Weed Management Using Fibres from Agricultural Waste

Eco Weed Mat Feasibility Assessment

MAY 2013
RIRDC Publication No. 13/015

Weed Management Using Fibres from Agricultural Waste

Eco Weed Mat Feasibility Assessment

by Menghe Miao, Michael Clarke and Adrian Best

May 2013 RIRDC Publication No. 13/015 RIRDC Project No. PRJ-007154

 2013 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved.

ISBN 978-1-74254-508-0 ISSN 1440-6845 Weed Management Using Fibres from Agricultural Waste Publication No. 13/015 Project No. PRJ-007154 The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances. While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication. The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors. The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication. This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to RIRDC Communications on phone 02 6271 4100. Researcher Contact Details Dr Menghe Miao CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering Henry Street Belmont VIC 3216 Email: menghe.miao@csiro.au In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form. RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: Fax: Email: Web: 02 6271 4100 02 6271 4199 rirdc@rirdc.gov.au. http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Electronically published by RIRDC in May 2013 Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra at www.rirdc.gov.au or phone 1300 634 313

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Foreword
This research assesses the feasibility of manufacturing a biodegradable weed mat from fibres that are currently waste. The Eco Weed Mat (EWM) can be used as an alternative to the petroleum-based polyethylene weed mat, without the negative impact of plastic residues. The report also outlines the potential of a new fibre value-chain in Australia. This research will be of interest to a broad cross section of land managers from both agricultural and environmental sectors. This report will be of particular interest to growers involved with organic, biodynamic and specialised production across the horticultural sector, managers of national environmental assets, natural resource facilitators, peri-urban land managers, residential garden owners, as well as manufacturers and suppliers of agricultural and garden products. The biodegradable weed mats are made from straw fibres using a combination of high productivity nonwoven technologies to provide effective weed suppression as a strong physical barrier and as a solarisation cover. Economical modelling has shown that the biodegradable weed mat can be manufactured in Australia at a price competitive to existing polyethylene weed mat. The results of this research are based on mats produced on narrow-width, laboratory-scale processing machinery. Further trials of the mat, made full-width on commercial machinery, will be needed in large scale, broad acre trials across a wide spectrum of horticultural crops and landscapes. This project is part of the National Weeds and Productivity Program, which is funded to 30 June 2012 by the Australian Government with the goal of reducing the impact of invasive weeds on farm and forestry productivity as well as on biodiversity. All RIRDC research investments in this Program are oversighted by the Weeds R&D Advisory Committee in accordance with the National Weeds and Productivity Research Program R&D Plan 2010-2015 that has been approved by the Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Solutions to weeds in Australia require a long-term, integrated, multi-stakeholder and multidisciplinary approach. RIRDC is seeking project applications that involve collaboration between stakeholder groups, and where possible, including external contributions both monetary and in-kind. This report is an addition to RIRDCs diverse range of over 2000 research publications which can be viewed and freely downloaded from our website www.rirdc.gov.au. Information on the Weeds Program is available online at http://www.rirdc.gov.au/programs/national-ruralissues/weeds/weeds_home.cfm. Most of RIRDCs publications are available for viewing, free downloading or purchasing online at www.rirdc.gov.au. Purchases can also be made by phoning 1300 634 313.

Craig Burns Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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About the Authors

Dr Menghe Miao (Principal Investigator) Principal Research Scientist, CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering

Dr Menghe Miao completed his PhD degree on textile engineering at the University of Leeds in 1985. He taught and conducted research in textile engineering in universities before joining the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand in 1996. He moved to CSIRO in 2006 as a Principal Research Scientist in Materials Science and Engineering. Throughout his research career, Menghe has led many research projects on fibre processing technology and product developments, composite materials, carbon nanotubes and other high performance materials, provided consultancies and conducted technology transfer projects internationally. He authored more than 150 journal papers, patents, book chapters, conference papers, industrial reports and technical manuals. Menghe was awarded Fellow of the Textile Institute (FTI, CText) in 2000.
Michael Clarke Principal, AgEconPlus

Michael Clarke is an agricultural economist with more than twenty five years analysis experience. He has completed feasibility studies and cost benefit analyses of alternative land use options and new industries and enterprises. Further details on Michael can be found at www.AgEconPlus.com.au. Adrian Best
Principal, Synerge P/L

Adrian is an experienced professional manager specializing in process engineering to assist individuals and organizations in training, undertaking policy development, research, and strategic business documentation. He specializes in the analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation of Agrifood industries involving training, product and business commercialisation, and the implementation of new business start-up for industry.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of Mr Andrew Jones and Dr Keith Millington, CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, for nonwoven processing (AJ) and measuring the light transmittance of the weed mat samples (KM).

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Abbreviations and Glossary

ATB AUD Bast Decortication DEEDI EC EWM FOB GRDC gsm ha Hurd PE PU Retting RIRDC Scutching Shives THC Tow UK Institute of Agricultural Engineering Potsdam, Germany Australian Dollar Inner bark or phloem of some plants from which fibre is extracted Separates fibre from shives Queensland Department of Employment Economic Development and Industry European Community Eco Weed Mat Free On Board pricing Grains Research and Development Corporation grams per square metre Hectare Core of plant stem Polyethylene Polyurethane Breakdown of plant material using microbes to facilitate processing Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Traditional method of separating fibres for linen processes Broken pieces of hurd, a by-product of decortication Tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive chemical present in Marijuana Second quality fibres, a waste stream from linen manufacture United Kingdom

Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................... iii About the Authors ................................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgment .................................................................................................................................. iv Abbreviations and Glossary ................................................................................................................. v Executive Summary.............................................................................................................................. xi Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Study Purpose ................................................................................................................................... 1 Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Agricultural Fibre Feasibility Study ................................................................................................ 2 Overview of agricultural fibres ......................................................................................................... 2 Flax Fibre and Linseed...................................................................................................................... 2 Current Australian Production and Its Location .............................................................................. 2 Potential Growth and Competing Crops .......................................................................................... 3 Hemp ................................................................................................................................................. 3 Current Australian Production and Its Location .............................................................................. 3 Potential Growth and Competing Crops .......................................................................................... 3 Kenaf ................................................................................................................................................. 3 Current Australian Production and Its Location .............................................................................. 4 Potential Growth and Competing Crops .......................................................................................... 4 Bagasse ............................................................................................................................................. 4 Cotton Stalk Fibre ............................................................................................................................. 4 Current Australian Production and Its Location .............................................................................. 4 Potential Growth and Competing Crops .......................................................................................... 5 Banana Fibres.................................................................................................................................... 5 Current Australian Production and Its Location .............................................................................. 5 Potential Growth and Competing Crops .......................................................................................... 5 Bamboo ............................................................................................................................................. 6 Straw from Cereal Plants .................................................................................................................. 6 Sorghum ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Canola ............................................................................................................................................... 6 Summary by Agricultural Fibre Source ............................................................................................ 6 2. Fibre Extraction & Weed Mat Manufacture: Technology and Costs .......................................... 9 Past Fibre Extraction Activity in Australia and Cost of Supply ....................................................... 9 Pre-extraction Activities .................................................................................................................. 9 Decortication.................................................................................................................................... 9 Cost of Supply ................................................................................................................................. 9 Economic feasibility ........................................................................................................................ 9 Extraction Technologies [5] ............................................................................................................ 10

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Hammer Milling ............................................................................................................................ 10 Silsoe Decorticator [6] ................................................................................................................... 10 ATB Decorticator [7] ..................................................................................................................... 10 Mobile Decortication ..................................................................................................................... 11 Recoverable Yield ......................................................................................................................... 11 Estimated Fibre Extraction Costs [8] .............................................................................................. 11 Weed Mat Manufacturing Technologies and Costs ........................................................................ 12 Fabric Manufacture using Needle Punch ....................................................................................... 12 Fabric Manufacture by Hydroentanglement .................................................................................. 12 Estimated Weed Mat Manufacturing Cost ...................................................................................... 13 3. Estimated Weed Mat Market Size ................................................................................................. 15 Estimated Weed Mat Market Size .................................................................................................. 15 Product Competition ....................................................................................................................... 15 Other Potential Uses for Eco Weed Mat ......................................................................................... 16 4. Production of Eco Weed Mat ......................................................................................................... 18 Fibres used ...................................................................................................................................... 18 Sample production by nonwoven process ....................................................................................... 18 Web laying ..................................................................................................................................... 18 Consolidation ................................................................................................................................. 20 Coloration ....................................................................................................................................... 23 Eco weed mat samples produced .................................................................................................... 23 Preliminary samples....................................................................................................................... 23 Large sample.................................................................................................................................. 23 5. Laboratory testing ........................................................................................................................... 24 Mechanical strength ........................................................................................................................ 24 Water transport through mat ........................................................................................................... 27 Light transmittance ......................................................................................................................... 28 Colour fastness ................................................................................................................................ 30 6. Field trials ........................................................................................................................................ 32 Field Trials self-seeded pasture.................................................................................................... 33 Initial trial on self-seeded pasture ................................................................................................... 34 Second trial on self seeded pasture ................................................................................................ 38 Solarisation trials ............................................................................................................................ 40 Field Trials - Tree and Nursery Industry......................................................................................... 43 Field Trials broad acre garlic trials in Hunter Valley .................................................................. 45 Background .................................................................................................................................... 45 Date of trial .................................................................................................................................... 45 Trial requirements.......................................................................................................................... 45 Initial feedback .............................................................................................................................. 48 Trial assessment criteria ................................................................................................................ 49 7. Summary of Results and Findings ................................................................................................. 50 Implications .......................................................................................................................................... 51

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Recommendations................................................................................................................................ 52 Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 53 Moisture and temperature results from field trials .......................................................................... 53 References ............................................................................................................................................ 56

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Tables
Table 1-1. Table 1-2. Table 2-1. Table 2-2. Table 3-1. Table 3-2. Table 5-1. Table 5-2. Table 5-3. Table 5-4. Table 5-5. Table 5-6. Table 5-7. Table 6-1. Table 6-2. Table 6-3. Table 6-4. Cotton Production Area, Estimated Stalk Production and Available Bast Fibre by State .................5 Potential Australian Agricultural Fibre Sources Summary of Feasibility Study Findings .............7 ATB Decorticator Outputs ...............................................................................................................11 Estimated Eco Weed Mat Fabric Manufacturing Capital and Operating Costs..............................13 Estimated weed mat market size ......................................................................................................15 Alternative Natural Fibre Uses ........................................................................................................17 Fabric area weight (gsm) .................................................................................................................24 Tensile strength machine direction ...............................................................................................24 Tensile strength cross direction ....................................................................................................24 Elongation at maximum load machine direction ..........................................................................24 Elongation at maximum load cross direction................................................................................25 Fabric bursting strength ...................................................................................................................25 Mechanical properties of commercial PE split film woven mat ......................................................26 Temperature measurement results from Patch 1 ..............................................................................42 Temperature measurement results from Patch 2 ..............................................................................42 Tree and Nursery Industry Trial Findings .......................................................................................44 Broad acre garlic trial assessment criteria .......................................................................................49

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Figures
Figure 4-1. Figure 4-2. Figure 4-3. Figure 4-4. Figure 4-5. Figure 4-6. Figure 5-1. Figure 5-2. Figure 5-3. Figure 5-4. Figure 5-5. Figure 5-6. Figure 5-7. Figure 5-8. Figure 5-9. Figure 6-1. Figure 6-2. Figure 6-3. Figure 6-4. Figure 6-5. Figure 6-6. Figure 6-7. Figure 6-8. Bast fibres used in the eco weed mats...........................................................................................18 Non-woven processing line used to produce eco weed mat samples ............................................19 Miniturbo card used in airlaid web trial ........................................................................................20 Narrow width Rieter Perfojet pilot spunlace machine used in the project ....................................21 Optical and scanning electron microscopic images of the flax mats before and after the spunlace treatment ........................................................................................................................22 Preliminary eco weed mat samples (left) and commercial control (right) ....................................23 Normalised tensile strength in machine direction as a function of area weight ............................25 Normalised tensile strength in cross direction as a function of area weight .................................26 Normalised bursting strength as a function of area weight ...........................................................26 Water drop rolling/spreading test ..................................................................................................27 Wicking height test (Left) after 25 minutes; (Right) after 3 hours (scale bars = 180 mm) ...........27 Light transmittance through new weed mats ................................................................................28 Light transmittance through weed mats effect of black colorant. ..............................................29 Light transmittance through weed mats after field trial ................................................................30 Colour change after exposed in field trial .....................................................................................31 Varieties of weeds in the trial field before start of the field trial ..................................................33 Trial setup (14 September 2011)...................................................................................................34 After one month (14 October 2011)..............................................................................................35 Trial result .....................................................................................................................................36 Eco Weed Mat was sprayed with black paint ...............................................................................37 The effect of spraying black dyes on eco weed mat. ....................................................................37 Black Eco Weed Mat trial results after one month .......................................................................38 (a) Trial set up on 6 Dec 2011: dyed hemp mat (left), PE control (middle) and natural colour hemp (right). (b) Image taken on 13 January 2012: natural colour hemp (left), PE control (middle) and dyed hemp mat (right). Note discoloured hemp mat. ..............................................39 Figure 6-9. Figure 6-10. Figure 6-11. Figure 6-12. Mats laid on 20 January 2012, trial results on 17 April 2012 .......................................................40 Setup of solarisation trials .............................................................................................................41 Eco weed mat trial at National Arboretum, Canberra ...................................................................43 Eco weed mat trial at Yarralumla Nursery Canberra ....................................................................43

