1

UNIT I LATHE

INTRODUCTION: Lathe is the father of all machine tool. It is a basic machine tool probably the most important one of all, lathe was actually the first machine tool. Lathe is a particular type of machine tool in which the work is held and rotated against a suitable cutting tool for the purpose of producing surface of revolution in any material. LATHE SPECIFICATIONS: In order to specify a lathe, a number of parameters could be used on the specific applications. However, the major elements used for specifications should invariably be based on the components that would be manufactured in the lathe. The sum of lathe specifications is, L=Distance between centers. A=Swing diameter over bed. B=Swing diameter over carriage. R=Radius. H=Height of center from bed DISTANCE BETWEEN CENTERS (L): This would be specifying the maximum length of the job that can be turned in the lathe. SWING DIAMETER OVER BED (A): This specifies the maximum diameter of the job that can be turned in the lathe machine generally restricted to small length jobs. SWING DIAMETER OVER CARRIAGE (B): This specifies the maximum diameter of job that can be turned in the lathe machines with the job across the cross slide.

Other factors should also be specified to fully describe the lathe machine. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Horse power of the motor Feed range Accuracy achieved Cutting speed range Screw cutting capacity Spindle nose diameter

PARTS OF ENGINE LATHE OR CENTER LATHE: The principal parts of an engine lathe are, 1. Bed, 2. Head stock, 3. Tail stock, 4. Carriage, 4.1. Saddle, 4.2. Cross slide, 4.3. Compound rest, 4.4. Tool post, 4.5. Apron. 5. Feed Mechanism, 6. Thread cutting mechanism. CARRIERS AND CATCH PLATES: Carriers and catch plates are used to drive a work piece when it is held between two centers. Carriers or driving dogs are attached to the end of the work piece by a setscrew, and catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of the headstock spindle. CHUCK: A chuck is one of the most important devices for holding and rotating a piece of work in a lathe. Work piece of short length, and large diameter or irregular shapes, which cannot be conveniently mounted between centers, are held quickly and rigidly in a chuck. TYPES OF CHUCKS:

1. Four jaw independent chuck 2. Three jaw universal chuck 3. Air or hydraulic operated chuck 4. Magnetic chuck 5. Collet chuck 6. Combination chuck 7. Drill chuck FACE PLATE: A faceplate consists of a circular disk bored out and threaded to fit the nose of the lathe spindle. This has the radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts and clamps. ANGLE PLATE: This is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them absolutely at right angles to each other. Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped on a faceplate and can hold the work piece on the face by bolts and clamps. MANDRELS: A mandrel is a device for holding and rotating a hollow piece of work that has been previously drilled or bored. The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between two centers. PLAIN MANDREL: The plain mandrel this type of mandrel is most commonly used in shops and finds wide application where a large number of identical pieces having standard size holes are required to be mounted on it. STEP MANDREL: A step mandrel having steps of different diameters may be employed to drive different work pieces having different sizes of holes without replacing the mandrel each time. This type of mandrel is suitable for turning collars, washers and odd size jobs used in repairing workshops. COOLER MANDREL:

A cooler mandrel having solid coolers is used for turning work pieces having holes of larger diameter, usually above 100 mm. This construction reduces weight and fits better than a solid mandrel of equal size. SCREWED MANDREL: A screwed mandrel is threaded at one end with a collar. Work pieces having internal threads are screwed on to it against the collar for machining. CONE MANDREL: A cone mandrel consists of a solid attached to the one end of the body, and a sliding cone, which can be adjusted by turning a nut at a threaded end. GANG MANDREL: This has a fixed collar at one end and a movable collar at the threaded end, which may be adjusted, to this position by a nut. The mandrel is used to hole a set of hollow work piece between two collars by tightening the nut. EXPANSION MANDREL: There are different types of expansion mandrels. The mandrel consists of tapered pin, which is driven into a sleeve that is parallel outside and tapered inside the sleeve has three longitudinal slots, two of which are cut nearly through, and the third splits it completely. RESTS: A rest is a mechanical device which supports a long slender work piece, which is turned between centers or by a clutch, at some intermediate point to prevent bending of the work piece due to its own weight and vibrations set up due to the cutting force that acts on it. STEADY REST: A steady rest shown in Fig consists of a cast iron base, which may be made to slide on the loath bed ways and clamped at any desired position where a support is necessary.

FOLLOWER REST: A follower rest consists of a carriage and moves with it. TYPES: 1. Speed lathe a. Woodworking b. Centering c. Polishing d. Spinning 2. Engine lathe a. Belt drive b .Individual motor drive c. Gear head lathe 3. Bench lathe 4. Tool room lathe 5. Capstan and turret lathe 6. Special purpose a. Wheel lathe b. T. Lathe c. Gap. Bed lathe d. Duplicating lathe 7. Automatic lathe THE ENGINE LATHE OR CENTER LATHE: The term engine lathe is associated with the lathe owing to the fed that early lathe was driven by steam engines It has all parts. THE BENCH LATHE: This is a small lathe usually mounted on bench it has similarly all the parts of an engine lathe or speed lathe and it only difference is being in the size. This is used for small and precision work. C like casting two adjustable jaws which support the work piece. The rest is bolted to the back end of the

