[PROJECT WORK FOR ADDITIONAL

MATHEMATICS] 2009

Acknowledgement

It is by Allah’s grace that the Project Work For Additional Mathematics have

been successfully made. I would like to extend my gratitude to my subject teacher,

Puan Azizah Kamar that lend a hand in completing this project work.

Besides, it is not forgotten to extend my gratitude to my parents that also

helping in completing this project. Other than that, thank you to my classmate that

willing to discuss and solving all of the mathematical problems.

Introduction
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Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written
examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few
locales. The most ancient mathematical texts available are Plimpton 322 (Babylonian
mathematics c. 1900 BC), the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian
mathematics c. 1850 BC), the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian mathematics
c. 1650 BC), and the Shulba Sutras (Indian mathematics c. 800 BC). All of these
texts concern the so-called Pythagorean theorem, which seems to be the most
ancient and widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and
geometry.
Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics were developed further in Greek and
Hellenistic mathematics, which refined the methods (especially the introduction of
mathematical rigor in proofs) and expanded the subject matter of mathematics.
Islamic mathematics, in turn, developed and expanded the mathematics known to
these ancient civilizations. Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were then
translated into Latin, which led to further development of mathematics in medieval
Europe.
From ancient times through the Middle Ages, bursts of mathematical creativity
were often followed by centuries of stagnation. Beginning in Renaissance Italy in the
16th century, new mathematical developments, interacting with new scientific
discoveries, were made at an ever increasing pace, and this continues to the present
day.

Objective

The aims of carrying out project work are :

i. To apply and adapt a variety of problem-solving strategies to solve
problems.
ii. To improve thinking skills.
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iii. To promote effective mathematical communication.

iv. To develop mathematical knowledge through problem solving in a way that
increases students’ interest and confidence.
v. To use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas
precisely.
vi. To provide learning environment that stimulates and enhance effective
learning.
vii. To develop positive attitude towards mathematics.

PART 1
(a) Pictures of circle object
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Compass Plate

Coin
Compact Disk

Ring

PART 1
(b) History of Pi (π)
The history of π parallels the development of mathematics as a whole. Some
authors divide progress into three periods: the ancient period during which π was
studied geometrically, the classical era following the development of calculus in
Europe around the 17th century, and the age of digital computers.
Geometrical period
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That the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is the same for
all circles, and that it is slightly more than 3, was known to ancient Egyptian,
Babylonian, Indian and Greek geometers. The earliest known approximations date
from around 1900 BC; they are 25/8 (Babylonia) and 256/81 (Egypt), both within 1%
of the true value. The Indian text Shatapatha Brahmana gives π as 339/108 ≈ 3.139.
The Hebrew Bible appears to suggest, in the Book of Kings, that π = 3, which is
notably worse than other estimates available at the time of writing (600 BC). The
interpretation of the passage is disputed, as some believe the ratio of 3:1 is of an
interior circumference to an exterior diameter of a thinly walled basin, which could
indeed be an accurate ratio, depending on the thickness of the walls. Archimedes
(287-212 BC) was the first to estimate π rigorously. He realized that its magnitude
can be bounded from below and above by inscribing circles in regular polygons and
calculating the outer and inner polygons' respective perimeters:

By using the equivalent of 96-sided polygons, he proved that 223/71 < π <
22/7. Taking the average of these values yields 3.1419.
In the following centuries further development took place in India and China.
Around AD 265, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui provided a simple and
rigorous iterative algorithm to calculate π to any degree of accuracy. He himself
carried through the calculation to a 3072-gon and obtained an approximate value for
π of 3.1416.

Later, Liu Hui invented a quick method of calculating π and obtained an

approximate value of 3.1416 with only a 96-gon, by taking advantage of the fact that
the difference in area of successive polygons forms a geometric series with a factor
of 4.
Around 480, the Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi demonstrated that π ≈
355/113, and showed that 3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927 using Liu Hui's algorithm
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applied to a 12288-gon. This value was the most accurate approximation of π

available for the next 900 years.

