Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Calculus II
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Change of Axes
9.3 Straight Lines
9.4 Equations of Lines Pairs
9.5 Circle
9.6 Parabola
9.7 Ellipse
9.8 Hyperbola
9.1 Introduction
If
2 1
m , m
be the gradients of two straight lines respectively, angle between them,
the is given by
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9
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
tan =
2 1
2 1
m m 1
m m
+

If the points
2 1
P , P
and P are collinear, then P is said to divide the line segment
2 1
P P
in the ratio
2 1
m : m
or r where r =
.
PP
P P
2
1
We have
x =
,
r 1
rx x
2 1
+
+
y =
r 1
ry y
2 1
+
+
If P divides
2 1
P P
internally, r is positive.
If P divides
2 1
P P
externally, r is negative.
Area of triangle is
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
2
1
3 3
2 2
1 1
counter-clockwise
Hence area of quadrilateral vertices are A:
), y , x (
i i
i = 1, 2, 3, 4 arranged in
counter-clockwise is
1
]
1

+ + +
1 1
4 4
4 4
3 3
3 3
2 2
2 2
1 1
y x
y x
y x
y x
y x
y x
y x
y x
2
1
Area of n-sided polygon is
1
]
1

+ + + +

1 1
n n
n n
1 n 1 n
3 3
2 2
2 2
1 1
y x
y x
y x
y x
. . .
y x
y x
y x
y x
2
1
Condition for collinearity of 3 points is
1 y x
1 y x
1 y x
3 3
2 2
1 1
= 0
Parametric Equation
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P
1
(x
1
, y
1
)
P
2
(x
2
, y
2
)
P (x, y)
r
1
:
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Given a pair of equation x = x(t), y = y(t), when we eliminate the variable t, we
obtain equation f(x, y) = 0.
Example 1 F:
axy 3 y x
3 3
+
= 0, a > 0
By considering the intersection of line y = tx and curve F. Show curve F
may represented parametrically by
x =
,
t 1
at 3
2
+
y =
2
2
t 1
at 3
+
9.2Change of Axes
1. Translation of axes
Take new axes OX and OY parallel
to OX and OY where O(h, k).
Let the old and
new co-ordinates
of P be (x, y) and (x, y) we have
x = x + h
y = y + k



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y
y
x
x
0 (h, k)
P
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
2. Rotation of co-ordinates axes

Let the old and new co- ordinates of P be (x, y) and (X, Y)
x = OP cos ( + )
= OP cos cos OP sin sin
= X cos + Y sin
y = OP sin ( + )
= OP sin cos OP cos sin
= X sin + Y cos
we have

,
_

y
x
=

,
_

,
_

Y
X
cos sin
sin cos
(old) (new)

,
_

Y
X
=

,
_

,
_

y
x
cos sin
sin cos
(new) (old)

Example 2 Give E:
31 y 18 x 16 y 3 x 4
2 2
+ + +
= 0 if the origin of co-ordinates system is
translated to (2, 3), find the equation of curve in new coordinates system.
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y
y
x
x

P
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 3 Let C be a curve in Ox-y plane with equation
y 6 x 12 y 4 xy 4 x
2 2
+ + +
= 0. If the axes are rotated through an angle
=
, 2 tan
1
find equation C in new coordinates system.
Example 4 (a) The complex numbers z = x + iy, w = u + vi, x, y, u, v R, are related
by the equation w =
.
z
1
2
Show u =
2 2 2
2 2
) y x (
y x
+

and v = 2 2 2
) y x (
xy 2
+

(b) One family of curves

1
F
in x-y plane is given by u = and another
family
2
F
is given by u = . , are parameters. Show that at each
point of
, F
1

dx
dy
=
) y x 3 ( y
) x y 3 ( x
2 2
2 2

(c) Show that each curve of

1
F
at intersect every curve of
2
F
at right
angles.
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.3 Straight Lines
Point slope form: y 1
y
=
) x x ( m
1

Parametric equation: x =
1
x
+ t cos
y =
1
y
+ t sin
t (, ) =
m tan
1
Slope-intercept form:y = mx + c
Two-point form
1
1
y y
x x

=
2 1
2 1
y y
x x

Parametric form: x =
2 1
x ) t 1 ( tx +
y =
2 1
y ) t 1 ( ty +
Proof) x =
,
r 1
rx x
2 1
+
+
y =
r 1
ry y
2 1
+
+
x =
2 1
x
r 1
1
x
r 1
1
+
+
+
x =
, x ) t 1 ( tx
2 1
+
set t =
r 1
1
+