Executive Summary
What the report is about? The research assesses the feasibility of manufacturing a biodegradable weed mat from fibres that are currently agricultural wastes. The weed mat can be used as a high value alternative to the current polyethylene product. The report also outlines the potential of a new fibre value-chain in Australia. Who is the report targeted at? The main audience is horticultural and broad acre growers who use weed mat; land managers in rural and regional Australia; managers of environmental assets; natural resource facilitators, and peri-urban land managers. The report is also relevant to broad acre crop growers who have an interest in either diversification or value adding what is currently an agricultural waste, and textile manufacturers interested in new product lines. Where are the relevant industries located in Australia? The most prospective source of raw material supply would be fibre from waste linseed straw and the best location for a fibre extraction plant would be the Victorian, NSW or Queensland grain belts. Users of the eco weed mat developed are broad acre horticulture, and garden and park supplies across Australia. Manufacturers of the eco weed mats are the textile industry in NSW and VIC. Background In an agricultural setting, weeds compete with productive crops or pasture for space, nutrients, water and light. Weeds reduce the productivity of otherwise productive land. UV-stabilised polyethylene films provide effective weed eradiation, but also impede the effectiveness of rainfall and inhibit worm activity. Woven and spunlaced polypropylene fabrics allow water to pass through the fabric and thus solve the permeability problem. However, these petroleum-based and chemical treated materials are not biodegradable and contribute to plastic pollution. In this project, CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering in Geelong teamed with an agricultural economist, a market researcher and horticultural producers to manufacture and trial a biodegradable product that would provide an environmentally sustainable weed management solution. The resultant weed mat suppresses weeds while the plants are establishing and then slowly rots away. The biodegradable weed mat retains moisture, allows rainfall to soak into the soil, reduces evaporation, and encourages beneficial worm activity. Aims/objectives To evaluate the feasibility for commercial manufacture of biodegradable weed mats in Australia, including a survey of regional distribution of fibrous straw growth, fibre extraction technology, mat manufacturing technology, current social, economic and institutional influences, and mapping how the initiative developed through this project can create value in the regions.

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Methods used Preliminary samples and a 500 m sample of Eco Weed Mat was manufactured using CSIROs pilot scale nonwoven line. The samples were evaluated through a wide range of laboratory testing followed by field trials. The testing and trial results provided the basis for feasibility assessments. The agricultural feasibility assessment included analysis of potential broad acre Australian fibre sources and cost estimates of raw material supply. Manufacturing feasibility assessment required analysis of fibre extraction technologies (mobile and fixed), estimation of fibre extraction costs, weed mat manufacturing technologies and weed mat manufacturing costs. Horticultural weed mat user feasibility assessment included field trials and cost benefit analysis of substituting Eco Weed Mat for conventionally sourced supplies. The feasibility assessment was supplemented with qualitative analysis of non-financial benefits and costs. Key findings Review of past fibre extraction activity in Australia indicates that fibre suitable for weed mat manufacture can be extracted from linseed waste and provided to product manufacturers for approximately $1,000 per tonne. Comparable material can be sourced from Europe and North America in volume at a similar price. Low grade plant fibres used in the textile industry can be sourced from Asia at a lower price. Other potential product streams from plant fibres that would make use of the by-products of fibre extraction in Australia include composite materials along with animal bedding, mulches and soil ameliorates (low value but proven technologies and markets). Laboratory testing and field trials demonstrated that mats made from straw fibres using spunlace, a low cost and effective nonwoven manufacturing technology, were thin and strong for handling and can provide a biodegradable alternative for weed suppression. Consultation with a leading nonwoven machinery manufacturer revealed that one 2.5m wide plant production facility would have capital costs of approximately $5.5 million, annual operating costs of $1.7 million and be able to produce undyed weed mat of 150 gram/m2 and 2.5 metres wide at around $0.83 per linear metre, or $0.33/m2. The biodegradable Eco Weed Mat would therefore retail somewhere between $1.60 and $2.50 per lineal metre and this indicative price is less than current woven polypropylene alternatives. The results of horticultural field trials will inform the final horticultural user benefit cost analysis. Preliminary analysis indicates that for commercial horticultural growers (strawberry, garlic, etc) Eco Weed Mat is likely to be cost effective; technically fit for purpose and offer benefits over nonbiodegradable woven polypropylene product. One plant facility manufacturing Eco Weed Mat in Australia would produce approximately 6 million metres of 2.5 metre wide product every year and this output is the equivalent of around 10% of total estimated Australian weed mat use. Implications for relevant stakeholders for: A sustainable management approach to weed management. The project identifies a sustainable approach to the management of weed eradication and productivity. The Eco Weed Mat offers a mechanical and potentially cost effective method to build resilient and productive land management systems, and enables a timely response to the current and future effects of climate change and the carbon economy.

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New opportunities for specific organic and horticulture sectors. The need for a food-safe and biodegradable EWM product has been identified from growers across different Agrifood sectors. EWM responds to this demand by avoiding negative impacts of chemical herbicides and use of petroleum-based synthetic weed mats affecting food safety, sustainable land use and the environment. Fibres from Australian agricultural waste. The report identified three most abundant agricultural wastes with potential for weed mat production and the future of establishing a process to extract fibres to meet a low carbon economy and opportunities in Australia. The three fibrous wastes are linseed straws (closely related to flax), cotton stalks and banana trunks. Australia currently does not have the facilities to extract fibre from crop wastes as other countries in Europe and North America. Feasibility of manufacturing Eco Weed Mat in Australia. An appropriately scaled production facility based on the proposed spunlace nonwoven technology would be able to produce Eco Weed Mat at a competitive price to current woven polypropylene alternatives. The production facility would be able to supply only about 10% top end of the Australian market. This provides business opportunities for the manufacturing sector. Recommendations Dissemination of study results. Study results should be widely communicated to relevant stakeholders identified in this report. Expanded field trials of Eco Weed Mat. More extensive broad acre field trials for different horticultural crops and landscaping species will provide further more comprehensive information on effectiveness of weed eradication, biodegradability, environmental implications and overall cost/benefit. Commercial production of Eco Weed Mat in Australia. Existing manufacturers and potential investors and a steering committee should be engaged to consider this business opportunity and seek a solution inclusive across all commercially available agricultural waste fibres and locations (or at least the Australian top three commercially available or sought after fibres, especially cotton stalk fibre). Fibre extraction in Australia. Fibrous straws such as linseed and hemp are burnt in Australia as the remaining fibre in the plant is capable of destroying agricultural machinery. A study inclusive of a strategic plan should be commissioned to analyse the feasibility of establishing fibre extraction from the top three available waste fibres in Australia, establishment of facilities in appropriate locations or the use of mobile extraction platforms, suitable extraction technology, and size of potential market for other uses of fibre. Other applications of new plant fibres. Natural fibres can be used in many applications, taking advantage of the specific strength, safety and environmental properties. Australian government policies and assistance should be directed to assist industry to grasp opportunities offered by new plant fibres, through funding research and development of manufacturing technologies and applications, such as in the automotive and building industries.

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Introduction
Study Purpose
The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of developing weed mats from agricultural wastes and other bast fibres (plant fibres sourced from the phloem ). Research was completed as part of the Australian Governments National Weeds and Productivity Research Program 2010 to 2015 managed by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC).

Objectives
The feasibility study was to deliver the following objectives: 1. Agricultural feasibility assessment - analysis of potential broad acre Australian fibre sources and cost estimates of raw material supply. Review of past fibre extraction activity in Australia. 2. Manufacturing feasibility assessment - analysis of fibre extraction technologies, estimation of fibre extraction costs, weed mat manufacturing technologies and weed mat manufacturing costs. Review of other potential production streams and indicative manufacturing costs. 3. Horticultural weed mat user feasibility assessment cost benefit analysis of substituting Eco Weed Mat for conventionally sourced supplies. The feasibility assessment was supplemented with qualitative analysis of non-financial benefits and costs.

Methodology
The study was delivered in eight parts: 1. Biodegradable bast fibres extracted from straws of linseed and hemp crops were used in manufacturing the Eco Weed Mat for this study. The fibre materials were imported from Canada and Holland. 2. Three constructions of Eco Weed Mat (150 gsm, 250gsm and 350 gsm) were manufactured using CSIROs narrow width nonwoven line for preliminary small scale weed eradication trials. 3. Preliminary field trials on the initial weed mats were conducted in a self-seeded pasture. The control is a commercial black polyethylene woven weed mat. In addition, colour effect on weed eradication was studied by spraying a black paint on the preliminary Eco Weed Mat. 4. The Eco Weed Mat and the commercial polyethylene weed mat were characterised at CSIRO according to standard (where available) and in-house testing methods. 5. 500m of Eco Weed Mat based on the optimum mat construction was produced on CSIROs narrow width nonwoven line. Two methods of coloration were used, reactive dyeing and spray of a commercial black mulch colorant - Colorbiotics. 6. Field trials were conducted at the National Arboretum, Yarralumla Nursery Canberra, and two garlic fields in Hunter Valley to determine the effectiveness of weed eradication. 7. Feasibility study of fibre extraction from agricultural wastes (fibrous straws) was conducted by a survey of fibrous straw growth in Australia (regions, distribution), a review of open literature and site visit interviews with industry. 8. Feasibility study of commercially manufacturing the biodegradable Weed Mat in Australia was conducted by a review of commercial nonwoven technology, a visit to a major nonwoven machinery manufacturer and economic modelling.

1. Agricultural Fibre Feasibility Study

Overview of agricultural fibres
Plant fibres are obtained from the stem, leaf, or fruit husk of a variety of plants. Fibres in the fruit husk are non-structural for the plant growth. Fibres obtained from stems or the central portions of leaves perform the function of providing structural rigidity in the plant. There are over a thousand species of fibre-containing plants and the overwhelming majority are not cultivated for fibre production. Fibres obtained from the outer barks of plant stems perform the function of providing structural rigidity in the plant and are consequently strong and stiff. The commonly used bast fibres are flax, hemp, kenaf, ramie, and jute. Linseed plant is the seed version of flax, which is not traditionally used by the textile industry and is an agricultural waste. Ramie and jute are not grown in Australia due to climate conditions. In addition to bast fibres there are a range of agricultural waste materials that may have potential for use in the manufacture of weed mat. These include bagasse, cotton stalk fibre, banana fibre and straws from cereal and oilseed plants. After comprehensive scoping by the study team [1] the following bast fibres and agricultural wastes are considered in this report: Fibre flax and linseed Hemp Kenaf Bagasse Bamboo Cotton stalk fibre Banana fibres Straws from cereal plants Sorghum Canola

Flax Fibre and Linseed

Flax belongs to the family Linaceae. Plants from the flax family are either grown for textile fibre (fibre flax) or for seed (linseed, or oilseed flax). Flax fibre has been used to make linen fabrics for at least 5,000 years. Traditional linen fibres extracted from the fibre flax are highly valued by the linen textile industry. Modern decortication (processing) technologies are available to extract flax fibres at much lower cost for use in industrial textiles. Oilseed flax produces lower quality fibre, as the plant variety has been selectively bred for optimal seed yield rather than fibre quality. In comparison with fibre flax, linseed plant is shorter and multibranched.

Current Australian Production and Its Location

To the best of the authors knowledge textile fibre flax is not commercially grown in Australia. Linseed is a small commercial Australian crop with pockets of production through Victorian, NSW and the Queensland grain belts. Linseed is predominantly a temperate summer crop or subtropical winter crop. In Victoria the crop is grown mainly in high rainfall districts in the South-West region. It requires 450mm to 700mm rainfall areas and is a useful cereal break crop. 2

Potential Growth and Competing Crops

In Australia, linseed production is less profitable than other cereal break crops and significantly less profitable than wheat. For example growers on the Queensland Darling Downs must achieve a per tonne seed price four times that of prime hard wheat for the crop to be profitable. To date Australian growers have not been able to compete with flax seed imported from Canada. Flax seed is imported for use in the health food sector for example in wholemeal breads. A change in Australias biosecurity laws requiring imported flax seed to be irradiated will detract from this products use in the health food sector and may provide a profitable opportunity for Australian linseed growers. Australian growers can achieve linseed straw yields of 2.5t/ha with a theoretical 20% fibre yield. Fibre will only ever be a biproduct to augment seed sales. 1

Hemp
Hemp fibres are obtained from the outer bark of the stem of industrial hemp plants (Cannabis Sativa). The chemical composition and structure of hemp fibre are similar to that of flax, but the ultimate fibres have a less polygonal cross-section. Hemp fibre tends to be significantly coarser after refinement than flax fibre. Hemp can also be grown for seed rather than for fibre production, leading to a reduced quality fibre variety. Varieties of Cannabis similar to hemp are grown for narcotics purposes (Marijuana), but industrial fibre or seed hemp varieties have extremely low, almost negligible levels of THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol), the psychoactive chemical present in Marijuana varieties.

Current Australian Production and Its Location

Hemp is well adapted for temperate and subtropical climatic zones as an annual summer crop. The fibre crop grows in approximately 100 to 120 days. In temperate regions, hemp can only be grown in the summer months; in sub-tropical and tropical regions there can be scope to extend this with varietal development. At this stage production is largely experimental with some large investments planned for Western Australia, Queensland and the NSW Hunter Valley.

