Description and principle ofoperation Because of fewer space constraints, outdoor courses may be longer, more wide-open, and

contain fewer turns. Eighth-mile (220-yd or about 200-m) and longer courses are ideal. The 20-m shuttle test may also be administered outdoors (see Figure 2.4). Good outdoor courses can be established in controlled parking lots, schoolyards, running tracks, or any open space. The longer outdoor courses are especially useful for less limited individuals, including those who are able to run. Variables to be considered, however, include climatic conditions and the need to monitor patients closely. Calibration, accuracy, and precision As with the indoor courses, a measuring wheel allows the easiest and most accurate way to measure outdoor walking or running courses. Careful measurement with a 30-m tape measure is an acceptable alternative. The accuracy of such courses need not be perfect. Reproducible start, Wnish, and the walking or running path should be clearly delineated. For example, walking on the inside curbof a 400-m track will result in walking 400m per lap. However, walking in the outside lane of a nine-lane track will increase the distance. Cones or other similar markers are useful in identifying the limits of the shuttle course. Maintenance See the section on indoor courses, above.

Timing devices
Introduction
The accurate measurement of time is basic to exercise testing and provides the construct of rate. Since many measurements are expressed as a rate such as the work rate (W ), the oxygen uptake rate, and speed, accurate measurements of time are important. Other laboratory instruments such as pedal cadence (r.p.m.) indicators and metronomes could be considered as timing devices.

Chronometers
Description and principle ofoperation Included in this category are laboratory clocks and stopwatches. Laboratory clocks typically are not used to time activities with great precision, but rather for gross estimates, signaling the timing of events such as taking blood pressure or administering

psychometric scales during an exercise test. Thus, a laboratory clock should be visible throughout the exercise test. Stopwatches are better suited for precise timing during data collection such as in collecting exhaled air in a Douglas bag for subsequent analysis, timed walking tests (see above), measurement of heart rate by palpation, or the precise duration of an exercise test. Additionally, accurate stopwatches are essential for calibrating treadmill speeds and cycle ergometer r.p.m. indicators. Calibration, accuracy, and precision Calibration of chronometers is usually performed against another chronometer that can be