Similarly,
y =
2 1
y
r 1
1
y
r 1
1
+
+
+
y =
2 1
y ) t 1 ( ty +
Intercept form:
b
y
a
x
+
= 1
Example 5 The line CD makes intercepts
h
a
2
and
k
b
2
on x and y-axis respectively.
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y
x
p
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
(a) Find the coordinates Q, the point of intersection of line
b
y
a
x
+
= 1 and CD.
(b) Prove that if the point (h, k) lies on
b
y
a
x
+
= 1, then the equation of line joining
Q to the origin is kx + hy = 0.
Normal form: x cos + y sin = p
Given Ax + By + C = 0
Normal form:
2 2 2 2 2 2
B A
c
y
B A
B
x
B A
A
+ t
+
+ t
+
+ t
= 0
The sign is taken as follow:
1. If C 0, the sign is chosen as opposite to that of C. It is because the constant
term in normal form is always negative.
2. If C = 0, the sign is chosen as the same as that of B.
Example 6 The line
1
L
is given by the equation 3x y 2 = 0. Find the equation of
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
(a) Line
2
L
which passes through the point (1, 1) and is 1
L
Prove that the parametric equation of
1
L
and
2
L
are respectively
: L
1
x = 1 +
, t
1
y = 1 +
; t 3
1
: L
2
x = 1
, t 3
2
y = 1 +
2
t
(b) The points P on
1
L
and Q on
2
L
vary so that PQ is always 3 units in
length, R is the point on PQ such that PR = 2RQ. Prove that the locus
of R is
2 2
) 4 y 3 x ( 4 ) 2 y x 3 ( + +
= 40.
Example 7 (a) Given a straight line L: ax + by + c = 0.
Find the mirror image of the point
) y , x ( P
1 1
in the line L. Hence find
the mirror image of the line
: L
1
x + my + n = 0 in the line L.
(b) Find the equation of locus of the image of a variable point (cos , sin )
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
where 0 < 2, in the line x + y =
. 2
Angle between two straight lines
tan =
2 1
2 1
m m 1
m m
+

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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Distance of a point from a line
i. Given L: x cos + y sin p = 0 and point
) y , x (
0 0
d =
p sin y cos x
0 0
+
Proof) Draw a line // L and pass through point
) y , x (
0 0
) d p ( sin y cos x : L
0
+ +
= 0
pass through
) y , x (
0 0

) d p ( sin y cos x
0 0
+ +
= 0
d =
p sin y cos x
0 0
+
If
) y , x (
0 0
and the origin are on the opposite side of line L, the distance d is
positive; If they are on the same side of the line L, d is negative.
ii. Given: Ax + By + C = 0 and
) y , x (
0 0
d =
2 2
0 0
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
The equation of angle bisectors
Thm. The equation to the bisectors of the angles between two straight lines
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(x
0
, y
0
)
y
x
L
:
L
0
d
d
p
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
1 1 1
C y B x A + +
= 0 and
2 2 2
C y B x A + +
= 0 are
2
1
2
1
1 1 1
B A
C y B x A
+
+ +
=
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
B A
C y B x A
+
+ +
Proof) Let P = (x, y) be any point on the angle bisectors of the given lines, then P will
be equidistant from both lines. Hence the coordinates (x, y) of P will satisfy
2
1
2
1
1 1 1
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
=
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
B A
C By Ax
+
+ +
or
2
1
2
1
1 1 1
B A
C y B x A
+
+ +
=
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
B A
C y B x A
+
+ +
t
which are the required equations.
Example 8 Two perpendicular lines are drawn through the origin so as to form an
isosceles right-angled triangle with the line
x + my + n = 0.
Show that their equations are
( m)x + ( + m)y = 0 and (+ m)x ( m)y = 0.
Condition for concurrency
Thm. Three lines not all parallel represented by
i i i i
C y B x A : L + +
= 0 i = 1, 2, 3
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
are concurrent iff
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
C B A
C B A
C B A
= 0.
Example 9 The equations

'