Potential Growth and Competing Crops

Hemp requires well-structured soils with high nutrient and water availability. Irrigation is the norm and agronomists suggest growth on fertile and irrigated river flats. This means that hemp will need to compete with established and proven crops like wine grape growing and lucerne hay production. After five years of lucerne growing analysis shows that a hemp crop of 12t/ha dry matter can be a profitable annual break crop prior to lucerne re-establishment 2. Australian markets for hemp products are starting to emerge. Hemp grown for seed produces a lower yield of fibre than does specialty fibre varieties.

Kenaf
Kenaf fibres are obtained from the family of Hibiscus plants, particularly Hibiscus Cannabinus, which can grow 2-5 metres tall. It is often grouped with jute, particularly in terms of its production, due to similar structure and properties. It is grown in quantity in Thailand, India, South America and the USA. Kenaf can be used for wood, wood chip or as a good long fibre source 3.

1 2 3

personal communication , in grower Qld Darling Downs Infinity Fibres (2010) Feasibility of Growing Industrial Hemp in NSW Hunter Valley

http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncnl7145.htm 3

Current Australian Production and Its Location

Kenaf is a spring summer crop in tropical and subtropical regions. Kenaf varieties predominantly grown in Australia are well adapted to Qld and northern NSW tropical and subtropical conditions. The crop has been trialled in the Northern Territory. Kenaf is being grown by sugar cane producers in Mackay Qld to provide an alternative fuel source for powering sugar mills4. Kenaf prospers under high rainfall and sunlight. As kenaf is a high-biomass crop, nutrient requirements are high. It is more diverse than hemp in its tolerance of soil conditions and could be grown under a range of dryland or irrigated conditions in northern Australia. It is highly drought tolerant with a broader harvest window than hemp. Production remains mostly experimental.

Potential Growth and Competing Crops

Kenaf has been grown successfully on the Queensland Darling Downs. To be profitable in this area it must compete with coarse grains (e.g. corn and sorghum) and a range of oilseed crops including sunflower. On the Darling Downs kenaf will yield 55t/ha with a theoretical fibre yield of 25%. Kenaf costs around the same to grow as a corn crop. Market development has stifled widespread planting 5.

Bagasse
Bagasse fibre obtained from the waste stream of sugar-milling is abundantly available in Australia. The tensile properties of this fibre have been found to be very low. The fibre is coarse and not suitable for processing into textile forms. There is potential for the use of bagasse fibre in non-structural and semi-structural fibre reinforced plastics. The product is not suitable for weed mat manufacture.

Cotton Stalk Fibre

Cotton refers to the soft, fluffy staple fibre that grows in a boll or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants. Cotton is the predominant type of natural fibre used in textiles. Australia is a major cotton growing country. Cotton seed fibre is outside the scope of this review as it is not an agricultural waste or an emerging crop. This study addresses the bast fibres present in the outer bark of the cotton plant straw, currently an industry waste. Cotton stalk fibre is rarely studied. From the limited literature available[2] cotton stalk fibre appears to be cellulose rich and some attempts have been made at using the cellulose in the stalks as a source of paper, industrial fuel and as a regenerated cellulose for rayon. The fibre may be suitable for making weed mat.

Current Australian Production and Its Location

An estimated 3 t/ha of cotton stalk waste [3]is produced across the Australian industry and estimated cotton stalk production and its location is shown in the table below. Recent bast fibre extraction experiments at CSIRO showed that the bast fibre yield from cotton stalk is about 15%. So the total available quantity of bast fibre is about 117,000 tonnes/year.

4 5

Personal communication Annette Sugden, Sugar Research & Development Corporation personal communication grower in Qld Darling Downs

Table 1-1. Cotton Production Area, Estimated Stalk Production and Available Bast Fibre by State (average 2000-01 to 2009-10)

State NSW Queensland Total Australia

Area* (000 ha) 162 97 259

Stalk (000 tonnes) 486 291 777

Bast fibre -potential (000 tonnes) 72.9 43.7 116.6

*Source: ABARES Australian Commodity Statistics 2010

Potential Growth and Competing Crops

The Australian cotton industry is mature and potential growth is limited by the availability of additional irrigation water. A limited crop is grown opportunistically without irrigation.

Banana Fibres
Fibres can be extracted from both banana trunks and leaves. Both trunks and leaves are currently industry waste products. The banana plant has long been a source of fibre for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana cultivation for clothing and household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibres for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibres of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibres of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibres are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand. In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening process, mechanical fibre extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibres are sent to the Kathmandu Valley for use in rugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fibre rugs are woven by traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods, and are sold RugMark certified. In South Indian state of Tamil Nahttp, after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is made into fine thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread. Banana fibre may be suitable for weed mat manufacture if an economical fibre extraction technology can be developed

Current Australian Production and Its Location

The Australian banana industry is spread across three states Queensland, NSW and Western Australia with a 90% concentration in the Tully and Innisfail regions of Tropical North Queensland. There are approximately 5,500 ha of banana in Tropical North Queensland yielding between 30 and 40 tonnes/ha. Disease has resulted in the cessation of banana production in the Northern Territory and in Kununurra Western Australia. A small sub-tropical industry is located in northern NSW and Carnarvon WA.

Potential Growth and Competing Crops

The Australian banana industry is mature. Growth is forecast in line with population growth of around 1.3% pa. Banana growing is sufficiently profitable for production to be stable. This situation would change if bananas were imported into Australia. Local production would diminish. Production is adversely impacted by severe climatic events such as cyclones.

Bamboo
There is a small Australian bamboo industry in Far North Queensland. Its principle product is culinary bamboo shoots but there is a small amount of experimental fibre production. Outside of production for ornamental and culinary purposes, the industry in Australia is very small. Fibres can be extracted from bamboo trunks by steam explosion and thermomechanical separation [4] (e.g. Chinese Patent applications, 93108031.2, 01107139.7 and 02133494.3). The resultant fibres are potentially suitable in weed mat through nonwoven processes.

Straw from Cereal Plants

Straws or the dry stalks of cereal plants, such as maize, rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, etc. are available in large quantities. Straws have many traditional uses, including fuel, paper-making, livestock bedding and fodder, thatching and basket-making. In many parts of the world, straw is used to bind clay and concrete. A mixture of clay and straw, known as cob, can be used as a building material. Wheat straw fibres can be used as potential reinforcing materials for making thermoplastic composites. Straws can be used as mulches for weed suppression. Fibres in cereal straw are too short and lack the tensile strength needed for weed mat manufacture.

Sorghum
Sorghum is the major summer Australian coarse grain crop and third in crop production area after wheat and barley. Production is concentrated in Northern NSW (Gunnedah) and Southern Qld in the Darling Downs (Dalby). Sorghum is harvested February to May. Uses for sorghum straw include animal fodder (higher nutritional value for livestock than cereal straws), moisture / soil retention on farm (widespread use after grazing), use in second generation biofuels (experimental in Australia), manufacture into wall board for housing (experimental overseas), biodegradable packaging does not accumulate static electricity and therefore useful for packing sensitive electronic equipment (minor/experimental overseas). Sorghum stubble does not have the textile properties suitable for weed mat manufacture.

Canola
Canola is a major Australian oilseed crop. Canola stubble is used for sheep grazing. Sometimes it is burnt to control pests and disease (e.g. fungus blackleg) but harvest and removal may be a better biosecurity control option. Canola stubble does not have the textile properties suitable for weed mat manufacture.

Summary by Agricultural Fibre Source

Key data for promising agricultural wastes and other bast fibre crops are summarised in the table below.

Table 1-2. Potential Australian Agricultural Fibre Sources Summary of Feasibility Study Findings Source Fibre suitable for Weed Mat? Yes Total Volume (t/yr) Production Calendar (ie harvest) February to May February to May Key Locations Other Uses Raw Material Supply Cost Low bi product supply most likely Moderatewill be mostly grown as a fibre source Moderatewill be mostly grown as a fibre source Low-will face competition from electricity generators. Low the waste is removed and destroyed. Low available as a waste stream Moderate would need to be grown as a fibre source Low easily harvested, bailed and transported Low easily harvested, bailed and transported Low easily harvested, bailed and transported Low easily harvested and transported

Flax Fibre and Linseed Hemp

<0.1 million

Victorian, NSW and Qld grain belts Hunter Valley NSW, Southern Qld and WA wheat belt Qld and Northern NSW

Oilseed and high value fabric. Fibre is used for rope and textile. Hemp also grown as an oil seed crop. Wood and wood pulp

Yes

0 (currently no commercial production in Australian) 0 (currently no commercial production in Australian) >10 million

Kenaf

Yes

March to June

Sugar Bagasse

No

Year round supply available

Northern NSW and Qld Coast

Cotton Stalks

Yes

0.1 million

April to May Year round supply available Year round if available

Banana Fibre Bamboo

Yes Yes

>5 million 0 (currently no commercial production) 25 million

Hillston, Trangie, Narrabri, Moree and St George Far North Queensland Far North Queensland

Electricity cogeneration. The product is not suitable for weed mat manufacture. Nil

High value textile Culinary, construction, ornamental Moisture and soil retention on farm Nil

Cereal Straw

No

November to February April to May February to May October to January

Rice

No

0.6 million

Grain belts of WA, SA, Victoria, NSW and Qld Riverina NSW ie Leeton and Deniliquin Northern NSW and Southern Qld WA, NSW and Vic grain belts

Sorghum

No

2.1 million

Canola

No

1.5 million

Grazing and a range of experimental manufactures Grazed

The most abundant agricultural wastes with weed mat production potential are linseed waste fibre (closely related to flax), cotton stalks and banana fibre. Bast fibre from cotton stalks may be possible technically but no extraction facility is available anywhere in the world. Banana fibre extraction is an emerging technology. Agricultural feasibility study results would therefore indicate that the most prospective source of raw material supply would be fibre from waste linseed straw and the best location for a fibre extraction plant would be the Victorian, NSW or Queensland grain belts.

2. Fibre Extraction & Weed Mat Manufacture: Technology and Costs

The technical and economic feasibility of fibre extraction and weed mat manufacture are reviewed in this chapter. For completeness the chapter also includes a list of alternative uses for fibre extracted from agricultural wastes i.e. products competing for raw material supply with Eco Weed Mat.

Past Fibre Extraction Activity in Australia and Cost of Supply

As part of the feasibility study the Australian Flax Company was contacted and a field visit arranged. The Australian Flax Company is based in the Queensland grain belt and is an Australian pioneer in the extraction of fibre from waste linseed straw. The Australian Flax Company was founded by five likeminded grain farmers in 2001. Data supplied by the Australian Flax Company was augmented with data derived from the international literature.

Pre-extraction Activities
The linseed crop must be grown, harvested and retted prior to decortication (fibre extraction). Linseed is a long established commercial crop and it is sown and harvested with conventional cropping equipment. Linseed poses no special growing or harvesting challenges. Retting is the breakdown of plant material using microbes to facilitate decortication. In some natural fibre production systems, retting is a unique step and requires either the soaking of the raw straw in water or chemical treatment. The Australian Flax Company has found that it has achieved effective raw straw breakdown by field retting linseed straw is left in harvest windrows and is broken down by the weather at no additional cost.

Decortication
Retted linseed straw is baled and stored on farm prior to decortication. A prototype Silsoe Decorticator was purchased from the United Kingdom (UK) and imported by the Australian Flax Company. The machine was installed on farm. The prototype decorticator is slow and creates a challenging occupational health and safety environment for its three person operating team. Perhaps surprisingly the prototype machine is relatively energy efficient with a modest 25 horsepower main electric motor.

Cost of Supply
The Australian Flax Company is able to supply raw decorticated fibre at approximately $1,000 per tonne. Imports of similar fibre can be sourced from Asia for between $600 and $700 per tonne and this estimate was supplied to the study prior to the recent appreciation of the Australian dollar. Imported fibre supplied at this price is probably a waste fibre stream containing stalk fragments from the traditional linen hackling process. Higher quality hemp fibre decorticated on higher productivity equipment can be imported from Holland for between $1,000 and $1,300 per tonne. Waste fibre containing some stalk fragments is an acceptable raw material for Eco Weed Mat manufacture.

Economic feasibility
The Australian Flax Company investigated natural fibre production with a goal of supplying the Australian automotive industry with sustainable and biodegradable parts door trims, moulded internal panels with insulation. There is interest from the industry in these components but not at current cost of supply.

Extraction Technologies [5]

Hammer Milling
A mixture of very short fibres and shives (a waste stream with economic uses) can be produced from straws using a hammer mill. Hammer mill decorticators have proved unsuitable for producing good quality fibres as there is too much fibre damage and large proportions of very short fibre are produced. The fibres produced by hammer milling are widely used in paper making and can be used in certain composite manufacturing processes. Some higher quality fibres produced with a hammer mill decorticator would be suitable for Eco Weed Mat manufacture.

