Triaxial shear test

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A triaxial shear test is a common method to measure the mechanical properties of many deformable solids, especially soil (e.g. sand, clay) and rock, and other granular materials orpowders. There are several variations on the test.[1][2][3][4][5]
Contents
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o o o o o o o o

1 Triaxial versus True triaxial test 2 Test Execution 2.1 Loose granular materials 2.2 Cohesive (non-loose) materials 2.3 Triaxial test on rock 2.4 Fluid and gas pore pressure measurement 3 Basic concept 3.1 Triaxial test to determine the shear strength of a discontinuity 4 Types of Triaxial Tests 4.1 Consolidated Drained (CD) 4.2 Consolidated Undrained (CU) 4.3 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) 5 Test standards 6 References 7 See also

[edit]Triaxial

versus True triaxial test

Although the name triaxial test suggests that the stresses would be different in three directions, this is not true in the test as is usually done. In this test with oil or water as confining medium, the confining pressures are equal in all directions (i.e. in terms of principal stresses: for a compression test: 1 2 = 3 and for tensile: 1 = 2 3). Only in a true triaxial test the stresses in all three directions can be different (i.e. 1 2 3).

[edit]Test

Execution
granular materials

[edit]Loose

For loose granular materials like sand or gravel, the material is contained in a cylindrical latex sleeve with a flat, circular metal plate or platen closing off the top and bottom ends. This cylinder is placed into a bath of water (mostly water but may be any other fluid) to provide pressure along the sides of the cylinder. The top

platen can then be mechanically driven up or down along the axis of the cylinder to squeeze the material. The distance that the upper platen travels is measured as a function of the force required to move it, as the pressure of the surrounding water is carefully controlled. The net change in volume of the material can also be measured by how much water moves in or out of the surrounding bath, but is typically measured - when the sample is saturated with water - by measuring the amount of water that flows into or out of the sample's pores.

[edit]Cohesive

(non-loose) materials

The test for cohesive (non-loose) materials (e.g. clay, rock) is similar to the test for loose granular materials.

[edit]Triaxial

test on rock

For rock testing the sleeve may be a thin metal sheeting rather than latex. Triaxial testing on rock is fairly seldom done because the high forces and pressures required to break a rock sample imply very costly and cumbersome testing equipment available at few laboratories in the world.

[edit]Fluid

and gas pore pressure measurement

During the test the pore pressures of fluids (e.g. water, oil) or gasses in the sample may be measured.

[edit]Basic

concept

The principle behind a triaxial shear test is that the stress applied in the vertical direction (along the axis of the cylindrical sample) can be different from the stresses applied in the horizontal directions perpendicular to the sides of the cylinder, i.e. the confining pressure). In a homogeneous and isotropic material this produces a non-hydrostatic stress state, withshear stress that may lead to failure of the sample in shear. In homegeneous and anisotropic samples (e.g. bedded or jointed samples) failure may occur due to bending moments and, hence, failure may be tensile. Also combinations of bending and shear failure may happen in inhomogeneous and anisotropic material. A solid is defined as a material that can support shear stress without moving. However, every solid has an upper limit to how much shear stress it can support. The triaxial test is designed to measure that limit. The stress on the platens is increased until the material in the cylinder fails and forms sliding regions within itself, known as shear bands. A motion where a material is deformed under shear stress is known as shearing. The geometry of the shearing in a triaxial test typically causes the sample to become shorter while bulging out along the sides. The stress on the platen is then reduced and the water pressure pushes the sides back in, causing the sample to grow taller again. This cycle is usually repeated several times while collecting stress and strain data about the sample. During the shearing, a granular material will typically have a net gain or loss of volume. If it had originally been in a dense state, then it typically gains volume, a characteristic known asReynolds' dilatancy. If it had originally been in a very loose state, then contraction may occur before the shearing begins or in conjunction with the shearing.

From the triaxial test data, it is possible to extract fundamental material parameters about the sample, including its angle of shearing resistance, apparent cohesion, and dilatancy angle. These parameters are then used in computer models to predict how the material will behave in a larger-scale engineering application. An example would be to predict the stability of the soil on a slope, whether the slope will collapse or whether the soil will support the shear stresses of the slope and remain in place. Triaxial tests are used along with other tests to make such engineering predictions.

[edit]Triaxial

test to determine the shear strength of a discontinuity

The triaxial test can be used to determine the shear strength of a discontinuity. A homogeneous and isotropic sample (see above) fails due to shear stresses in the sample. If a sample with a discontinuity is orientated such that the discontinuity is about parallel to the plane in which maximum shear stress will be developed during the test, the sample will fail due to shear displacement along the discontinuity, and hence, the shear strength of a discontinuity can be calculated.[6]

[edit]Types

of Triaxial Tests

There are several variations of the triaxial test:

[edit]Consolidated

Drained (CD)

In a consolidated drained test the sample is consolidated and sheared in compression with drainage. The rate of axial deformation is kept constant, i.e. is strain controlled. The idea is that the test allows the sample and the pore pressures to fully consolidate (i.e. adjust) to the surrounding stresses. The test may take a long time to allow the sample to adjust, in particular low permeability samples need a long time to drain and adjust strain to stress levels.

[edit]Consolidated

Undrained (CU)

In a consolidated undrained test the sample is not allowed to drain. The shear characteristics are measured under undrained conditions and the sample is assumed to be fully saturated

[edit]Unconsolidated

Undrained (UU)

In an unconsolidated undrained test the sample is not allowed to drain. The sample is compressed at a constant rate (strain-controlled).