+
+
+
0 2 y x 4
0 1 y 2 x 3
0 3 y 3 x 2
represent three straight lines in the x-y
plane.
(a) Find the values of for which the lines are concurrent.
(b) For each of these values , find the coordinates of the point at which
the lines are concurrent.
System of straight lines
The equation
) C y B x A (
1 1 1
+ +
+
) C y B x A (
2 2 2
+ +
= 0,
: arbitrary constant, represents a straight lines passing through the intersection of
the lines
) C y B x A (
1 1 1
+ +
= 0 and
2 2 2
C y B x A + +
= 0.
Example 10 The equations of four lines EAB, BCF, CDE, FDA are 3x 2y + 1 = 0,
4x y + 2 = 0, 2x + y + 2 = 0 and
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
2(3x 2y + 1) 3(4x y + 2) (2x + y + 2) = 0. Obtain, without finding
the coordinates of B and D, the equation of straight line BD.
9.4 Equations of Lines Pairs
Consider the pair of straight lines through origin
y b x a
1 1
+
=0
y b x a
2 2
+
= 0
The combined equation of line pairs is
) y b x a )( y b x a (
2 2 1 1
+ +
= 0 or
2
2 1 1 2 2 1
2
2 1
y b b xy ) b a b a ( x a a + + + = 0.
Remark:
The pair of straight lines
2 2
by hxy 2 ax + +
= 0 has the following properties:
1. real and distinct if
. ab h
2
>
2. real and coincident if
. ab h
2

3. imaginary if
. ab h
2
<

Example 11 L: qx + py = pq be a straight line and M:
2 2
by hxy 2 ax + +
= 0 a line pair
through origin.
(a) If L meets M at A
) y , x (
1 1
and B
), y , x (
2 2
Show
2 1
x x +
= 2 2
bq hpq 2 ap
) hp bq ( pq 2
+

2 1
x x
=
2 2
2 2
bq hpq 2 ap
q bp
+
(b) (i) Prove
2
) B A (
=
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
] bq hpq 2 ap [
) ab h )( q p ( q p 4
+
+
(ii) If OA = OB, show
) q p ( h
2 2

= pq(b a)
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 12 Express in a single equation of perpendicular
(a) straight lines through the origin, one of which is the line ax + by = 0.
(b) Find also a single equation of the pair of angle bisection of the line pair
in (a).
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Page 14
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Thm. The condition that the general equation of the second degree in x and y
:
c fy 2 gx 2 by hxy 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0
shall represent two straight lines is
c f g
f b h
g h a
= 0.
Proof) The given equation can be written as
) c fy 2 by ( ) g hy ( x 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0
Solving this equation as a quadratic in x,
x =
a 2
) c fy 2 by ( a 4 ) g hy ( 4 ) g hy ( 2
2 2
+ + + t +
=
a 2
ac afy 2 aby g hgy 2 y h ) g hy (
2 2 2
+ + + t +
ax + (hy + g) =
) ac g ( ) af hg ( y 2 ) ab h ( y
2 2 2
+ + t
In order that shall represent two straight lines, the left hand side of should be written
as a product of two linear factors of the form Ax + By + C = 0, the quantity under the
root sign in the above equation must be a complete square.
Thus the condition is
) ac g )( ab h ( ) af hg (
2 2 2

= 0
which reduces to
2 2 2
ch bg af fgh 2 abc +
= 0
This result can be put in the determinant form
c f g
f b h
g h a
= 0
Example 13 Let :
13 x 8 y 10 x xy 4 y
2 2
+ + +
= 0
(a) Prove represents a pair of straight lines. Find the separate equations
of the line pair.
(b) Find their point of intersection and the angle between them.
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 14 (a) Show that the bisectors of the angles between the lines
2 2
by hxy 2 ax + +
= 0 are given by the equation
2 2
hy xy ) b a ( hx
= 0
(b) Show that the equation
5 y 12 x 14 y 4 xy 4 x 3
2 2
+ +
= 0
represents two lines, and find
(i) the coordinates of the intersection of the line pair, and
(ii) the combined equation of the bisectors of the angles between
them.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 16
(x, y)
(x
1
, y
1
) (x
2
, y
2
)
(x, y)
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.5 Circle
1.
2 2
y x +
=
2
r
represents a circle, centre (0, 0).
2. Centre (h, k)
2 2
) k y ( ) h x ( +
=
2
r
3. In second degree homogenous equation
c fy 2 gx 2 by hxy 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0
Condition for circle = a = b, h = 0
centre
)
a
f
,
a
g
(
radius =
a
c
a
f
a
g
2
2
2
2
+
Circle:
c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2
+ + + +
= 0
4. Circle which has diameter with end points
) y , x ( ), y , x (
2 2 1 1
are