Silsoe Decorticator [6]

The Silsoe decorticator was developed by the Silsoe Research Institute in the UK. The fibre extraction system includes a bale opener and a decorticator. The decorticator uses a series of special rollers to flex the straw so as to crack the woody core into short pieces and then a rotor studded with steel pins to comb the fibre and separate it from the core of the straw at high speed. In the Silsoe Decorticators initial development, the feed stalks had to be chopped into length. Retting helps fibre extraction, but later published work suggested that the system could also process un-retted hemp or linseed straw. Fibres extracted by the Silsoe decorticator are suitable for further processing into non-woven fabrics for use as pre-forms in composite or for Eco Weed Mat manufacture. The Flax Company of Australia installed its second hand Silsoe decorticating system around 2002. The Company has found that to achieve acceptable fibre extraction efficiency, straws need to be well retted (i.e. left in field windrows for an extended period). Whole bales of straws are fed to the bale opener, which in turn feeds the decorticator. Fibres and shives are expelled from the machine separately. The extracted fibre contains up to 10% shives, which creates problems for further processing using delicate machinery such as textile cards but probably suitable for airlaying machinery for the manufacture of Eco Weed Mat. More than three tonnes of straw is required to produce one tone of fibre. The machines process about one tonne of straw per hour.

ATB Decorticator [7]

Developed in the mid 2000s, by the Institute of Agricultural Engineering (ATB) Potsdam, Germany, the ATB Decorticator processes hemp, flax and linseed straw in commercial quantities in retted as well as unretted forms. The machines developers recommend unretted raw material to keep down total extraction costs and reduce environmental impact soaking of straw in streams for retting or using chemical solvents has the potential to create water and air pollutants. The feed material for the ATB system can be either round or rectangular straw bales of up to 1.8 m high. The process includes bale opening and cutting of stems; elimination of impurities such as leaves, seeds, sand, stone, metal, etc; metering of straw to create a continuous, uniform material flow; hammering; cleaning; carding of longer fibres; separation of short fibres from shives; and treatment of waste air. The process is appropriate for linseed straw and provides a raw material suitable for Eco Weed Mat manufacture. The ATB decorticator provides several output streams (see table below). The main outputs are fibre, hurd and hurd with short fibre that is suitable for further processing.

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Table 2-1. ATB Decorticator Outputs

Component Long fibres Short fibres with shives Short fibres from fibre separator Short fibres from pre filter Shives from short fibres Shives Carding waste Impurities Dust Total
Source: Miao and Baker 2005

Hemp % 25.0 6.0 14.2 1.3 21.1 20.7 0.9 9.3 1.4 100.0

Linseed % 18.0 13.0 3.6 3.6 20.7 30.2 2.1 8.4 0.4 100.0

The mean length of the long fibres obtained from this process depends on the cutting length of the straw and the level of retting. For a given cut-length of straw, freshly harvested (unretted) hemp plants gave a mean fibre length of 66mm, while well retted hemp gave 140mm. The retted hemp also produced finer and stronger fibres. The cleaning unit of the decorticator removes fibres shorter than 20mm from the long fibre stream. So the long fibres could be valuable textile fibre to make yarns for weaving, knitting or braiding. The shorter fibre streams contain high levels of contaminants, some of which may be suitable for composites or Eco Weed Mat manufacture. The ATB Decortication system is capable of processing three tonnes of straw per hour. The calculated cost of one kilogram of technical fibres of hemp or linseed produced on this system was about 0.5 Euro per kilogram or at 2011 exchange rates $AUD 0.68 ($680 per tonne).

Mobile Decortication
Canada is the worlds leading producer of linseed and flax and as a consequence has developed a commercial fibre extraction industry from linseed and flax straw. At least a dozen large scale decortication facilities have been set up in Canada with Government assistance since 20006. Facilities include both fixed and mobile operations. In the early 1990s, an EU research program studied the feasibility of a mobile decortication system for use on farm. Mobile decorticators are of interest to this study. If a commercial industry was to be developed in Australia and linseed production encouraged in the grain belts of Victoria, NSW and Queensland then mobile decortication may lower the cost of extracting fibre from Australian agricultural waste.

Recoverable Yield
The maximum theoretical yield of usable fibre from waste linseed straw is 30%. Most decortication operations work on an actual yield of between 15% and 20%. A 15% estimate is used in the following analyses.

Estimated Fibre Extraction Costs [8]

To extract fibre from waste linseed straw in Australia using prototype equipment costs approximately $1,000 per tonne extraction cost and modest processor profit. An equivalent imported fibre from Asia, when purchased in commercial quantities, is available for an estimated $600 -700 per tonne. It is unlikely that use of more sophisticated extraction equipment (either the German ABT Decorticator,

http://www.flaxstalk.ca/ accessed 7 July 2011

11

mobile or fixed Canadian equipment) would close the gap and produce a fibre supply cost less than the price of current imports. Imported material is a by-product of producing more valuable linen and is generally sourced from countries that subsidise their manufacturing industries (as is the case in Canada). No similar assistance is available for a fibre industry in Australia. The bottom line cost for fibre suitable for manufacture into Eco Weed Mat is an estimated up to $1,000 per tonne if Australian sourced fibre is to be used. It is noted that a small non-commercial quantity of hemp fibre used in weed mat manufacture trials for this study, and purchased through an importer, cost $1,300 per tonne when arrived in Australia.

Weed Mat Manufacturing Technologies and Costs

Eco Weed Mat may be manufactured using low cost, nonwoven fabric manufacturing technology. Two commercial non-woven fabric manufacturing techniques are available and pre-feasibility work completed by CSIRO Materials Science & Engineering resulted in the recommendation of hydro entanglement over needle punch technology. A brief description of needle punch technology is provided for completeness.

Fabric Manufacture using Needle Punch

Needle punch is a method of making fabrics directly from fibres by mechanically entangling the fibres laid out in a loose mat by the use of barbed needles; there may be from 50 to 2500 penetrations per square inch of fabric.

Fabric Manufacture by Hydroentanglement

Hydroentanglement uses water jets rather than needles to pass through layers of fibre and entangle them into a tightly packed fabric. There are two hydroentanglement machines in Australia. One belongs to the CSIRO Materials Science & Engineering at Geelong and the other belongs to Textor, which manufactures disposable nappies and similar products in Melbourne. The worlds largest manufacturer of both hydro entanglement and needle punch fabric manufacturing machinery, the Zhengzhou Textile Machinery Co of China (www.zzfj.com) was consulted for this project at a factory visit. Representatives from the Zhengzhou Textile Machinery Co worked through capital and operating cost requirements with Dr Menghe Miao (see table below). Hydroentanglement nonwoven fabrics are normally used as base fabrics for Polyurethane (PU) coated textiles (artificial leather), wet towels, nappies, medical gowns and similar low cost or disposable cloth items. Fabric weight must be less than 200 grams per metre (gsm) and this is appropriate for Eco Weed Mat with a design specification of between 100 gsm and 200 gsm. Machines required for Eco Weed Mat manufacture post decortication should include: weighing bale opener, blending hopper, stabilising feeding hopper, pressurised hopper feeder, airlaying machine (or alternatively, card and cross-lapper), batt drafter, hydro entanglement machine, dryer and winding machine. These core production machines are complemented by a water treatment plant with filtration systems and a high pressure pump of up to 400 bars. Fabric can be either manufactured in 2.5 metre or 3.5 metre widths. The narrower and lower capital cost 2.5 metre width was selected for this feasibility study as it most closely approximates the bulk of weed mat sales which fall in the 0.5 metre through to 1.8 metre width range (see for instance www.weedgunnel.com.au). The building housing the fabric manufacturing facility requires a six metre ceiling height and floor space of 65 metres by 25 metres for the 2.5 metre wide fabric production.

12

Three operators and a manager/quality assurance officer are required to operate the plant and while a three shift nonstop production line is usual in China it is assumed that only two shifts are used in Australia and there are only 200 production days per year. Production could be further ramped up if market demand justified the effort. Power consumption is estimated at between 1000 to 1200 KWH/tonne of fabric. Water usage is not significant as it is retained on site and recycled. An approximate annual total production for the factory can be estimated on the basis of 200 operating days per year, 8 hour shift with 100 metres of production per minute; around 9.6 million lineal metres per year at 100% efficiency. Given that 100 metres of production per minute is the design limit speed of the hydro entanglement equipment a realistic long term production speed would be much lower and more like 50-60 metres of production per minute. This equates to an annual output of 6 million linear metres of 2.5 metre wide fabric per annum.
Table 2-2. Estimated Eco Weed Mat Fabric Manufacturing Capital and Operating Costs

Cost Item Major Capital Cost Items Land including site preparation, connection of utilities, water treatment space and suitable roads Building suitable to machinery with at least a 65m x 25 m floor space and 6m high Equipment

Estimate (Australian Dollars) $1,500,000 $1,000,000 $3,000,000*

Comment Consultant estimate and dependent on factory location. Consultant estimate. Estimate provided by the Zhengzhou Textile Machinery Co and converted from RMB20 million. Staff of four with an average annual salary of $70,000 each including on costs. Based on 5% of capital cost Consultant estimate and assuming commercial interest rate of 10% Consultant estimate Consultant estimate

Total Capital Major Operating Cost Items Labour Repairs and maintenance Interest on capital Utilities Other operating costs Approximate Annual Operating
AgEconPlus estimates * Quote from Zhengzhou Textile Machinery Co .

$5,500,000 $280,000 $120,000 $550,000 $60,000 $120,000 $1,680,000

Estimated Weed Mat Manufacturing Cost

The following data was used to estimate raw material cost for fabric suitable for Eco Weed Mat production: Raw material cost of $1,000 per tonne / $1/kg (assuming high cost Australian linseed fibre) Manufacturing efficiency of 90% (Zhengzhou advice) Mat weight of 150 grams per square metre (CSIRO Eco Weed Mat design) Annual production of 6 million linear metres (15 million square metres) pa

Mat weight per linear metre is 150 grams per square metre X 2.5 metres = 375 gram. One kilogram of fibre makes 2.7 linear metres of weed mat. If fibre price is $1/kg the raw material price is $0.37/linear 13

metre. If an allowance for a 10% fibre loss is made (i.e. 90% manufacturing efficiency) then fibre cost is $0.41/lineal metre. In addition to raw material cost: Capital and operating cost of $0.28 per lineal metre (AgEconPlus modelled estimate) Cost of colorant if coloured mats are desirable. Colorbiotics black colorant (FOB Melbourne) is priced at $4150 per 1000 litres. The colorant is diluted to 1:10 -1:20 depending on shade of colour required. Using an average dilution ratio of 1:15 and 50% take-up rate. 1000 litre colorant can treat 80,000 linear metres of 2.5m wide mat, or the cost of $0.05/linear metre. Return on capital allowance of 20% to reflect high risk / unproven nature of enterprise The business is able to sell total annual production (NB market size is estimated in Chapter 4).

Ex-factory Eco Weed Mat can be supplied at approximately $0.83/ lineal metre that is 2.5 m wide ($0.33/m2) for naturally coloured, undyed product; or $0.89/ lineal metre ($0.356/m2) for black-dyed product.

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3. Estimated Weed Mat Market Size

Estimated Weed Mat Market Size
The potential market for Eco Weed Mat in Australia is estimated in the table below.
Table 3-1. Estimated weed mat market size

Possible Market Sector Strawberry production (commercial) Other fruit (commercial) Vegetable production (commercial) Plant nurseries - general

Assumptions and Discussion Annual strawberry production of 1,500 hectares This category includes tree crops during establishment and the rapidly expanding blueberry industry. At least 4 crops with production area similar to strawberry Product suitable for growing vine based crops such as field tomatoes and cucurbits. Approximately 3 crops the size of strawberry. Wholesale plant nurseries have decreased use of weed mat under pots due to high labour cost associated with rapid breakdown and replacement visa vie one time application of gravel. Residual use estimated on basis of 2,000 wholesale nurseries each laying 0.25 ha Rose industry remains a major user of weed mat for production of bare rooted plants for resale. Weed mat is used in garden beds, under paths, pebbles and pavers, hanging baskets and for retaining soils on sloping sites Further work required to determine whether Eco Weed mat suitable for all these market segments. A conservative use estimate therefore applied. Total Market Size

Annual Use Estimate (2.5 metre linear equivalents) 6 million 24 million

18 million

2 million

Plant nurseries - roses Home garden use

2 million 4 million

Sub strata for turf, geo textile use, shade cloth and hay wrap

10 million

66 million

A single factory producing Eco Weed Mat, with an output of 6 million linear metres, will capture approximately 10% of the Australian weed mat market.

Product Competition
There are two types of product currently on the Australian market made from natural fibre thin woven jute fabrics for short term soil stabilisation and thick jute felts for weed control. The thick jute weed mats are made from textile fibres by the needle punching method. Their main disadvantages are their bulkiness and low mechanical strength, causing difficulties for machine laying. The relative loose structure of the needle punched felts also makes them a less effective physical barrier for weed to penetrate. The technical performance of Eco Weed Mat will be addressed in the following Chapters. 15

Other Potential Uses for Eco Weed Mat

Eco Weed Mat is not a single product rather it has a suite of horticultural, agricultural and landscape management uses. Uses identified in an industry partner interview include: Weed mat - either laid in conjunction with mulch or died black and left exposed to the light. As a weed mat the product is suitable for commercial use by vegetable and strawberry growers or in fruit tree orchards and forestry plantations. Plant nurseries biodegradable seedling pots that can be buried without disturbing seedlings and substitute for relatively expensive peat based alternatives. Home garden use - garden beds, under paths, pebbles and pavers, soil protector on sloping sites (geo-fabric), hanging basket linings. Biodegradable bags biodegradable and natural mulch containers. Geotextile use construction industry, mining and road building. Substrate for artificial and natural turf. Shade cloths for home garden and industrial uses. Hay wrap as an alternative to plastic.