THE TOOL ROOM LATHE: A tool room lathe having the features similar to an engine lathe is much more accurately built and has wide range of spindle speed ranging from a very few to quite high speed unto 2500 rpm. This lathe is mainly used for precision works on tools, dies, and gauges and in machinery work. THE CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE: These lathes are developed of the engine lathe and are used for product on work. The distinguishing features of this type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret on the face of which multiple tools may be fitted and feed into the work in the proper sequence. SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHE: As the name implies they are used for special purpose and the jobs, which cannot be accommodated or conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The wheel lathe is made for finishing the journal and turning the traded on the railroad carriage and locomotive wheel. The gab bed lathe in which a section of the bed is adjacent to the headstock of the bed is recoverable is used to sluing extra large diameter piece. The T lathe a new member of the lathe family is intended for machining of rotor for jet engines. AUTOMATIC LATHE: These are high speed heavy duty mass production lathe with complete automatic controls once the tools are set and the machine started it performs automatically all the operation to finish the job. TOOLS: A cutting tool may be used either for cutting a part as with a knife or for remaining the chips parts are produced by removing the metal mostly in the form of small ships removal in the performed wither by cutting tools having abrasively sticks abrasive cloth etc, metal cutting process may be distinct cutting edges or by

All cutting tools can be divided into 2 groups 1. Single point cutting tool

2. Multi point cutting tool SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS: Single point cutting tool has a sharpened cutting part its point and shaft; the point of the too bounded by the base. The side flank or major flank or end slank or minor flank or and it base. The side cutting edges of a tool is form by the interaction of the base and the side flank. The end cutting edge, a tool into form by the intersection of the base and the flank, the chip and cut from the work piece by the side cutting edges. The paint a where the end and side cutting edge met is called nose of tool. LATHE OPERATIONS: TURNING: Turning is the further most generally used operation is the lathe. In ties the work held in spindle is rotated which the tool is fed part the work piece in a direction parallel in the axis of rotation. The surface generated is the cylindrical shape FACING: Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of work to produce flat Surface Square with the axis. The operation involves feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece. TAPER TURNING: Taper may be turned in a lathe by feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of the work piece. Which taper is essential that the tool cuttings edge should be accurately on the centre line of the work piece otherwise correct taper will not be obtained By a broad nose form tool By swiveling the compound rest By setting over to the tailstock center By a taper turning attachment.

By combing longitudinal and cross feed in a lather. THREAD CUTTING:

Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe. When the job is reduced between centers or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece.

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FACING PLAIN TURNING AND STEP TURNING

DRAWING:

All Dimensions are in mm

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FACING PLAIN TURNING AND STEP TURNING

Ex. No: Date:

AIM: To obtain the required shape and size of the work piece by turning and facing operation. MATERIALS SUPPLIED: Cylindrical work piece of diameter _______mm and length_________ mm mild steel rod. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier caliper 4. Try square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier height gauge SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Work piece 3. Tool setting 4. Facing 5. Turning 6. Taper turning 7. Chamfering

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WORKING STEPS: 1. The mild steel rod is cut approximately to the given dimensions. 2. Then the work piece is held in the chuck such that no eccentricity and run out occurs. It is done by using the marking block. 3. Then the work piece is fitted tightly with the help of the chuck. 4. The single point cutting tool is centre 5. The tool is fixed tightly with the help of tool post key 6. Now the constant speed is applied to the work piece 7. Then the tool tip is brought to the centre of work piece 8. The facing operation is done by giving cross feed by moving carriage and tool post by moving done to the edges of work piece. 9. The work piece is clamped on the other side for machining. 10. The operations are repeated to make step turning to the given from centre and the turning operation is done by giving longitudinal feed.The chamfering is placed on tool post and it is chuck key in

always aligned such that it coincides with the axis of the dead

size. 11. Then the work piece is checked for required dimensions with vernier caliper.

the help of

RESULT: Thus the required size and shape of the given work piece is obtained.

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TAPER TURNING USING COMPOUND REST, TAILSTOCK SET OVER

DRAWING:

All Dimensions are in mm

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TAPER TURNING USING COMPOUND REST, TAILSTOCK SET OVER

Ex. No: Date:

AIM: To obtain the required shape and size of the work piece by taper turning operation using compound rest & Tailstock set over method. MATERIALS SUPPLIED: Cylindrical work piece of diameter_________mm and length_________ mm mild steel rod. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier caliper 4. Try square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier height gauge SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Work piece setting 3. Tool setting 4. Facing 5. Turning

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6. Taper turning

WORKING STEPS: 1. The given work piece is checked for its dimension. 2. The work piece is held in the chuck. Chuck key is used to tighten the job firmly, ensuring centering of work piece. 3. The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post and tightens the nuts using Tool post key. 4. Facing is done with cutting tool moving from the centre of work piece towards outside. It is one until the required length of the job is obtained. 5. Turning is done to reduce the diameter of the job. Sufficient depth of cut is given and it is done until the required diameter of the job is obtained. 6. Next step taper turning is done on the work piece, as per the taper angle already calculated. Then the compound rest base is swiveled and set at half taper angle. Cutting tool is moved at an angle to the lathe axis. Tool is moved by the compound rest hand wheel. 7. For chamfering to be done at the end of the work piece, the tool is held at 450 to the lathe axis and is fed against the rotating work spice. 8. Finally the dimension of work piece is again checked.

RESULT:

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Thus the required size and shape of the given work piece is obtained.

SINGLE

AND MULTI START V THREAD

CUTTING AND KNURLING

DRAWING:

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SINGLE

AND MULTI START V THREAD

CUTTING AND KNURLING

Ex. Date: AIM: To obtain the required shape and size of the work piece by turning and thread cutting. MATERIALS SUPPLIED: Cylindrical work piece of diameter_________mm and No:

length__________mm mild steel rod. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier caliper 4. Try square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier height gauge SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Work piece setting 3. Tool setting

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4. Facing 5. Turning 6. Chamfering 7. Thread cutting.

