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Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation
Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation
org/
MONOGRAPH
SERIES
NUMBER
PITFALLS
IN
SEISMIC
INTERPRETATION
J. Yorston,
ssoProduction
Research
Co.
SOCIETY
ISBN
OF
0-931830-11-7
EXPLORATION
GEOPHYSICISTS
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Box 702740
1973
1973.
in the United
States of America.
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CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
..............................................................
................................................................
Introduction
...........................................................
iv
v
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
23
25
28
28
30
33
35
37
40
40
42
47
48
48
50
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FOREWORD
Those fortunate enough to hear the unique and delightful verbal presentation of
"Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation" will be gratified by this printed version of the same
classic paper. Messrs. Tucker and Yorston are to be congratulated for having an extraordinary idea and for sharing it in detail with their fellow explorationists.Clearly their
wisdom is born of experience, not all of which was pleasant. This work will be
appreciated not only by the old-timers in the profession but by the newcomers as they
gradually realize the earth's crust is not a well-ordered system and that the seismic
events resulting therefrom are even lesswell ordered.
John C. Hollister
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PREFACE
Many pitfalls in seismic interpretation are concealed within seemingly straightforward reflections. Some of these pitfalls are dug by nature and some are of our own
doing. Many can be avoided. Pitfalls may be classified into three groups: thoserelated
to velocity, those related to the geometry of the reflectors, and those related to the
recording,processing,and playback of the seismicdata.
Regional velocity changesseldom give trouble, but within small, deep, intermontane basins, or along continental margins, a false indication of basinward thinning
is sometimesobserved.Of greater concern is the abrupt change in velocity due to an
equally abrupt structural change: the fault which creates false reversals, the reef with
its underlying "high," the surface or seafloor irregularity with its coincidental subsurface reversal. The depth section can be used to avoid these pitfalls, providing it is
not in itself a pitfall.
The geometry or shape of the reflecting surface is equally tricky. It can turn
synclines into anticlines, reverse the throw of faults, superimposeone structure on
another by sideswipe,and create a diffraction-anticline.
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INTRODUCTION
1. Pitfalls associated with velocity occur because seismic data are presented in
traveltime rather than depth,
2. Pitfalls associated with geometry occur because reflections from
dimensional space are plotted in a two-dimensional section, and
three-
3. Pitfalls associated with recording and processing occur because all recorded
eventsare not of geologicorigin, and improper processingcan maskgeology.
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SUMMARY
PITFALLS
IN
SEISMIC
INTERPRETATION
EXAMPLE-MODEL
OBSERVED
PHENOMENON
I. VELOCITY
A. Interval Changes
1. Gradational
2. Abrupt
a.
Faults
fault:
reflection
intervals
thinner
b. Superimposed Structure
1) Flowage
2) Character Change
B. Surface-Subsurface
Coincidence
10
* Many pitfalls are velocity induced and can be recognized by velocity analysis and eliminated
by the depth section. The valid depth section requires a very precise and detailed
knowledge of velocity.
sections.
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EXPLANATION
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
CHECK
inversion.
2. Assumed
constant
thickness
overburden.
Geologic:
Nongeol:
VALIDITY
Drag folds.
shadow.
'1. Same as No. 2 and No. 3 above.
2. Interval difference
and throw
Nongeol:
thickness
2. "Flowage is slowage".
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
A surface or near-surface
contaminated
the entire
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
effect has
section.
reversal.
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EXAMPLE-MODEL
OBSERVED
PHENOMENON
.......
II.
GEOMETRY
1. Anticlines
2. Synclines
12
3. Intrusions
13
B. Disconformable
C. Faults
14
15
16
and
17
D. Diffraction-like
III. RECORDING
A. Input Pulse
AND
Events
reversals.
PROCESSING
18
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EXPLANATION
Geologic:
Nongeol:
VALIDITY
Crustal
faults
CHECK
Geologic:
Nongeol:
is above
Geologic:
crossover
occurs.
Nongeol:
The sharp, upturned beds are recorded 1. The true edge of intrusive is inside
the reflection
termination.
The rim
away from the intrusive as
multibranched reflections; they may
syncline becomes an anticline at
depth. A few hand migrations may
appear diffraction-like. The inner
diffractions may be the true
give you a rough outline and suggest
terminations.
a more complete approach.
2. The inner diffractions may be the real
edge, and the inside legs may have
the intrusive velocity.
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
without
distortion.
bottom
reflection
or
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B. Multiples
1. Conformable dip sets
EXAMPLE-MODEL
OBSERVED
PHENOMENON
19
20
21
Simple anticline.
C. Playback
22-23
structures.
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EXPLANATION
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
Geologic:
Nongeol:
VALIDITY
CHECK
or water interface
1.
generates multiples. Energy trapped in
near-surface or water layer causes
reverberation. Both may be subdued
2.
by processing. Muting may suppress
3.
multiples.
Young anticline.
Multiple from base of low-velocity
layer.
Coincidence
section
of structure
available.
with refraction
above.
Constant
communication
mustbe
maintained
betweenGeologist,
Interpreter,and ProcessEngineerso
astoproduce
thedesired
geologic
section.
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VELOCITY
PITFALLS
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5000
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Example 1 -A
part of the basin. It could be a starvedbasin, in which the depositioninto the basin
has been restricted. Or, it could be an inverted basin--the
being originally the center of the basin, with later inversion,or upward push, the
centerof depositioncould have shiftedto the upper right over what had been the
flank of the basin.Which of thesethree explanationsseemsthe most logical?
Model study
-,, ,,\,
1.0 $E151C
SECTION
INTERVAL
VELOCITY
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All three are logical. However, it is a pitfall to assume that all thinning on the
seismic section represents thinning in the subsurface.The first explanation, compaction, is involved but is not the full answer. The interval velocity of a given
rock body increaseswith increasingdepth according to a function similar to that
shown in Model 1. This normal increase in interval velocity with depth is associated
with the progressivedeepening of stratigraphic units into a basin. With the higher
velocities, seismic traveltimes decrease and intervals on the seismic time section
therefore decrease. The velocities and intervals shown on Model I will be seismically
expressedas shown on the accompanyingseismicsection. The time intervals on this
section decreaseby 60 msec for the upper unit and 40 msec for the lower unit.
However, there is no change in the actual thickness.
Validity check
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"THIN"
Example 1-B
There are three ways of obtaining a correct interpretationof Example 1-A. One
is to use systematicinterval changesas a meansof identifying apparentthinning that
is in fact a velocity effect. The interpreted section, Example l-B, showsfour equally
spacedupdip intervals, each of about 300 msec. These intervals thin progressively
downdip: 60 msec for the upper interval, 50 msec for the second, 30 msec for the
third, and 20 msec for the fourth. The progressivedowndip decreasein these intervals
indicates that interval velocities are becoming progressivelyhigher with depth, thus
explainingthe basin "thins."
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Observed phenomenon
5000 ft-
...
..
Example 2-A
A very definite rollover into the fault of about 20 msec,or 100 ft, is apparentin a
lower horizon H. This reversal could be, and quite commonly is, a drag fold into a
10
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Model study
6000'/5
6300'/5
.4
8500'/5
10,000'/S
GEOLOGIC
M
__.
8900'/S
10,500'/S
Model
2.
Fault
1.0 SEISMICSECTIO
shadow
.........
structure.
