Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Load-Flow Analysis in Power Systems
Load-Flow Analysis in Power Systems
LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS
IN POWER SYSTEMS
Badrul H. Chowdhury
Professor
Electrical & Computer Engineering Department
University of Missouri-Rolla
Introdu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2
Developing Power Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2
Power-Flow Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6
Example of N-R Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12
Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.15
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16
INTRODUCTION
The load-flow problem models the nonlinear relationships among bus power injections,
power demands, and bus voltages and angles, with the network constants providing the
circuit parameters. It is the heart of most system-planning studies and also the starting
point for transient and dynamic stability studies. This section provides a formulation of
the load-flow problem and its associated solution strategies. An understanding of the
fundamentals of three-phase systems is assumed, including per-unit calculations, complex
power relationships, and circuit-analysis techniques.
There are two popular numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations. These
are the Gauss-Seidel (G-S) and the Newton-Raphson (N-R) Methods (Grainger and
Stevenson, 1994; Elgerd, 1982; Glover and Sharma, 1994). The N-R method is superior
to the G-S method because it exhibits a faster convergence characteristic. However, the
N-R method suffers from the disadvantage that a “flat start” is not always possible since
the solution at the beginning can oscillate without converging toward the solution. In or-
der to avoid this problem, the load-flow solution is often started with a G-S algorithm fol-
lowed by the N-R algorithm after a few iterations.
There is also an approximate but faster method for the load-flow solution. It is a varia-
tion of the N-R method, called the fast-decoupled method, which was introduced by Stott
and Alsac (1974). We will not be covering this method in this section.
11.1
11.2 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS
NOMENCLATURE
A two-bus example, shown in Fig. 11.1, is used to simplify the development of the
power-flow equations. The system consists of two busses connected by a transmission
line. One can observe that there are six electrical quantities associated with each bus: PD ,
PG , QD , QG , V, and . This is the most general case, in which each bus is shown to have
both generation and demand. In reality, not all busses will have power generation. The
impedance diagram of the two-bus system is shown in Fig. 11.2. The transmission line is
represented by a -model and the synchronous generator is represented by a source
behind a synchronous reactance. The loads are assumed to be constant impedance for the
sake of representing them on the impedance diagram. Typically, the load is represented
by a constant power device, as shown in subsequent figures.
Figure 11.3 is the same as Fig. 11.2 but with the generation and demand bundled
together to represent “bus power,” which represents bus power injections. Bus power is
defined as
S1 SG1 SD1 (PG1 PD1) j(QG1 QD1) (1)
and
S2 SG2 SD2 (PG2 PD2) j(QG2 QD2) (2)
Also, injected current at bus 1 is
Î1 ÎG 1 ÎD 1 (3)
LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS 11.3
FIGURE 11.3 Bus powers with transmission line -model for the
two-bus system.
11.4 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS
Let us define current flows in the circuit as shown in Fig. 11.4. Therefore, at bus 1
Î1 Î1 Î1
Similarly, at bus 2
Î2 Î2 Î2
II YY
1
2
11
21
Y12
Y22 V̂V̂
1
2
(15)
In matrix notation,
Ibus YbusVbus (16)
The two-bus system can easily be extended to a larger system. Consider an n-bus sys-
tem. Figure 11.5a shows the connections from bus 1 of this system to all the other busses.
Figure 11.5b shows the transmission line models. Equations (5) through (16) that were
LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS 11.5
derived for the two-bus system can now be extended to represent the n-bus system. This is
shown next.