WORKING STEPS: 1. The given work piece is checked for its dimension. 2. The work piece is held in the chuck. Chuck key is used to tighten the job firmly, ensuring centering of work piece. 3. The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post and tightens the nuts using spanner. 4. Facing is done with cutting tool moving from the centre of work piece towards outside. It is one until the required length of the job is obtained. 5. Turning is done to reduce the diameter of the job. Sufficient depth of cit is given and it is done until the required diameter of the job is obtained. 6. For chamfering to be done at the end of the work piece, the tool is held at 450 to the lathe axis and is fed against the rotating work spice. 7. The cutting tool in the tool post is taken out. Thread cutting tool is held in the tool post and tightened the nuts. 8. For right hand thread the lead screw rotates in clock wise direction and for left thread, it rotates in anti clock wise direction. The carriage is engaged to lead screw and automatic feed is given. 9. Suitable depth is given and thread is cut on the work spice.

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10.

Finally the dimension of work piece and pitch of the thread are

again checked.

RESULT: Thus the required size and shape of the given work piece is obtained.

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BORING AND

INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING

DRAWING:

BORING AND

INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING

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Ex. Date:

No:

AIM: To obtain the required shape and size of the work piece by Facing, plain turning and Boring and internal threading. MATERIALS SUPPLIED: Cylindrical work piece of diameter_______ mm and length_______ mm mild steel rod. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier caliper 4. Try square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier height gauge 7. Boring tool and internal thread cutting tool. SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Work piece setting 3. Tool setting 4. Facing 5. Turning 6. Boring 7. Thread cutting. WORKING STEPS:

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1. The given work piece is checked for its dimension. 2. The work piece is held in the chuck. Chuck key is used to tighten the job firmly, ensuring centering of work piece. 3. The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post and tightens the nuts using spanner. 4. Facing is done with cutting tool moving from the centre of work piece towards outside. It is one until the required length of the job is obtained. 5. Turning is done to reduce the diameter of the job. Sufficient depth of cit is given and it is done until the required diameter of the job is obtained. 6. Fix the boring tool in the tail stock. 7. Slowly given the feed by rotating the wheel in the tailstock which moves the tool longitudinally to producing a boring. 8. Fix the internal threading tool, to cut the internal thread. 9. Finally the dimension of work piece is again checked.

RESULT: Thus the required size and shape of the given work piece is obtained.

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UNIT II WELDING EXCERCIES WELDING

INTRODUCTION Welding is the metal joining method wherein localized coalescence is produced either by heating the metal to suitable temperatures, with or without use of filler metal or by application of pressure. The filler material has similar composition and melting point temperatures as the base metal. It is used to fill gap between the joint surfaces.

TYPES OF WELDING 1. PLASTIC WELDING: The pieces of metal to be joined are heated to the plastic state and then forced together by external pressure without the filler material. a. FORGE WELDING: The work pieces are placed in a forge or other appropriate furnace and heated within the area to be joined to the plastic condition. Then parts are quickly superimposed and worked into a complete union by hand or power hammering or by pressing together. b. RESISTNACE WELDING: In resistance welding, a heavy electric current is passed through the metals to be joined over limited area, causing them to be locally heated to plastic

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state and the welding is completed by the application of pressure for the prescribed period of time.

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c. THERMIT WELDING: It is a fusion process in which weld is effected by pouring super heated liquid Thermit Steel, around the parts to be united with or without the pressure. 2. FUSION WELDING: a. GAS WELDING: Gas welding is a process in which the required heat to melt the surfaces is supplied by a high temperature flame obtained by a mixture of two gases. Usually the mixture of oxygen and acetylene is used for welding purpose. b. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING: In oxy-acetylene welding Oxygen and Acetylene are the two gases used for producing flame. The Oxygen is manly used for supporting the combustion intensity.

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TYPES OF FLAMES: 1. Neutral Flame (Oxygen, Acetylene in equal proportions) 2. Oxidizing Flame (excess of Oxygen) 3. Reducing Flame (excess of Acetylene)

WELDING TECHNIQUES: There are two techniques in gas welding, depending upon the ways in which the welding rod and the welding torch are used. (i) (ii) Leftward technique or Forehand welding method Rightward technique or Backhand welding method.

(I) LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE: 1. The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod in the left hand. 2. The welding flame is directed away form the finished weld. ADVANTAGES: 1. The flame is pointed in the direction of welding; it preheats the edges of joint. 2. Good control and neat appearance arc characteristics are ensured in the leftward technique. (II) RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE:

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1. Here the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder and the filler rod in the left. 2. The welding flame is directed towards the finished weld (i.e. opposite to that when employing the leftward technique) ADVANTAGES: 1. As the flame is always directed towards the solidified weld, it results in annealing effect and better mechanical properties are obtained. 2. Very little agitation is produced because torch moves in a straight line.

FILLER METAL: It is the material that is added to the weld pool to assist in filling the gap. Filler metal forms an integral part of the weld. The filler metal is usually available in rod form. These rods are called filler rods. FLUXES: During the welding, if the metal is heated in air, oxygen in the air combines with the metal to form oxides which result in poor quality, low strength welds or in some cases may even make welding impossible. In order to avoid these problems, a flux is added during the welding. This flux prevents oxidation by preventing oxygen from contacting the weld zone.

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No flux is used in the gas welding of steel. The most commonly used flux materials are Boric acid, soda ash and sodium chloride. ADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING: 1. It can be applied to a wide variety of manufacturing and maintenance situations. 2. The rate of heating and cooling is relatively slow. 3. Since the sources of heat and of filler metal are separate, the welder has control over filler-metal deposition rates.