Other potential product streams are included in this study to ensure that Eco Weed Mat is not out competed for raw material supply. The table below provides a list of potential alternative products manufactured from linseed, flax, hemp or similar. Data was gleaned from the international literature and an earlier report to RIRDC (Synerge 2011). Unfortunately, as most products are not yet commercial, manufacturing costs are not available for inclusion in the table.

16

Table 3-2. Alternative Natural Fibre Uses

Alternative Fibre Use Woven fibre Rope and twine Paper making Animal bedding Particle board for construction

Insulation for buildings Plastic wood Hemp concrete Composites for component manufacture

Geotextiles fabrics

Filters and sorbents

Nano composites Biofuels Resin

Mulches and soil ameliorates

Manufacturing Costs and Comments Requires a premium fibre and sourced from flax and sometimes hemp rather than linseed. Eco Weed Mat can be manufactured from a waste fibre stream containing stalk fragments. Natural product, production in Australia would find it hard to compete with low cost imports and synthetic alternatives. Linseed is used extensively for paper making in Canada and use is subsidised by the Canadian Government. Hurds produced in fibre extraction are suitable for this market and pet bedding could be developed in partnership with Eco Weed Mat. At the current time this product is imported. Includes wall panels, ceiling, roofing, flooring, counter tops, fences, siding, acoustical panels, sinks, furniture, doors, and shutters. Other agricultural wastes possibly lower cost and more suitable. It is possible to use natural fibres to produce a pink batt type of structure with similar insulation properties. Plastic wood is polypropylene with the addition of plant fibre and is used extensively in North America. Other agricultural wastes are suitable. Hempcrete products [9] are available for the building market. Includes products blended with plastics to produce automotive components. Market is growing especially in Europe but cost has slowed uptake in Australia. Canada has produced an all natural composite experimental car and current German vehicles have up to 50kg/car of natural composite in their construction. Geotextiles are fabrics used in association with the earth. Natural fibre mats can be used below ground in road and other construction as a natural separator of materials. An Eco Weed Mat style product may be of interest to the Australian based manufacturer of geotextiles. Filtration products include dust collectors, air filtration, liquid cartridges, membranes and liquid macro-filtration. The fastestgrowing application area for filter media is for the generation of clean water. Natural fibre filter media has been found to be effective in removing heavy metal from contaminated water. For use in precision manufacture and offer additional strength compared to pure thermoplastic starch. Use of cellulose to produce second generation biofuels is underway. Bagasse seems to be the most prospective fuel stock. Under experimental conditions resin has been manufactured from waste hurds after the fibre has been extracted. A hurd derived resin has the potential to produce a composite material that is 100% natural. At this point in time this 100% natural product is too expensive to find a market. Make use of waste streams from fibre extraction and are a low cost waste disposal option.

Other potential product streams that would make use of the by-products of fibre extraction in Australia include resin and concrete production (experimental only at this stage) along with animal bedding, mulches and soil ameliorates (low value but proven technologies and markets).

17

4. Production of Eco Weed Mat

Fibres used
Because there are currently no commercial supply of bast fibres in Australia, two types of decorticated bast fibres (Figure 4-1) imported from overseas were used in the production of eco weed mat samples: a. Durafibre imported from Canada. Durafibre was extracted from retted linseed flax. b. DA Therm imported from The Netherlands. DA Therm was extracted from industrial hemp without retting (green decortication). Both types of fibres were chosen for their relatively long length for nonwoven manufacture. They contain up to 5% hurd, the woody part of the plants. The retted Canadian Durafibre is longer in length, finer in diameter and darker in colour than the un-retted Dutch DA Therm fibre.

Figure 4-1. Bast fibres used in the eco weed mats

Left photo: two bales of hemp fibre from Holland. Right photo: Left side- Durafibre from Canada; Right side- DA Therm fibre from Holland.

Sample production by nonwoven process

Web laying
To produce a uniform fibre batt, raw fibre materials need first to be sufficiently disentangled, preferably into individual fibres. The disentangled fibres may be prepared into a thin web and then folded into a batt of suitable thickness using a cross lapping system. Cross-laying, also referred to as cross-lapping, is the most commonly used method to prepare webs from staple fibres. In a cross laying line, a carding machine is placed at a right angle to a main conveyor that carries the resulting web. The carded web is traversed backward and forward across the main conveyor, which itself moves towards the next machine for consolidation. Figure 4-2 shows the nonwoven line used to produce the cross-laid nonwoven mat. The nonwoven line consists of a number of machines for opening/blending (Trutzschler FBF1000 consisting of AS024, MS191 and BS987), carding (Spinnbau 201), cross-lapping (Autefa), needling (Dilo CBF20) and winding up of the resulting nonwoven mat. The line was designed for synthetic fibres, but has been 18

used for wool, cotton and bast fibres. In the production of eco weed mat samples, the crosslapped bast fibre webs were given a light needlepunch (called pre-needling) so that they had the integrity for transferring to the next process, consolidation. In commercial production, the crosslapper can be linked directly to the final consolidation machine and the pre-needling operation is not required.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4-2. Non-woven processing line used to produce eco weed mat samples

(a) overview of the nonwoven line with fibre feed on the right, carding/cross-lapping in the centre and consolidation/ winding on the left; (b) control console; and (c) needle-punching and winding up section.

19

Another commonly used method of preparing a fibre batt from loose fibres is air-laying. The air laying method produces a batt directly without making a light card web first. It involves dispersing the fibres in an air stream and depositing the air-fibre mixture on a perforated screen or conveyor. The air is discharged through the perforated surface while the fibres are retained in the form of a batt. Fibres in air laid batts are three-dimensional and closer to isotropic in orientation. Air laying machines are highly productive, up to 250 kg per hour per metre width of machine. Air laying machines can process very short fibres and fibres with relatively high impurity content, which are recommended for use in the commercial production of eco weed mats due to their low cost. Figure 4-3 shows an experimental narrow width Miniturbo Card that was used for the airlaying trial in this project. The air-laid web produced was more uniform than that produced by the crosslapping system for the same area weight. For this reason, the airlaying method can be used to produce lighter weight eco weed mat. The Miniturbo Card at CSIRO is an isolated piece of machinery so that the batt produced has to be carefully transferred to the needle punching machine piece by piece for consolidation. It is thus not suitable for producing samples of the size required in this project. However, our limited trial has demonstrated that the airlaying method is feasible as a fibre web former for eco weed mat production.

Figure 4-3. Miniturbo card used in airlaid web trial

Consolidation
The crosslaid and airlaid fibre webs are very bulky and have little mechanical strength. They need to be consolidated. Several consolidation methods may be used, including chemical bonding, thermal bonding, stitching, needle punching and hydroentanglement. The predominant method used in commercial production is needle punching. In needle punching, barbed needles are forced through the thickness of the fibre batt to drive the fibres from one side of the batt to the other side. Thousands of needles per metre of working width are employed on a needle board, which runs up to about 2500 punches per minute. This needle punching action interlocks the fibres by friction. Fibres on the surface of the batt are far more likely to be transported through the batt by the needles than fibres in the inner layers [10]. Although needlepunching can improve the mechanical integrity of fibre web enormously, the fibre density and mechanical strength of the fabric are still much lower than that of a woven fabric. Hydroentanglement (also known as spunlace) makes use of high pressure water jets to move fibres through the batt thickness to achieve consolidation. This is a very efficient method of felting fibres and can produce fabrics at as high as 100 linear metres per minute. Hydroentanglement machines are more expensive than needle punching machines, but this is offset by its high production efficiency. The method is not suitable for heavyweight fabrics, which is not a limitation to the production of eco weed mat in this project. 20

In a recent study at CSIRO[11] we subjected flax fibre fabrics (linen fabrics) to hydroentanglement treatment and found that the flax fibres were fibrillated on the surface. The nano-sized fibrils from neighbouring fibres are interconnected by entanglement and bonding and hence strengthen the woven fabric structure enormously as demonstrated by a more than 10-fold improvement of abrasion resistance. We attribute this dramatic improvement to the surface nanofibres that bond the parent fibres together. In the untreated fabric, the individual flax fibres are held together only by friction and the fibres can move out from the fabric relatively easily due to external forces. In the treated fabric, the security of flax fibres in the fabric has been increased enormously by the newly formed network of surface nanofibres. The gum (lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, etc) released from the parent flax fibre also helps the newly liberated nanofibres bond with each other and with their parent flax fibres. In this project, we used the narrow-width hydroentanglement machine at CSIRO (Figure 4-4) to fibrillate the bast fibres in the nonwoven fabrics so as to consolidate the nonwoven web into a strong structure that can sustain the handling and service required of the eco weed mat. The Rieter Perfojet pilot spunlace machine equipped with 3 lines of injectors was used for the spunlace treatment. The pre-needled web was first pre-wetted at a low water pressure of 20 bars and then treated at a high water pressure of 200 bars on one side of the web. The hydroentangled fabric was then dried by passing through a Gyson thermal bonding oven.

Figure 4-4. Narrow width Rieter Perfojet pilot spunlace machine used in the project

Figure 4-5 shows the optical and scanning electron microscopic images of the flax mats before and after the spunlace treatment. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) image of the cross-section of the treated fabric shows that the nanofibres liberated from the flax fibres formed a web that wrap around their parent flax fibres and link nearby fibres together by forming a continuous nanofibre network. The fibre surface before treatment is smooth and clean. Fibrils of different bundle sizes appear on the fibre surface after the treatment. The SEM image taken at a high magnification allows estimation of the diameters of these surface fibrils, which are in the range between 10 nm and 50 nm.

21

Figure 4-5. Optical and scanning electron microscopic images of the flax mats before and after the spunlace treatment

22

Figure 4-5. Optical and scanning electron microscopic images of the flax mats before and after the spunlace treatment

22

Coloration
Two methods of coloration were used to dye the mats: (1) Cotton reactive dyeing. (2) Spray and dipping in a mulch colorant, Colorbiotics. (http://www.colorbiotics.com/MulchColorant.html). According to the MSDS provided by the manufacturer, the product is safe for people, animal and the environment. (http://www.mulchcolors.com/mulch-safety. accessed on 9 January 2012). Spray of colorant: Colorbiotics black colorant was diluted to 1:10 and sprayed on hemp mat using a garden sprayer. Retrospectively, the ratio may be increased to 1:20 while still providing a deep colour.

Eco weed mat samples produced

Preliminary samples
In the initial experiments, three preliminary eco weed mats were produced using the nonwoven line at CSIRO Materials Science and Engineerings facility at Belmont. Durafibre decorticated from linseed straws imported from Canada was used. The fibre was opened, mixed and carded into a thin web. The web was cross-laid to form three fibre batts of different areal weights (L, M and H for low-, mediumand high-weight materials), followed by high pressure water jet bonding using a hydroentanglement machine. The bonded mats were then dewatered and dried in a through-air thermal oven.

Figure 4-6. Preliminary eco weed mat samples (left) and commercial control (right)

Large sample
Based on the lab test and field trial results (detailed in a latter section of this report) on the preliminary eco weed mat samples, 500 metres of eco weed mat were produced using the DA Therm fibre imported from Holland. The nominal weight of mat was 170 gsm. The 500 m mat consisted of many pieces with lengths between 30m and 60m to suit the convenience of the lab scale spunlace machine. The processing conditions for the large mat sample were the same as those used for the preliminary mats.

23

5. Laboratory testing
Mechanical strength
Weed mat can be used as a physical barrier to suppress weed growth. Mechanical strength is also required for mat handling, laying and stresses during use in the field (e.g., sticks poking through the mat). Tensile strength in both length-direction (machine direction, MD) and width-direction (cross direction, CD) was tested using standard fabric strip tensile test according to Australian Standard AS2001.2.3.1 01. Bursting strength was tested using ball bursting test according to Australian Standard AS2001.2.19 1988. Both new fabrics and fabrics after two months of open field trial (14 September 18 November 2011, CSIRO Belmont site) were tested. The testing results are given in the following Tables.
Table 5-1. Fabric area weight (gsm) Sample L M H Area density (gsm) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 153.5 10.1 171.6 19.3 293.6 17.3 230.6 28.6 308.2 36.9 322.6 26.6

Table 5-2. Tensile strength machine direction Tensile strength MD (N) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 163.860 42.6 135.1 11.9 342.200 48.5 163.1 21.6 412.960 27. 9 257.6 18.4

Sample L M H

Table 5-3. Tensile strength cross direction Tensile strength CD (N) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 86.9 30.5 79.4 26.3 312.1 27.0 162.3 24.8 261.8 86.4 308.8 38.8

Sample L M H

Table 5-4. Elongation at maximum load machine direction Elongation - machine direction (%) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 7.7 3. 6 7.0 2.0 16.4 2.4 8.9 1.7 17.4 1.5 9.8 1.2

Sample L M H

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Table 5-5. Elongation at maximum load cross direction Elongation - cross direction (%) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 11.9 3.9 11.1 3.3 25.4 3.2 15.5 3. 1 24.0 5.0 23.2 1.9

Sample L M H

Table 5-6. fabric bursting strength Bursting Strength (N) New After field trial average StDev average StDev 152.6 46.7 89.4 20.6 314.4 42.8 242.8 130.9 349.2 34.4 280 65.0

Sample L M H

Results on several properties show large variations. These high variations can be traced back to variability in fabric area weights. The CSIRO nonwoven line was not designed to make small samples. Each adjustment of machine setting requires a long settling time during which the product characteristics (mainly the fabric area weight) varies gradually. To minimise the effect of fabric variability, the fabric tensile strength and bursting strength are normalised according to their area weights and plotted against their area weights as in Figures 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3. The plots illustrate that both fabric tensile strength increases gradually with fabric area weight. The tensile strength suffered about 30% loss on average during the two-month open field trial. The fabric bursting strength results are much less consistent than the tensile results.