Î1 V̂1yp12 V̂1yp13 V̂1yp1n (V̂1 V̂2)ys12 (V̂1 V̂3)ys13
(V̂1 V̂2)ys1n
(yp12 yp13 yp1n ys12 ys13 ys1n)V̂n ys12V̂2 ys13V̂3
ys1nV̂n (17)
Î1 Y11V̂1 Y12 V̂2 Y13 V̂3 Y1n V̂n (18)
Equation (23) represents the nonlinear power-flow equations. Equation (15) can also be
rewritten for an n-bus system:
Î1 Y11 Y12 … Y1n V̂1
Î2 Y21 Y22 … Y2n V̂2
… (24)
În Yn1 Yn2 … Ynn V̂n
or
Y11 Y12 … Y1n
Y21 Y22 … Y2n
Ybus bus admittance matrix (26)
Yn1 Yn2 … Ynn
POWER-FLOW SOLUTION
Let us take a generic bus as shown in Fig. 11.6. As mentioned earlier, each bus has six
quantities or variables associated with it. They are V , , PG , QG , PD , and QD. Assuming
that there are n busses in the system, there would be a total of 6n variables.
The power-flow Eq. (23) can be resolved into the real and reactive parts as follows:
n
Pi Real V̂i*YijV̂j i 1, 2, . . . , n (27)
j1
n
Qi Imag V̂i* YijV̂j i 1, 2, . . . , n (28)
j1
Thus, there are 2n equations and 6n variables for the n-bus system. Since there cannot be
a solution in such case, 4n variables have to be prespecified. Based on parameter specifi-
cations, we can now classify the busses as shown in Table 11.1.
We will now describe the methods used in solving the power-flow equations.
n
V̂i*YiiV̂i V̂ *i YijV̂j
j1, ji
(29)
n
Q V̂i*YiiV̂i (Pi jQ i) V̂i*YijV̂j
j1, ji
(30)
Pi jQ i n
Q YiiV̂i
V̂i*
YijV̂j
j1, ji
(31)
Pi jQ i n
V̂i*
YijV̂j
j1, ji
Q V̂i (32)
Yii
Also, from (29),
V̂i*YijV̂j
n
Pi Re V̂i*YiiV̂i (33)
j1, ji
and
11.8 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS
V̂i*YijV̂j
n
Q i Imag V̂i*YiiV̂i (34)
j1, ji
YijV̂j(k) Yii
n
V i(k1) (Pi jQ i) Vi*(k)
j1, ji
where k iteration no. For voltage-controlled busses, find V̂i using (34) and (32) to-
gether. That is, find Qi first.
YijV (k)j
n
Q (k1)
i Imag V̂i*(k) V (k)
i Yii
j1, ji
Then
YijV̂j* Yii
n
V (k1)
i (Pi jQ i)/V̂i*(k)
j1, ji
(k1)
However, V i is specified for voltage-controlled busses. So,Vi(k1) Vi , spec i, calc
In using Eqs. (32) and (34), one must remember to use the most recently calculated
values of bus voltages in each iteration. So, for example, if there are five busses in the
system being studied, and one has determined new values of bus voltages at busses 1 – 3,
then during the determination of bus voltage at bus 4, one should use these newly calcu-
lated values of bus voltages at 1, 2, and 3; busses 4 and 5 will have the values from the
previous iteration.
Step 2b. For Faster Convergence, Apply Acceleration Factor to Load Buses
If the difference is greater than tolerance, return to Step 3. If the difference is less than
tolerance, the solution has converged; go to Step 4.
Step 4. Find Slack Bus Power PG and QG from Eqs. (27) and (28)
Step 5. Find All Line Flows as Described in the Next Section
Computing Line Flows. As the last step in any power-flow solution, one has to find the
line flows. This is illustrated by the two-bus system shown in Fig. 11.7. Line current, Îij,
at bus i is defined positive in the direction i : j.
where
f
x a value of the derivative evaluated at x a.
For a function of n variables, one can expand around the point: (x1 a1), (x2 a2),
(xn an) with (xk ak) 1 and k 1, 2, . . . , n. Then, Eq. (42) becomes
… (xn an)
f
xn an
(44)
When x(0)
k are close to the solution, xk, the xs
k are small.