,
_

,
_

2
2
2
1
x x
y y
x x
y y
= 1
5. Equation of tangent at point
) y , x (
1 1
are
c ) y y ( f ) x x ( g y y x x
1 1 1 1
+ + + + + +
= 0
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
6. Equation of tangent with slope m
If circle equation
2 2
y x +
=
2
r
Let equation of tangent is y = mx + c,

2 2
) c mx ( x + +
=
2
r
c =
2
m 1 r + t
y = mx
2
m 1 r + t
7. Let P
) y , x (
1 1
be a point lying outside the circle
c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2
+ + + +
= 0, the equation
of chord is
c ) y y ( f ) x x ( g y y x x
1 1 1 1
+ + + + + +
= 0 ()
Proof) Let the chord meet the circle at points A
) y , x (
2 2
and B
) y , x (
3 3
Equation of tangent
c ) y y ( f ) x x ( g yy xx
2 2 2 2
+ + + + + +
= 0 ()
P lies on (),
i.e.
c ) y y ( f ) x x ( g y y x x
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + +
= 0
It follows that
) y , x (
2 2
satisfies equation ().
i.e. () pass through the point A. Similarly, point B also satisfies ()
() is equation AB.
8. Length of PA = c fy 2 gx 2 y x
1 1
2
1
2
1
+ + +
Proof) PA =
2
2 1
2
2 1
) y y ( ) x x ( +
=
2
2 2 1
2
1
2
2 2 1
2
1
y y y 2 y x x x 2 x + + +
Sub
2
x
in
c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2
+ + + +
= 0 and
1
x
in ()
PA = c fy 2 gx 2 y x
1 1
2
1
2
1
+ + +
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Page 18
slope: m
slope: m
A (x
2
, y
2
)
P (x
1
, y
1
) B (x
3
, y
3
)
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9. Given the equations of 2 circles
1
C
and
, C
2
the radical axis is
. C C
2 1

10. Of the line Ax + By + c = 0 cuts the circle
c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2
+ + + +
= 0
at 2 points P and Q, then any circle passing through P and Q has the form
) c By Ax ( k c fy 2 gx 2 y x
2 2
+ + + + + + +
= 0.
11. Of the two circles intersect at P and Q, any circle passing through P and Q as
the form
2 1
kC C +
= 0.
12. Parametric form of
2 2
y x +
=
2
r

'

sin r y
cos r x

Example 15 Let
) y , x ( P ), y , x ( P
2 2 2 1 1 1
be two distinct points on the circle
2 2
y x +
=
2
r
2
C
(a) Show that the equation of chord
2 1
P P
is
) y y )( y y ( ) x x )( x x (
2 1 2 1
+
=
2 2 2
r y x +
(b) Deduce that the equation of tangent at
1
P
is
1 1
yy xx +
=
2
r
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radical axis
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 16 Consider the line L: y = 2a and the circle C:
2 2
y x +
=
, a
2
a > 0. Let P be a
variable point on L. If the tangents for P to C touch the circle C at points Q
and R respectively, show that the mid-point of QR lies on a fixed circle and
find centre and radius of this circle.
Example 17 Let P be the point outside the circle
2 2
y x +
=
2
r
and A and B are points on
the circle such that PAB is straight line. Let Q be a point on the line PAB
such that PA : AQ = k : 1, set P
), y , x (
1 1
show
2
1
2
1
k 1
ky y
k 1
kx x

,
_

+
+
+

,
_

+
+
=
2
r
Hence, show the equation of tangents from the point P to the circle is
) r y x )( r y x (
2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1
+ + =
2 2
1 1
) r y y x x ( +
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 18 (a) Show for any real value m, the straight lines y =
2
Mm a mx t are
tangents to the circle
2 2
y x +
=
. a
2
(b) P is a variable point outside the circle
2 2
y x +
=
. a
2
If two tangents are
drawn from P to the circle are , show the locus of P is also a circle.
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.6 Parabola
Standard form:
2
y
= 4ax
Parametric equation: x =
2
at
y = 2at
Example 19 The point t is one of the extremities of a focal chord of the parabola
2
y
= 4ax, prove the other extremity is the point
,
t
1

and hence show the

locus of mid-point of the focal chord is a parabola.
Example 20 Prove that the equation of chord of the parabola
2
y
= 4ax with end points
) y , x (
1 1
and
) y , x (
2 2
is
) y y ( y
2 1