Unfortunately, traps of this type are more likely to catch interpreters than hydrocarbons, for the rollover could be due to velocity rather than structure. Model 2
shows the velocity character of this type of anomaly. Within any horizontal layer
containing the fault, the rocks on the downthrown side are younger and have lower
interval velocities than those in juxtaposition on the upthrown side. As a result raypaths
thus meet ever lower velocities toward the downthrown block, and reflections within
the fault shadow bend downward
Validity check
1500
5000
ft
Fault
Shadow
Example 2-B
11
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This coincidenceof a fault and its shadowwith a reversal is the validity check for
spotting such velocity anomalies as those seen in Example 2-B. Coincidence alone does
not necessarilycondemn a structure, but when the coincidence does occur, it should be
checkedout to be sure it is not velocity-derived.
Example 3---Fault
Shadow (Reversed)
500OFTI
I 1500M
Observed phenomenon
5000
FT
Example 3-A
Example 3-A has a very nice reversal in the lower horizon. Above this rollover the
younger beds indicate a somewhat similar structure but with minor differences. The
reversal is slightly larger and is offset from the lower structural crest. This would
indicate an unconformity and differing periodsof movement,or differential folding.
Model study
8400'/$EC
8800'/SEC
9200'/SEC
o.
/
= 7lOO.OOC 9500'/SEC
.8
1.0
1.2
SEISMIC
Model
SECTION
3.
Reverse
12
fault
shadow.
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The
fault-shadow
effect
is more
common
in
reverse
faults
than
normal
faults
becausereverse faults tend to have a larger displacement. The velocity pattern is shown
in Model 3. Reflections beneath the fault in the downthrown block are upswept into
the fault plane. This apparent flexure plus the apparent offset in the crest of the
structure with depth gives the appearance on the seismic section of an asymmetric fold
rather
I 1500M
J
5000FT
Fault
Shadow
Example 3-B
The apparent upbending of the beds underneath the trace of the thrust fault,
Example 3-B, coincides with slivers of high-velocity material on the overthrust. The
flexure beneath the fault is the red flag of caution.
13
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Example 4--Vertical
Fault
Observed phenomenon
. . ', ..
..,:.,
,.
..,,.
'
--,.?.:
'
_ K :,;,.-
'
1500
rn
5000
ft
-..
VERTICAL
FAULT
Example 4-A
fault. Careful
measurement
side are
thinner than their counterpartson the upthrown side and that the fault throw decreases
with depth. This suggestsup-and-downvertical movements,a yo-yoingof the bedsto
causethe varying thicknesses.Or possiblythere was lateral movementalong a wrench
fault that brought into a vertical plane beds from different basin positionsand of
different
thicknesses.
Model study
u. 6800'/S
o
.2
t3 .4
xx
85oo'/s
='
c::
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
0 .6
6 8 \
INTI::RVAL
VI:LOCIT
.8
1.0
1.2
14
SEISMIC
SECTION
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Model 4 shows the velocity configuration of beds across a high-angle fault. The
beds have been displaced 1500 ft and the interval velocity significantly increased.
The seismic time section expressesthis velocity change as thinner intervals on the
downthrown side and a decreasein throw with depth. This type of anomaly is generally
confined to the shallow beds and to sediments undergoing active compaction. This
velocity phenomenon will be true with either vertical or horizontal movement along
the fault plane. However, with horizontal movement, naturally occurring beds of varying thicknessmay be brought into juxtaposition,presentingboth a real thicknessvariation
and a velocity-derivedthinning.
Validity check
VERTICAL
1500
5000
ft
FAULT
Example 4-B
A validity check on Example 4-B for the authenticity of thickness changes across
the vertical trace fault is tough to find. A velocity anomaly can be expected where
the state of compaction and size of fault displacement produces a significant change
in interval velocity. A second consideration is the structural style of the area. Are
wrench faults common? If so, then natural thickness changes must also be considered
with the velocity effect.
15
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Example 5-A
(2
- tGEOLOGIC
MODEL
u.,
11
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 5. Shale flowage.
16
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If we consider the velocity character of a structure of this type, we may find that
the fault trap is a trap of another sort a pitfall. A bulge like that shown in Model
5 is probably the result of plastic deformation, i.e., either salt or shale flowage. If
it is shale flowage, the thicker mass of shale with lower velocity toward the center
will create a velocity anomaly or downbowing beneath it. The change in thickness
and velocity at the right edge of the bulge producesthe apparent faulting in the deep
reflection
on Model
5. What
whether
the structure
on
Validity check
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-
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SHALE
FLOWAGE
Example 5-B
Our best validity test in this particular example was the drill, which found that
the lower horizon had neither the reversal nor the fault. The bulge was a high-pressure
shale flowage, which causeda slower velocity. In fact, we could say of all shale bulges
that "flowage is slowage." To check validity without drilling, we can use the ratio
between the increase in interval and the downbending. Assume the lower horizon
continuessmoothlyfrom the right into the regional dip on the left (Example 5-B). Plot
the interval increasesabove this line against the departures below the line. If there is
a velocity anomaly, theseplots will approximatea straightline.
17
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Example 6---Salt
Flowage
Observed
phenomenon
;T.-:-,
'''i;!!:.!::.:;;;';:-!.*...:?"--':-'-....
:.....-4;-:,:!;:-:-":!-:;/-.'::..
;:-'.::';:::';::
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,...:
.....
;.
::.;.::,..:.:
0
........ . .. :: ..... ...
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:..;-:
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;:;'
,.- .,.,:.
....,
. ..... .,...,.
......
......
? .,-..-.......,
.......
.....
.,.
,.;. . .
.. .
'.-.--'
'- :.., '-'.--:-..
-.;=.' :.: '-.'.
.... :.-:.
- 5000
ft
"
. . ._
.-.-'..'
'-,-;
'.-..
'....:,'h. <-..:
.---'
-.-r..
......, . -.::.,.;.... ., .. ;..4-'...
.'.....
C.':'-.';:-":'"
'--:
......
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.....
..
.........
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.......
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,---,.'?,
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.- ".
....... ' .....
:'"-."'--"
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..........
. ....
.........
. - . . .. .
.... .
.-..
......... .:..:
............
......
-./.'&?' -.,-..
:-.........
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--
Example 6-A
Model study
7
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
1.8
0 2.0
'
2.2
2.4
SEISMIC
SECTION
18
9ooo,/s
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Attractive? Yes. Prospect? Perhaps. Let's examine the character of Model 6 for
the pitfall, which is the differential between velocities. The traveltime through the salt
dome is less than that through the adjacent rocks. Consequently, reflections from
beneath the dome appear upbowed. On the left side of Model 6 is a salt anticline
in which, again, the traveltime through the salt is lessthan that through the surrounding
rocks. And again there is an upbowing of the base of the salt but on a smaller scale
than with the dome. On the right side of Model 6 is a residual salt mass, where the
traveltime through the salt is greater than that through the adjacent zone. Here we find
a downbow
in the reflections
from beneath
the salt.
Validity check
SALT
FLOWAGE
Example 6-B
lg
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Observed phenomenon
........
--'--'
.... '.
:................
.......
...::..... .. ......
. ....
. ..
.. ....
..
....-.....:.
.-.
....-..
. .....
............
.. .........
......
ft
-............
.....
..
.......-..............
'
5000
... .........
......................
1500m
.,.
.-
. .........
.../.-?,
. :....
;...............
. ... -.. ...--::;-.-...:.....
; ..";'";
..........
.....
......
. -... .....:--....
..... ........
. .... . .....
..
. --
:......
'....
' .
..
. ."
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. ..:. .-
- -..../....-.-..-...
. -... '.--:;......
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. ....
...%'_......
-
..
..
..
