Chapter 03 Handout

1
Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics

Professor Seung-Jae Moon
School of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University
Fall 2012
Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics ME33 : Fluid Flow 2
Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area.
Units of pressure are N/m
2
, which is called a
pascal (Pa).
Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa =
10
3
Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 10
6
Pa) are
commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm
2
, lbf/in
2
=psi.
1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1 Mpa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325
kPa=1.01325 bars ~ 1 bar
1 kgf/cm
2
= 9.807 N/cm
2
= 9.807 x 10
4
N/m
2
= 9.807 bar = 9.7679 atm
1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm
2
= 14.223 psi
1 torr =1 mmHg = 1/760 atm = 133.32 Pa
2
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Actual pressure at a give point is called the absolute pressure and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure)
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and therefore they indicate gage pressure, P
gage
=P
abs
- P
atm
.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressure,
P
vac
=P
atm
- P
abs
.
Example 3-1 Absolute Pressure of a Vacuum Chamber
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a
location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
Solution
P
abs
= P
atm
P
vac
= 14.5 5.8 = 8.7 psi
3
Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a fluid has the
same magnitude in all directions.
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a
specific direction, and thus it is a scalar
quantity.
P
P
P
P
P
Variation of Pressure with Depth
In the presence of a gravitational
field, pressure increases with
depth because more fluid rests
on deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider rectangular element
Force balance in z-direction gives
Dividing by Ax and rearranging
gives
2 1
0
0
z z
F ma
P x P x g x z
= =
A A A A =
2 1 s
P P P g z z A = = A = A
s
=g: specific weight of the fluid, Az: pressure head
4
P=P
atm
+gh or P
gage
=gh
Variation of density with
elevation
P=constant
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape of the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.
5
Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure on diver at
100 ft?
Danger of emergency
ascent?
( )
,2 3 2
,2 ,2
1
998 9.81 100
3.28
1
298.5 2.95
101.325
2.95 1 3.95
gage
abs gage atm
kg m m
P gz ft
m s ft
atm
kPa atm
kPa
P P P atm atm atm
| | | || |
= =
| | |
\ .\ . \ .
| |
= =
|
\ .
= + = + =
Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 1
3.95
4
1
PV PV
V P atm
V P atm
=
= = ~
100 ft
1
2
Boyles law
If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung
volume would increase by a factor of 4, which
would result in embolism and/or death.
6
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662, France)
, ,
.
12180
18
21

