t1 ,/

I SELECTION OF MATERIALS-EOR DESIGN

-fhe
design engineer strikes a compromise betvveen ttie functional requirements and the

cost considerations in proper selection of materials for any component. Material costs
account

for a major portion of the total cost (aproximately 50 "/" ) of the product. Hov,?ver. the objective is not necessarily minimizing the material cost Dlrl to minimize
the overall cosl including the initial price of rau, material, cost of processing,

assembling, cost of guaranteeing the durability o.f the product and servicing, etc.,
Hence the lowest cost material may notbe the material with the lowest overall price.

( For the list of available materials, refer

Fig 2.1)

Design recommendations for minimizing the material-related costs:

(1) Use commercially available mill forms to minimize the in-factory operations.

(2) Use standard stock shapes, gauges, grades or . formulations whenever possible.
Sometimes larger and heavier sections of a standard material are less costly than smaller

thinner sections of speciai materials.

(3) Consider the use of pre-finished materials to save costs for surface finishing
operations on the completed component.

{4) Select materials as much as pcssible for processibility, e.g.,

grades .for machined parts, easily formable grades w-hich variety
used)

Use

free

rno.cl':i;':iizg

for

stampings, etc., {By determining

be

of basic material is the most suitable for the processing sequence to

(5) Design the parts for maximirm utilization of material. Make the ends square ( or
nestable

) with

other pieces from the same stock. Avoid designs with inherently high

scrap rates.

Materials' selection is infl uenced

byz

Developments in moterials technologt, basics of materials selection, intuitive methods in

materials selection, material properfy charts, process selection charts, etc.,

l. Developments in materiols technologt: The important points in materials selection

are
:

(i) Availability of new materials and new mati:rial types.

(ii) New

manufacturing methods

with

emphasis

on material conservation.

energy

conservation, cost reduction, etc.,

(iii) Improvements in the properties of the existing materials by thermal or mechanical

o.f' trefltments, e.g.,o slight change in the chemistrl,of materials results in the re.finement

microstructure which entails improved mechanical properties-

(iv) Increased use of advanced materials(v) New design configurations.

(vi) lncreased competition between alternate materials'

C lassification of

Ensineerins rnaterialsz

(l) Metals:

They have high modulii. Their properties can be significantly changed by

alloying, mechanical or thermal treatment. They are prone to fatigue and possess low
corrosion resistance.

(2\ Ceramics and Glassesz They have high modulii, but arc brittle. They exhibit low
possess tolerance for stress concentration. They are stiff, hard and abrasion resistant' but

good corrosion resistance.

(3\ Polymers & elastomers: They have

low modulii, but are strong (as strong

as

are easy metals). They possess poor creep resistance and high+emperature strength. They

to shape and exhibit goodcorrosion resistance. (4\

Composites:

These possess the combination of the good properties of diftbrent

is groups of materials. They are light, stiff, strong and tgugh, but the main disadvantage

their relatively high

cost.

Intaitive methods in materials' selection

(l) First best material:

The material which the designet feels best among the few

materials he is familiar with is selected. (2) Same materials asfor a similar

part

ate selected'

(3) problem-solving material selectionz

If a particular property of the existing material

poses a problem, then a new material in the same group of materials with a superior value of that property is chosen. (4) Searching material selectionz

The designer cotisiders randomly one requirement

only at the time of selection.

f)rawbacks with intuitive selection methods

.,

(l)

Important requirements often give rise to failures in operation.

(2) First solution at hand is considered as the final solution which is not likely to be the
best solution.

(3) Ilnconventional solutions are not considered, e.g.,

Advanced materials may not be considered. (4) If the solution is not optimol, it gives the part poor competitiveness.

Materials' selection process involves either of the following:

l.

Selection of materlals and processes

for a new product or design.

methods

for an existing product or design. This may be meant for reduction in cost, increase in reliability, or improved
2. Evoluation of alternate materials performance, etc.,

or manufacturing

Materials' selection for

Mechanical

Niw desisn

(a) Consider technical and/or economical factors which the design should perform such
asz

or

electrical property requirements, coruosion

or

oxidation resistance,

cost, and easy availability of materials, etc.,

(b) Define the manrrfacturing requirements

the size

in

terms

of: the rrumber of parts required,

(c) Compare the needed properties

and complexity of

the

part,

the required tolerance and surface finish, the qualit-v

level and the overall fabricability of the

material.

with a large materials property database to select a few materials suitable for the
application. Establish several screening parameters in this initial screening process.

llow? Any material property with a range of values ( lower

screening property.

and higher limits)

is

(d) Investigate the

candidate material

in greater

detail with respect

to the product

performance, cost, fabricability and availability in the grades and sizes needed for the application, by conducting material property tests(e) This previous step results

in

the selection of a single material for the design and the

suggested process for manufacturing the part.

