Towards Learning Audit in Viable Learning Systems

Presented at the International Conference in Computer Based Learning in Science (CBLIS), 1995
M.I.Yolles, Liverpool John Moores University
Abstract: Many learning situations offer what, to novice learners, seems to be complex
learning material. With the development of Web based courseware, we are seeing more interest
in learning approaches that are remote from course providers. It therefore seems a good time to
consider the need for non-retrospective automatic auditing systems that can enable learners to
recognise whether their learning capability may be diminished. Unfortunately, such systems are
not currently feasible because existing learning theory is not sufficiently mature to permit us to
model them. A possible approach based on viable systems theory is explained. It comes from
the field of management system, and has application to the notion of learning organisations,
and links with complexity theory.
Keywords: complexity theory, remote learning, organisational learning, viable systems, man-
agement systems.

1. Introduction
Viable systems are those that are able to survive in complex situations even though they may
experience perturbing chaos. They maintain their structures and processes through self-
regulation, and adapt to changes through self-organisation. They experience tension, which is
seen to represent the source of adaptation. When tension becomes exessive, it is a stress that
interferes with the adaptability of the system. While these ideas are applied to organisations,
they derive from explorations in biology.
It can be argued that people too are viable systems. This relates to all forms of their behaviour,
including learning. Thus, for instance, stress can adversely affect the learning rates of novice
learners7. New learning domains can, for many novice learners, often be seen as complex,
while for those who know the domain, it is not. Complexity is a subjective phenomenon.
In complex learning situations, novice learners are unable to understand all of the details that
surround them. Chaos occurs here with bounded learning instability, and this occurs when
learners are exposed to unexpected entities that are manifested within, or impact on, the situa-
tion. It can perturb continued learning. This can be serious for remote learners – those who are
geographically (as in distance learning), or socially (as in very large classes) remote from a
course provider, where tutor led remedial action is not feasible. Learners may deal with this by
eventually seeing “emergent” concepts that can simplify the situation for them. These concepts
do what Cohen and Stewart10 call collapsing chaos.
An automated computer based system that is able to recognise and warn remote learners of
changes in their learning capability can therefore be useful. However, learning theory is not yet
sufficiently mature to enable such a system. This paper will propose some underlying theory
for this that comes from viable systems theory. The subject is part of management systems, a
field that applies systems principles to organisational management. It has interests in organisa-
tional learning, and links some of its developments to connectionism, artificial intelligence,
cognitive psychology, chaos theory, and cybernetics.
Our interest in learning theory derives from Yolles29. It centres on three ideas that have devel-
oped since the concepts of programmed learning in the 1960s. These are: the notion that learn-
ing behaviour exists, and can be associated with a style; that learners have learning strategy;
and that learners can learn to learn (metalearn). These concepts can be expressed in terms of
Viable Systems Theory (when we can refer to them viable learning systems), and explored in
terms of complex situations.

2. Learning Behaviour, Strategy, and Metalearning

Learning behaviour is a pattern or schedule of learning actions. Kolb14 proposed that learning
behaviour can be described as a continuous learning cycle (Figure 1) that explains the experiential
stages that learners pass through during learning. Learning cycle approaches can be a useful sim-
plification of learning behaviour. However, Kolb’s work was deficient in a number of ways11:
(i) as a reaction against theory based learning, there can be an over-value of experience based
learning;
(ii) learning can be perceived to be based entirely on what others hand down and by self-
reasoning;
(iii) research evidence does not support learning cycle theory: e.g., the cycle does not indicate
how learners gain ability in learning.

E x pe rie n cial C on cr ete experien ce R e fle c tiv e

le arning le arnin g
qu adrant quad rant

A ctive Reflective
exper im en tation obser va tion

A c tiv e A bstrac t
le arning le arn ing
quad ra nt qu adran t
A bstra ct con cep tua lisa tion