Pascals Law
Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout
by the same amount.
In picture, pistons are at
same height:
Ratio A
2
/A
1
is called ideal
mechanical advantage
1 2 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 1
F F F A
P P
A A F A
= = =
7
The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
P
C
can be taken to be zero since
there is only Hg vapor above point
C, and it is very low relative to
P
atm
.
Change in atmospheric pressure
due to elevation has many effects:
Cooking, nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft performance.
C atm
atm
P gh P
P gh
+ =
=
Example 3-2 Measuring Atmospheric Pressure with a Barometer
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location
where the barometric reading is 740 mm Hg and
the gravitational acceleration is g =9.81 m/s
2
.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10oC, at
which its density is 13,570 kg/m
3
.
Solution
P
atm
= gh
= (13,570 kg/m
3
) x (9.81 m/s
2
) x(0.74 m)
= 98,500 Pa =98.5 kPa
8
The Manometer
An elevation change of Az in
a fluid at rest corresponds to
AP/g.
A device based on this is
called a manometer.
A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
pressure differences are
anticipated.
Diameter of tube >> a few
milimeters to avoid surface
tension.
1 2
2 atm
P P
P P gh
=
= +
Example 3-3 Measuring Pressure with a Manometer
A manometer is used to measure the
pressure in a tank. The used fluid has a
specific gravity of 0.85, and the monometer
column height is 55 cm. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine
the absolute pressure within the tank.
Solution
= SG
H
2
O
= (0.85)(1000 kg/m
3
) = 850
kg/m
3
.
P
gage
= gh = (850 kg/m
3
)
.
(9.81
m/s
2
)
.
(0.55 m) = 4,600 N/m
2
= 4.6 kPa.
P = P
atm
+ gh
= 96 kPa + 4.6 kPa = 100.6 kPa.
9
Mutlifluid Manometer
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is AP = gh.
Pressure increases downward, and
decreases upward.
Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid are at the same
pressure Pascals law.
Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting gh terms.
Measuring Pressure Drops
Manometers are well--suited
to measure pressure drops
across valves, pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure drop P
1
-
P
2
is obtained by starting at
point 1 and adding or
subtracting gh terms until we
reach point 2.
If fluid in pipe is a gas,
2
>>
1
and P
1
- P
2
=
2
gh
10
Example 3-4 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the
pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer. The
tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1,400
m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if h
1
= 0.1 m,
h
2
= 0.2 m, and h
3
= 0.35 m. Take the densities of
water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 kg/m
3
, 850 kg/m
3
,
and 13600 kg/m
3
respectively.
Solution
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
Bourdon tubes
Pressure transducers
Strain-gage pressure
transducers
Piezoelectric
transducers
Bourdon tubes Piezoelectric MEMS transducer
11
Example 3-5 Effect of Piston Weight on Pressure in a Cylinder
The piston of a vertical piston-cylinder device
containing a gas has a mass of 60 kg and a
cross-sectional area of 0.04 m
2
. The local
atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar, and the
gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s
2
. (a)
Determine the pressure inside the cylinder. (b)
If some heat is transferred to the gas and its
volume is doubled, do you expect the pressure
inside the cylinder to change?
Solution
(a)
(b) The volume change will
have no effect on the free-
body diagram drwan in part
(a), and the pressure inside
the cylinder will remain the
same.
If the gas behaves as an
ideal gas, the absolute
temperature doubles
when the volume is
doubled at constatn
pressure. (PV = nRT)
Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress.
Normal stress is due to pressure.
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid. The fluid statics is only relevant in presence
of gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
12
Hoover Dam
Hoover Dam
13
Hoover Dam
Example of elevation
head z converted to
velocity head V
2
/2g.
We'll discuss this in
more detail in Chapter
5 (Bernoulli equation).
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces.
For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is called
center of pressure, must
be determined.
Atmospheric pressure P
atm
can be neglected when it
acts on both sides of the
surface.
14
Resultant Force
Absolute pressure at any point on the plate
P = P
0
+gh = P
0
+gysin u
Resultant hydrostatic force F
R
acting on the surface
P
0
Resultant Forces
First moment of area
y-coordinate of the centroid of the surface
Pressure at the centroid of the surface
Vertical distance of the centroid from the free surface of the liquid
The magnitude of F
R
acting on a plane surface of a
completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is equal
to the product of the pressure P
C
at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface.
15
Center of Pressure
Line of action of resultant force F
R
=P
C
A
does not pass through the centroid of the
surface. In general, it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.
Vertical location of Center of Pressure is