Classical period
Until the second millennium, π was known to fewer than 10 decimal digits.
The next major advance in π studies came with the development of calculus, and in
particular the discovery of infinite series which in principle permit calculating π to any
desired accuracy by adding sufficiently many terms. Around 1400, Madhava of
Sangamagrama found the first known such series:

This is now known as the Madhava-Leibniz series or Gregory-Leibniz series

since it was rediscovered by James Gregory and Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th
century. Unfortunately, the rate of convergence is too slow to calculate many digits in
practice; about 4,000 terms must be summed to improve upon Archimedes' estimate.
However, by transforming the series into

Madhava was able to calculate π as 3.14159265359, correct to 11 decimal places.

The record was beaten in 1424 by the Persian mathematician, Jamshīd al-Kāshī,
who determined 16 decimals of π.
The first major European contribution since Archimedes was made by the German
mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen (1540–1610), who used a geometric method to
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compute 35 decimals of π. He was so proud of the calculation, which required the

greater part of his life, that he had the digits engraved into his tombstone.
Around the same time, the methods of calculus and determination of infinite series
and products for geometrical quantities began to emerge in Europe. The first such
representation was the Viète's formula,

found by François Viète in 1593. Another famous result is Wallis' product,

by John Wallis in 1655. Isaac Newton himself derived a series for π and calculated
15 digits, although he later confessed: "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures
I carried these computations, having no other business at the time."
In 1706 John Machin was the first to compute 100 decimals of π, using the
formula

with

Formulas of this type, now known as Machin-like formulas, were used to set
several successive records and remained the best known method for calculating π
well into the age of computers. A remarkable record was set by the calculating
prodigy Zacharias Dase, who in 1844 employed a Machin-like formula to calculate
200 decimals of π in his head at the behest of Gauss. The best value at the end of
the 19th century was due to William Shanks, who took 15 years to calculate π with
707 digits, although due to a mistake only the first 527 were correct. (To avoid such
errors, modern record calculations of any kind are often performed twice, with two
different formulas. If the results are the same, they are likely to be correct.)
Theoretical advances in the 18th century led to insights about π's nature that
could not be achieved through numerical calculation alone. Johann Heinrich Lambert
proved the irrationality of π in 1761, and Adrien-Marie Legendre also proved in 1794
π2 to be irrational. When Leonhard Euler in 1735 solved the famous Basel problem –
finding the exact value of
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which is π2/6, he established a deep connection between π and the prime numbers.
Both Legendre and Leonhard Euler speculated that π might be transcendental,
which was finally proved in 1882 by Ferdinand von Lindemann.
William Jones' book A New Introduction to Mathematics from 1706 is said to
be the first use of the Greek letter π for this constant, but the notation became
particularly popular after Leonhard Euler adopted it in 1737. He wrote:

“ There are various other ways of finding the Lengths or Areas of particular
Curve Lines, or Planes, which may very much facilitate the Practice; as for
instance, in the Circle, the Diameter is to the Circumference as 1 to (16/5 -
4/239) - 1/3(16/5^3 - 4/239^3) + ... = 3.14159... = π ”

Computation in the computer age

The advent of digital computers in the 20th century led to an increased rate of
new π calculation records. John von Neumann used ENIAC to compute 2037 digits
of π in 1949, a calculation that took 70 hours. Additional thousands of decimal places
were obtained in the following decades, with the million-digit milestone passed in
1973. Progress was not only due to faster hardware, but also new algorithms. One of
the most significant developments was the discovery of the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) in the 1960s, which allows computers to perform arithmetic on extremely large
numbers quickly.
In the beginning of the 20th century, the Indian mathematician Srinivasa
Ramanujan found many new formulas for π, some remarkable for their elegance and
mathematical depth. One of his formulas is the series,