=
. y y ax 4
2 1
+
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F (a, 0)
y
2
= 4ax
focal chord
latus rectum
chord
x = a
directrix
x
y
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Remark:
If
2 1
y y +
= 0,x =
1
x
=
2
x
Thm. Equation of tangent at
) y , x (
1 1
for the parabola
2
y
= 4ax is
y y
1
=
) x x ( a 2
1
+
In parametric form:
) at 2 , at (
2
2aty =
) at x ( a 2
2
+
y =
at
t
x
+

Example 21 Show that two tangents to a parabola
2
y
= 4ax are each other iff the
intersection of the two tangents lies on the directrix (x = a).
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 22 Let
1
P
be parabola
2
y
= 4ax. A straight line L cuts the
1
P
at 2 points A and
B. If M (, ) is the mid-point of AB,
(a) find in terms of a, , , equation of L.
(b) Hence, find the locus of mid-points of chord
1
P
that are tangent to
another parabola
2
y : P

= 4ax.
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Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.7 Ellipse
Standard form:
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
+ = 1
e: eccentricity
2
e
=
2
2
a
b
1 for a > b
If centre is (h, k), equation:
2
2
2
2
b
) k y (
a
) h x (
+

= 1
Parametric form: x = a cos
y = b sin
Example 23 Let P
) y , x (
1 1
and Q
) y , x (
2 2
be two points on
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
+ = 1. Prove
equation of PQ is
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 25
(ae, 0)
(ae, 0)
y
x
x = a/e
x = a/e
a
0
b
chord
directrix
focal chord
latus rectum
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
) y y (
b
y
) x x (
a
x
2 1 2 2 1 2
+ + +
=
1
b
y y
a
x x
2
2 1
2
2 1
+ +
Remark:
As
, x x
1 2

equation of tangent
) y 2 (
b
y
) x 2 (
a
x
1 2 1 2
+
= 1
b
y
a
x
2
2
1
2
2
1
+ +
= 2
2
1
2
1
b
yy
a
xx
+
= 1
In parametric form:
+ sin
b
y
cos
a
x
= 1
Example 24 P, Q are the points with parameter , on ellipse
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
+ = 1. TP, TQ are
tangents to the ellipse. Find the coordinate T and show that if P and Q
moves as =
.
2

Find the locus of T.

Example 25 If lines 2x y + 3 = 0 and 2x + 3y + 7 = 0 both touch the ellipse
2 2
by ax +
= 1, find a, b.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 26
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
Example 26 Two perpendicular tangents are drawn from an external point P to the
ellipse
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
+ = 1. Find locus of P.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 27
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.8 Hyperbola
Standard form:
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
= 1
2
e
=
2
2
a
b
1+ > 1
Asymptotes:
b
y
a
x
t
= 0
If centre is (h, k), equation:
2
2
2
2
b
) k y (
a
) h x (

= 1
Parametric form: x = a sec
y = b tan
Example 27 Prove the equation of chord of hyperbola
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
= 1 at point
) y , x ( ), y , x (
2 2 1 1
is
) y y (
b
y
) x x (
a
x
2 1 2 2 1 2
+ +
=
. 1
b
y y
a
x x
2
2 1
2
2 1
+
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 28
F
(ae, 0)
F
(ae, 0)
0
y asymptote
x
Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
9.9 General Equation of Second Degree
c fy 2 gx 2 by hxy 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0
Tangent at
) y , x (
1 1
c ) y y ( f 2 ) x x ( g 2 y by ) yx xy ( h 2 x ax
1 1
2
1 1 1
2
1
+ + + + + + + + = 0
If
2
h ab
= 0parabola
If
2
h ab
> 0ellipse
If
2
h ab
< 0hyperbola
Thm. Let
2
h ab
0, the quadratic curve
c fy 2 gx 2 by hxy 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0 will be
translated to a point (h, k) such that h =
,
ab h
hf bg
2

k =
ab h
hg af
2

and the equation becomes

c y b y x h 2 x a
2 2

+

+

= 0.
Thm. Rotate the axis with angle (Reduce xy-term)
i.e.
c fy 2 gx 2 by hxy 2 ax
2 2
+ + + + +
= 0

c y f 2 x g 2 y b x a
2 2
+ + + +
= 0 such that
1. tan 2 =
,
b a
h 2

a b 0
2. a b = 0, =
4

Example 27
7 y 2 x 10 y xy 4 x
2 2
+ + +
= 0 reduce the above equation in standard form by
suitable transformation of coordinates axes. Sketch it.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
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