DISADVANTAGES OF GAS WELDING: 1. Heavy sections cannot be joined economically. 2. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc welding. 3. Fluxes used in certain welding and brazing operations produce fumes that are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.

ARC WELDING: In arc welding process, the source of heat is electricity. In arc welding process, coalescence is produced by heating the work piece with an electric arc struck between an electrode and the work piece. Welding may be carried out in air or in an inert atmosphere. Filler material may or may not be used. The temperature of the arc is of the order of 36000C.

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PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING: The heat required for joining the metals is obtained from an electric arc. The electric motor generator or transformer sets are used to supply high electric current and the electrodes are used to produce the necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and arc metals the surfaces so that the metals to be joined are fused together. The transformer type welding machine produces AC current. It takes power directly from power supply and to produce high current and low voltage to the welding. It is least expensive. Motor generator type welding machine produces DC current to welding machine. This current is having straight or reversed polarity. The polarity selected for welding depends on the electrode arc used in the welding. WELDING BEAD CLEANING ACCESSORIES: 1. Chipping Hammer 2. Wire Brush 3. Hand Screen 4. Helmet 5. Tongs 6. Goggles 7. Hand Gloves

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ADVANTAGES OF ARC WELDING: 1. Flux shielded manual metal arc welding is the simplest of all the arc welding processes. 2. The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low. 3. This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide variety of electrodes. 4. A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded. DISADVANTAGES OF ARC WELDING: 1. Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it, mechanization is difficult. 2. In welding long joints (in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is to be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect (like slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is restarted with the new electrode.

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APPLICATIONS OF ARC WELDING: 1. Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded by the arc welding process. 2. Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for maintenance and repair jobs. 3. The process finds application in air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication and ship building. 4. Arc welding is used in building and bridge construction.

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HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND OVERHEAD WELDING

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HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND OVERHEAD WELDING

Aim: To make a joint at various position of welds like horizontal, vertical and overhead type by using arc welding on the given work piece. Material supplied: Mild steel plate of size Tools Required: Welding Transformer, Electrodes, Tongs, Chipping Hammer, Wire Brush, Gloves, Apron, Shield, Goggles, and Earth clamps. Sequence of Operations: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Edge preparation (Removal of Rust, Scale etc.,) Tacking Welding Cooling Chipping Cleaning - 3 Nos.

Working Steps: 1. The given pieces are checked and cleaned by using a wire brush. 2. The electrode is fixed in the electrode holder and the two pieces are placed one over the other 3. The electrode angle is 45 and in horizontal position while welding the two pieces. 4. The arc length for this joint is of Medium arc. 5. Then another plate is positioned with the adjacent side and position the electrode at vertically and welds at the entire length. 6. Then another plate is placed and the electrode will performed from the underside of the joining plats.

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7. The welding is carried out throughout the length. 8. After welding, slag which remains on the pieces are removed by the help of chipping hammer. 9. Allow the work piece to cool and then chipped pieces are once again brushed and are cooled by means of sand or air.

Result: Thus the desired joint at various position of welds like horizontal, vertical and overhead type by using arc welding on the given work piece.

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GAS CUTTING AND GAS WELDING

DRAWING:

All Dimensions are in mm

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GAS CUTTING AND GAS WELDING

Ex. Date: No:

AIM: To cut and joint given metal sheets in gas welding MATERIAL SUPPLIED: Mild Steel Plate of size TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Oxygen and acetylene gas cylinders with pressure regulators and pressure gauges. 2. Gas welding torch 3. Filler rod 4. Safety gloves 5. Goggle 6. Chipping hammer 7. Wire brush SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Edge preparation (Removal of rust, scale etc) 2. Tacking 3. Welding 4. Cooling 5. Chipping 6. Cleaning X X mm 2 Nos.

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DRAWING:

All Dimensions are in mm

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WORKING STEPS: 10. 11. 12. The given pieces are checked and cleaned by using a wire The given work pieces are positioned with the work holding The oxy acetylene torch focused on the material at the

brush. device. required position , first the plate material melted at approximately 1300C and the torch pointed out at the cutting portion of the entire length of the plate. 13. 14. 15. 16. Allow the work piece to cool, and once again brushed and are Set the two work pieces in correct position like butt joint and After welding, slag which remains on the pieces are removed Allow the work piece to cool, and then chipped pieces are once cooled by means of sand or air. tack at both ends of the work pieces. by the help of chipping hammer. again brushed and are cooled by means of sand or air.

Result:

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The two metal sheets are welded in gas welding. Thus the gas cutting and gas welding is done on the given metal sheets.

BRAZING INTRODUCTION- for demonstration purpose

Brazing is the process of joining metals with a nonferrous filter metal that has a melting point below that of the metals being joined. By AWS definition, the melting point of the filler metal will be above 800 0F (4270C). Below this temperature are the solders. The filler metal must wet the surfaces to be joined, that is, there must be a molecular attraction between the molten filler material and the materials being joined. The brazing alloy, when heated to the proper temperature, flows into the small joint clearances by capillary action. A limited amount of alloying occurs between the filler metal and the base metal at elevated temperature. As a result, the strength of the joint when properly made may exceed that of the base material. The strength is attributed to three sources, atomic forces between the metals at the interface; alloying, which comes from diffusion of the metals at the interface; and inter granular penetration. The heat for brazing may be provided in many different ways, the most common o f which are by torch, induction furnace, and hot dipping. TYPES OF BRAZING: 1. TORCH BRAZING: Torch brazing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of heating for brazing; it is versatile and adaptable to most jobs. It is especially good for repair work in the field and for small-lot jobs in the shop. As it is a manual operation, torch brazing may have high labor costs, and the skill

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and judgment

of the torch operator will determine the quality of work.