Using the approximate Taylor’s series, we have
xn
fk
xn
xn(0)
yk k 1, 2, . . . , n (46)
f 1 f 1 f 1 x1
…
x1 x1(0) x2 x2(0) xn xn(0)
y1f1(x(0) (0) (0)
1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
f 2 f 2 f 2 x2
…
y2f2(x(0)
1 , x(0)
2 , ... , x(0)
n )
x1 x1(0) x1 x2(0) xn xn(0)
(47)
ynfn(x(0) (0) (0)
1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) f n f n f n
…
x1 x1(0) x2 x2(0) xn xn(0) xn
or
[U](0) [J](0)[X](0) (48)
where [J] is the Jacobian matrix.
[X] ([J](0))1[U](0) (49)
LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS 11.11
The N-R method is typically applied on the real form of the power-flow equations:
n
Pi Vi Vk yik cos (k i ik) fip
k1
(52)
n
i 1, . . . , n
Qi Vi Vk yik sin (k i ik) fiq (53)
k1
Assume, temporarily, that all busses, except bus 1, are of the “load” type. Thus, the
unknown parameters consist of the (n 1) voltage phasors, V̂2 , . . . , V̂n. In terms of real
variables, these are:
Angles 2, 3, . . . , n (n 1) variables
Magnitudes V2, V3, . . . , Vn (n 1) variables
Rewriting (47) for the power-flow equations,
∆P2(0) f2 p
f2 p
f2 p
f2 p
f2p
∆2(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
∆P3(0) f3 p
f3 p
f3p
f3 p
f3p
∆3(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
∆Pn(0) fnp
fnp
fnp
fnp
fnp
∆n(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
(54)
∆Q(0) f2q
f2 q
f2q
f2q f2q ∆V2(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
2
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
∆Q(0) f3q
f3q
f3q
f3q
f3q
∆V3(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
3
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
∆Q(0) fnq
fnq
fnq
fnq
fnq
∆Vn(0)
(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)
n
… …
2 3 n V2 Vn
11.12 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS
Before proceeding any further, we need to account for voltage-controlled busses. For
every voltage-controlled bus in the system, delete the corresponding row and column
from the Jacobian matrix. This is done because the mismatch element for a voltage-
controlled bus is unknown.
Writing Eq. (54) in matrix form,
U (0) J(0) X (0) (55)
Consider the three-bus system shown in Fig. 11.8. Known quantities are also shown.
Given: V̂11.0 0 p.u., V2 1.0 p.u., P2 0.6 p.u., P3 0.8 p.u., Q3 0.6.
Step 0.
j7 j2 j5
Ybus j2 j6 j4
j5 j4 j9
Step 1.
(0)
2 0
(0) 0
X (0) 3 0
V2 1.0
V3 0 1.0
Step 2.
P2 f2p y21 V2 V1 cos (1 2 21) y22 V2 V2 cos (2 2 22)
y23 V2 V3 cos (3 2 23) (56)
Q2 f2q y21 V2 V1 sin (1 2 21) y22 V2 V2 sin (2 2 22)
y23 V2 V3 sin (3 2 23) (57)
P3 f3p y31 V3 V1 cos (1 3 31) y32 V3 V2 cos (2 3 32)
y33 V32 cos (3 3 33) (58)
Q3 f3q y31 V3 V1 sin (1 3 31) y32 V3 V2 sin (2 3 32)
y33 V32 sin 23 (59)
The specified bus powers are: P2S 0.6, P3S 0.8, Q3S 0.6. The calculated bus
0
powers at this iteration are: P2 2.1.1 cos (0 0 90) 6.1.1 cos (90°) 4.1.1
cos (0 0 90) 0, P 03 5.1.1 cos 90 4.1.1 cos 90 9.12 cos (90) 0, Q 03
(5.1.1 sin 90 4.1.1 sin 90° 9.12 sin (90°)) 0. Therefore, the mismatches are
P2 0.6; P3 0.8; Q3 0.6.