Normalised tensile strength MD (N/gsm)

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 100

New

After trial

y = 0.0011x + 0.8557 R2 = 0.4034

y = 0.0002x + 0.7798 R2 = 0.0351

150

200 250 300 350 Fabric area weight (gsm)

400

Figure 5-1. Normalised tensile strength in machine direction as a function of area weight

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Normalised tensile strength CD (N/gsm)

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 100

New

After trial

y = 0.003x + 0.1323 R2 = 0.6996

y = 0.0022x + 0.0848 R2 = 0.7628

200 300 Fabric area weight (gsm)

400

Figure 5-2. Normalised tensile strength in cross direction as a function of area weight

Normalised bursting strength (N/gsm)

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 100

New
y = 0.0008x + 0.8589
2 R = 0.0801

After trial

y = 0.0028x + 0.131
2 R = 0.2152

200

300

400

Fabric area weight (gsm)

Figure 5-3. Normalised bursting strength as a function of area weight

The control sample was a commercial black polyethylene (PE) split film woven fabric, Coolaroo Weedmat, purchased from Bunnings Warehouse. The test results of commercial PE mat are given in Table 5-7. The area weight of the mat was 75 gsm. Clearly, eco weed mat suffered a smaller strength loss in this two-month open field trial than the PE mat although its initial strength was much higher.
Table 5-7. Mechanical properties of commercial PE split film woven mat

New Average StDev Tensile strength MD (N) 450.4 33.6 Tensile strength CD (N) 430.9 26.2 Elongation MD (%) 14.6 0.70 Elongation CD(%) 13.5 0.88 Bursting strength (N) 371.0 152.8

After field trial Average StDev 140.5 17.0 225.6 11.0 5.1 0.54 7.4 0.24 118.8 26.6

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Water transport through mat

Water transport properties will provide an indication as to whether rain drops will roll on the mat surface or spread over the mat and how readily rain water is wicked through the mat to reach the soil, two experiments were undertaken using the Eco Weed mat. In the first experiment, weed mat samples were held on an inclined plate to simulate a slope (Figure 54). Tap water was dropped onto the mat samples from above. In the case of eco weed mat, the water drop quickly spread and soaked into the mat. In the case of the PE split film woven mat, the water drops roll down the slope without being absorption.

Figure 5-4. Water drop rolling/spreading test

The second experiment is a wicking test that is commonly used in the textile industry. Strips of mat samples were held in upright position with their lower ends dipped in a water bath. The height of water mark on the strip is recorded at different times. In the case of the eco weed mat samples, the wicking height was about 70 mm after 25 minutes and 180 mm after 4 hours. On the other hand, the PE split film woven mat did not show any sign of wicking (wicking height = 0) throughout the experiment. Both of these experiments demonstrated the hydrophobic nature of the PE split film woven mat and the hydrophilic nature of eco weed mat, and hence the potential of water conservation (reduced water running off) for using Eco Weed Mat.

Figure 5-5. Wicking height test (Left) after 25 minutes; (Right) after 3 hours (scale bars = 180 mm)

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Light transmittance
The growth of weeds relies on photosynthesis. The weed mat blocks off all or part of the light transmitted through to the weeds. A spectrometer was used to measure the transmittance of light through the weed mats. Diffuse transmittance spectra of fabrics were obtained using a Cary 300 Bio UV-visible spectrophotometer (Varian, Melbourne) fitted with a 70 mm diameter integrating sphere (DRA-CA301, Labsphere, New Hampshire, USA) machined from Spectralon, a pure form of polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE). Spectra were obtained by mounting the specimens (25 x 25 mm) in the optical path of the beam entering the sphere, and using a 0o wedge and a Spectralon reference standard over the reflectance port. As shown in Figure 5-6, about 0.5% of light of all wavelengths is transmitted through the commercial PE woven mat, presumably through the voids between the crossing split film threads in the woven structure. The light transmittance of the natural eco weed mats is wavelength-dependent. Light with wavelength shorter than 400 nm is blocked. Light with longer wavelength can pass through the eco weed mat, depending on the mat thickness. The transmittance is higher for the 150gsm nominal area weight mat (8% at 850 nm wavelength) than for the 350 gsm mat (1.5% at 850 nm wavelength). Spraying the hemp mat with a black colorant reduced the transmittance to practically zero (Figure 57), below that of the commercial black PE mat.

Figure 5-6. Light transmittance through new weed mats

TL05W 150 gsm eco weed mat; TW15W 250 gsm eco weed mat; TW34D 350 gsm eco weed mat

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Figure 5-7. Light transmittance through weed mats effect of black colorant.

Hemp + carbon black 1 and 2 = Eco weed mat sprayed with black colorant; Thin hemp 150 gsm eco weed mat; Medium hemp 250 gsm eco weed mat; Thick hemp 350 gsm eco weed mat The mat samples used in field trial for two months (14 Sept 18 Nov 2011, Geelong) were also tested (Figure 5-8). The transmittances of the PE mat, and the 250 gsm and 350 gsm eco weed mats did not show significant changes. The transmittances of the 150gsm eco weed mat, on the other hand, changed substantially. Transmittance across almost the whole spectrum is detected, showing gradual increase up to 13% at 850 nm wavelength.

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Figure 5-8. Light transmittance through weed mats after field trial

Thin hemp 150 gsm eco weed mat; Medium hemp 250 gsm eco weed mat; Thick hemp 350 gsm eco weed mat.

Colour fastness
Eco Weed Mats change colour after exposing to weather conditions (sunlight and rain). The photographs taken of pairs of samples with and without field trials in Figure 5-9 show that the yellowish natural colour of hemp mat turned to grey after field trial; the reactive dyed black colour turned to grey (almost the same colour as the natural colour mat after exposure, i.e., nearly total fading); the sample sprayed with black Colorbiotics mulch colorant appeared to be even darker after the trial. The Colorbiotics colorant contains carbon black pigments that do not fade like the reactive dyes when exposed to bright sunlight. The darkening of the fabric was probably because the lustre of the newlysprayed fabric was lost during exposure.

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(a) Natural colour hemp mat (6 Dec 2011 - 17 April 2012)

(b) Reactive dyed mat (6 Dec 2011 - 13 January 2012)

(c) Colorbiotics spray (20 January 2012- 17 April 2012)

Figure 5-9. Colour change after exposed in field trial

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6. Field trials
The short duration of this one-year project required undertaking two consecutive field trials in nine months. The first trial would determine the preferred mat structure for the main trial. The 500m weed mat would then be manufactured in the preferred structure for the main field trial. The field trials would be of short duration and not a preferred full season trial. We therefore adopted a combined laboratory testing and field trial approach with the laboratory test data supplementing the field trial data. Due to season constraints, we did not have sufficient time to grow weeds on a cleared field. We conducted three types of trials to cover three mechanisms of weed suppression for weed mats, i.e., as a physical barrier, as a light blocker, and solarisation. (1) Physical barrier. Field trials were conducted at the National Arboretum and Yarralumla Nursery Canberra . (2) Light blocking. We used a self-seeded pasture with a wide variety of grasses and broad leaf weeds for the two field trials. The trial was carried out at CSIROs Belmont site. (3) Solarisation. Field trials on loose soil beds in Geelong.

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Field Trials self-seeded pasture

A trial area in a large grass field was chosen so that no blockage of sunlight and rain water path exist in the area. A variety of weeds existed in the trial field, including grass, broadleaf weeds and running grasses such as couch. Photographic images of these weeds are shown in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1. Varieties of weeds in the trial field before start of the field trial

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Initial trial on self-seeded pasture

Three trial mats, nominally 150 gsm, 250 gsm and 350gsm, a commercial PE mat and an uncovered area were set up on 14 September 2011, as shown in Figure 6-2. The mats were loosely placed on the grass and pinned to the ground by U-shaped wire pegs (right image in Figure 6-2) about every half metre around the edges. The gap between the mats and the ground surface allowed air to circulate between the covered areas and the outside.

Figure 6-2. Trial setup (14 September 2011)

The soil temperature and moisture content outside the covered areas were measured using a domestic thermometer and a Delta-T type HH2 digital moisture meter on 26 September 2011. The data map is given in Appendix. The soil temperature range was 15C 17C, and the range of soil moisture content was 12% - 23%. After one month of trial, the mats were opened up on 14 October 2011, for assessment of weed/grass suppression and measurement of soil conditions. Figure 6-3 shows the status of the grass/weed growth under the cover of PE mat and the 250 gsm hemp mat. The weeds under the PE mat died and the grass become low density, yellow and unhealthy-looking. On the other hand, the grass under the 250 gsm hemp mat grew quite well but most broad leaf weeds died. The soil measurement results are presented in Appendix. The average results plotted in Figure 6-3 show that there was no significant difference between covered and uncovered areas and between the different mat covers. This was probably due to the fact that the cover mats were lifted up by the grass, which made it possible for air to circulate between the covered areas and ambient conditions.

34

250 gsm Ecomat

40.0 35.0

25.0 20.0

Soil moisture content (%)

25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 outside 150gsm 250gsm 350gsm PE

Soil temperature ( )

30.0

15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 outside 150gsm 250gsm 350gsm PE

Figure 6-3. After one month (14 October 2011)

The trials continued until 18 November 2011. Figure 6-4 shows the growth conditions under the four different mats on 18 November 2011, for a total of 65 days. The results on soil moisture and temperature are given in Appendix B. All grasses became yellow and weeds became black under the PE control mat. Most broad leaf weeds died (i.e., turned black) under all the three eco weed mats but grasses survived under all of them. Grasses under the 350 eco weed mat had the lowest density and appear yellowish while the grasses under the two thinner mats grew vigorously and appeared healthy at the end of the trial. The soil moisture and temperature in each treatment once again varied quite a lot and thus overshadowed any possible differences between treatments.

35

250 gsm Ecomat

Black PE control

150 gsm Ecomat

350 gsm Ecomat

Figure 6-4. Trial result

The trial started on 14 September 2011 and lasted for two months (18 November 2011). Note that weeds died but grass is alive under the eco weed mats

From the first month of field trial (14 Sept 14 Oct), it was realised that the colour of the mat made an important impact on the growth of weeds and grass. On 18 October 2011, we set up another trial alongside the earlier mats shown in Figure 6-2. In this trial, the 150 gsm and 350 gsm hemp mats were laid down in the same way as in the previous trial except for that the two mats were treated with a black spray (White KnightTM Quick Dry flat enamel paint), as shown in Figure 6-5. The trial continued till 18 November when the mats were removed for examination. The weeds and grasses under the black-sprayed mats after three week growth are compared with growth under the black PE control mat and the 350 gsm natural colour hemp mat in Figure 6-6. The 150 gsm sprayed mat suppressed the grasses in three-weeks as effectively as the black PE did in one month (Figure 6-3). The 350 gsm sprayed mat suppressed the grasses in three-weeks almost as effectively as the black PE did in two months (Figure 6-4). The grass conditions under the black Eco Weed Mats are shown in Figure 6-7.

36

Figure 6-5. Eco Weed Mat was sprayed with black paint

Black PE control

350 gsm Ecomat Sprayed black

350 gsm Ecomat Natural colour

150 gsm Ecomat Sprayed black

Figure 6-6. The effect of spraying black dyes on eco weed mat.

Note that the trial duration for black PE and natural colour Eco Weed Mat (left) was two months while the trial duration for the black Eco Weed Mats (right) was one month

37

350 gsm
Figure 6-7. Black Eco Weed Mat trial results after one month

150 gsm

Second trial on self-seeded pasture

Hemp mat from the 500m sample was used. Three pieces of dyed hemp mat were sewn together sideby-side to obtain a mat of approximately 1.5m wide. Likewise, the natural colour hemp mat consisted of two pieces sewn together. The trial was set up on 6 December 2011 (Figure 6-8).

38

(a)

Dyed hemp mat after 1 month exposure to sunlight

(b)
Figure 6-8. (a) Trial set up on 6 Dec 2011: dyed hemp mat (left), PE control (middle) and natural colour hemp (right). (b) Image taken on 13 January 2012: natural colour hemp (left), PE control (middle) and dyed hemp mat (right). Note discoloured hemp mat.

The trial field was inspected on 13 January 2012. As shown in Figure 6-8(b), the grass under the natural colour hemp mat appeared to be healthy and grew much better than that in the uncovered area. This probably can be attributed to the lack of rain during the trial period. The soil in the uncovered area lost moisture, resulting in dry looking grass. The natural colour hemp mat helped keep moisture in the soil and produced a healthy looking grass. The grass covered by the dyed hemp mat appeared to be suppressed as compared to that covered under the natural colour hemp. More significantly, It was found that the dyed hemp mat lost its black colour after one month exposure to severe summer sun. At this point, the discoloured hemp mat was removed because continuing the trial would not provide useful information on weed suppression. Trial of the remaining PE and natural colour hemp mats continued. On 20 January 2012, about 2m length of the natural colour hemp mat was cut off (direct exposure), and a 6m length of the natural colour hemp mat was sprayed by black Colorbiotics colorant while the remaining 2m (approximate) was left unchanged, as shown in the upper-right image of Figure 6-9. On 17 April 2012, the trial mats were lifted off. The trial results are shown in Figure 6-9. Grass in the uncovered area had experienced vigorous growth because of several mild rains during the period. The natural colour hemp mat provided some degree of suppression. Most significantly, the grass under the

39

hemp mat sprayed with black Colorbiotics colorant was almost completely dry (grass had died). In comparison, yellow grass shoots appeared in the area covered by the PE control mat.