Torch brazing may be done with the use of natural gas and oxygen, air and acetylene, butane, propane, MAPP, and the regular oxyacetylene.

2. INDUCTION BRAZING: The heat of induction brazing is furnished by an AC coil placed in close proximity to the joint. The high-frequency current is usually provided by a solid-state oscillator that produces a frequency of 200, 000 to 5, 000, 000 Hz. These alternating high-frequency currents induce opposing currents in the work, which, by electrical resistance, develop the heat. This method has the advantage of providing good heat distribution, accurate heat control, uniformity of results, and speed. It is especially good for certain types of repetitive work that require close control.

3. FURNACE BRAZING:

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Parts are to be furnace brazed have the flux and brazing material pre placed in the joint. If the furnace has a neutral or shielding atmosphere, the flux may not be necessary. The furnace may be batch or conveyor type. Automatic controls regulate both time and temperature and, where applicable, atmosphere. The three steps used in copper-hydrogen furnace brazing are shown in figure.

4. DIP BRAZING: Dip brazing gets its name from the fact that parts are jigged (or in some cases the parts are self-jiggning, as shown in fig) and are placed in a chemical or molten-metal bath maintained at the correct brazing temperature. In a chemical bath, the parts are first thoroughly cleaned and then assembled with a filler-metal placed on or in the joint. The bath, usually molten salts, is maintained at a higher temperature than the filler metal being used. After dipping, the parts are removed and immediately cleaned to remove the flux. The number and size of the parts to be brazed limited only by the capacity of the bath and the handling facilities.

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5. PASTE BRAZING: A newer development in brazing is paste brazing. Anyone who has done any brazing knows there is some skill involved. After the appropriate type and amount of flux and filler metal are selected, the appropriate temperature must be chosen. Too little flux means the base metal will not be sufficiently cleaned, resulting in a weak joint. To ensure strong joints, excessive flux is often used, this wastes material , requires more cleaning, and can erode parts and fixtures.

6. PASTE ALLOY PROCESS: Paste alloys are designed to overcome the problems given in the previous paragraph. Paste alloys are blends of filler metal in powdered form and a flux that are held in suspension by a paste-type binder. Premixing of flux and filler ensures the proper proportions of each and keeps the alloy localized to the joint area. Pastes rely on capillary action to spread the

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metal and flux over the joint area. Paste brazing filler materials are available in silver, nickel, copper and gold based formulations. 7. BRAZE WELDING: Braze welding is similar to brazing in that the base metal is not melted but joined by an alloy of lower melting point. The main difference is that in braze welding the alloy is not drawn into the joint by capillary action. A braze-welded joint is prepared very much lik a joint is prepared for welding except that an effort should be made to avoid sharp corners, because they are easily overheated and may also be points of stress concentration. BRAZING FLUXES: Generally, fluxes are available in 3 forms namely powder, paste or liquid. Of the three, paste is most commonly used, although powdered flux is frequently mixed with water or alcohol to give a paste like consistency.

BRAZING FILLER METALS: Brazing filler metals are divided into seven classifications. In order of popularity, these are silver, copper, copper-zinc, copper-phosphorus, aluminium-silicon, copper-gold, and magnesium. These alloys are produced in many forms such as wire, rods, coated sheets, and powder. Frequently, brazing alloys are performed into rings or special shapes to simplify placement of the correct amount at the joint. ADVANTAGES OF BRAZING: Brazing is well suited to mass-production techniques for joining both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Some of the principal advantages are 1. Dissimilar metals can be joined easily. 2. Assembles can be joined in a virtually stress-free condition. 3. Complex assemblies can be joined in several steps by using filler metals with progressively lower melting temperatures.

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4. Materials of different thickness can be joined easily. 5. Brazed joints require little or no finishing other than flux removal. LIMITATIONS OF BRAZING: 1. Joint design is somewhat limited if strength is a factor. 2. Joining is generally limited to sheet-metal thicknesses and relatively small assembles. 3. Cost of joint preparation can be high.

UNIT III SHEET METAL WORK

INTRODUCTION

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Sheet metal work is working on the metal of 16 gauges to 30 gauges, with hand tools and simple machines into different forms by cutting, forming into shape and joining. Sheet metal work is one of the major applications in engineering industry. It has its own significance as a useful trade in engineering work. APPLICATION OF SHEET METAL Sheet metal work is used for making Hoppers Funnels Various ducts Chimneys Ventilating pipes Machine tool guards Boiler etc.

PROCEDURE FOR SHEET METAL WORK The exact size and shape of the sheet to be cut is given by the development of the concerned object. The development is drawn on a flat sheet of metal and then the sheet is cut. The cut sheet is folded or rolled to the required shape before the joints are made by welding or any form of fastening. METAL USED IN SHEET METAL WORK a. Black iron b. Galvanized iron

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c. Stainless steel d. Copper e. Aluminum f. Tin plate g. Lead etc. Selection of these metals is based upon the type of process. TOOLS USED IN SHEET METAL 1. CUTTING TOOLS(CHISELS, SNIPS OR SHEARS) (a) CHISELS: Chisels are used in sheet metal work for cutting sheets, rivets, bolts, and chipping operations. Though there are many types of chisels available, round nose chisel and flat chisel are mostly used for sheet metal work.

