spacecraft, optoelectronic sensors operating in the visible, near IR, middle IR and far IR and sensors for x-ray measurements play a dominant role. Mostly the detector elements are arranged in line or array form in the focal plane of cameras or spectrometers. These instruments are used for earth observations (spatial mapping, exploration of terrestrial ressources, land use, monitoring of the vegetation) and for astrophysical research in the IR and x-ray regions. It is the intention of this contribution to give an overview over several sensor applications in the past, present and future space programmes.

"

/ concave m i r r o r

Fig.1 Cross sectibn of the optical path

3-68 CH2704-5/89/0000/3068/$01 .OO 01989 IEEE

earth deviation

earth-image diameter identical to chopper disc diameter at deviation entrance aperture secondary optics (schematically) chopped part
o f earth image

array with e.g.2048 detector elements (Si photodiodes operating in the visible spectral range). The position of the slit image on the detector array is a measure of the angle of the incident sunlight. The geometrical resolution is mainly determined by the pixel sizes of the photodiodes (e.g. 15 x 15 pm). Technical data (MBB) /1/

Of

within
+

FOV

- ;i:ective

* * * * *

on axis deviation o f earth

-&.&-

chopper amp1 i tude

Field of view Resolution Accuracy Failure rate Power consumption - Optical head - Electronics

120 deg x 120 deg < 0,05 deg < 0,06 deg 1190 x 10-91hr
0,3 W 8,4 w

Star Tracker Fig.2 Conditions in the focal plane Technical data (MBB) In certain space missions navigation is accomplished by star trackers. The location of the selected guide stars are laid down in a master file prior to the mission. For each determination of position up to 7 guide stars are used whose location is stored in a mass memory. The modular concept of a star tracker which was qualified for ROSAT provides maximum flexibility with respect to mission constraints. The detector is an array of Si photodiodes and operates in the visible spectral range. Technical data (SIRA) Field of view 5,90 x 4,40 Sensitivity m, = +6,5 to 0 Accuracy - Pointing 5 2 arc sec <lo arc sec - Scanning Noise equivalent - Pointing < 1 arc sec - Scanning < 5 arc sec (at scan rates up to 5 arc sec/sec) + 0,25 m, Magnitude accuracy < 4 sec Star acquisition time 15 W Power consumption Weight - Sensor unit 8 kg - Electronics unit 5 kg

* *

Response function ( H = 42 160 km) - Linear range ( B < 1 deg) - Range of positive slope - Saturation range Null accuracy - Acquisition mode - Normal mode Power consumption

+ + +

deg deg deg

1 15

< <

0,4 deg 0,04 deg 3 Watts

Sun Sensor As the name implies this device is used to monitor and control the spacecraft's position with respect to the sun. The system is based on a very simple optical concept, which is schematically shown in Fig.3. The projection of the sun vector in a plane is measured. The sunlight is attenuated by a filter, passes two entrance slits and illuminates a line scanner. This consists of a linear photodiode

SENSORS FOR RENDEZVOUZ AND DOCKING Presently rendezvous and docking manoeuvres (RVD) of spacecraft are controlled during the first phase from ground by microwave radar. In the second phase, starting at approximately 10 km interspacecraft distance mutual communication between both vehicles is necessary (Fig.4). Presently a considerable amount of fuel is wasted because "the man in the loop" only supported by a camera cannot perform the procedure optimally. Therefore ESA intends to equip future RVD systems with adequate sensors. These are laser radar and cameras for medium and short distances and a dedicated final approach sensor for the last phase until physical contact. The latter might be a position sensitive detector (PSD) in combination with an illuminator. A pulsed
3 - 69

Fig.3 Optical concept

,
I

4 0 1 km

f o n ;ts 2 q : u ;

100

interspacecraft

11
10

lml

do;k,

EARTH OBSERVATION FROM SPACE For this kind of observation the push broom principle (Fig.6) is now universally employed. It implies electronic scanning across flight path with a large number of discrete photosensitive elements (CCD line arrays) directly corresponding to sub-track ground pixels.