determined by equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of the
distributed pressure force.
y
P
: the distance of the center of pressure
from the x-axis.
Second moment of area (area moment of
inertia)
Parallel axis theorem
I
xx,C
: second moment of area about
the x-axis passing through the
centroid
I
xx,C
is tabulated for simple
geometries.
Center of Pressure
, xx C
p C
c
I
y y
y A
= +
Solving for y
P
:
P
0
=0:
Vertical distance of the center of the pressure
from the free surface:
16
Example 3-6 Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a Submerged Car
A heavy car plunges into a lake during an
accident and lands at the bottom of the lake on
its wheels. The door is 1.2 m high and 1 m
wide, and the top edge of the door is 8 m below
the free surface of the water. Determine the
hydrostatic force on the door and the location
of the pressure center, and discuss if the driver
can open the door.
Solution
Properties: = 1000 kg/m
3
, g = 9.81 m/s
2
.
Dimensions : b = 1.2 m, s = 8 m, w = 1 m.
Average gage pressure on the door centroid
P
atm P
atm
+gy Door
Resultant hydrostatic force on the door
F
R
= P
avg
A = P
avg
bw
= 84.4 x 1 x 1.2 = 101.3 kN
Pressure center
F
R
y
P
= gI
xx,O
= M
O
I
xx,O
= I
xx,C
+ y
C
2
A = wb
3
/12 + (s + b/2)
2
wb
= 1x1.2
3
/12 + (8 + 0.6)
2
x1x1.2
= 88.896 m
4
y
P
= gI
xx,O
/F
R
= 1000 x 9.81 x 88.896 / (101.3 x 10
3
)
= 8.61 m
Example 3-6 Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a Submerged Car
O
s
b
w
y
P F
R
M
O
17
Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
F
R
on a curved surface is more involved since it requires
integration of the pressure forces that change direction
along the surface.
Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical
components F
H
and F
V
separately. (Newtons third law)
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Horizontal force component on curved surface: F
H
=
F
x
. Line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface.
Vertical force component on curved surface: F
V
=
F
y
+W, where Wis the weight of the liquid in the
enclosed block W = gV. x coordinate of the center
of pressure is a combination of line of action on
horizontal plane (centroid of area) and line of action
through volume (centroid of volume).
Magnitude of force F
R
= (F
H
2
+F
V
2
)
1/2
Angle of force is o = tan
-1
(F
V
/F
H
)
18
Example 3-7 A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical Gate
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m hinged at point A is used as an
automatic gate. When the water level reaches 5 m, the gate opens by
turning about the hinge at point A. Determine (a) the hydrostatic force
acting on the cylinder and its line of action when the gate opens and (b)
the weight of the cylinder per m length of the cylinder.
N = 0
Solution: = 1000 kg/m
3
(a) Horizontal force on vertical surface
F
x
F
H
= 0
F
H
= F
x
= P
avg
A = gh
C
A = g(s + r/2)A
= 1000 x 9.81 x (4.2 + 0.8/2) x 0.8 x 0.1
= 36,100 N = 36.1 kN
Vertical force on horizontal surface
F
y
= P
avg
A = gh
C
A = gh
bottom
A
= 1000 x 9.81 x 5 x 0.8 x 0.1 = 39200 N = 39.2 kN
Weight of the fluid block per m length
F
y
= P
avg
A = gV = g(R
2
tR
2
/ 4)
.
(1 m)
= 1000 x 9.81 x 5 x 0.8
2
x (1 t / 4) x 1
= 1300 N = 1.3 kN
19
F
y
W F
V
= 0
F
V
= F
y
W= 39.2 1.3 = 37.9 kN
Resultant force
(b) Moment about A
F
R
Rsinu W
cyl
R = 0
W
cyl
= Frsin u = 52.3sin46.4
o
= 37.9 kN
u = 46.4
o
F
R
A
W
cyl
Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyant force is a force that tends
to lift body.
F
B
F
top
+ F
bottom
= 0
F
B
= F
bottom
F
top
=
f
g(s+h)A
f
gsA
=
f
ghA =
f
gV.
Buoyancy is due to the fluid
displaced by a body. F
B
=
f
gV.
Archimedes principal : The
buoyant force acting on a body
immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the
body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.
F
B
20
Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyancy force F
B
is
equal only to the
displaced volume
f
gV
displaced
.
Three scenarios
possible
1.
body
<
fluid
: Floating
body
2.
body
=
fluid
: Neutrally
buoyant
3.
body
>
fluid
: Sinking body
Example 3-8 Measuring Specific Gravity by a Hydrometer
If you have a seawater aquarium, you have probably
used a small cylindrical glass tube with some lead-
weight at its bottom to measure the salinity of the
water by simply watching how deep the tube sinks.
Such a device that floats in a vertical position and is
used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid is
called a hydrometer. The top part of the hydrometer
extends above the liquid surface, and the divisions
on it allow one to read the specific gravity directly.
The hydrometer is calibrated such that in pure water
it reads exactly 1.0 at the air-water interface. (a)
Obtain a relation for the specific gravity of a liquid as
a function of distance Az from the mark
corresponding to pure water and (b) determine the
mass of lead that must be poured into a 1-cm-
diameter, 20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to float
halfway (the 10-cm mark) in pure water.
Assumptions:
w
= 1000 kg/m
3
21
(a) Solution
W
hydro
= F
B,w
=
w
gV
sub
=
w
gAz
0
In a fluid lighter than water (
f
<
w
)
W
hydro
= F
B,f
=
f
gV
sub
=
f
gA(z
0
+ Az)
In a fluid heavier than water (
f
>
w
)
W
hydro
= F
B,f
=
f
gV
sub
=
f
gA(z
0
- Az)
(b) F
B
= W
lead