(b) SNIPS (OR) SHEARS: Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. and 250mm length is most commonly used. STRAIGHT SNIPS are used for cutting along outside curves and Straight lines. CURVED SNIPS OR BENT SNIPS are used for trimming along inside curves.

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2. STRIKING TOOLS (a) Hammers (b) Punches

(a) Hammers: Hammers are used in sheet metal work for following, raising, Stretching or throwing off. The following hammers are mostly used in sheet metal work. (i) (ii) (iii) Riveting hammers Raising hammers Setting hammers

(b) Punches: In sheet metal work, punch is used for marking out work locating centers etc. The following two types of punches are widely used. (i) (ii) Prick punch Centre punch.

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3. SUPPORTING TOOLS Stacks: Stacks are nothing but sheet metal workers anvils used for bending, seaming or forming, using a hammer or mallet. The following fig. shows different shapes and sizes of stakes.

4. BENDING TOOLS Pliers: Pliers are mainly used for bending the sheet metal to the required shape. It is also used for holding and cutting the sheet metal. Flat nose pliers and round nose pliers are used in sheet metal work for forming and holding.

5. LAYOUT TOOLS.

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Steel rule: It is used for measuring and laying out small work. It can measure with an Accuracy of up to 0.5mm. Scriber: It is a long wire of steel with its one end sharply pointed and hardened to scrach line on sheet metal in laying out patterns. Dividers: Dividers are used for drawing circles or arcs on sheet metal. They are to mark a desired distance between points and to divide lines into parts Trammels: It is used for making of arcs and circles. Maximum size of the arc that can be scribed depends on the length of the beam in scriber. SHEET METAL OPERATIONS 1. Shearing 2. Bending 3. Drawing 4. Squeezing.

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FABRICATION OF SHEET METAL TRAY

DRAWING:

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All Dimensions are in mm

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FABRICATION OF SHEET METAL TRAY

Ex.No: DATE:

AIM: To make a tray from given sheet metal. MATERIL SUPPLIED: 22 gauge Galvanized Iron (GI) sheet. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Snips 2. 2. Ball peen hammer 3. Mallet 4. Steel rule 5. Scriber 6. Divider 7. Rivet set 8. Dot punch 9. Stakes SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Leveling

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3. Marking 4. Cutting 5. Hemming 6. Bending 7. Riveting WORKING STEPS: 1. The size of the given sheet is checked using a steel rule. 2. Then the sheet is leveled on the leveling plate using a mallet. 3. The dimensions are marked as shown in fig 4. The sheet is cut as per the marked dimensions by straight snips. 5. Then a single hemming is made on the four sides of tray as shown in fig. 6. These four sides of the tray are bent to 90
0

using stakes anvil.

7. Finally the corners of the tray are joined by riveting.

RESULT: A tray is made from the given metal sheet.

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FABRICATION OF FUNNEL

All Dimensions are in mm

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FABRICATION OF FUNNEL
Ex. DATE: AIM: To make a funnel from given sheet metal. MATERIL SUPPLIED: 22 gauge Galvanized iron (GI) sheet. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Snips 2. Ball peen hammer 3. Steel rule 4. Scriber 5. Divider 6. White paper 7. Protractor 8. Stakes SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Checking 2. Marking on paper 3. Marking on sheet metal 4. Cutting No:

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5. Folding. 6. Hemming
7. Soldering.

WORKING STEPS: 1. The size of the given sheet metal is checked for its dimensions using steel rule. 2. The required developed of surface is being made on the white paper which is overlapped on the sheet metal. 3. The marking is done on the sheet metal as per the development being done on the paper. 4. Now using straight snips, unwanted materials are removed. 5. Now fold and bend the work piece to make the funnel shape and joint is made on the work piece. 6. Then using groove, locked grooved joint is made for about 5mm. Also, hemming is done in the bottom of the funnel. 7. In between top face and bottom face, butt joint is made using solder. 8. Finally, trimming and finishing operation are being carried out.

RESULT: The funnel of the required dimensions is made from the given metal sheet.

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UNIT IV PREPARATION OF SAND MOULD

INTRODUCTION Producing Components by casting has been used since the earliest days of civilization. Lot of shapes and sizes can be prepared in a casting process. To make the casting of a component, a cavity of desired shape is t be produced in which the molten metal is poured. Mould is the cavity to the required shape made in modeling sand or other material. The process of modeling consists of all operations done to make a mould. PATTERN: Pattern is the model used to get required casting. It is used to produce the moduld cavity in sand. FOUNDRY: The place where modeling and casting are done is known as foundry. MOULDING SAND OR GREEN SAND: It is a maximum of sand and additives such as water, bentonite, inoculent, sodium silicate etc, used to create mould cavity. COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR MOULDING: The following components are essential for producing mould.

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(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) MOULDING SAND

Moulding Sand(Green sand) Moulding Boxes Pattern Moulding tools

Composition It is a special type of sand used for making mould. Moulding sand has three constituents. They are (i) Sand SAND: It has silica, clay and moisture. Silica is the main constituent of sand. Silica has 80 to 90 % silicon dioxide. Silicon gives refractoriness to the sand. CLAY: Clay is another constituent of sand. Clay gives more bonding strength to the sand. Generally sand has 5 to 20 % clay. Moisture is the water added to the sand. It gives the bonding action. In general 2 to 8 % water is added to the sand. BINDERS: Binders are added to the moulding sand to bring the property of the cohesiveness. The binder binds the sand grains together and brings strength. There are three types of binders. a) Clay type binders b) Organic binders c) Inorganic binders ADDITIVE: eg: Bentonite eg.Resin eg. Sodium silicate. (ii) Binder (iii) Additive

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By adding an additive, properties like strength, refractoriness and permeability can be increased.