[edit]Test

standards

Triaxial Test
Updated 16 October 2010

Outline

Conventional triaxial test is a common laboratory testing method widely used for obtaining shear strength par condition.
Description and test procedure

Conventional triaxial test involves subjecting a cylindrical soil sample to radial stresses (confining pressure) a The cylindrical soil specimen is usually of the dimension of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height. The speci specimen preparation depends on the type of the soil. Samples of cohesive soils are often prepared directly fr remolded. For cohesion-less soils, however, the specimen is prepared with the help of a mold that maintains t

The specimen is vertically enclosed with a thin rubber membrane and placed between two rigid ends inside a apply vertical stresses to the specimen. The axial strain/stress of the sample is controlled through the moveme by the water pressure surrounding the sample in the pressure chamber. The volume change of the sample is a

Depending on the combination of loading and drainage condition, three main types of triaxial tests can be car

Consolidated Drained (CD) Consolidated Undrained (CU) Unconsolidated - Undrained (UU)

In case of consolidated test, the test is then carried out by a first stage of applying confining pressure in the pr corresponds to the consolidation of the sample. The deviatoric load is then applied through the vertical axis. T stress and the confining stress. During the deviatoric compression, the drainage valves can be open (CD) or c

Triaxial test data, in general, include evolution of axial and volumetric strain, deviatoric and isotropic stress, possible to deduce the shear strength parameters, namely friction angle, cohesion, dilatancy angle and the oth

mages for Triaxial test

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Application of the Triaxial test in engineering practice The information such as the shear strength parameters and the cohesion that obtained from triaxial test can be used to check the safety and predict the behaviors of long-term stability of slopes, earth fills and earth retaining structures. The analysis carried out in terms of total stress obtained from undrained test can be used to investigate the initial stability of the foundation of a structure or embankment on saturated clay. Alternatively, the analysis can also be used to determine the initial stability of open cut or sheet piled excavation made in clay and the stability against bottom heave of a deep excavation in clay. Moreover, stability of impervious rolled field can be investigated through the test. Besides, the analysis on the stability of the clay foundation of an embankment or dam where the rate of construction permits partial consolidation can also be determined in terms of effective stress by using the values of c and fi obtained from drained test or consolidatedundrained test. Advantages and disadvantages of the test Advantages: I. The control of drainage conditions to allow for different types of test: drained and undrained conditions. II. The possibility of the measurement of pore pressure III. The possibility to allow the soil to be sheared to failure in its natural weakest plane. IV. The shear strength parameters obtained is more accurate than those obtained from shear box test. Disadvantages: I. Influence of the value of intermediate principal stress. In many practical problems approximating to plane strain, the intermediate principal stress is greater then the minor principal test. II. Change in principal stress direction In problems where the direction of the major principal stress changes steadily under the applied stress, this restriction limits the accuracy with which pore pressure can be predicted. III. Influence of end restraint
Advantages: - Accurate results due to computer control (in most cases). - Different types of loading conditions can be tested. - Many different soil properties can be found (Shear Strength, Internal friction angle,etc) - Relatively simple preparation and testing procedures. - Most commonly used soil testing method (that is true if you are in Australia) Limitations: - Course grained and non-cohesive soils cannot be tested. - Basic triaxial apparatus will not take into account changes in area (ie as the sample is compressed it's area will increase slightly and only advanced triaxial apparatuses will factor in this extra area)

- The soil sample has been remoulded (ie taken out of ground and been effected by different pressures etc) and will not exactly match in-situ conditions. (So properties found in triaxial test may not exactly match soil properties, however they will be very close if careful/accurate testing has been done. If you want to find very accurate in-situ properties on-site testing may be required.)

Advantages of Triaxial Test

i. The stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform. ii. The specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane iii. There is complete control over the drainage. iv. Pore pressure changes and the volumetric changes can be measured directly. v. The state of stress at all intermediate stages upto failure is known. The Mohr circle can be drawn at any stage of shear. vi. This test is suitable for accurate research work and the apparatus adaptable to special requirements such as extension test and tests for different stress paths.

Disadvantages of Triaxial Test

i. The apparatus is elaborate, bulky and costly. ii. The drained test takes place a longer period in comparison with a direct shear test. iii. It is not possible to determine the cross sectional area of the specimen at larger strains, as the assumption that the specimen remains cylindrical does not hold good. iv. The strain conditions in the specimen are not uniform due to frictional restraint produced by the loading cap and the pedestal disc. This leads to the formation of the dead zones at each end of the specimen. v. The consolidation of the specimen in the test is isotropic, whereas in the field, the consolidation is generally anisotropic.

Peak strength in triaxial tests

The basic peak states, before normalisation, fall on different curves each for a particular water content or specific volume. After normalisation all the peak states fall on a single unique envelope.

equations
At a given water content or specific volume all the peak states fall on a single smooth envelope. This may be represented in one of two ways: As a power law

As a linear envelope if the curvature is relatively small over a given range. q'p = Gp + Hp p' The parameters , and Gp, Hp depend on the water content or voids ratio. Even at a given water content or voids ratio, the parameters Gp and Hpdepend on the range of stress for linear approximation.

Critical state strength in triaxial tests

The graphs show the critical state line. If you know either p' or v at the critical state you can calculate the critical state deviation stress q'. M and are soil parameters. We should really use subscripts c and e for compression and extension as the values are slightly different. The isotropic normal compression line corresponds to zero deviator stress

The critical state line can be normalised with respect to the critical pressure 'c or the equivalent specific volume vl. The critical state line and the isotropic normal compression line both reduce to single points.