Now develop the exact design data

and/or the design specification of the component ( based on the material and the process
selected ).

Materials substitution for an existins desisp

(l)

Analyse the currently used material

terms

of the performance, manufacturing

requirements and cost.

(2) Determine which characteristics need to be improved for the enhanced product
ftrnction. Failure

anolysis

may be used for this.

(3) Search for alternate materials or manufacturing methods.

(4) Compile a short list of materials and manufacturing methods, and estimate the
manufacturing costs by value engg.

(5) Evaluate the results in step ( ) and recommend for the replacement of the material with another material with critical properties and specifications defined.
Process Selection Charts

Refer Fig. 2.2.

complexity
attributes

These charts are drawn between the size

of a component and the

of shape. The design requirements

determine the necessary processing

to

establish a search area. The processes which overlap this search area

become cairdidates for selection.

General guidelines for successful mqteriak' selection (1) Act systematically.

(2) Formulate in detail all the requirements on the component. A common mkconception in the selection of materials is that these requirements areformulated by someone else.
(3) Proceed step by step; finish one step, then proceed to the next.

(4) Acquire good knowledge about materials properties' data. This is essential to
formulate the conditions on the properties. (5) Check the consistency on the problem formulation and solution process by conducting suitable tests on the candidate matlerials.

(6) Materials' selection is always to be considered as an integral part of both the design
and manufacturing processes.

Tvpical examoles of materials, seiection process

l. For an automotive exhaust

(l)

svstemz

Important factors to be considered include:

Conducting exhaust gases away from the engine. (2) Preventing the noxious fumes from entering the automobile. (3)Cooling the exhaust gases.

w IUr

(4) F.educing the engine noise. (5) Reducing the exposure of autornobile body parts to exhartst gases.
(6) Affecting the engire pei'formance as little as Lrndcsirrlile exhattst cntissioils. (8) Havi:rg an acceptably long sen'ice Iiie.

pcssible.

(7) Helping to cor:trol the

(9) Reasonable cost Analvsis:

of

both tlie original and replacements.

(1) The exhaust system consists of a sqries of tubes wtich collect gases at the engine end
and convey them to tire rear end of the automobile.

(2) The size of the tube is deterrnined

by:

(a) the volume of exhaust gases, and (b) the

extent to which the exhaust system can be perrnitted to irnpede the flow of gases from the
engine.

(3)An additional device called Mufiler is required for noise reduction.

(4)

catalytic coRverter is required

to convert the polluting

gases

to less harmful

emissions.

(5) Ihe system must resist attack by the atmosphere, water, rnud, and road salt.

t6) The locatior. of the exhaust systern under the vehicle requires that it should be d.rfuned c a compkx shape which will not interfere with the running gear of the

rffiE,rud cieardnce or the passenger compartment. {?) The reial used must be available at rninimum cost. (8) The mechanical property requirm are not too severe. Just suitable rigidity to pred'ent excessive vibration and
.

fatigtre, aud enough creep resistance to provide adequate service tife is sufficient.

{9) Corrosion is a limiting factor >> especially at the cold end cornprising of the
resonator, nutfrler and the tail pipe.

Material selection:

Initially the tubes were made of lorv carbon steel with suitable coatings for corrosion
resistance-

But later they were replaced by stainless steel for higher automotive quality Ferritic 11 % Cr alloys
are used in the cold end components

and longer life. Of late, 17

with

- 20 % Cr Ferritic alloys and oustenitic

vessels:

Cr-Ni alloys are used in the hot end of the

system.

2.4lumnium alloys for pressure

!.

