WELDING

The best process to join metals, similar or dissimilar permanently to act as one piece is welding. American welding society defines it as A material joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temp. with or without application of pressure and with or without the use of filler material. Since heat is the common factor in most of the welding processes in use today, classification of welding methods, on the basis of source of heat apart from other factors like type of shielding, semi-automatic or automatic can be done as below : 1. Gas Welding 2. Electric Resistance Welding (E.R.W.) 3. Arc Welding further subdi : Combustion of acetylene gas gives the heat. : Heat is obtained from the resistance of metal to the flow of electric current through it. Ex. Spot welding, seam welding. Most widely used process. Heat obtained from the arc formed between positive and negative electrode. Can be vided into a) Flux Shielded arc welding b) Gas Shielded arc welding i) Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) ii) Metal Shielded Arc Welding (MIG) Joints brought into intimate atomic contact by mechanical deformation or atomic diffusion. Applicable only to ductile metals such as aluminium and

: :

4. Solid Phase Welding copper.

Selection of Power Sources :For carrying out Arc welding two items that are necessarily required are the power sources and the electrode. Arc welding process requires sufficient amount of current to produce melting of base metal and filler metal and a proper voltage to maintain an arc. Voltage required is in the range of 17 to 45 V and current required is in the range of 10 to 500 Amps. AC or DC. High input industrial voltage 230/440 V is brought down to suitable range with the help of Transformer, generator, transformer rectifier. These power sources can be rated for continuous duty or for a 60% duty cycle means power supply can deliver rated load output for 6 min. out of every 10 mins. And a 100% duty cycle can deliver rated output continuously. For manual welding the power sources are rated generally at 60% duty cycle and for semi-automatic/ automatic process the rating is usually 100%. Another important aspect to be taken care of while selecting a power source is its voltamp. characteristic. On this basis, power sources are divided into two basic types. Viz. (1) Constant Current type, (2) Constant voltage type. In constant current type power source, change in arc length does not cause change in current considerably. As such constant current power sources are more popular for all types of manual welding processes since it is not possible to keep the arc length constant in manual
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welding. The constant voltage power source adjusts its current output automatically to satisfy the load requirement. As such it is widely used for automatic/ semi-automatic welding. Electrodes used in Welding :Next important item is the electrode. The electrode used in arc welding, consists of a bare wire of suitable composition covered with a coating called Flux. Flux has the following functions to carry 1. To produce shielding gases. 2. To produce de-oxidisers for scavenging and purifying the deposited weld metal. 3. To protect the deposited weld metal with slag from atmospheric oxidation. 4. To provide ionizing elements to make the arc more stable and to be operated with A.C. 5. To provide alloying elements to impart special characteristics to the deposited weld metal. 6. To provide iron powder to improve the deposition rate. Depending on the material used as flux, electrodes are classified as 1. Cellulose Coated electrodes :Wood pulp with silicate binders form the flux. On decomposition releases high quantities of CO and H2 which provide the necessary shielding. It has a hot arc at low current value and gives deep penetration with very little slag. Welding in all positions is possible. 2. Rutile Coated electrodes :Rutile is a crystalline form of titanium di-oxide. Rutile with silicates and negligible amount of cellulose forms the flux. It is an efficient arc stabiliser and a good slag former, easy to peel off. The penetration obtained is medium and can be used for welding in all positions. 3. Basic Coated Electrodes or Low Hydrogen Electrodes :Hydrogen has been found harmful in welding of medium carbon, low carbon, alloy and stainless steels. Low H2 electrodes flux have calcium and other carbonates and flurides. Releases CO2 for effective shielding of metals. Penetration obtained is sufficient and thick slag helps slow cooling enhancing mechanical properties. Effect of Carbon on Weldability : Weldability - capacity to be welded. Carbon is alloyed with pure iron to form steels. Depending on amount of carbon, steels are classified as: 1. 2. 3. 4. Low Carbon Steels Mild Carbon Steels Medium Carbon Steels High Carbon Steels up to 0.15% C 0.15 to 0.29% C 0.30 to 0.59% C 0.60 to 1.70% C.

Steels having carbon % more than 1.70% are terms as cast iron. Carbon imparts higher strength and hardness to steels. Increased amount of carbon makes
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welding more difficult. This can be explained thus: Like all metals and most solids iron forms a crystalline structure when it solidifies from molten state. However, unlike most metals carbon has more than one crystalline structure. Molten iron solidifies at 27800F into a cubic shaped crystal called lattice composing 9 atoms, one at each corner of cube and one within the centre of cube. (Therefore called Body Centered Cubic and known as delta ferrite). As cooling continues further at 25500F BCC lattice, rearrange themselves into diff. Shape known as Face Centred Cubic (F.C.C.) and is known as gamma iron (Austenite). Again the FCC lattice arrangement changes to BCC lattice when temp. reaches to 16700F. For differentiation it is called alpha ferrite. No further change occurs as iron cools to ambient temperature except that at 14150F iron becomes Magnetic. When carbon is alloyed with iron, carbon atoms being much smaller than iron items, fit themselves in and around iron lattice. At high temperature carbon atoms are relatively free to move around and are able to get out of the way of iron atoms during the shift (BCC TO FCC). If the cooling rate during the shift from FCC austenite to BCC alpha ferrite is slow no problem occurs. However if the rate is rapid, the carbon atoms get jammed up in the lattice resulting in a distorted and highly stressed ferritic structure. This is Martensite. Martensite is harder than ferrite and has lower ductility. Thus if the cooling rate is sufficiently fast austenite gets completely transformed into martensite. This hardened material is prone to cracking. By addition of different alloys to steel the tendency of austenite is transformed into martensite depending upon cooling rate. As such pre-heat becomes essential for steels with higher carbon content to reduce the cooling rate of weldment and the heat affected zone (HAZ). The amount of alloying elements after which preheating is required is found out by Carbon equivalent (CE) of steels defined as the percentage of carbon that will make steel without alloying element as hard as the alloying elements would make. %Mn ---6 %Mo ---%Cr ---4 % Ni %Cu % P ---------5 15 15 3

C.E. = C+

C.E.