:.. -........
-- .
. .-
:...;."
:.'..... -.....
.....:..
-:;:-:...
... :..... -.......
-......... . ;.;..-.......
. .........
Reflection
ft
..... .-..;
......
. . ----.:. .-:..-.:. -
..... ....
5000
..
. ."...".;.'
'.
. . .
. ..........
Deterioration
Example 7-A
Model study
1.2
o.
' 1
GEOLOGIC
MODELr
]o
Model
7.
2O
1.8
Reefs.
SEISMIC
SECTION
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To settle for a simple basement uplift could be a pitfall. That subtle change in
character and continuity of the reflections is a clue to the reef shown in Model 7.
Seismic sections frequently show velocity anomalies beneath reefs. The character of
such anomalies varies with the velocity composition of the on-reef and off-reef
materials. If the reef is faster, a velocity high will result (Example 7); if slower, a
velocity low (Example 8).
Validity check
J
......
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..............
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7.- .. .--:;..... -
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:...
.., ....
1500m
5000
ft
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l I :l.
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,. .. ........ :. ...--.-,
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................
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: .... . ...............
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5000 ft
....
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:.:.
........
,.,....
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'..
-......... "'i.:':'.........
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:''"' ....':..........'.............----..:......
..,
.:'.:::".-.,'-.:'y'".-.;
:...;
?..:;............
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.,-,.-..:.:...,
-.......
.:::..-:.
.,-:;.:::....-.;:.;...
........
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......
.:.:....,.,..:
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..
.......
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......7.....:
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:.
.......
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......
.....:..-,.,..:..-..-----.
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, ..,.:
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; .............
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:::-:
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::
:;.-:---<-----'.:''.
:''T?.
SERENDIPITY
REEFS
Example 7-B
drawn
reflection
will
deviate
from
that
reflection
more
or less
coincidentallywith thesecharacterchanges.
In Example 7 the reef occupiesa deterioration zone, and its higher velocity causes
the basal upbowing. But this circumstantial evidencedoes not make the reef a unique
solution; igneoustuffs have also been encounteredin the same framework. If you drill
for a reef and find igneoustuffs, that is tuff luck. But if you drill an anticline and find
a reef- that is serendipity,as demonstratedin Example 7-B. Serendipityis the guardian
angel of interpreters.
In Example 8, the reef occupiesthe apparent lens where the character changesoccur.
Its lower velocity causesthe basal downbending. This might suggesta sand bar or a
river channel. However, by recognizingthat the low is apparent and that the feature is
a normal developmenton a flat base, the reef interpretation is suggested.
21
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,,,....... .
- ........
,,.
. .,.,
, ..?,,,,..
..
, ..?,
'"
'",_,-:
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....
'.... 2.
,..:,.',,..:.d?',
.............
'. , '.":.
........ : ...,;,
After
CHARACTER
Occidental
Petroleum Corporation
CHANGE
Example 8-A
III1
_,ooo
ft.-
II1.......,_.,.'::' '
:"'"
"
Ill
'"""
'
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.....
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dl ..','.'.. "."". ' -'"",,. ' ' .... : ..... ,.. "'. .... ",'""'",';' "; .... " III
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' -2.
' ''"
Example8-B
22
Occidental
PetroleumCorporation
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
'
''::'":'
't
i ..
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--::
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.,.
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I 1500
m
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5000 ft
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Example 9-A
23
I'*-'-
' -:
'"'-
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Example 9-A shows a very marked indentation of some 1100 ft in the seafloor, and
beneath it a very well-developed syncline. A close examination of the various horizons
of the syncline will show interval variations from top to bottom. It might logically be
reasonedthat this was a growing syncline extending up to the surface and thus localizing
the initial erosion that created this canyon.
Model study
23
5600'/S
6300'/S
;..
'' 4 EOLOGIC
MODEL
3t
0
.2
GEOLOGIC:
MODE1
-
567 8
.4
LJ
INTERVAL
VELOCITY
KILOFEET/SECOND
.. 1.o
1.2
/
Model
9-A.
Model
9-B.
There may be two pitfalls here. One, of course, is the apparent syncline beneath
the channel. Most readerswill recognizethis as a velocity anomaly.
The second pitfall could stem from misinterpreting the seismic thickening of layers
beneath the channel as synclinal growth. The apparent thickening is an expression of
the lower velocity due to lesser compaction beneath the channel. In preparing depth
sectionsor estimating thicknesses,the procedure outlined in Model 9-B is recommended
for estimating velocities. The same interval velocity-depth function may be used within
and away from the channel provided the curve is adjusted to the water bottom. This
technique is suggestedsince velocities measuredbeneath surface topography of this type
are frequently unreliable.
A similar pitfall can be created by solution channels or cavities, with collapse of
the directly overlying beds. The infill will usually be of slower velocity than the
adjacent beds and should be treated the same way as the sea floor channel.
24
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Validity check
WATER-BOTTOM
ANOMALIES
Example 9-B
Three quick checks can be made to test the authenticity of this type of syncline.
One is the standard (by now) fact of coincidence. While the syncline could be real,
again the coincidence strains credulity. A second check is the change in shapes of
these synclineswith depth. A close examination of the seismic section in Example 9-B
will show a narrow, shallow synclinebecoming broader with depth and varying in relief
to some maximum value. These changes are both due to the velocity effect shown on
Model 9-B. The third check will be discussedlater under the category of "Geometry."
Example 10--Near-Surface
Observed phenomenon
Velocity Anomaly
--'.: ' .' , :' -..';.
, ,, -q * .'.....
s ,.... ' . -
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Example 10-A
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25
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Model study
WATER
_z
2
GEOLOGIC
.2
.4
.6
11000'/S
9300'/S
MODEL
.8
_ 1.0
SEISMIC
SECTION
Model
10.
Near-surface
effects.
26
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Validity check
1500
rn!
5000
rn
[1500
t
ft
Iooof
.......
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"'-/;
.;'
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5000 ft
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NEAR-SURFACE
NEAR-SURFACE
VELOCITY
VELOCITY
ANOMALY
ANOMALY
Exam pl e 10-C
Example 10-B
Testing the validity of structural anomalies of this type is relatively simple. The
best test is to plot the refraction first kicks, which will often show a coincidence
between near-surface velocity anomalies and subsurface structure. But with CDP
shooting, these refraction first kicks are often smeared to the point where they cannot
be seen at all, which is a pity because they can be so very valuable. In such cases,
perhapsa singlefold
write-outshowingthe refractionkickswould be helpful.In
Example 10-B, a line drawn through the high-velocitybreak encounteredin each of the
refraction first kicks, takes a shape similar to the indicated subsurface.This is highly
suspicious.When a correction is derived from the first kick data and applied to the
anomaly of Example 10-B, the structureis eliminated completely,as shown in Example
10-C, and nothing but regional dip remains.
SUMMARY
OF VELOCITY
PITFALLS
VALIDITY
CHECK
The validity check for the categoryof velocity pitfalls could be summedup with
that one word used over and over again "coincidence."A coincidenceof surface,
near-surface, and subsurfaceis a red flag to heed. A detailed velocity analysis may
be required.
27
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GEOMETRY
PITFALLS
Our second category is geometry, the shape and steepnessof the structures. We
refer to anything over ten degreesas being in a steep-dipcategory.
Example 11 --- Anticlines
Observed
phenomenon
I 1500rn
I
5000
ft
--0
Example 11 -A
In Example 1l-A, a gentle anticline is readily seen near the surface. Little interruption or complexity is suggestedin the near-surface;basically, the anticline is a very
simple rollover. But the deeper section quickly becomes a confused jumble of
reflections.