and the related one found by the Chudnovsky brothers in 1987,

which deliver 14 digits per term. The Chudnovskys used this formula to set several π
computing records in the end of the 1980s, including the first calculation of over one
billion (1,011,196,691) decimals in 1989. It remains the formula of choice for π
calculating software that runs on personal computers, as opposed to the
supercomputers used to set modern records.
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Whereas series typically increase the accuracy with a fixed amount for each
added term, there exist iterative algorithms that multiply the number of correct digits
at each step, with the downside that each step generally requires an expensive
calculation. A breakthrough was made in 1975, when Richard Brent and Eugene
Salamin independently discovered the Brent–Salamin algorithm, which uses only
arithmetic to double the number of correct digits at each step. The algorithm consists
of setting

and iterating

until an and bn are close enough. Then the estimate for π is given by

Using this scheme, 25 iterations suffice to reach 45 million correct decimals. A

similar algorithm that quadruples the accuracy in each step has been found by
Jonathan and Peter Borwein. The methods have been used by Yasumasa Kanada
and team to set most of the π calculation records since 1980, up to a calculation of
206,158,430,000 decimals of π in 1999. The current record is 1,241,100,000,000
decimals, set by Kanada and team in 2002. Although most of Kanada's previous
records were set using the Brent-Salamin algorithm, the 2002 calculation made use
of two Machin-like formulas that were slower but crucially reduced memory
consumption. The calculation was performed on a 64-node Hitachi supercomputer
with 1 terabyte of main memory, capable of carrying out 2 trillion operations per
second.
An important recent development was the Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula
(BBP formula), discovered by Simon Plouffe and named after the authors of the
paper in which the formula was first published, David H. Bailey, Peter Borwein, and
Plouffe. The formula,

is remarkable because it allows extracting any individual hexadecimal or binary digit

of π without calculating all the preceding ones. Between 1998 and 2000, the
distributed computing project PiHex used a modification of the BBP formula due to
Fabrice Bellard to compute the quadrillionth (1,000,000,000,000,000:th) bit of π,
which turned out to be 0.
In 2006, Simon Plouffe found a series of beautiful formulas. Let q = eπ, then
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and others of form,

where q = eπ, k is an odd number, and a,b,c are rational numbers. If k is of the form
4m+3, then the formula has the particularly simple form,

for some rational number p where the denominator is a highly factorable number,
though no rigorous proof has yet been given.

Memorizing digits

Recent decades have seen a surge in the record for number of digits memorized.
Even long before computers have calculated π, memorizing a record number of
digits became an obsession for some people. In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired
Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places. This, however,
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has yet to be verified by Guinness World Records. The Guinness-recognized record

for remembered digits of π is 67,890 digits, held by Lu Chao, a 24-year-old graduate
student from China. It took him 24 hours and 4 minutes to recite to the 67,890th
decimal place of π without an error.
There are many ways to memorize π, including the use of "piems", which are poems
that represent π in a way such that the length of each word (in letters) represents a
digit. Here is an example of a piem, originally devised by Sir James Jeans: How I
need (or: want) a drink, alcoholic in nature (or: of course), after the heavy lectures
(or: chapters) involving quantum mechanics. Notice how the first word has 3 letters,
the second word has 1, the third has 4, the fourth has 1, the fifth has 5, and so on.
The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3834 digits of π in this manner. Piems are
related to the entire field of humorous yet serious study that involves the use of
mnemonic techniques to remember the digits of π, known as piphilology. In other
languages there are similar methods of memorization. However, this method proves
inefficient for large memorizations of π. Other methods include remembering
patterns in the numbers.

PART 2
(a) Diagram 1 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10cm. Semicircle PAB and
BCR of diameter d1 and d2 respectively are inscribed in the semicircle PQR
such that the sum d1 and d2 of is equal to 10cm.