Step 3.
f2p
y21 V1 V2 sin (2 21) y23 V2 V3 sin (2 3 23) (60)
2
f2q
y23 V2 V3 sin (3 2 23) (61)
3
f2p
y23 V2 cos (3 2 23) (62)
V3
Therefore, at the initial guesses,
f2p
f2p
f2p
0 0
6 4 0
2 3 V3
f3p
0
y32 V3 V2 sin (2 3 32) 4 (63)
2
f3p
0
[y31 V3 V1 sin (3 31) y32 V3 V2 sin (3 2 32)] 9 (64)
3
f3p 0
[y31 V1 cos (1 3 31) y32 V2 cos (2 3 32)
V3
2y33 V3 cos 33] 0 (65)
f3q
0
[y32 V3 V2 cos (2 3 32)] 0 (66)
2
f3q
0
[y31 V3 V1 cos (3 1 31)
d2
y32 V3 V2 cos (3 2 32)] 0 (67)
f3q
0
[y31 V1 sin (1 3 31) y32 V2 sin (2 3 32)
V3
2y33 V3 sin 33] 9 (68)
P (0)
2 6 4 0 0 2
P (0)
3 4 9 0 0 3
Q (0)
2 0 0 10 4 V2
Q (0)
3 0 0 4 9 V3
0.6 6 4 0 2
0.8 4 9 0 3
0.6 0 0 0 V3
Step 4.
To solve the preceding equations, one can resort to inversion of the Jacobian matrix.
However, computationally, it is more efficient to apply a numerical technique such as the
LOAD-FLOW ANALYSIS IN POWER SYSTEMS 11.15
Gaussian elimination technique. The latter can be found in any textbook dealing with
numerical analysis. This technique is applied next.
0.6 6 4 0 2 Divide by 6
0.8 4 9 0 3 Divide by 4
0.6 0 0 0 V3
0.1 1 0.667 0 2
0.2 1 2.25 0 3 Add this row to row 1
0.6 0 0 9 V3
0.1 1 0.667 0 2
0.1 0 1.583 0 3 Divide by 1.583
0.6 0 0 9 V3
0.1 1 0.667 0 2
0.063 0 1 0 3
0.6 0 0 9 V3
By back substitution,
0.6
V3(1) V2(0) V3 V3 0.067 ;
9
1.0 0.067
0.933 3 0.063 ;
2 0 0.063 0.063 2 0.1 0.667 3
0.058 ;
2 0 0.058 0.058
Continue further iterations until convergence is achieved.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The two solution strategies described here comprise the basic steps in a load-flow solu-
tion. The reader should be reminded that, occasionally, an off-nominal transformer, a
capacitor, or other network devices also have to be modeled. Most of these models can
be represented in the bus admittance matrix. Another practical consideration that one
needs to bear in mind is that all generators have upper and lower limits of reactive
power generation. Hence, if during a load flow iteration it is found that any one of the
generators is violating its limits, then that particular bus where the generator is located
is said to have lost voltage control and, thus, should be treated as a load bus in subse-
quent iterations.
As is obvious from the two methods, computer-based analysis is essential for obtain-
ing accurate load-flow solutions of any realistically sized power system. A computer-
11.16 HANDBOOK OF ELECTRIC POWER CALCULATIONS
based analysis typically utilizes many numerical techniques, such as optimal ordering
and sparsity techniques, in order to reduce memory and storage requirements. There are
several excellent load-flow programs available that are widely used by engineers in util-
ity companies for frequent system studies. While industry-grade load-flow software
tends to be very expensive, there are now many educational versions of load-flow soft-
ware available that are inexpensive and quite adequate for classroom use or for studying
small-scale systems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elgerd, O. I. 1982. Electric Energy Systems Theory — An Introduction, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Glover, J. D., and M. Sharma. 1994. Power System Analysis, and Design, 2nd ed. Boston: PWS
Publishing.
Grainger, J. J., and W. D. Stevenson. 1994. Power System Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stott, B., and O. Alsac. 1974. “Fast Decoupled Load Flow,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
& Systems, Vol. PAS-93, pp. 859 – 869.