Model study
b' a'
c'
! c"
e'
/
28
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The Models 11-A and 11-B illustrate the seismic deception associatedwith complexly folded structures. To simplify the models, we consider straight raypaths constructed along perpendiculars to the beds from a common source-detector position on
the surface. Note that reflections from dipping beds emanate from depth points which
are updip from the surface detectors. Note further that the seismic section portrays
these depth points directly beneath the surface detector location. The seismic section
shows depth point A (Model 1 l-A) downdip from its position on the geologic model at
a time which is equal to the slant path time 0-A rotated to a vertical orientation.
In a similar fashion, all points along the structure are displaced. The break in dip
near the crest of the structure is a depth point common to many surface detector
positions. Consequently,these depth points are repeated on the seismic section. The net
result of the distortion is to present a seismic structure which is spread out, smoothed,
and to some extent, simplified as compared with the corresponding geologic structure.
Geologists should take special note of one feature of Model 11-A. Raypaths travel
perpendicular to the beds but are presentedon the seismicsection in vertical orientation,
as indicated by the arrows. Consequently, intervals on a seismic time section should
be measured vertically and not along perpendiculars as is done on a geologic crosssection. However, if the section has been migrated, intervals should be measured along
perpendiculars.
Faults at the crest of structures can present a special pitfall. Conceptually, they
should be representedby a single diffraction at each bed-fault interface. However,
spreadingof the depth points as illustratedby point c may lead to the interpretation
of multiple faults.
29
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Validity
check
I 1500m
i
5000
ANTICLINE
ft
Example 11 -B
Example 12
Synclines
Observed
phenomenon
15oo
m
5000
ft
After
Example 12-A
30
Geocom
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of movement--the
SYNCLINE
MODER
,
GEOLOGIC
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
MODEL
''.'[,,t:"
SEISMIC
SECTION
oel
FROM
MODEL
SEISMIC
FROM
RECENT
SYNCLINE
6tG[
'EOLOGI'
E
L '-
MODEL
GEOLOGIC
SEISMIC
SECTION
Model
FROM
MODEL
Model 12-B
SHARPSYNCLINE
GEOLOGIC
SECTION
12-A
SEISMIC
MODEL
SECTION
Model
12-C
31
MODEL
FROM
12-D
MODEL
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But can we trust an anticline centered under a syncline?To answer this question,
let us examine the seismic expressionof a syncline as pictured in Models 12-A, B, C,
and D. The portrayal of a syncline on a seismic section depends upon its arcuateness,
which is expressedby the location of the center of curvature with respect to the earth's
surface. A very gentle syncline having a center of curvature above the earth's surface
appearson the seismic section as a relatively simple syncline, as shown in Model 12-A.
As the arcuateness increases, Models 12-B and 12-C, the center of curvature moves
below the earth's surface. At any surface position near the syncline, multiple depth
points are detected and plotted one above the other as shown in the seismic models.
The so-called bow-tie with apparent anticline centered below it is illustrated in Models
12-B and 12-C.
Examples 12-A, B, and C are combined in 12-D, in which the downbending on all
beds is equal. The increase in depth shifts the center of curvature from above surface
for the shallow syncline to below the surface for the deeper synclines.This effectively
increases the arcuateness as the seismograph sees it. The seismic section will show a
relatively gentle, shallow syncline--becoming progressively sharper with depth,
then bow-tieing and finally inverting to form an apparent anticline. To answer the
original question, then, anticlines beneath synclinescannot be trusted.
Validitycheck
5oo
rn
5000 ft
":2,
.-
...:4A.
-5
,.-
-:;-
.:,.
" i:
--1.0
': --
" ="'''
* :.-- 5000
ft
.-.......
....... ;; ,- a; .....
.....
.,.............
,
...:
:
. .. >..
t., .
2 0
4.0
,--......:..
................... ....,,
.......
. ...................... ..............
After
MIGRATED
.........[ .....
Geocom
SECTION
Example 12-B
32
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[.......
''
Example 13-A
SEISMIC
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
AND
SEISMIC
SECTION
33
SECTION
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Before making the location, though, note Model 13, which shows that the salt-dome
edge is not at the termination of the reflections. The dashed lines are diffractions and
the dotted lines are multiple-branched reflections. Note that the reflections terminate
well out from the edge of the dome, and that the only direct seismic indicators of
the dome edge are the apexes of diffractions. Normally, the diffraction leg within the
dome will not be seen.
Validity check
INTRUSION
Example 13-B
Migration is required to locate the actual boundary of the intrusive. The outer
boundary shown on Example 13-B' is drawn from the reflection terminations. The inner
boundary is interpreted as the true outline of the intrusive. This interpretation is based
34
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1500
rn
Observed phenomenon
5000ftl
....
..
'.
...............
:.....-... ..:;-%.?..........f:;.:
..
...::
-:.:-..
_?.%;:.:-.?:
..?:.?-.f.::.;
:.... -.::
.;
'
5000
2.0
3.0
Example 14
EEP
STRUCTURAL
SEISMIC
DEPTH
POINTS
( -....(a,..-''-,,,,..P
) POINTS
CONTOURS
SECTION
OF
OF
GEOLOGIC
GEOLOGIC
35
MODEL
MODEL
ft
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SIDESWIPE
Example 15
diffraction-like
events.
Validity check
The validity check for sideswipeis sufficient crosslines to outline the structure.
In tightly folded areassideswipeis very likely, but so are front-swipeand back-swipe.
In other words,energywill be recordedfrom a complete360 degreecircle around the
shotpoint. If these tight folds are close enough together, reflected energy could be
coming from one, two, or even three anticlinesat the sametime, presentinga dilemma
that could not be solved without some prior knowledge of the grain or trends of
the folds.
Knowledgeof the trend direction is important in laying out the seismiclines and
in working the data. The dip lineswould be worked first to get an idea of the complexity
of these anticlines and then the horizons would be tied with the strike lines.
36
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;?..............
-.-...:.-..-.......
......,:-::::-:.:?'-.
:...;.
;--:....::---;/..::.-..-..
.::.....-/:.
------::.;
.......-..?
-.:
---::
:::.
.-.-"-'
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{:.'................................. "-:'
?:.:".'-'-'
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v'-'.
::.'----'-.
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..........
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............?:
.-.::.::..::.:.:
.
:''"'
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':.
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::.-::
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-:-
-'"
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'--..... ? '"-"'.:..:::...,,....
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'-' ..
...........
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:'2""-'-.-"'
:':--':
....
Example 16-A
GEOLOGIC
SEISMIC
MODEL
Model
SECTION
FROM
MODEL
16. Diffractions.
The rollovers are probably diffractions associated with the faulting. Diffractions
develop, as shown in Model 16, from curved or angular surfaces having dimensions
on the order of a wavelength (150-300 fi). An example is the intersection of a bed with
a fault. The diffraction source reflects energy from a series of shotpoints along the
line of profile. Although the actual rays follow slant paths (except at the apex), the
reflections are presented vertically beneath the shotpoints and the typical hyperbolic
37
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diffraction pattern is generated. Point source diffractions from a shallow source are
generally distinctly hyperbolic and highly arcuate and readily recognizable as
diffractions. However, a diffraction from considerable depth or from a fault which
strikes at an acute angle with the line of profile tends to lose its hyperbolic character
and assumethe air of a respectable-lookinganticline. How can we distinguish anticlines
from diffractions?
Validity check
o
2.