Three types of pressure vessels may be considered:

(a) Aircraft pressure cabin

(b) LIigh pressure gas c-..'lindcr

(c) Beverage can. The aircraft cabin is aln'a)'s tnadt'of AlLrrainium alioys. High pressure gas cl,linders *,ere available in steel for many years, but Alurninium cylinders r*iere introducecl first in l9'30's and are in use since 1960. Beer was contained in barrels or bottles lor many years. But since 1940's, it came to be stored in tin pf ate ce*s endhas been in use like that since 1950' All the above tiuee are subjected to high pressure and strrould deli'er the co,tents in goc.d ccndition, and at acceptable cost. ( Refer Table 2.1
systematic evaluction of rhe availsble materials and Tahles 2.2 (a) important issues relsted Io the design of the above three types of pressure

for

&

(b)

for

tvs,sels.)

(1) The alloy selected for the aircraft

res is tance,

cabins should

be strong, have good fntigue

fr ac ture t o ughne s s & I i ght w e i gh t.

(2) High pr gas cylinders are cold-extruded and must meet the stringent operating
corditionq e.g.,

wall
Test

stress at

workingpr

0.05

x)roof

stress;

pr:

1.5 x

workingpr;

cylinder should withstand

ll,w

cycles at the test pressure;

Hydropressure burst slwuld not result in more than three pieces; All cylinders should be tested before sale.

AlU*inium gas cylinders

steel cyinder)

resurt

in

significant weight reduction (70 "/" of the high C

Concluding remarks: Materials engineer or technologist should h.ave complete inforrnation and speci/ications and should have access to the various data bases.
Re{erences:
1.

the standards

ASM Metals Handbook, Vol20.

2. Materials selection in mechanical design by M.F_4shby.

\
i

iriiij i\E f:i, r-C

Da]^

it;N

ci:onging

i:'Jil,i:';:::;.I;"":ii;:*::: l:;,"r.,',,.,,,,a ,1irr,i,, ratcry

Ii gcricraii'r'is rcl po.sibic to reerize the fuli potentiar of a nc, n,aicri,, u;,rcss rj,.: ,r,.-u,r,,r\y

pro,idc, o,,,i,,,,,j,,,'j,r,,),,,,t,r,,,i,i,ir')1",'',',f,i.'u,:illfr;I}fl:;

;:::il::;:::'"il,T":t,i''"i'','^::::::,,:::::;:'=i;:,::::{,'X:,'::;i:1,lfi:::H;ili r,r.il,ii"-;i"lJ""l;,l,.,l'j|:#"fl,l'; associared wirr rhe production or [':::*.s exampre, rhe pressure ,r,i, ii," a*.*.r"io,:,';;;:fi,[T:]::"ffHff"1 nrordins or a porvmer' ",r,;;];: ;;;*" . i.it^,ii;;j:il::: rmpro'eme,=s ia weiding :'": :F si.,set-meiaico?.,p"n.nt, T:l, i.to an engileei :JilT.'.?#i?
ing part. frfiateriak se{etrictt
that must be folroned

are:

{or a ue.rt, product or o!" new Hpw designioni^* In t this _.

.

sitiration the steps

l.

Define the functions thar rha .r^^:^-

, B:';['ffinx; tr," *,iuna ;;;ffi ;]*;:H[il:sistance, ",", -a',, Jil anJJ;;tH':I;:[Tl1j:::,. il;;;illrparcs g.ni , :Tll#'il:1k"g o'".,u riu,a",u,:il,?[i:f"'fl::il; *a
the size

11,,:",r..r.;il*'.i:i'l1iHf":.:I'Jeelrorm

and kansrare rhese inro required

to be produced, surrace nnisrr,

screening properties.

r**-,piilJ;;T:il:;r*ffi ;:,;",ff il:t+1Tf,,#l[:il.Hr#l e ,r,";;g";;;;:i,r::::: i, i: rr.elnnu ,q *,ruii[i.1"#ri

darabase

r**t rircii 311nertie1

and par:

O.

lTi,:T#?f;;wrcrrri*i,"'u,IL"Jo{T:.d,S"H"1ffi8*;X.,m t'f il: ffi I ffi :' :3;:1,",' ffx f, n, i. ii m* llniffi,il; * fi

ffi

It_":l,F* in producr

p".rr.*,

th

,:J#[ : :'i#:qt',x*t't#H"*d]ffi . i:[* r.o.,,CGiffi : jff IJ:IH:H",'r*'"**,i,"?,tl"J'.1",.",

man,fr.i;;::".'i^"' ingthemiuim,';;#:ry,J,ui'i."0*.ltii'i:#iily:fl
gested process for

lyf

for the applicnce,

ffi
il

candidate materiats in more cosL fabricabilirv.