C
A

P d1 B d2 R
10cm
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d1 (cm) d2 (cm) Length of arc Length of arc Length of arc

PQR in term of PAB in term of BCR in term of
π (cm) π (cm) π (cm)
1 9 5π 0.5π 4.5π
2 8 5π 1π 4π
3 7 5π 1.5π 3.5π
4 6 5π 2π 3π
5 5 5π 2.5π 2.5π
6 4 5π 3π 2π
7 3 5π 3.5π 1.5π
8 2 5π 4π 1π
9 1 5π 4.5π 0.5π
10 0 5π 5π 0

Conclusion, d1 + d2 = 10cm

Arc PAB + Arc BCR = Arc PQR

PART 2

(b) Diagram 2 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10cm. Semicircles PAB,

BCD and DER of diameter d1,d2 and d3 respectively are inscribed in the
semicircle PQR such that the sum of d1,d2 and d3 is equal to 10cm.

E
C
A

R
P d1 B d2 D d3

10cm

(i)
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d1 (cm) d2 (cm) d3 (cm) Length of Length of Length of Length of arc

arc PQR in arc PAB in arc BCD in DER in term
term of π term of π term of π of π (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1 1 8 5π 12π 12π 4π
1 2 7 5π 12π π 72π
1 3 6 5π 12π 32π 3π
1 4 5 5π 12π 2π 52π
1 5 4 5π 12π 52π 2π
1 6 3 5π 12π 3π 32π
1 7 2 5π 12π 72π π
1 8 1 5π 12π 4π 12π
2 1 7 5π π 12π 72π
2 2 6 5π π π 3π

d1 (cm) d2 (cm) d3 (cm) Length of Length of Length of Length of

arc PQR in arc PAB in arc BCD in arc DER in
term of π term of π term of π term of π
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
2 3 5 5π π 32π 52π
2 4 4 5π π 2π 2π
2 5 3 5π π 52π 32π
2 6 2 5π π 3π π
2 7 1 5π π 72π 12π
3 1 6 5π 32π 12π 3π
3 2 5 5π 32π π 52π
3 3 4 5π 32π 32π 2π
3 4 3 5π 32π 2π 32π
3 5 2 5π 32π 52π π

3 6 1 5π 32π 3π 12π

4 1 5 5π 2π 12π 52π

4 2 4 5π 2π π 2π
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4 3 3 5π 2π 32π 32π

4 4 2 5π 2π 2π π

4 5 1 5π 2π 52π 12π

5 1 4 5π 52π 12π 2π

5 2 3 5π 52π π 32π

5 3 2 5π 52π 32π π

5 4 1 5π 52π 2π 12π

6 1 3 5π 3π 12π 32π

6 2 2 5π 3π π π

6 3 1 5π 3π 32π 12π

7 1 2 5π 72π 12π π

7 2 1 5π 72π π 12π

8 1 1 5π 4π 12π 12π

SPQR = SPAB+SBCD+SDER

(b) (ii) The length of arc of outer semicircle is equal to the sum of the

length of arc of inner semicircle for n = 1,2,3,4,….

Souter = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + S5

(c) (I) Diameter = 12cm

(a) 2 semicircle inside :

d1 (cm) d2 (cm) Length of Length of Length of
arc PQR in arc PAB in arc BCR in
term of π term of π term of π
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1 11 6π 12π 112π

2 10 6π π 5π

3 9 6π 32π 92π

4 8 6π 2π 4π
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5 7 6π 52π 72π

6 6 6π 3π 3π

7 5 6π 72π 52π

8 4 6π 4π 2π

9 3 6π 92π 32π

10 2 6π 5π π

11 1 6π 112π 12π

(b) 3 semicircle inside :

d1 (cm) d2 (cm) d3 (cm) Length of Length of Length of Length of

arc PQR in arc PAB in arc BCD in arc DER in
term of π term of π term of π term of π
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 1 10 6π 12π 12π 5π
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1 2 9 6π 12π π 92π
1 3 8 6π 12π 32π 4π
1 4 7 6π 12π 2π 72π
1 5 6 6π 12π 52π 3π
1 6 5 6π 12π 3π 52π
1 7 4 6π 12π 72π 2π
1 8 3 6π 12π 4π 32π
1 9 2 6π 12π 92π π
1 10 1 6π 12π 5π 12π