FAULTS
AND
DIFFRACTIONS
Example 16-B
In Example 16-B, the CDP processinghas so smearedthe true faults that they take
on the appearanceof a continuousbed or a monocline. Although a single-foldplayback
would best define the fault itself, a diffraction overlay is often sufficient to show where
the fault really occurs. Notice particularly the "deep uplift" on the lower left; it is
nothingbut a fault with diffractions.
The diffraction overlay is a usefuldevice for identifying diffractions.The overlay
is a seriesof patternsshowingthe predictedconfigurationof diffractionsthroughoutthe
depth of the section.Accurate velocity information is required to preparethe overlay.
Also required is the approximate angle of intersection between the fault and line
of profile.
A second test for differentiating between diffractions and anticlines is their
curvature. A diffraction is hyperbolic in that its maximum curvature is at the top and
it straightens out with depth. An anticline, with its corresponding syncline, is a
continuous
convex-concave
curve.
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the vertical, the amount of skew being a rough measureof the angle of the line to the
diffraction source. Where the structural trend is known, diffraction overlays should be
made to satisfythe angle betweenthe line of profile and the structuralgrain.
Observed phenomenon
'i.i'.11'
1.5....
. .'" -
, '......:
'
"."
.o-'-:
'..-,
'
' 'w.,
. '.- '..., ,'-.' .,,'' ......
'.
'
..' ;'."i!;..,,,.,
z.;,*" '" ' .',;:':'"'.,."'".:..,:.
""'"';','"
.'
.. a
-- 5000
ft
" !"
....
..
J, ... '..
s.
.. '
'riM,=
s,=c'rlO.
,,,, ,,.
Af 'er Prakla-Seismos
DIFFRACTIONS
Example 17-A
Example 17-A shows an undulating erosional basement surface of knolls and hills,
overlain by supratenuousdepositional folds terminated by an angular unconformity.
The pinchout of beds against the basement surface could serve as a trap for oil, or as
a sourceof oil for entrapment on the old eroded surface.
Model study
See Model
16.
Validity check
m, I , m I"i . , I,'"l
Itlt[
i , I.JJl
umm
mmm,
I 1500
m
!!111!11iltl111!!111111lfl,
'llL,b
':,E!
, 't'' , '1'F EE=b,aElEl':i,
I 5000
ft
.5.....
'.... ""-'
.....
:,.',m,,,
.....
, ......................
,.,.. ,, ...:,
- ......
],].-
- ",_.'
...................... ..2;_.--
......
,, ..... ,,,,
' .
...: ,.,,....,, =
....
y;,,' .......
..,.
,,
........
,C'c
..hrs,,,_,'.,,,,;
..... ;*,,,,t* . ;",",7:'"';';,,,,
....
..';, ',.
' '
--.-
,- .' r
"
'
i l" "1
' "ti
....
"'
"'
......
2.0-' '
MIGRATED
, ',.e .,;"
'",
r''.',
.
TIME
SECTION
After
Example
17-B
39
',
, ' ,Id"
Prakla-Seismos
andAmoco
Europe
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
OF
GEOMETRY
PITFALLS
VALIDITY
CHECKS
The validity checks for the category of geometry pitfalls may be summed up in
two words: Geology and Migration. One must know what to expect-in structural
complexity and line orientation, and he must migrate for truer perspective.
DATA
GATHERING
AND
PROCESSING
PITFALLS
Pulse
Observed phenomenon
I 1500m
[
5000
,.w,,-:.,
..,... '.."
'.:'.-,,..i
...........
...;"---./-......:..
......
...:'
::".
.77-
71
' ,e '
.
...
'
'~ '
-
":.il4.,
' :
- ,.
:-;-..........:.:-;.:...:.:........:.:....::..-:.::
........
.-.... ...... -..:.-
*-' '-
.
'-'
,,.,., ,
ft
...........
...::.:.::.
:...:.:..--o
:':';'*
......
'-'*;"'*"":
'-"*4.*, .t'T.
, .,"* . .': .m.'
.-.'
.....,--..'-'
.........
-----
--.:'<
--'
..-..:.'"
'.i........
"."-.''"'.:
":;::":':';-'--.-:'::'
'::':::
-
'":*.'"
....
. ....
............
.. . ..... -
'.
- .....
' "'--":';'"'":';:
:::":"
:'"":"
':'.':'":
';':'"'
':":::
...:.::".
...... :,:
-:;*
.::.,:....:--....:.
'"::',,
- ', ';.,..,...*-.'---.".'i.,
.',.;,, ;- . ,i,-',-,'*:',:-,:--::."2.i:**.,:*-'***'---:*
-.;".::,
."--.::.;'..:-,
''%..:,,':.:.?';;:&-.....'
:.'*;::..
'.'-' '...'..--:;-.;,:
aa:....,,..-.,.. . ....-..,.....
::...-.:..;.:.*.
,
:......-.--.......:.:.:.:
.;..,........;.
:.,.::...-.;,..._%,-...
:...:.::...:.:?,.
;..:
:...
,. -../?-
--':::.'::':'' "'
'.' {' ..... ' .-.:
."'-:::'"';'.....
:'.'..-.
":.".:
.'.:-';-'-;'"{/'2,
' ':!:
..:.::..'?'....' '--,'"-:;
.'.--,-.'
-':""
'.-.:'
--:....
..-.:,
,. '..'
...........
-.:;:.,.;,;.
,:....:.'.??
;-/;-:;
..,,..:-?;,
'-....':..........".-.-/--.-.::.
:':-::'-:--.'..-...
-......
...:.,:--.
--.
.......
. :. i -. . . ,;....
1.........
-.-:.-'*..---:
....
;...:
::-:
:.i?-;:i..:..:::'
,*....,.:;:
.......
, ....;.:,"....'
.......
' -'-'
.'..-:
':';'7':.'
::'/.'.-.;.'"
.5
....
.:':.'..:'-'-.
.".:.....
'':--,.----
'"'a,'**'
....
,....--------,
,':..:.,:;c*t.,-.,-...--:';.*..:.,...-.-**-"":",--,
.........
.......',.....
...t-.,
,
. :....
...,
.. ....
.......
..............
,..........
..,..,,.:..
.....
,,........
,,...
,.,.........
:..,
......
.:..-:..,.::::.",..:'::.
.....
,,.,..:.,.
.....
....
.....
..,
...................
.;';#
.....
...........
'i' '*:'
........
* ".....
'"*"*
.......
" '""' '" ' '
"..i.:
- '"'.','i,/';"';..'..".:
:',.,,,
...:.,,.::;.,;!.,-i'
".
'?,.. 'L*-,
. ,....
...,..-.,
........................
,.,.
:.:.-..-...,
.....-,.,.,?,..,
.....;:
.,,.,.,,
,.
.......
......:....,
..
,
..... . .,...:
, -.2.:'
.......
..,:.....,...:;':';
.,/:
.......
...,,.,.
....
...........,,
...:.
.....
.... ....
.......
'"':'"'"
'
"*:'.........
""*'"
......Ca'.
...........
"";;
.....:::":**:t
?"'--':'-""',":':i:::::*
........ ' ..........
'...........
:" -;.......
',-,
'-':-'
'"*.'>3
-'?-:'-':"'"'
::
'::t:-;i,';.V,
.'-...'.
e:*,
:-'r
..................
"
-"
".:*.'i-:-,
....
'
.......
-;-.-.
:.:.-.:..
'.:.-.
:.:...'r': 1.0
.................
:*;
' :;
-.:'i:
..........................