t":Tl

and araitabiliry in ,r," e."aes and sizes

iT[yj*,, in rerms of trade_offs

;i,t::A?ff ff :"*U,*.'#i"",*!Ef Itrffi ;t'LH*#lI a srngle marcria! for

tfre des'

properties of the selecteo

*',"tJin iitilX3'};D:tis:

a"'"

p*p"iiu

are the

;,',f l*,;*xlH-

narure of the appriciil,:-r-, ifiip'.'*,t{:#iiH:S.tif condirions;;:.1" _i;;;;", and

iili#};;i#xi*;:*::;ffi
,*t

"r1
u,

.,1.;i^yrrr"*;;;'u'r"J*" rhe aerospace

Ins prosram ro develop

commercial specificar;on,

ffi:l}:"i:';;";",.J'il::::f::T
o..ig, auo

*i,i;;:Tffil;::ffljffi,T

*"as, service asrrra may be ^ rn orr,".lpili"u,ion,, ,,ih

extensive restl

306

u*ar-u=*rr"

D=sIGii

ti.-a.Z Ashb5,Charts

.4shbi,' iras createcl useful niarcrials selectioi

l,;:;:ilI,Ji" r..u*r.r;;'.;;' ,rroa"irl iro",r.ers, merde'sir1,. r.r'i,'r,"". ,o"ng,r, againsr #ffiJ:"J"i";::,,*ff::.:'ll:: F-*;}};;o,1 commo,
,tr, i?
A comnro, dcsicn crirerjon

Iil,,

r,,l' i :"J; i::H ::: ".*,#*'; ;i,,,.,.,,, ffi 8'7' Figure 8'7a'plots tir".iu.ti.

il;

10.0t0

fl:';ii;

r,1:

,;;;;;;;,d.:11i:,:

regions.

i::l:r4

:'..:

ii:,';?:'l},:L:[,:[":ffi l,*"Ui#'$::T::"'il'"",ffi 'ffi ?ff ::Ti:;:,r.: i Scc. B.B). For simpre ;irl ;r;;;;',;.J
L
Enginering
c_eramics t)

c -o c
@

1OO

lines for

E12 ___^ p p -"

F1/3

(,
{tJ

o (L
slone
6_

Zn atloys

l l !,

_tt c J

lo

Woods paralrel

Cemer{, concrete

bgrann
0. f-

6e-)' '/

-'

-'
Engineering. polymers 'a Oall
Woods P'ne t
HOPE

FIGUR
Ashby n 5. p.521

/l-./

$*"2
Elaslomers
1.0
Density, p(Mg/m3)

relatior
applies

to dete
would
ner an( the linr materi: the ber
rryould search

(a)

FIGURE 8-7a Ashby materials selectio

kch.

vot.

t,;';;;:";;;;.'cbart

Youns's modulus vs. densiry. (M.

Ashby, Maer sci. and

l.

M.

F, Ashby, op. cit.

I
i

would reinfor a Kevl

CI{ApTER
::...Ii,:+:i a:;1.;==::.

8: r\{aterials Selecticn

anC lr{aterials

in Design

3C1

,.::::=i:

10,C0C

2, Strcaglit

densiiy

Ivleials. polynrers: r"iald strangtir Ceranrics, glasses: crushing slrcngiit Lines of

,r, o/t Ppp

o'r'2

GFRP] /

Engineerino ccmposiles

Steei:^ (I.

",',r,

I
I

Cast irons
AI

all.ys

.li\"p""
I "Y'epori",
/

Enoineerino ailoys

.7

//

.,/
P're

oak
Ash

I Potyeste6 / IHOPE I , prFE\ L'PE /

Engineerir polymers

Wbods

perpendiolar
to grain

:l
!