2 1 9 6π π 12π 92π

2 2 8 6π π π 4π

2 3 7 6π π 32π 72π

2 4 6 6π π 2π 3π

2 5 5 6π π 52π 52π

2 6 4 6π π 3π 2π

2 7 3 6π π 72π 32π

2 8 2 6π π 4π π

2 9 1 6π 32π 92π 12π

3 1 8 6π 32π 12π 4π

3 2 7 6π 32π π 72π

3 3 6 6π 32π 32π 3π

3 4 5 6π 32π 2π 52π

3 5 4 6π 32π 52π 2π

3 6 3 6π 32π 3π 32π

3 7 2 6π 32π 72π π

d1 (cm) d2 (cm) d3 (cm) Length of Length of Length of Length of

arc PQR in arc PAB in arc BCD in arc DER in
term of π term of π term of π term of π
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
3 8 1 6π 32π 4π 12π
4 1 7 6π 2π 12π 72π
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4 2 6 6π 2π π 3π
4 3 5 6π 2π 32π 52π
4 4 4 6π 2π 2π 2π
4 5 3 6π 2π 52π 32π
4 6 2 6π 2π 3π π
4 7 1 6π 2π 72π 12π
5 1 6 6π 52π 12π 3π
5 2 5 6π 52π π 52π

5 3 4 6π 52π 32π 2π

5 4 3 6π 52π 2π 32π

5 6 2 6π 52π 52π π

5 5 1 6π 52π 3π 12π

PART 3

The Mathematics Society is given a task to design a garden to beautify the

school by using the design as shown in diagram below. The shaded region will be
planted with flowers and the two inner semicircles are fish ponds.
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(a) y =12π(5)2-12πx22-12π10-x22

=252π-18πx2-18π100-20x+x2

=252π-18πx2-252π+52πx-18πx2

=52πx-14πx2…………….. (1)

(b) Area, y=16.5m2

Sub in (1)

16.5=52πx-14πx2

(x4), 66=10πx-πx2

πx2-10πx+66=0

x=-(-10π)±(-10π)2-4π(66)2π

x=10π±100π2-264π2π

x=-5.525,25.525

(c) . y = (10x – x24) π

yx = (10-x4) π
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x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
yx 7.1 6.3 5.5 4.7 3.9 3.1 2.4

8.0
Y/x

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X

When x = 4.5 , yx = 4.3

Area of flower plot = yx x x

= 4.3 x 4.5

= 19.35m2

(d) Differentiation method

dydx = (10x – x24) π

= (10x – x24) π

0 = 52π – x2 π
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52π = x2 π

x=5

Completing square method

. y = (10x – x24) π

= 52π - x24π

= -14π (x2 – 10x)

y+ 52 = -14π (x – 5)2

y = -14π (x - 5)2 - 25
x–5=0

x=5

(e)

Tn (flower Diameter

bed) (cm)
T1 30
T2 39.697
T3 49.394
T4 59.091
T5 68.788
T6 78.485
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T7 88.182
T8 97.879
T9 107.576
T10 117.273
T11 126.97
T12 136.667

n = 12, a = 30cm, S12 = 1000cm

S12 = n2(2a + (n – 1))d

1000 = 122( ( 2(30) + (12 – 1)d)

1000 = 6 ( 60 + 11d)

1000 = 360 + 66d

1000 – 360 = 66d

640 = 66d

d = 9.697

Conclusion
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In the task Part 1 (b), we can conclude that mathematicians in this world

never quit to discover the most accurate value of pi (π). In the task Part 2, we can

conclude that circle is the magic shape. The sum of the diameters of the circles

inside the big circles is equal to 10cm which is the diameter of the big circle.

In part 3, we can conclude that we must know how to calculate the area of the

circles. Besides, we must know how to manipulate and use the formula.

Sources

http://www.gap-system.org/~history/HistTopics/Pi_through_the_ages.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi

http://www.exploratorium.edu/pi/history_of_pi/index.html
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http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110195/history/history.html