PATTERNS: A pattern is the replica of the desired casting, used to produce a mould into which liquid metal is poured. When pattern packed in a suitable material produces a cavity called mould. This cavity when filled molten metal produces the desired casting, The following pattern materials are widely used. i) ii) iii) iv) Wood and wood products Metals and alloys Plastic and rubbers Plasters and Waxes

PATTERN ALLOWANCES The various pattern allowances are mentioned below. i) ii) iii) iv) v) Shrinkage or Contraction allowance Machining or Finishing allowance Draft or Taper allowance Distortion allowance Shake or Rapping allowance

PATTERN TYPES Various types of pattern are a) One piece (Solid ) pattern b) Split pattern c) Loose piece pattern d) Match plate pattern

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CORE MAKING PROCEDURE Core making is done in the following steps. 1. Moulding a green sand core. 2. Baking 3. Finishing 4. Coating MOULDING BOXES 1. Cope (Top box) 2. Cheek (middle box) 3. Drag (bottom box)

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MOULDING TOOLS: 1. Shovel 2. Sieve 3. Trowel 4. Rammers 5. Sprue pin 6. Strike off bar 7. Lifter 8. Gate cutter 9. Runner 10. 11. 12. 13. Riser Vent rod Draw spike Bellow

ADVANTAGES OF SAND CASTING: 1. Use is widespread; technology well developed 2. Materials are inexpensive, capable of holding detail and resist deformation when heated. 3. Process is suitable for ferrous and non-ferrous metal casting. 4. Handles a more diverse range of products than any other casting method. 5. High levels of sand reuse are achievable. LIMITATIONS OF SAND CASTING 1. Typically limited to one or more a small number moduls per box. 2. Sand: metal ratio is relatively high. 3. High level of waste is typically generated, particularly sand, bag house dust and spent shot.

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SOLID PATTERN
DRAWING:

All Dimensions are in mm

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MOULD WITH SOLID PATTERN

Ex. No: Date: AIM: To make the mould of solid pattern MATERIAL REQUIRED: Molding sand, Parting sand, facing sand, Gear pattern, molding boxes etc. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Shovel 2. Sieve 3. Trowel 4. Rammers 5. Sprue pin 6. Strike off bar 7. Lifter 8. Gate cutter 9. Runner 10. 11. 12. 13. Riser Vent rod Draw spike Bellow

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Sand preparation 2. Core preparation 3. Placing the pattern on the moulding board. 4. Ramming of drag 5. Placing runner and riser 6. Ramming of cope 7. Removal of pattern, runner, riser

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8. Gate cutting. WORKING STEPS: 1. The gear pattern is placed on the moulding board. 2. A suitable core is prepared and placed in the hole of the gear pattern. 3. Clay washing is done inside the drag surface. 4. Parting sand is applied over the pattern. 5. Box is filled with smooth moulding sand and proper ramming is done using flat and peen rammer. 6. Excess sand is removed using the strike off bar. 7. The drag is turned upside down. 8. The cope is placed on the drag after doing clay wash. 9. The runner and riser are placed over the pattern. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. After applying parting sand, moulding, sand is filled over Ramming is done to get a rigid mould. Using strike off bar excess sand is removed. Vent holes are made using vent rod. Runner and riser are removed and a funnel shape is Cope is kept aside and the pattern is removed using draw The cope is placed on the drag. the part ten.

made on the runner hole. spike

RESULT: Thus the gear mould is prepared and ready for casting.

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MOULD WITH SPLIT PATTERN

DRAWING:

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All Dimensions are in mm

MOULD WITH SPLIT PATTERNS

Ex. Date: AIM: To prepare a sand mould using a split pattern. MATERIAL REQUIRED: Moulding sand, Parting sand, Facing sand, Gear pattern, Moulding boxes etc. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Showel 2. Sieve 3. Trowel 4. Rammers 5. Sprue pin 6. Strike off bar 7. Lifter 8. Gate cutter 9. Runner 10. 11. 12. 13. Riser Vent rod Draw spike Bellow No:

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Sand preparation 2. Core preparation 3. Placing the pattern on the moulding board

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4. Ramming of drag 5. Placing runner and riser 6. Ramming of cope 7. Removal of pattern, runner, riser 8. Gate cutting. WORKING STEPS: 1. The mould box, pattern, tools, and the table /floor are cleaned. 2. The drag is filled with green sand after positioning lower part of the pattern on the table. 3. The green sand is rammed carefully and the excess sand is struck off. 4. Till the drag upside down and sprinkle river sand on top of it. 5. The cope is positioned on the top of the drag and upper part of the pattern is positioned carefully. 6. Position the sprue pin and riser pin, then the fill cope with sand ramming is done and the excess sand is struck off. 7. Remove the sprue pin and the riser pin carefully 8. Apply water on the edges of the pattern and remove them carefully using the draw spike, then finish the cavity. 9. Vent holes are made using vent wire. 10. A funnel shaped opening and gate is made to pour the molten metal.

RESULT: Thus the mould cavity of the given split pattern is obtained.

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MOULD WITH LOOSE PIECE PATTERNS

DRAWING:

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All Dimensions are in mm

MOULD WITH LOOSE PIECE PATTERNS

Ex. Date: No:

AIM: To prepare a sand mould using a loose piece pattern. MATERIAL REQUIRED: Moulding sand, Parting sand, facing sand, Gear pattern, Molding boxes etc. TOOLS REQUIRED: 1. Showel 2. Sieve 3. Trowel 4. Rammers 5. Sprue pin 6. Strike off bar 7. Lifter 8. Gate cutter 9. Runner 10. 11. 12. Riser Vent rod Draw spike

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13.