31.0310 '
rIGUREE.T'
5, p-

Density, p(Mg/m3)

selection charr sftength vs. densityShbLTq4s 522, 1989-)

(M. E Ashby, Mater sci. and Eng-, vol.

materials which lie above the line are better, and those the farthest from the line are the best. A constraint of the design might be that >12 Gpa and p zMglm3. we = would draw horizontal and vertical lines to conform with these constraints, and the search would be confined to the upper left-hand corner of the charl The Ashby chart would tell us that the only materials that could meet this condition would be a fiberr"info."S composite material, such as a graphite-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRp) or

c. For buckling of a slender column, Etnlp : g itis Etntp: C. For example, if we aretrying to determine which materials wourd be suitable for a column io we would lay a straightedge with the slope gtnlp : c. start at lhe lower "o*p."r.ion, right-hana cor_ ner and move it toward the upper left-hand corner. All of the materials which lie on the line will perform equally well when rodded as a column in compressionThose
relationship

i: Elp

: c or alp :

applies, and for the bending of a plate

Kevlar* fiber-reinforced polymer (KFRP).

._:+

382
lorving eight categories.

ENGINEERING DESIGN

used in manufacture into the \\ie can classify the great number of processes

li"

1. SotidiJicatiott (castittg)

,.';';::,:,:;,:;,i;';;Z;";;" a"*i""'r'

usualrv ''iiir:Jli^l?li:?l'l; irt .t up".;vnical processes of tliil: *,rlrg" una properties improved give it to cold a1d *i?"atu*ing' Sh3et-metal {"T'-*l^:,.1 type are forging, statc: occurs in a two-dirnensional stress special category ln *iic-n *re oeroryalion from:it rernoved vtateriat is 3. Material removal or cutting {macYining);;;;t;;;' such as turning, milling; workpiece with a rfr"rp toiiUy " "rd;,i;imethods grinding, shaving, polishing, and lapping' about the :or 4. Potymer pror"rrin[i'ii;;?""1"1;;P"ili"t polvmers ]ave lrousht

or glass is cas-' inlt processes: Molten metal' plastic' . i -^.:^^r,:, o"t'*ed mold and solidified into a shape ,r^r^-mprr h^r hot .r

.;,,0d;i;1on'

deveropmentorpr;;eJ;"s,;;ilJiij'":-t*.T'i011'*1**i3il"#*?;;i3:1: arehore oriented to metals pr*

5- P;;;;processing:This rapidly

of pardevelopinu area includes the conrsolidation cqmpaction' hot and ticles of metal, ceratrfcs, or polymers tV linter|1g, materiatrs' of ptoi"tting ::*fo-tite or plastic a"for*utioo--ii at" inituaes tit" are a1l-categories of welding' joining pricessing in Included processingt 6. Joining boiting' and adhesive bonding' brazing, soldering, aiffusion boriding, riveting' i-ncludes the improvement of 7. HeN treatment r";r:;d"';; ""ai"gow as. well as the improvemechanical properties by thermal heat treatment-p.o""tt"t like carburizing and nitriding or ment of surface properties by diffusion pr*urr"i and paint: ro.t us"sprayed or^t oi-aip coatings, electroplating' to surface by altemative

cessing-

ffi?ffi##'#;;;il-.";g"i.r,'*nich

it"*i'g

"i'**iitrnis

ing, The category atso inctuOtsihe cleaning

treatment.

*"*l

of surfices preparatory

S.Assemblyprocesses:Inthis,usuallythefinal'stepinmanufacturinganumberof finished part' pJ, -e urougtt ,j*jil^|nj "u*Lin"a into a subassernbly or

Processes 9.2.2 Sources of Information on Manufacturing
manthe many processes used in modern In this book we cannot describe in any detail are suggested for those

bibliography ufactrrring. ff*" g"n"ruii"f*iur"", tisteA in the ind therefore are unfamiliar pro""tt"s manufacturirrg in who have never had u most important processes..The "ou.=" functioninf or with terminology and .,Tool and Manufagturi'ng nngineers Handbook," 4th ed', pubreference sources are volof fWanifactiring Eneineers' and various lished in nine volumer l,'rfr" c manspecifi to ;i;;;;"1';ut!istrea .u.r ASM Internatio"' g;ots'AeaUng with each of the eight categories of manufacturing ufacturing pro""rr"r. processes are listed below.

-t;;^;;fu

tt.

;;' ;i'dil
Solidification

i*i"ty

g::d

P roces

es

New York' 1 974' M. C. Flemings, "solidification Processing"' McGraw-Hill' Park' OH' 1988' Materials Intemational' ASM

"Casting, ASM Hanooootjl vol' 15,