w
gV
sub
= mg
m =
w
V
sub
=
w
(tR
2
h
sub
) = 1000(t x 0.005
2
x 0.1)
= 0.00785 kg = 7.85 g
Example 3-8 Measuring Specific Gravity by a Hydrometer
Example 3-9 Weight Loss of an Object in Seawater
A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (
f
= 1025 kg/m
3
) for an underwater construction
project. Determine the tension in the rope of the
crane due to a rectangular 0.4 m x 0.4 m x 3 m
concrete block (
concrete
= 2300 kg/m
3
) when it is
(a) suspended in the air and (b) completely
immersed in water.
(a) V = 0.4 x 0.4 x 3 = 0.48 m
3
F
T, air
- W= 0
F
T, air
= W=
concrete
gV
= 2300 x 9.81 x 0.48
(b) F
T, water
+ F
B
- W= 0
F
B
=
f
gV = 1025 x 9.81 x 0.48
= 4800 N = 4.8 kN
F
T, water
= W- F
B
= 10.8 kN 4.8 kN
= 6.0 kN (T)
22
Example: Galilean Thermometer
Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed
glass cylinder containing a clear liquid.
Suspended in the liquid are a number of
weights, which are sealed glass containers
with colored liquid for an attractive effect.
As the liquid changes temperature it changes
density and the suspended weights rise and
fall to stay at the position where their density is
equal to that of the surrounding liquid.
If the weights differ by a very small amount and
ordered such that the least dense is at the top
and most dense at the bottom they can form a
temperature scale.
Example: Floating Drydock
Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock Resolute
(AFDM-10) partially submerged
Submarine undergoing repair work on
board the AFDM-10
Using buoyancy, a submarine with a displacement of 6,000 tons can be lifted!
23
Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast
Submarines use both static and dynamic depth
control. Static control uses ballast tanks
between the pressure hull and the outer hull.
Dynamic control uses the bow and stern planes
to generate trim forces.
Normal surface trim SSN 711 nose down after accident
which damaged fore ballast tanks
24
Damage to SSN 711
(USS San Francisco)
after running a ground on
8 January 2005.
Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controlling depth of submarine
25
Stability of Immersed Bodies
Rotational stability of immersed bodies
depends upon relative location of center
of gravity G and center of buoyancy B.
G below B : stable
G above B : unstable
G coincides with B : neutrally stable.
Stability of Floating Bodies
If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), it is always stable.
Floating bodies can be stable when G is higher than B due to
shift in location of center buoyancy and creation of restoring
moment.
Measure of stability is the metacentric height GM. If GM>1,
ship is stable.
26
Examples of Archimedes Principle
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.
Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
Hiero learned of a rumor where
the goldsmith replaced some of
the gold in his crown with silver.
Hiero asked Archimedes to
determine whether the crown was
pure gold.
Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method.
27
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air:
W
c
=
c
V
c
= W
n
=
n
V
n
.
If the crown is pure gold,
c
=
n
which means that the volumes
must be the same, V
c
=V
n
.
In water, the buoyancy force is
B =
H
2
O
V.
If the scale becomes
unbalanced, this implies that
the V
c
V
n
, which in turn
means that the
c

n
.
Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
What is the best way to measure
body fat?
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing using
Archimedes Principle!
Process
Measure body weight W =
body
V
Get in tank, expel all air, and
measure apparent weight W
a
Buoyancy force B = W - W
a
=
H2O
V. This permits
computation of body volume.
Body density can be computed
body
= W/V.
Body fat can be computed
from formulas.
28
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing in Air?
Same methodology as
Hydrostatic testing in water.
What are the ramifications of
using air?
Density of air is 1/1000th of
water.
Temperature dependence of air.
Measurement of small volumes.
Used by NCAA Wrestling (there
is a BodPod on PSU campus).

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Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics

Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluid Statics ME33 : Fluid Flow 12

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