, ,,..i
' """
:,::..
*',,
,:,'
"::,,:;,'.:-........... - '"-..
'---'--:'" ----::
.......
':'-'-'-.
:' Example 1 8-A.
4O
....
:.'-.,-.,,,.-,.
:,..,,.,
.:...,
.:.C..../:,,;;,
.........
.-'
.......
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Model study
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
SEISMIC
SECTION
Validitv
check
I 15oo
rn
5000
ft
::-..:::
:..:
:-':::.
:...::...-':-.:...: :.-.......
..:::;::::.
:-...:
::::
:?-:.
--.-;.q
::..::.:.,..
.-::.
:-:-:.
-,:
:....:::.?:..:.::;..%....:.............
:?..:.
.;..
'-:'.;':-:,::..:..-';::'-:--.;:...:-.::::.:::.
:.;"........;.:...:
.-.:-:-,:....:c,..-:-:;.;
"-:-'-:,>-:::-:.-(.::
;.;:.'
.::::.'-.;--::;'-:.*.?;.-,'.--..
;c{..:....'..-..-':..:.;'.:.....
::..c'",:..:.%:
:.........;.'..;
-z:'
-...-..-.;..c:..:::..:t.::..:.-.
;-.-/.:-:.;;c/:';;:...W;j;-:'X-.-.-;
--:':;.
;::.
:-*:;---::-'"
-/.'--?:':'
.'::';':}'
;;:-':;......
......
..... .....:......
......
.........
...,
,,:-,...-::
:.:
.:....:.
:..:-;.:
....:;--{-..,.
...............
....: ......... *'*,.L;:,'-.::*-';:::;'.::,-:;:.:.**::'"':':.::i'.,:-':;-'"'
'.::..-;---.---:,.,
. ,',' ,',;,'-..... **. '..;;-,. ..., . ........
::::
:s.:.-.:......;.....4,:.,:.,?'..;,.
..;:;
.......
.- .: .'.....
...,
;.:
.....
....:......:.....,..:
;.,..........
::.:;:,.;;...
::;-..:.
:*::::,.x,...::x,::.:;*?*.;.::<*.,*:*--:-.
.......
......
- ............
:....:..:....:.:....?..,.,-,..,.::.,
..........
.,.......
.............
::.:...;.:.....:..**:.....:..,,.....
.....:.,
.. ,,
......
....:..::.
.........
..........
.
"*%:t':::'"'*"
";:'
;':'-;'
';'-::
::c
.........
,-*:
.... '"
':'
."-;;.4
.:.-..'..--,.,;{':'-:
":
;::';;::
'-'---:"::-.'
:::;
----:---'
"''"*'"'"-"";-:::***':."-----::-;;-";:"
.*-:-...;."x.".;;
.:.
/-:;:;:'--'
:c;.....-.-:::%.
:-.:-:.:;',::..;..
::-:-:.-'
.:...:--.
....
:..,,'-'
..:...
;
.....
'...........
.::....?..,..:.:
.....
;::-.:....:-:.:...;;'../:.
'.....
:..-;--:/... . .......................
........................
....::.:.
::..:,..
,..:.:
..:.-,.
:,.
.............
,;....-.....
:.-;...
......----.-,.-.,,,
,. ....
.........
.:::
........
-.,:.:....
.........
..............
:.....,:..?.......
...:...::.:.-....;.--:'.......:'..:'/
.......
...;-i,.:.-e
,:.",..:-:--'.......:
....: * ,*':-. ....................... -. .. - .................
:;;;,:.:
;;.'::':"--":::/'
:"?
::::.i'::*:./::"
';;:',:.,::.:...:
::'.X
';.:,;:.,::,'
........
.;..:
...::-'
..::;:
;,:,,..f:,:;,,;.,..:-:-.;:.:---.-:::,-....-:-,.
.....-:::,;-:::':,:.:-..
::....:....?
:?.'..,:,<:..,:.:',Q:.,;.;:'.:,..'?
-.q;-.,.,-::
.:.
;:.
:../:"::.'::::
.:?-.:
. .........::..........:
.....
...,-.......,....,.:..:
.:.::.,,-.,
:.?:.....: :-:;:.-;..::.:.
<;...,:::**......:.':,..................
...........................
:::..
,.::::::.:..
--:-:-:.:,:-:.:.---.::-.
....':.:'......:-':-.......'..:....':-:
q:...:
:..---:..-...,',;;..
.-'..'
.:<-.%
:.-.??:.,.
,:....:..:..,,:,?::..'"-''.....
?..-:.
,. ,.::'...:........:::..;.:.:::...:..:
..?
'...'.?: .:'i.:'-"'""-;
............
'":.----'""":::?*-"?"*"'-"?.:-*"--'
..........
;"-:;.'
....,:*-**-;';;"";-;;.
*":;',:
;-':.."':"
......
'::'":::*
:':"*:**:':*:'"""
:'"':'"*
...........
:':
'"'q:'...'?
' ::'"
"*.'"'::' .:'.'*"
*":,.i
.*,
"'""':"':?f,'"
'"":
':'
.....'.'
-- 1.o
'*;*-'-.-,'*
'*..';-./'''',.
' '';':
*",--.' "::':'**"--:
..2..,""'"'-:
INPUT
PULSE
Example 1 8-B
41
ft
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
The crux of the validity check is to recognize the input signal. With deep marine
shooting, this signal may be seen in the first arrivals and water-bottom reflection and
verified in deeper, wide-spacedreflectors. With land and shallow-water marine shooting,
the only clue will be in the wide-spaced reflectors. These will be seen as isolated
reflections of a similar character. In Example 18-B, the circled areas are distorted m
have no meaning whatever. If detailed mapping is required, extreme care must be
maintained in the character of signal put into the ground.
Examples, 19 and 20-Normal
Multiples
Observed phenomenon
1500
m_
5000
ft
.,-,-/
--
1.5
.'..... . ..:.......,
....................
........
..:,
...........
:.....
;/:i.-..:..,..
.....-. .........:......,
........ ..
......... .................' --
5000
ft
Example 19-A
3:
p_.__
c 2[GEOLOGIC
MODEL
2J-GEOLOGIC
MODEL
42
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Validity check
--
5000
ft
MULTIPLES
Example 19-B
Deconvolution may help with the ringing; selectivedip filtering may remove some
of the simple multiples; but no truly reliable method of eliminating multiples is
available. While calculating multiple paths may be very helpful, a pessimist can
"multiple" himself completelyout of a prospect.A healthy skepticismis a virtue.
43
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Observed phenomenon
,.; Shotpoint.,.
':
370
:; 1500 rn
' I
...
-- 5000 ft
!'..:...'
..
:.
i!;
I."
:?_.
_.i....-t_.
::::
. ........
MULTIPLES
Example 20-A
Example 20-A is a deep marine sectionwith the water bottom at 4.0 sec (10,000
ft). The baseof the gentlydippingreflectionsis about 4.8 sec at what appearsto be
a basementsurface.However,it apparentlyisn't basementsincethere are prominent
reflectionsbelowit which arenot readilyidentifiedasmultiples.