phases guided phase homing f i n a l approach

Scanning Principle ("Pushbroom")

fliqht direction
refractive

Fig.4

Main RVD mission phases laser

\
rangefinder is under development at MBB funded by an ESA contract / 2 / . The operating principle is as follows (Fig.5). A short pulse emitted by a laser diode travels from the chaser (approaching spacecraft) to the target satellite and is reflected by a cornercube reflector. The accuracy of the ranging system is of the order of several centimeters. A field of view of 30 x 30 deg can be scanned by 2 deflection mirrors in roughly 10 sec. Tracking can be done faster since only a small field of view need to be covered. The range value together with azimuth and elevation angle yield the line-of-sight vector and its derivatives give the relative velocity (range rate and angular rates).
surface

4
IFOV

sensitive CCD detector elements (1 728-4048)

image swath strip

Fig.6 Push broom principle In Fig.7 a dual lens arrangement for scan line extensions beyond one CCD line is shown. Up to 6 sensors chips have been optically butted to form one long continous line array. This has been realized in the MOMS-01 camera system (Modular Optoelectronic Multispectral Scanner) /3/. The system has been developed by MBB under the sponsorship of the Ministry of Research and Technology. MOMS was successfully tested several times on Shuttle flights in 1983 and 1984. A total area of 3,s x lo6 km2 was covered.

I
30
SAS' t = 1 S

,
xo (smll1 anglescan)
MSM

0.30

IFOV

4 @ Yo 1

(mebsuremeht)

T = O 5 S

-1
,i'

Optoelectronic Concept ( l a r g e anglescan)

11 , I

//

Fig.5

Operating principle of laser rangefinder

Fig.7 Dual lens arrangement

3 - 70

..

MOMS Technical specification of the optical module

* Number of CCD's per line * Pixel size * Channel No. 1

Sensor

Reticon CCPD 1728

4

guard r i n g transfer-gate

3-phase-CCD

* * * *

*
*

* * *
* *

Channel No. 2 Ground pixels/line Ground pixel size Line frequency Radiometric res. Gain factor Focal length Rel. lens aperture Instantaneous FOV Total FOV Swath width Distortion

16 pm x 16 pm 575 ... 625 nm 825 975 nm 6912 20 m (300 km orbit) 350 Hz 5 10 % 128 ( 7 bit) 1 or 2 237.2 mm 1:3.5 67.5 prad 26.2 deg 138 km (300 km orb.) + 8 pm max. (TFOV) -

...

-.--I

p-Si

'-7
m

mxm aluminium

poly-Si

A typical image taken by the NONS camera is shown in Fig.8 (Villa Blanca in South America near the Pacific Ocean).

Fig.9 Cross sectional view of PtSi detector and 3 phase CCD 3 phase CCD structure is shown in Fig.9. The array shows excellent uniformity. At the moment the buttability of several line arrays is investigated.

Technical data (preliminary)

* Backside illumination * Temperature of

operation Liquid nitrogen 18 x 39 pm 256
-12 % -10 %

Line array, buttable

* Pixel size

Number of pixels in one line array Quantum efficiency at 1,6 pm at 2,2 pm

Fig.8 Image taken by the NOMS camera A system similar to MOMS has been developed in France. Its name is SPOT which is an acronym for "Systeme Probatoire d'observation de la Terre". New developments aim at developing CCD line arrays with photodetectors which operate at longer wavelengths,i.e. in the SWIR (Short wave infrared) spectral range / 4 , 5, 6 / . Particularly wavelengths at 1,6 pm and 2,2 pm are of interest. These spectral bands are promising for agriculture monitoring, for exploring mineral and oil deposits, and observation of ecological processes. Different line array sensors are under development. At Thomson-CSF a hybrid concept associating InGaAs photodiodes and Si-CCDs was selected. The photodiodes are connected to the CCDs by wire bonding. At MBB/IMEC a monolithic solution is under development sponsored by an ESA contract. The monolithic array comprises PtSi Schottky barrier diodes and CCD readout on standard MOS-IC grade silicon. A cross sectional view of a detector pixel and a