Bellow

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 1. Sand preparation 2. Core preparation 3. Placing the pattern on the moulding board 4. Ramming of drag 5. Placing runner and riser 6. Ramming of cope 7. Removal of pattern, runner, riser 8. Gate cutting. WORKING STEPS: 1. The mould box, pattern, tools, and the table /floor are cleaned. 2. The drag is filled with green sand after positioning lower part of the pattern on the table. 3. The green sand is rammed carefully and the excess sand is struck off. 4. Till the drag upside down and sprinkle river sand on top of it. 5. The cope is positioned on the top of the drag and upper part of the pattern is positioned carefully. 6. Position the sprue pin and riser pin, then the fill cope with sand ramming is done and the excess sand is struck off. 7. Remove the sprue pin and the riser pin carefully 8. Apply water on the edges of the pattern and remove them carefully using the draw spike, then finish the cavity. 9. Vent holes are made using vent wire. 10. A funnel shaped opening and gate is made to pour the molten metal.

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RESULT: Thus the mould cavity of the given loose piece pattern is obtained.

MOULD WITH CORE

Ex. Date: No:

AIM: To prepare a sand mould with core. MATERIAL REQUIRED: Moulding sand, parting sand, facing sand, Gear pattern, molding boxes etc. TOOLS REQUIRED: 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Shovel Sieve Trowel Rammers Sprue pin Strike off bar Lifter Gate cutter

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22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Runner Riser Vent rod Draw spike Bellow

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS: 9. Sand preparation 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. WORKING STEPS: 17. 18. 19. The mould box, pattern, tools and the table / floor are The drag is filled with green sand after positioning the The green sand is rammed carefully and the excess sand Core preparation Placing the pattern on the moulding board Ramming of drag Placing runner and riser Ramming of cope Removal of pattern, runner, riser Gate cutting.

cleaned. pattern on the table. is struck off. Place the core to provide the hollow portion of the mould. 20. of it. 21. 22. off. 23. Remove the sprue pin and the riser pin carefully. The cope positioned on top of the drag positioned Position the sprue pin and riser pin, then fill the cope carefully. with sand and ramming is done and the excess sand is struck Tilt the drag upside down and sprinkle river sand on top

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24.

Apply water on the edges of the pattern with the loose

piece and remove them carefully using the draw spike, and then finish the cavity. 25. 26. 27. After that remove the core from the pattern Vent holes are made using vent wire. A funnel - shaped opening and gate is made to pour the

molten metal.

RESULT: Thus the mould with core is obtained.

INJECTION MOULDING INTRODUCTION (For demonstration purpose)

WORKING PRINCIPLE: The injection moulding is used to achieve high speed moulding of thermoplastics. The working principle of this process is tat the molten thermoplastic is injected into a mould under high pressure. For achieving high pressure, the plunger system is used. OPERATION:

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The moulding material is loaded into a hopper from which it is transferred to aheating section by a feeding device where the temperature is raised to 1500 C - 3700 C. The material melts and is forced by an injection ram or by plunger through a nozzle and sprue in a closed mould which forms the part. There are two types of injection moulding and it is given below. RAM OR PLUNGER TYPE INJECTION MOULDING:

The ram and plunger type injection moulding has two units. 1. Injection unit 2. Clamping unit. So it may be split in order to eject the finished component. Initially, the polymer is filled in a hopper. Then it goes to the heating section where the polymer is melted and the pressure is increased. The heated material is injected by the ram under pressure. So, the heated material is forced to fill in mould cavity through the nozzle to get the required shape of the plastics. Here, the mould is water-cooled type. SCREW TYPE INJECTION MOULDING: In this type also, there are two units to split and eject the finished component such as

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1. Injection unit 2. Clamping unit

The injection unit has hopper, screw and heating section. In clamping section, it has mould. In screw type moulding machine, initially the pellets are fed into the hopper. The resins are pushed along with the heated reciprocating screw. The screw is moved forward to force the plastic material into the mould. The screw itself is moving backwards and allowing the accumulation of enough material to fill the mould. The rotation of the screw provides the plasticizing action by shearing and frictional effects. The axial motion of the screw provides the filling action. The jet moulding process is used to find the problems occurred in injection moulding process. The reaction moulding is the recent development in injection moulding. In reaction moulding, the low viscosity monomers are used in the mould. A chemical reaction takes place between resins at low temperature and a polymer is created.

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In jet moulding, the plastic is preheated about 93 0 C in the cylinder surrounding the nozzle. The reaction moulding is suitable for the production of polyurethane moulding. ADVANTAGES OF INJECTION MOULDING: 1. High production capacity and less material losses. 2. Low cost and less finishing operation. 3. It is used for making complex threads and thin walled parts. 4. Accuracy becomes 0.025 mm. 5. Wide range of shapes can be moulded. APPLICATIONS: 1. It is used in making parts of complex threads. 2. Production of Intricate shapes like thin walled parts. 3. Production of typical parts like cups, containers, tool handles, toys, knobs, plumbing fittings. 4. Production LIMITATIONS: 1. Equipment of cylinder and die should be non-corrosive. 2. Reliable temperature controls are essential. The injection capacity of injection moulding machines ranges from 12,000 mm3 to 2.2 X 106 mm3. of electrical and communication components like telephone receivers.