No cover hemp

Natural hemp

PE control

Sprayed hemp

Figure 6-9. Mats laid on 20 January 2012, trial results on 17 April 2012

Solarisation trials
Solarization is a method of heating moist soil by covering it with plastic sheets to trap solar radiation [12]. In 1976, Katan et al. [13] described the use of clear polyethylene for soil solarization (soil pasteurization) to control soil pathogens and weeds. Treatment during periods of high radiation followed by good crop management practices can make the treatment effective. Cool season crops are most impacted[14]. In this trial, we used three types of mats, black PE control, natural colour Eco Weed Mat and black Eco Weed Mat by spraying Colorbiotics black mulch colorant. Two sets of trials (Patch 1 and patch 2) were set up, as shown in Figure 6-10. The mats were placed on turned loose soil and all edges were sealed under soil. The main differences between the two patches were that soil in Patch 2 appeared to be of finer and drier than that in Patch 1.

40

Figure 6-10. Setup of solarisation trials

A thermocouple was inserted from one side of the mats to measure temperature of the top soil under the mats. Measurements were carried out on 24 February 2012 between 1:20 2:40 pm. The air temperature was 30.4C at 1:20pm and 31.3C at 2:40pm. There was no cloud with very mild wind during the measurement. The measurement results are presented in Table 6-1 and Table 6-2. The temperature in the top soil under the mats was between 17C and 45C higher than air temperature, indicating significant solarisation effect. The highest temperature measured was 78.9C. The scorching heat can kill weeds under the weed mat in a short period of time. Overall, Patch 2 achieved about 10C higher temperature than Patch 1. In Patch 1, the black hemp Eco Weed Mat achieved the highest average temperature of 66.7C, about 4C higher than the black PE control mat and about 19C higher than the natural colour hemp Eco Weed Mat. In Patch 2, the black PE control mat achieved the highest average temperature of 75.9C, about 5C higher than the black hemp Eco Weed Mat and about 18C higher than the natural colour hemp Eco Weed Mat. In both cases, the use of the black colorant raised the temperature by 18-19C. So, the use of a black colorant appears to be very important to the effectiveness of weed control by the Eco Weed Mat.

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Table 6-1. Temperature measurement results from Patch 1

Ave StDev

Black PE control 59.1 65.4 63.4 63.3 62.8 2.6

Natural Hemp 48.0 42.0 48.7 50.0 47.2 3.5

Black Hemp 68.0 62.6 70.0 66.0 66.7 3.2

Table 6-2. Temperature measurement results from Patch 2

Ave StDev

Black PE control 71.5 76.3 78.9 76.9 75.9 3.1

Natural Hemp 60.1 57.3 55.1 57.5 57.5 2.0

Black Hemp 71.3 76.1 69.1 66.4 70.7 4.1

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Field Trials - Tree and Nursery Industry

Field trials were completed at the National Arboretum and Yarralumla Nursery Canberra. The National Arboretums purpose is to provide a place where trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants are cultivated for conservation, scientific and educational study, display and preservation. Yarralumla Nursery grows and supplies plant material for ACT landscape development projects, local government use as well as sales to the nursery industry, Greening Australia, hobby farmers, rural landowners, district councils and government departments.

Figure 6-11. Eco weed mat trial at National Arboretum, Canberra

Eco weed mat

PE plastic control

Figure 6-12. Eco weed mat trial at Yarralumla Nursery Canberra

Generic field trial with Eco Weed Mat for the tree and nursery Industry used the following criteria identified by trial participants:

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Table 6-3. Tree and Nursery Industry Trial Findings

Trial paramet ers Weeds

Measurement

Trial Outcome Comments

Does it prevent weed growth as well as the woven synthetic alternative

Trial results from both the arboretum and Yarralumla nursery show that for both trials there was no presence of weeds in a three to six week period. This was the same result for the plastic weed mat. A visual result was made of the water infiltration of both the Eco Weed Mat and plastic weed mat and it was noted that the plastic weed mat was open weave. Both sites noted that there was little difference in water infiltration in the trials. The benefit for soil health was thought to be better using the Eco Weed Mat as on breaking down it provided soil nutrients and would not leave plastic resins and polymers in the soil. The thinner and thicker weed mat and the plastic mat performed similarly in the trial. There was little discernable difference in product breakdown during the time frame of the trial No pests or diseases were noted in the trials. There was no differences noted in the trial from the Eco Weed Mat or plastic matting

Water

Does the rate of water infiltration change (improve)

Soils

Are their benefits for soil health from using this product? (does it breath better, encourage microbial or worm activity Is it going to last as long as the alternative, will it last the whole crop cycle

Durability

Pests and diseases

Is it going to harbour production problems (does fungus grow better in it, birds destroy it, rats / beetles hide etc.) Laying and removing labour savings or costs

Handling

The handling of the Eco Weed Mat was no different to the plastic mat. It was noted in the trials that the thicker Weed Mat was more difficult to pierce. No differences were noted in either of the Eco Weed Mats used in the trial.

Maintenance

Does it stay in place as well as the woven synthetic alternative

Preliminary findings from the trial provide the following insights: Of the two thicknesses produced, the thinner variety is better suited to row cropping. Row cropping is usually for a seasonal crop and as such the required lifespan of the weed matting is usually for 3 month period. For tree and nursery use it would be preferable to have a matt that has an 18 month lifespan. The thicker matting is more suitable for tree and nursery use, it was recommended that consideration be given to laminate with paper waste or the addition of bio accelerants for row 44

cropping to encourage a faster breakdown of the material or that the laminating system incorporate fertilizer; air pockets to encourage mulch effects, would like to see a much thicker Eco Weed Mat at approximately 0.5cm thick. The material was perhaps to dense as even using a knife, it was found to be difficult to get through the fabric. It was further recommended that the Eco Weed Mat be provided pre-cut into squares cut with hole into center split out to one corner for ease of use in the field for tree planting and nursery industry requirements. Water seemed to soak through the fabric in an acceptable manner but with a more open weaved fabric more water would soak through for the plant. The trade-off would be that any increase in light may enable the growth of weeds around the plant base.

Field Trials broad acre garlic trials in Hunter Valley

Background
Tony Chesher, Hunter Valley Garlic (HVG) is located at 324 Old North Road Pokolbin in the Hunter Valley NSW and is a supplier of organically certified Garlic. HVG has 2.7 acres of land available for growing organic garlic, which is grown in 50mtr rows across the available cropping area of the field. The rows are formed by mechanical means by a tractor forming a soil bank approximately 150mm high and 1 metre across that provides for growing garlic at 200mm intervals across and down the rows. The banks are formed at approximately 50 cm intervals across the field. HVG has not used weed Mat as a protective cover for cropping previously. Last years production costs for weed eradication both on the rows and between the rows (300mm area) was problematic and expensive in terms of labour costs. For eradicating weeds on and between the rows of garlic, it was decided to trial weed Mat for this years production. HVG consented to include the Eco Weed Mating (EWM) in a trial to establish its suitability and compare it to existing polymer-based matting purchased from farm suppliers.

Date of trial
Preparation and planting of the trial was scheduled to begin from 10 April 2012, due to heavy rainfall the trial was delayed until the 17th April 2012 when weather permitted the laying of both the polymer over the main planting area and Eco weed mat samples.

Trial requirements
The EWM material was made using trial machinery and was approximately 500mm in width. To enable a comparison with the width of polymer matting the ECM was sewn together to provide a width of approximately 950mm to meet the trial requirements. The width of the commercially procured polymer-based matting was 1 meter in width. 3 x 30 mtrs of Eco weed mat with a width of 0.95mtr were provided for the trials. The mat generated extensive local grower interest and one of the samples was provided to a different grower to trial in a separate field for further comparison. The remaining two samples, a natural coloured EWM and one dyed sample (coloured with a dark organic material dye) were laid on the field in two rows separately on the side of the rows of polymer based material matting. It was first thought CSIRO would provide slits in the mat that would assist with the planting of the garlic seeds along the rows. This did not occur and suitable tools were provided by CSIRO to accompany the ECM and enable the slits to be made in the weed mat in the following ratios: proposed 45

35mm or 3.5cm in length to start 10cm in from beginning of each row and in the following manner: from the left side across the fabric starting at 10m, 300mm, 500mm, 700mm and 900mm and then 200mm row widths apart along the entire length of the fabric. As this is the first time that HVG were using weed mat, the proposed planting methodology was to manually establish the rows by tractor to create a bed or row approximately 15cm high and 1 meter in width x 50mtrs in length. The rows were considered to be normal for most broad acre cropping purposes as the tractor created standard width rows; the area between rows was approximately 50cm in width. Using both the EWM and a polymer based weed mat, the Weed Mating was laid over the row and pegged down on both sides. HVG experienced some difficulty with the EWM in that it was affected by wind and was difficult to hold down. This was in some respects due to the narrow width of the EWM as opposed to the width of the commercial polymer matting. The width of the polymer matting allowed the matting to be secured below the raised height of the row, reducing the ability of the wind to enter under the side of the matting and cause the matting to lift. HVG overcame these obstacles by using rocks as well as pegs to secure both sides of the matting over the rows. HVG used an alternative method of creating the slits in the fabric. Using a small razor blade to create the slits in the fabric for the planting of the garlic seeds, the grower reasoned that the razor blade was extremely sharp and thin and would not create any drag on the material providing a more precise area for allowing the seed to grow through the fabric. A metal template of approximately 1.1m by 2.4m sizing was used to locate the specific area to insert the slits in the fabric. These slits, made by the razor with ease, created a uniform planting across the row. The final width of the Eco Weed Mat being 950mm wide, the planting row widths were 10m, 30cm, 50cm, 70cm & 90cm opening and 20cm row widths apart along the entire length of fabric. The seeds were then planted by inserting into the slits in the fabric by hand. Drip Irrigation lines were then placed on top of both types of weed mat. As the garlic is hand-picked it was not imperative that the slit areas in the fabric for seed depositing were required to be absolutely exact.

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Figure 6.13.

Eco Weed Mat used on Broad acre Organic Garlic Cropping Pokolbin NSW 17 Apr 2012

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Initial feedback
The broad acre garlic trials are on-going and will complete in November 2012 when the garlic is harvested and a full assessment will be made using the Trial Assessment Criteria provided in the next section. Early feedbacks (at four weeks) are that the broad acre trial shows similar results as previously shown by the smaller trials. The control weed mat is a PE matting provided by Weed Gunnel. EWM allows the absorption of water in patches along the length of the fabric. Water wicks into the fabric, makes a patch and seeps into soil. In the control mat, water rolls across the mat down into the soil. The EWM is looking slightly weathered and crinkly, an early sign of biodegradation. The natural colour mat has very little change in colour and the black coloured EWM is showing signs of some colour fading. The control mat still shows a sleek and smooth surface. The trial ground soil is clay. This has caused some problems with soil fixing to weed mat, causing tearing in small areas where the rocks have been placed to secure the matting onto the rows. The control mat has been flapping due to strong wind activity. The metal fastening pins have torn and ripped the mat slightly, creating an opening for the wind. During laying, the ends of the control mat were doubled over and pinned down to create a strong seal. The EWM was not pinned down in the same way because of its narrower width. Rocks were used to add weight to hold the ends of the EWM to the sides and ends of the rows. There is no visual sign of weeds where the EWM is deployed. The narrow width of the trial EWM means that it does not cover the whole width of the rows and does not go over the trough between the rows where weeds are visually seen. There is no visual worm or animal activity in areas covered with the EWM and the control mats.