SENSORS FOR INFRARED ASTRONOMY In situ measurements from space vehicles are the main reason for the enormous progress which can be achieved with IR astronomy in interstellar physics and chemistry and in the exploration of planetary atmospheres. IR-astronomy with the ISOPHOT photometer during the planned IS0 mission (ESA's Space Observatory) will use extrinsic photoconductors (doped Ge or Si) for astrophysical research at wavelengths ranging from 3-200 pm. The ISOPHOT experiment consists of four different subunits. An overview concerning their capabilities is shown in the table. Isophot-P, a multi-aperture/multi-band photo polarimeter, will cover the wavelength range 3-110 pm using 3 single-pixel detectors. Ge:Ga will be used at X > 30 pm, the materials for the 2 short wavelength channels will be selected from Si:In, Si:Ga, Si:As, Si:Sb and Si:P. Extremely low NEP values in the low 10-1' W Hz-l12 range and responsivities of several A W-1 at the peak wavelength can be obtained /I/. rsophot-C, a far IR camera for imaging and

3 - 71

Capabilities of ISOPHOT

ISOPHOT-P C50 Wavelength range ,( Spectral resolution

FOV

ISOPHOT-C ClOO C200

ISOPHOT-A

ISOPHOT-S s1 s2

3..

30..

110 1.5..
10 ..3

55
4 at

52.. 118
4 at 70rm

120.. 200 5 at 135rm 2.9x 2.9 168 42.3

at

25

2.5..
5.0

6.0.. 12
90

XMM is due to be launched in the 1998 time frame and is characterized by an X-ray focussing optics of unprecedented throughput in the domain -0,l - 10 KeV. The focal plane imager instrument ( E P I C ) on XMM will consist of 3 matched cameras. These are mounted at the focus of 3 telescope modules which comprise the full XMM optics. The X-ray detecting elements with each camera are C C D s which provide the desired sensitivity, energy band-pass, spatial and spectral resolution.
CCD characteristics

90

3 5 2 . 1.6x 2.1 33
8.8

(arcmin) Spatial res. (arcsec) Min.det.flux

Fmxm

2.1x 2.1
84

2.8x 2.8 21
3

0.4x
0.4

0.4x
0.4

24
347

24
388

( m J y ) 2.6 (S/N-lO,lOOs)at 25rm 5..

at 35rn 5.. 10%

24.6 at
70rm

135rm

Three different C C D s are under development at Thomson, EEV and MPE/MBB in France, the UK and in West Germany. Two of them utilise frame transfer MOS technology, the third one are novel pn devices. Their technical performance is compared in the table. Although the 3 devices under consideration are broadly similar

Polarimetry

10%

5.. 10%

5..

5..

io\

loa
CCD technical performance

polarimetry, uses 3 doped Ge arrays, in particular Ge:Be for A < 55pm, Ge:Ga for A < ll8pm and Ge:Ga for X < 200pm. Sensitivities close to flight specifications have been achieved so far. Isophot-A, a camera for imaging and polarimetry, was originally planned to consist of 3 linear arrays of Si:In, Si:Ga and Si:P which were meant to produce maps during continuous scans. For reasons of simplicity, however, it was decided to realize only staring mode operation in the range 20-30pm. The dual channel Isophot-S spectrometer will use linear Si:Ga arrays of 6 4 elements. A NEP of 5 x lo- W Hz-l/* and a responsivity up to 25 A W-l at the peak wavelength of 15pm have been achieved. Nominal operating temperatures of the Isophot experiment is 3,2 K. All sensors including electronics must be able to operate at this extremely low temperature level.

EEV Parameters Number of pixels Pixel size ( p m ) Readout noise (electrons) 1152x770 22.5x22.5 6 40 0.99999 0.99998 175 R 30 5700 j100eV 99

Thomson 1024x1024 1.19 5 40 0.99999 0.99998 175 R

MPE/MBB 200x64 150x150 (estim.) 4 100 0.99999 0.99999 175 R 280 j200 j100eV (estim.) -99.999 (estim.)

Readout rate ( k H z ) Optical charge transfer/pixel X-ray CTE/pixel Oper. temperature Depl. depth ( p m ) Dead layer ( A ) Energy Resolution ( FWHM e V ) Background Rejection ( % ) Radiation Tolerance

5
5100 not meas. not meas.

1 4 krad not meas. ( 2 5 % degr.)