44
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Model study
2ND WATER
MULTIPLE
WATER
BOTTOM
SHOT
WATER
BOTTOM
-
BOTTOM
WATER
1ST WATER
BOTTOM
-
SHOT
WATER
BOTTOM
MULTIPLE
1ST WATER
I
MULTIPLE
SHOT
BOTTOM
2
TIME
10.2 SECONDS
ARRIVING
1 WILL
10.2 SECONDS
WATER
SHOT
SHOT
REPEAT
EVENTS
MULTIPLE
SHOT
SHOT
3RD
SHOT
BOTTOM
MULTIPLE
- 2ND
10 2 SEC. = 1 8 SEC
3RD
MULTIPLE
(12 SEC, -
SHOT
AFTER
APPEAR
AT
ON SHOT
10.2 SECONDS
ARRIVAL
TIME
FROM
MINUS
RECORD
BOTTOM
-
SHOT
The reflection at 5.7 sec, SP 370, is a simple, first-order multiple which has
traveled between basement and the water bottom. The second-order multiple of this
family appearsat 6.6 sec, and the third-order at 7.5 sec.
The cyclic energy between6.5 sec and 7.5 sec arisesfrom a different multiple
family. This energy has traveled from basementto the surface(primary arrival time,
4.9 sec) and then became trapped in the water layer, similar to Model 19-B. These
ringing multiples have arrival times of 8.9, 12.9, 16.9 sec. However, these arrival times
are distortedbecauseof the recording mode usedfor thesedata.
cyclic multiple, noted above, at 12.9 secwill appear at 2.7 sec (12.9- 10.2) and the thirdorder basementcyclic multiple at 6.7 sec(16.9- 10.2).
45
Downloaded 01/22/13 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Validity check
Shotpoint '
.,::.:,..
'
" . ,
"'..
-
,,
-.,
.....
.'-
.....
.....
:. ',:-..:.::;:'-,,.
,,.:..,..'.:
--,
,-.,
-,,
.,.,;;. -,<
.... '"
'.
'
.:..:....
_....
,......
....: ::...,,
'
---
. '..
. .. , . :..:::
......
. ..... -...-...
..:.,,>.,..:. . ..,:;:.-.
, :.
::.-:,
:::::
......
''
,.
,., ,:...
.:-:.::'-
:,:::: ..........
..........
:...........................
::::, :,----:-.:...:
....
I .::.:
-..:.:
- ...
.:
..;,.....,.,,.
..,_?:,..:.
,. ::
......
, , ','_s-...,.
, ,.
. ., .,:., , '
1500 m
370 .-''.. [
,....
......
: .....
.... _.....
..;;:::;::;::_:.:;.:::".
......
-
......... :.: .
.::::.::
.... ::::::::::-..:.
_...>::,._.
.:: .-..:.:......:..-...--.-.:.:::::
.;:::,
:-::.,:.::,:/"....:....?...:..:...:,:::.:
::.:..
':,:.
:.-:.......-:-::-.
'7.:..:-::.:::.,.'
......
.'.'",::: :<'.:-.,---'--:::,:-'---.<:'
-::..-
'.',:
,-.-:':,.,:
:'- .....-.--..<:
.,:
.......; ...
' ....
.,,::..
-.-.:....
::,.-....<::..,
....
-,..:
,,
:., .........
.-:-. :.,....
.....---..-
..
-':::::?.:..:....':,..':'-::
....::".......
:.:.. .-
............
....
....
:""''".,.
':-:.::..
:.,...
:.:
:..:'.
:.-.'.
:- '..''..'.-':"
'-:'
:'-:..:
...-.
:::::::.:
::.'-...'
:-;::'$:....
::
:::': .,.:...-"-:-:-'
"
.-.: . :':..'::'.:,....:.'..-.::::.:.:.:
.....
.... ....
.
-'_-....
........
-...-:..:.,
.....
-.:.....,
-,....
:,.:':_:::%
-.>..:.:
-.''-'-"-
. .:.;.
",.
i:::
.:',...:
.....
..:.-:...-.:.:.
...-::.:.
..:. :..:--::.:,...::::
...,...-},
:-:::..:.
:"
....'.;; .:::;:j
....'
....
<-::..:..::-.
:::::::::::::::::::::
::: "
..::::...........::.
......
:..::---:-'i
<:::.::...;.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:"":':':::--::":-?'::'-''/'?'":::"::::::::'?':
===================================
:::::::::::::::::::::::::-.?-::::'<'::::;.':
-- 10,000
ft
........
::,:'"'.'..:_:'::.7 =============================================================
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:?:
..........
. .
.,. ,:.:...
.....
.::
.....
:'..:":'.:'-:.'-'"-'
.:""'"","".
........:
".'-.::,:.:::-.':.'"
."::"
'"'.:":'?:::7-''.:
.::'..:.:'::::'"
::.:'-'.--T%:'::
:.:'-.
:...:.?.".-'..-::'-.:":
.......
-.:::.:
.-..:"
..... .' .......->,..:
'. :...:...:::..... :...-.,-:.....::'...:.
".:<:'."..:.r''5....:.:-:
........'::="
......... :,,.:..<
.......' :;:::-::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:..::-;:::..'::
-:::::---.::.::::.::
..............
..::....:
::::.:...
---.:.:S.s:::.....?::.- ...:::..:<.....:....:::-.:::::::::::::::::::::
:...':
.:.........
'::>:'-".'
.'':.......
....'
.-:/:.-.-.
......
:.......
.....:.....
.....::-...
:::.:......:.::.:::::,.:-?
................
......... *:....:....:
:-..-...
:::-:..:.
...<......,.::
,.,.:-:.-%
:.::.::.'
:.::.:::<.:.:
:::-".-.:..,..::.:-'....:;'--.:.j;::.:'::-..-'-:..'::.:'.':':.......-..
.... , ': .:::- ...--,.-.: .... ,........... .,...:::,.....
:'. .
,.:::;--
.-..:...:..:.='.,...,....
.'.-.-...w
..:.:-...
--,--:-:.;."....:"-..:-.'..-- '":': .:'....... ::..' .:-...: ..... <'-- -:-.:...
;.: ...-...
,..::- ..-...,../":..:...........:.
:-:'...:--:,::-..
- ....
.... .::...;j::...:--.......:...':.."':
===============================
.:':,..,-.:.,
-:'':-: ::..-:.:.... :.--..<':-.:.-..;:.:.
:..
:-:::.::..--...":
?.<:::.::::'-./,::-::.-..:?:.:.....,:..:.::..:.--
.....
...
........... ........:-:::?..:...'
......
.................
. .........
........:...
. .........
.:........ . .:-..:.
:.....,.
:..:<:-':.:..::.::.':::-::..:::
.:.:...:....
. . ,.,: :.,.:.:::::.::.....:...
.,....=..-:.........:::..,.:..
......
,,
,.::.:.....":::.,<
..........
'.. ....
.:.-:...: ,:::- ......
.....-::<.: ,.j.:...:..:<':?::':;'..
-:..:'/.: ..:...::.
:..::::?:..:.:....?.-:
.::
::
....
:"::<
,.:::,::..
:::.' -::'"-::::'..::.:...:
.-..:::.:.;,;
:.::::::
:.:
::-%::':..::'".:
:.:'-. '3:':....::-:
':,':.
.':": ;":. ":
::::...:.;.....
....
.
>. ,, .,-
,...'-
.....
'-..
, .
............ ,.........
....
,..
: ........
.. + .,...:.:
.. ....::::.,.:,....<:'.....:..
......-. ,:.'
:.:.--,...'........-..-::.:::
.:...:-......:.:-.:'..:'...::...?:
......:::..... : ,,,-:::
:-
................ .. .......
........ ......,,.<...... <:
...-::..:,.
:..::,".:
..........
:..:..,,..:
"/:.+':.-:.
:,::<..:
:::.:--<::?:':..:....:'.:.