< 0.40% - readily weldable > 0.40% - special controls read along with use of low hydrogen electrodes. >0.60% - Preheating required if thickness 19 mm. >0.90% - Preheating to a high temp. must. 1) Fillet weld 2) Groove weld 3) Plug or slot weld 4) Spot weld 5) Seam weld 6) Back weld 7) Surface weld - Most commonly used.

Weld Types :-

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8) Flange weld. Welding Positions :1) Flat 2) Horizontal 3) Vertical 4) Overhead Weld Defects :Anything undesirable in a weld is defect. Defect may or may not be a cause for rejection. It should be judged whether the weld is able to meet applicable standards or not with respect to the service conditions. 1. Cracks 2. Cavities - including porosity, gas pockets. 3. Solid inclusions - including slag, flux, metal oxides. 4. Incomplete fusion - incomplete penetration etc. 5. Imperfect shape or contour - undercut, underfill, overlap etc. 6. Misc. Defects - excessive spatter, rough surfaces etc. Thermal Treatment :Weldments are subjected to thermal treatment to restore properties affected by the heat of welding or to improve the properties for subsequent operations or service conditions. It can be either per or post weld. Purpose of thermal treatment is to Increase strength and hardness Remove internal stresses Increase ductility, toughness and softness Refine the gram structure Improve corrosion resistance Remove cold work Improve machinability. Hard Facing ;Increasing wear resistance by depositing hard material on working surface. Typical examples in Power Station are - Hard facing splitter plates of coal compartment assembly (coal nozzle). Hard facing of separator body liners in coal mill, Hard facing of boiler tubes near soot blowers prone to erosion by spray powder welding etc. Testing of Welds :Welds and weld metals are subjected to more different types of tests than any other metal produced. Tests can be a destructive one or non-destructive one. Destructive Tests :1. Chemical analysis - Wet or dry (spectral examination) 2. Metallographical examination A) Macroscopic B) Microscopic - i) Root bend ii)Face bend 3. Nick-Break Test 4. Impact Testing - determines toughness in relative sense
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iii)Side bend

a) Charpy Test b) Izod Test Non-Destructive Testing :With this type of testing methods, flaws within the product are located without destroying or defacing the product. Details dealt separately. Welding practices in day to day maintenance of P.S.auxiliaries : Welding process is used invariably in all modern industries for healthy upkeep of auxiliaries. Welding process is utilised either for repairing a damaged equipment or replacing a failed portion with a new one or for increasing the life of a particular item etc. In Power Station, for example, on boiler side repairs/ replacement of boiler tubes is most common. While carrying out the work of repairs/ replacement of boiler tubes it is essential to consider the following : 1. get only 2. Since the boiler tubes are subjected to high pressure, as per IBR act, it is essential to due approval from Boiler Inspector. Moreover such repairs requires skill as such certified welder can carryout H.P.repairs.

Before going in for repairss/replacement of tubes it is important to know the mH.specification, thickness, suitable welding procedure to be adopted, filler metal to be used, whether pre/post heat treatment is required or not. 3. Cleaning of the areas or surfaces to be welded by sand blasting, grinding etc. so as to remove rust, scale, chemical deposite etc. accumulated during operational period so as to achieve a sound and perfect repair weld. Root surfaces to be welded must be concentric and aligned in a manner that no dogleg is apparent when the alignment is viewed from poitions 900 apart. Care must be taken of securing proper alignment by proper tacking, clamping the surfaces to be welded. Root opening must be sufficient and uniform all around to allow for pre-heat expansion, weld contraction and provide for full penetration/ fusion of the backing wherever provided. Welding current is adjusted to the size of weld mH, root opening and welding position required to perform a weld. Do NOT weld tubes filled with water. V preparation must be smooth Reheater and Superheater (Platen & final) coils forms the non-drainable section. Prior to repairs in these zones, coil on which repair is to be carried out, should be drained.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

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11. 12. must 13.

Tube cutting should be done by hacksaw blade or by cutting wheel only. Pre/Post heat treatment if required must be carried out carefully. At no time during welding, the pre-heat temp. be allowed to drop. Interpass temp. wherever specified be properly controlled. Completed welds must be inspected and tested as per IBR act and the results are to be logged on a weld inspection record form. Weld bead width is to be controlled. Each new bead should cover @ 50% of preceding or succeeding bead. Building of weld must be symmetrical. No undercut allowed.

14.

For the case of understanding, most of the mtts. used in boiler pressure parts are grouped into Eight (8) groups. The requirement of pre-heat post heat treatment and electrode selection for each group is given in tabular form.

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