1 Mead

X-RAY SENSORS X-ray spectroscopy is a very powerful method for diagnostics in the study of many astrophysical phenomena. Spectral measurements in the X-ray domain provide the basis for a quantitive assessment of the physical state and evolution of the hottest objects in the Universe. The dynamics of many of the most energetic phenomena like flares, bursts, pulsation, beaming and shocks can be studied. x-ray emission is a common feature of all classes of astronomical objects, but detailed spectral information is up to now only available for several of the brightest sources. It is expected that after the ROSAT-mission, which is an all-sky survey project, in particular the XMM-mission will provide high quality spectra of millions of objects ranging from the nearest stars to the most distant quasars.

in terms of their use as X-ray detectors, their characteristics do differ in detail. In summary the characteristics of the C C D s are as follows. The limiting spatial resolution of the devices ranges from 20 , u m (MOS C C D s ) to 150 pm (pn C C D s ) . The peak quantum efficiency exceeds 90%. An efficiency better than 10 % is achieved over a wide energy pass-band. The spectral resolution ranges from 50 eV at 1 KeV to 150 eV at 7 KeV. In the normal operating mode which will be appropriate for faint source studies, full frame imaging is provided with a time resolution of 50 sec. In the case of the pn devices a time resolution mode down to 16 psec over a restricted field of view is possible Whereas the MOS CCDS operate in a more or less conventional way the principle of operation of A large the pn C C D s is novel (Fig.11) /e/. semiconductor chip of high resistivity n-type Si can be depleted from a small n+ ohmic contact positively biased with respect to the planar p+ contacts on both surfaces. The depletion zone will expand from both junctions simultaneously and is complete if both regions are touching each other.

3 - 72

n+-contact

transfer direction
/

1
p+-back contact

n-bul k

I -U

The exclusive use of pn structures (instead of MOS structures) makes this type of CCD intrinsically radiation hard. No significant degradation should occur up to 1 Mrad. Experiences from high energy physics experiments show a radiation hardness up to 5 Mrad. Pixel sizes of 150 x 150pm2 can be realized which is an ideal matching with the resolution of the XMM mirror system (thereby reducing- the readout time). In order to use the low detector capacitance for fast and low noise application a single sided gate n-channel JFET has been developed. Based on the same fabrication process as for the CCD itself the new component can be monolithically integrated close to the detector readout node. Measurements on these devices lead to an electron noise contribution of 4e(rms) at a readout frequency of 100 kHz and an operating temperature of 200 K.

Fig.11 Principle of operation of a fully depletable pn-CCD Applying a more negative potential at the p+ backside the electron potential minimum is shifted towards the opposite side having the n+ ohmic contact. By replacing the large rectifying p+ contact on the n+ side by a series of segmented p+ strips (shift register) appropriate voltages are applied and local potential minima for electrons are created at a depth of approximately 20 Nm. An adequate change with time of these voltages allows a discrete shift of the stored signal charges towards the readout mode. This concept could lead to significant improvements for X-ray spectroscopy. As the chip is sensitive to radiation over the entire thickness of the wafer (280,um), it provides an excellent efficiency also at high energies (100% at 5 keV, 90% at 10 kev). The radiation has to penetrate only a very thin (100 A) dead layer on the backside of the chip. No backthinning process is required, because the chip is fully depleted. This results in a very good low energy sensitivity (>97% at 0.1 keV). A minimum ionizing particle will deposit an energy of more than 80 keV; therefore the rejection of this kind of background is practically 100%. REFERENCES

/1/ G. Kulterer, DGLR Jahrbuch (1986,I) 49

/2/ ESTEC Contract NO. 6232,035 CCN2, final report, August 1988 /3/ M. Hofmann, Proc. Intern. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS '82) Ref.No. WP-2/5 and DGLR Jahrbuch (1983)
/4/

H. Elabd e.a. SPIE Intern. Tech. Conf., Geneva, Switzerland, April 1983

/5/ J.P. Moy e.a., Proc. SPIE, Vo1.865(1987)59 /6/ J. von der Ohe e.a., ibid, 71
/7/
/8/

J. Wolf e.a., ibid, 117

L. Struder e.a., IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, Vol. 35 (1988), 372

3 - 73