-:.:...:
::...:.;:
.. -::.-':::
.',..:: ....:.'....:;;
:.-:..:.-..:<:...,
..-.,..,
:. ::-;'':;:..--.:.:...?-.::,.-;<.,.::
.;.:.:..
?,......:..:.......
:::..:.:,,:::.:
:.,.<::.:
;:......--,
.....
,-.,>..::.:::....,,.:
;:..:..:....
..<,.:....:
-=.-?:,-:.::.:.....:..:::<..:.
:,,-'-:-........:..
,..:...
:.':-.:,,,,,-.
-?-:..:...;',.
: .- .:.
......
..?..:::::....:..:
. ..::
:. ...
:-:.
:..'
::::.::...:
.=..:
:-i :...:?:.,...:
:'
.::-:,.
:..
. .
..
.::.
.........
Example 20-B
Example 20-A is a doctored section. The processor has logically removed the
multiple energy typically found within the water layer (above 4.0 sec). Although this
presents a pleasing looking section, it makes it impossible for the interpreter to trace
multiple paths as illustrated in the model.
Example 20-B is the undoctored version of 20-A. Needless to say, it will be quite
confusing to the person trying to read geology directly from the section but it does
contain the data necessaryto make an intelligent interpretation.
46
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1500
rn
Observed phenomenon
5000
ft
--o
--.5
--1.0
.
5000
ft
...
Example 21-A
Model study
O
-,
v
Ca
i I1
11
iii I
ijt!
GEOLOGIC
MODEL
SEISMIC
SECTION
p (Prirnory)
M(Multipl
Yes and no. Yes, it is caused by a low-velocity layer, but it is not a correction
problem. Again, multiples are our pitfall. In Example 21-A, the prominent reflections
at 0.5 sec and others parallel to it are multiples. Unlike the multiples of Models
19-A and 19-B, the multiple of Model 21 is an accentuatedmirror image of its primary.
It is also a mirror image of the baseof the low-velocitylayer from which it originates.
47
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Validity check
1500
rn
5000
............
=
..........
'-::.....':'
............
='=::':-'
...... =
ft
'"'--"-
.............
"":"-;:!=""
{..........
... :-"'?
....
"'
.- "4 ': :-':-'
. --
-.,.
. ..:
......
..-
-.....;
--':..,.
.,
....
.......
'
-'
..
::
.-;
--..:,.
:.
-. -
. . ......
:-
..
**.
.. -....
'
. ....
-:. ::",:;.;.:.
- ..?.
.--..
*.:._
:..:
......
/-*":.'.....:.:*
.......
.::m..
c
..
,. ' '*,'.,5
,, .' .,-,;;.;
::-
.*
.--?
;-.:
:.. ...... ..
---:.--
,. --z .
.. ..;
-....
*.::.:'.
'
.....
.
..
-;:- .. :.... -- - ...
..
-,-
.., ..
......'
.... .-.;...._..
.............
_.
.....
..::-.w
'.-'"'<:-:'*"-%c--
.-...
.. .;:-:-
........
'
.--."' ......
'-"::-.-
.:.- ': : ....
*"'*:
"*:."............
":":":'. :.....
.'--'-
.--
.
'--:-:::-
''"'"'
..... . -
- _
; ....
. ..-
'"::.--:-.a"-'''-:;
;'"':-*:::.,::c::*::
-.: ** ....:.
.. ' ....
.-.::..
.... ......
"-'
.-.-...:...'.
...
.:-...:...-'
-..:-...:
:.;.'.;:;::.:..:-:-'"--,--,.;:
:.(..._...;
....}.;..c...-':,
::..;:::;"....:.:.-;;;*
.....
':*-- 5000ft
...';..:.:....
--:--:::.
.......
.--....
:.,::.::..
"":',.'"'"'"'--''.'.":':...;...X:;;---*:::::::';*-P:-::.
:.;}::.::..--x...:
-.-:-..
---..:..:.-:-i.Z..,:;%:;*'::<...,-*:'....::.:-
....
";..:.:..--.
.........
-'-'-';::";c''"::..,::_.:*'..._.
**..,.::.';"':....."':..:.:::-:-:-:...:.:.........".:::[*;
...............
"'-"<
;"'"'"Z.'"':'
.. :' "'-;':. :-?-- ';.:
/?
.- . .
. .
- ';.;'.''f*;-':*::":
--* :',;'"'"'':''*?.;::::::';';;:::
':':::...?..:.:.
'.....---........,....-:.;-..-.,;:.:.
. -.-..---:.-- . :.;:;:-;, .: ..., -,;.:...----'-.....:.::...........;
..,
-..-:.*-.:;
.....
.
....... ..:..,...:
..-':'-5
a;:,..-..::::-:,:,-.........
"'......
--' ......
.,.:..:
,-:4:-...-,..
y/-- .
....
... .. .. :;,--r-
. ...-..........;
--..-',..:.*.
*'-/..'
....
- *- ."c:e* :;"T-,-*
'"'-:.'*::'"" :----'.
...:.... -....--.::
-'-:'.:;;":...-:--.. ,.;:-:
.'
''
.-.. '-
.........
. .........
MULTIPLE
..
-.,?:.....-:,.../":;
.':c.-----:..
-. --.'.--..-: ..:..
.....
:;...**.
.'.*--"*-:.**
'::.X:/'
'::::;'-'-
--.,.,-.
--::
;?-::.-.,;:
------.-::.:.:---:..-..-
....
,....:;'...
::,- ,-,.,.
:-..:...:.z
'
-. -
REFLECTIONS
Example 21-B
The multiple style of the anomaly in Example 21-A is suggestedby the surface
topographymarked on Examples21-A and 21-B. The validity check is the coincidence
of the topography with the structural anomaly. This time, however, the low-velocity
zone becomesa reflectorproducinga multiple. The true dip is indicatedby the primary
reflector, the horizontal dashedline in Example 21-B.
Example 22--Multiples
or Dip?
Example 22 shows two versions of the same seismic data. The differences in the two
Example 23--Structure
or Velocity?
I 1500m
i
I 1500m
I
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5000 ft
:'.
....
..
......
. ......
5000 ft
5000
ft>;
'.. .-..'
.:"'"--'>..--5000
ft
.-
.=
- '- -. ,- . :<
.......
;'
-"':..'
..'T
:''
-.......
,:.....
...-.,;
--?::'
..,...
:.....
. .'E,..,
' .......
.
.....,.
<....
,,.......:-.........?:
. ,.,:
.............
.
. . :......<. .
....
.....
:%.--,
,...
'
'-.
.....
..'
:/-'..-
>,':,-.:'..:.-A
.... ;",;
;:...,-.:..?
.....
-- 3.o
::.:.....,........
h:..;.?...
:.,......,;:-...:-..-
-------...L ;
-'J .............................
'''
; ..........
,.....
e.
--....;.-:..'.;:....
....
', .,.
,..
'..-..,.
..........
......
.---'.
.j- ,..
...://
.:'
.. -...
'-.:
.
.'....
.::
",;.
'.:
.....,..:...:...:.....
:.....:. . ;..:..., ...-..
." ...-.'...
....
---.:T-
'
' ,
..-..
' ...:>:
..........
..-2 .... -..' 40
.....
.........
..................
...........
-':'=" '-.",':;
"'..;"--
Example 22
'-10,000
-15,000
-20,000
TIME
DEPTH
SECTION
Example 23
49
SECTION
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SUMMARY
OF
DATA
GATHERING
AND
PROCESSING
VALIDITY
CHECKS
SUMMARY
50
ISBN 0-931830-11-7
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