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Trial assessment criteria

To assess the difference between the polymer and EWM, trial assessment criteria were developed based on grower preferences as to performance required of the weedmat based on the table below. It was further decided to review the performance on a monthly basis to chart the performance of the weedmat over the planting cycle of the garlic.
Table 6-4. Broad acre garlic trial assessment criteria

Criteria 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Physical reduction of weed growth in comparison to the woven synthetic alternative. Water infiltration / retention in soil Soil health are their benefits for soil health from using this product i.e. improved air movements or greater microbial or worm activity Crop behaviour changes in the way the crop behaves/performs/yields Durability lasts as long as the alternative; will it last a whole crop cycle Pests and diseases is it going to harbor production problems (fungus grows better in it, birds destroy it, rats/beetles hide, etc) Handling laying and removing labor savings or costs Maintenance does it stay in place as well as the woven synthetic alternative Agronomic activities does it impact on any farm management practice (e.g. impedes travelling irrigators/farm vehicles) Other

Weighting 20% 10% 10% 5% 15% 10% 10% 10% 5% 5%

49

7. Summary of Results and Findings

The most suitable fibres for weed mat manufacture are linseed, hemp, flax and kenaf, of which only linseed is grown in scale in Australia at the present time. The three most abundant agricultural wastes with weed mat production potential are linseed straw (closely related to flax), cotton stalks and banana trunk. Fibre extraction from cotton stalks and banana trunks may be technically feasible but are yet to be achieved in a commercial setting. Review of past fibre extraction activity in Australia indicates that fibre suitable for weed mat manufacture can be extracted from linseed waste, or rotational hemp and kenaf crops and provided to product manufacturers for approximately $1,000 -$1,300 per tonne. Comparable imported materials from Europe and Canada can be sourced in volume at similar prices. Waste fibres can be sourced from the textile industry in Asia at a lower price. In Stage 1 of the project, three preliminary eco weed mats were produced from decorticated linseed fibres imported from Canada using CSIROs nonwoven processing facility. Laboratory tests show that the hydroentangled eco weed mats are strong. Lightweight mats (about 150 g/m2) are preferred in order to lower product price and shorten degradation time. Eco weed mats possess superior water infiltration capacity important when the product is used on a slope. Natural colour eco weed mats cut off practically all short wavelength (<450nm) sunlight and 92-99% of long wavelength (850 nm) sunlight. When used on a sunny day (31C), natural colour eco weed mat can raise top soil temperature by up to 25C. When sprayed with a black mulch colorant, the eco weed mat can produce a solarisation effect of approximately 40C. Field trials show that natural colour eco weed mats preferentially suppress broad leaf weeds while maintaining the growth of grasses. The application of black colourant spray on the Eco Weed Mat greatly enhanced the suppression of the grasses to the extent similar to the commercial black polyethylene mat. In the second stage, hemp fibres decorticated in Holland was purchased ($1300/tonne) and made into over 500m of eco weed mat of 170 gsm nominal weight. Field trials have been conducted at the National Arboretum and Yarralumla Nursery in Canberra and feedback is consistent with laboratory testing results. The eco weed mat serves as a strong physical barrier for weed suppression for the tree and nursery sector. Broad acre field trials have been set up in two garlic fields in the Hunter Valley in April. Because of the short duration of the project, results of the trials will become available in the 2012 spring season. A review of weed mat manufacturing technologies and consultation with a leading Chinese machinery manufacturer revealed that spunlace or hydroentanglement, a low-cost and effective nonwoven manufacturing technology, would be suitable for weed mat manufacture. An appropriately scaled facility manufacturing Eco Weed Mat in Australia would produce approximately 6 million metres of 2.5 metre wide product annually, equivalent of around 10% of total estimated Australian weed mat use. Such a production facility would have capital costs of approximately $5.5 million, annual operating costs of $1.7 million and be able to produce undyed weed mat of 150 gram/m2 and 2.5 metres wide at around $0.83 per linear metre, or $0.33/m2. The biodegradable Eco Weed Mat would therefore retail somewhere between $1.60 and $2.50 per linear metre and this indicative price is less than current woven polypropylene alternatives which are derived from oil that is unsustainable and its cost will increase due to limited supply.

50

Implications
A sustainable management approach to weed management. The project identifies a sustainable approach to the management of weed eradication and productivity. The Eco Weed Mat offers a mechanical and potentially cost effective method to build resilient and productive land management systems. The potential of this project is to improve the productivity and sustainability of grower businesses, support the development of improved land management practice, and enable a timely response to the current and future effects of climate change and the carbon economy across diverse agricultural industries. New opportunities for specific organic and horticulture sectors. The Eco Weed Mat developed in the trial avoids the negative impacts of chemical herbicides and petroleum-based synthetic weed mats on food safety, sustainable land uses and environment. The need for a food-safe and biodegradable product has been identified from growers across different agrifood sectors. Fibres from Australian agricultural waste. The report identified three most abundant agricultural wastes with potential for weed mat production and the future of establishing a process to extract fibres to meet a low carbon economy and opportunities in Australia. The three fibrous wastes are linseed straws (closely related to flax), cotton stalks and banana trunks. Bast fibre extraction from cotton stalks may be technically feasible but is yet to be achieved in a commercial setting. Banana fibre extraction is an emerging technology. Australia does not have the facilities to extract fibre from crop wastes as other countries in Europe and North America. Fibrous straws such as linseed and hemp are burnt in Australia due to the remaining fibres in the plant being capable of destroying the agricultural machinery used in productive land management. Canada uses mobile fibre extraction plants that move from regions and different crops, extract fibre for manufacture, the remaining nonfibrous material is returned to the soil. Manufacturing Eco Weed Mat in Australia. The project analysed the feasibility of nonwovenspunlace process as a low cost and effective nonwoven manufacturing technology for weed mat manufacture. An appropriately scaled production facility would be able to produce Eco Weed Mat at a competitive price to current woven polypropylene alternatives. The production facility will supply only about 10% top end of the Australian market. This provides business opportunities for the manufacturing sector.

51

Recommendations
Dissemination of study results. Study results should be widely communicated to relevant stakeholders, including Australian Governments, growers involved with the organics, biodynamics and specialised growers across the horticultural sector, land managers in rural and regional Australia, farmers and other land managers, managers of national environmental assets, natural resource facilitators, and peri-urban land managers. Expanded field trials of Eco Weed Mat. Because of the short duration of this project, shortened field trials were conducted on a very limited scale. More extensive broad acre field trials for different horticultural crops (strawberry, garlic, etc) and landscaping species will provide comprehensive information on the effectiveness of weed eradication, biodegradability, environmental implications and overall cost/benefit. These trials will provide information that will inform various agricultural industries and assist with engaging businesses to seek a more sustainable alternative to existing commercially available products. Fibre extraction in Australia. Fibrous straws such as linseed and hemp are burnt in Australia due to the remaining fibre in the plant being capable of destroying the agricultural machinery used in productive land management. A study should be commissioned to analyse the feasibility of establishing fibre extraction in Australia, facility locations, suitable extraction technology, and size of potential market. Commercial production of Eco Weed Mat in Australia. The project team identified the manufacturing technology required for weed mat manufacture in Australia, fibre supply and market size. A Fibre Steering Committee should be formed to engage existing manufacturers and potential investors across the wider agriculture and other industries such as the building and manufacturing industries to gain support through wider industry engagement and to seek opportunities in other waste fibre based products that may build commercial sustainability in the onset of Fibre Industry development. Other applications of new plant fibres. Nature fibres can be used in many applications, taking advantage of the specific strength, safety and environmental properties. Natural fibre composites have established a market in automotive and building industries in Europe, Asia and North America. Australia is lagging behind in these areas. Government policies and assistances in Australia should be directed to support the manufacturing industry to grasp the new opportunities offered by new plant fibres, for example through funding research and development of manufacturing technologies and novel applications.

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Appendices
Moisture and temperature results from field trials

53

54

55

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Best A, Miao M, Clarke M. Alternative plant based Australian natural fibres - a scoping study: RIRDC Project No PRJ-007154; 2011. Reddy N, Yang Y. Properties and potential applications of natural cellulose fibers from the bark of cotton stalks. Bioresource Technology. 2009;100:3563-9. Gomes RS, Wilson PN, Coates WE, Fox RW. Cotton (Gossypium) plant residue for industrial fuel: An economic assessment. Industrial Crops and Products. 1997;7:1-8. Chinese patent 93108031.2. Miao M, Finn N. Conversion of Natural Fibres into Structural Composites. Journal of Textile Engineering. 2008;54(6):165-77. Hobson RN, Hepworth DG, Bruce DM. Quality of Fibre Separated from Unretted Hemp Stems by Decortication. J agric Engng Res. 2001;78(2):153-8. F. M, Ch. F, H. H. J Nat Fib, 1, 4965. 2004;1:4965. Miao M, Barker H. Extracting Fibres from Linseed Straw in New Zealand: Canesis Network Ltd; 2005. Bevan R, Woolley T. CONSTRUCTING A LOW ENERGY HOUSE FROM HEMPCRETE AND OTHER NATURAL MATERIALS. The 11th International Conference on Nonconventional Materials and Technologies (NOCMAT 2009). Bath, UK. Miao M. An experimental study of the needled nonwoven process. Part 2: Fibre transport by barbed needles. Text Res J. 2004;74(5):394-8. Miao M, Shan M, Finn N, Schtz JA, Wood R, Ahern M. Improvement of filtration efficiency by fibre surface nanofibrillation. Journal of the Textile Institute. 2012;In press:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405000.2011.603202. Horowitz M, Regev Y, Herzlinger G. Solarization for weed control. Weed Science. 1983;31:170-9. Katan J, Greenburger A, Alon H, Grinstein A. Solar heating by polyethylene mulching for control of diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens. . Phytopathology. 1976;66(5). Elmore Cl. Use of solarization for weed control. The First International Conference on Soil Solarization. Amman, Jordan.

[10] [11]

[12] [13] [14]

56

Weed Management Using Fibres from Agricultural Waste

Eco Weed Mat Feasibility Assessment
By Menghe Miao, Michael Clarke and Adrian Best May 2013 Pub. No.13/015 This research assesses the feasibility of manufacturing a biodegradable weed mat from fibres that are currently waste. The biodegradable weed mats are made from straw fibres using a combination of high productivity nonwoven technologies to provide effective weed suppression as a strong physical barrier and as a solarisation cover. The Eco Weed Mat (EWM) can be used as an alternative to the petroleum-based polyethylene weed mat, without the negative impact of plastic residues. The report also outlines the potential of a new fibre value-chain in Australia. This research will be of interest to a broad cross section of land managers from both agricultural and environmental sectors. This report will be of particular interest to growers involved with organic, biodynamic and specialised production across the horticultural sector, managers of national environmental assets, natural resource facilitators, peri-urban land managers, residential garden owners, as well as manufacturers and suppliers of agricultural and garden products.

Phone: Fax: Bookshop:

02 6271 4100 02 6271 4199 1300 634 313

Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au Postal Address:  PO Box 4776, Kingston ACT 2604 Street Address:  Level 2, 15 National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600

www.rirdc.gov.au

250 gsm Ecomat

40.0 35.0

25.0 20.0

Soil moisture content (%)

25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 outside 150gsm 250gsm 350gsm PE

Soil temperature ( )

30.0

15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 outside 150gsm 250gsm 350gsm PE

Figure 6-3. After one month (14 October 2011)

The trials continued until 18 November 2011. Figure 6-4 shows the growth conditions under the four different mats on 18 November 2011, for a total of 65 days. The results on soil moisture and temperature are given in Appendix B. All grasses became yellow and weeds became black under the PE control mat. Most broad leaf weeds died (i.e., turned black) under all the three eco weed mats but grasses survived under all of them. Grasses under the 350 eco weed mat had the lowest density and appear yellowish while the grasses under the two thinner mats grew vigorously and appeared healthy at the end of the trial. The soil moisture and temperature in each treatment once again varied quite a lot and thus overshadowed any possible differences between treatments.

35

250 gsm Ecomat

Black PE control

150 gsm Ecomat

350 gsm Ecomat

Figure 6-4. Trial result

The trial started on 14 September 2011 and lasted for two months (18 November 2011). Note that weeds died but grass is alive under the eco weed mats

From the first month of field trial (14 Sept 14 Oct), it was realised that the colour of the mat made an important impact on the growth of weeds and grass. On 18 October 2011, we set up another trial alongside the earlier mats shown in Figure 6-2. In this trial, the 150 gsm and 350 gsm hemp mats were laid down in the same way as in the previous trial except for that the two mats were treated with a black spray (White KnightTM Quick Dry flat enamel paint), as shown in Figure 6-5. The trial continued till 18 November when the mats were removed for examination. The weeds and grasses under the black-sprayed mats after three week growth are compared with growth under the black PE control mat and the 350 gsm natural colour hemp mat in Figure 6-6. The 150 gsm sprayed mat suppressed the grasses in three-weeks as effectively as the black PE did in one month (Figure 6-3). The 350 gsm sprayed mat suppressed the grasses in three-weeks almost as effectively as the black PE did in two months (Figure 6-4). The grass conditions under the black Eco Weed Mats are shown in Figure 6-7.

36

Figure 6-5. Eco Weed Mat was sprayed with black paint

Black PE control

350 gsm Ecomat Sprayed black

350 gsm Ecomat Natural colour

150 gsm Ecomat Sprayed black

Figure 6-6. The effect of spraying black dyes on eco weed mat.

Note that the trial duration for black PE and natural colour Eco Weed Mat (left) was two months while the trial duration for the black Eco Weed Mats (right) was one month

37

Weed Management Using Fibres from Agricultural Waste

Eco Weed Mat Feasibility Assessment
By Menghe Miao, Michael Clarke and Adrian Best May 2013 Pub. No.13/015 This research assesses the feasibility of manufacturing a biodegradable weed mat from bres that are currently waste. The biodegradable weed mats are made from straw bres using a combination of high productivity nonwoven technologies to provide eective weed suppression as a strong physical barrier and as a solarisation cover. The Eco Weed Mat (EWM) can be used as an alternative to the petroleum-based polyethylene weed mat, without the negative impact of plastic residues. The report also outlines the potential of a new bre value-chain in Australia. This research will be of interest to a broad cross section of land managers from both agricultural and environmental sectors. This report will be of particular interest to growers involved with organic, biodynamic and specialised production across the horticultural sector, managers of national environmental assets, natural resource facilitators, peri-urban land managers, residential garden owners, as well as manufacturers and suppliers of agricultural and garden products.

Phone: Fax: Bookshop: Email:

02 6271 4100 02 6271 4199 1300 634 313 rirdc@rirdc.gov.au

Postal Address: PO Box 4776, Kingston ACT 2604 Street Address: Level 2, 15 National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600

www.rirdc.gov.au