Figure 1: The Kolb Learning Cycle

Now, Kolb’s phases of behaviour are not defined in terms of more detailed subsidiary behav-
iour. Perhaps this is because his interest did not lie in learning behaviour as such, but rather in
the associated concept of learning style. In learning cycles, learning behaviour may be seen as a
constrained set of activity steps. Let us consider this a little further by illustration. In many tra-
ditional paper-based open learning texts, a programme of work is structured into units. Each
might begin with the objectives of the learning materials, have summaries, embed examples
and have a glossary. If a tutor adheres to a rigid learning strategy, then s/he will devise a set of
very tight constraints on learning strategy. This will define a unique behavioural schedule per-
mitting only one possible way for a learner to pass through this material. Thus for example, a
sequential ordering of objectives, summaries, and so on may occur that defines only one learn-
ing path for a learner. This may not be consistent with the personal strategy of a given learner
who may wish, for instance, to sample parts of the learning material or consult the glossary be-
fore embarking on the learning material. This is what Crampes34 would refer to as a phase of
discovery that is personal to the learner. Perhaps a more flexible approach is for a tutor to offer
a menu that enables the learner to define his or her own strategy of learning within less tightly
tutor defined constraints, for example presenting materials on a Website. Therefore, the degree
of flexibility on learning strategy offered to a learner is tutor determined through the constraints
imposed on the learning material.
While learning can occur through circumstance rather than intention, more often than not it oc-
curs through the creation of learning purpose, especially in formal pedagogic settings like uni-
versities. Learning purpose is associated with learning strategy. It is often expressed in terms of
goals that are to be achieved, and as such, it can be seen that learning strategy is to do with the
controls and constraints that enable these goals to be achieved. Examples of control features are
a content index and a content map. Laurillard18 argues that constraint minimisation provides
better results in learning than its maximisation. Constraints are apparent when learning goals
are predefined for a learner, rather than allowing them to be learner-defined.
Consistent with the ideas of Laurillard and others18, 20, 28, 29, an argument will be put that learn-
ing strategy has associated with it not only control and constraint processes, but in addition
both cybernetic and rational processes. As part of this, learning strategy is also connected to
metalearning and learning behaviour21, 22, 26. These ideas are not prevalent in learning theory,
but rather derive from viable systems theory30, that can be used to construct a theory of viable
learning as we shall explore later. From this, it is propositional that change in learning strategy
will likely result in learning behaviour change.
It is axiomatic that learners have cognitive processes that are affected through metalearning (or
cognitive learning about learning). Indeed, a base notion in management systems is the notion
that organisational learn through “double loop learning”1, when cognitive processes are
changed in some way. According to the principles of viable systems theory, cognitive learning
is connected to the worldview of a learner, as discussed in the next section. Worldviews are ul-
timately responsible for the nature of the manifest strategy that a learner will adopt, and
changes in that learning strategy. It also ultimately defines the behavioural schedule that a
learner adopts within the learning process. When a learner is faced with new learning material,
s/he may redefine what constitute the elements of a learning domain by creating new (perhaps
personal) conceptualisations, thus explicitly influencing the nature of a learning strategy. It
represents another feature of cognitive learning that is capable of dealing with complex learn-
ing situations. This in turn is likely to affect the behavioural schedule or sequencing of learning
material in the learning domain. It can enable new maps of learning material to be created,
based on the new conceptualisations. It can result in new logical strategic processes that se-
quence learning material, and can result in the definition of new rules of learning to provide a
way of overcoming highly constrained learning domains.
Once learning purposes have been expressed in terms of explicit or implicit goals, part of strat-
egy is to achieve them. If learners are to achieve their learning goals, then it may not be suffi-
cient to be motivated and have a good learning strategy. They also need to learn how to learn.
The nature of how this can be achieved will be determined by the paradigm to which learners
attach themselves. Learning about learning (metalearning) enables learners to:
(1) have knowledge to reason about its own operation;
(2) have a structure which simplifies the reasoning process;
(3) infer conclusions from a chain of inference rules;
(4) determine accuracy, consistency, and plausibility of its conclusions;
(5) explain reasoning behaviour.
Metalearning induces learners to assess the patterns by which they learn11.

3. Worldviews
It is of interest to realise that pedagogic perspectives involve different worldviews. The notion
of worldview is a literal translation from the German weltanschauung that derives from 24.
Worldviews are relative to the institutions that one is attached to in a given society, and they
change as the institutional realities change3. More recently28, it has taken on the meaning of a
view or perspective of the behavioural world. This is determined by cultural attributes (that in-
cludes language, and cognitive organisation composed of attitudes, values, and beliefs), norms,
and a cognitive space that defines concepts and knowledge. Through a process of socialisation,
a view is formed within the institutions one is attached to, and they change as the institutional
realities change. Worldviews may be shared by a group of people, though when this occurs the
individuals each retain their own realities while using common models to share meaning. Fur-
ther, worldviews have boundaries that are generated within the belief system and cognitive
space of their viewholders, and as a result we can explore worldviews in terms of their knowl-
edge attributes.
We can distinguish two forms of worldview for the system domain: weltanschauung and para-
digm. The term weltanschauung was originally used by Churchman6 within the systems con-
text. It has been given a distinct definition by Checkland4 and Checkland and Davis5 when
used as one of the cornerstones of his own systems methodology directed at solving problem
situations that involve purposeful human activity. The use of the word by Checkland has been
variously defined as the worldview:
 that determines model building of relevant systems and conceptual models;
 for which in a particular situation certain notional systems are seen as relevant;
 the perceived social reality of the situation in which the study is made.
It has also been defined27 as the worldview of an individual or the shared worldview of a group
that is more or less visible to the viewholders, but not more generally to others who are not
viewholders.
We can relate the notion of a shared weltanschauung to that of paradigm. A paradigm is more
than shared weltanschauung. It is shared weltanschauung together with the explicitly defined
propositions that contribute to understanding. When weltanschauungen are formalised they be-
come paradigms, and are more or less transparent to others who are not viewholders. A forma-
lisation is a language that enables a set of explicit statements (propositions and their corollar-
ies) to be made about the beliefs and other attributes that enable (more or less) everything that
must be expressed to be expressed in a self-consistent way. This does not of course mean that
the paradigm is able to express ideas for which it has no concepts. Formal propositions define a
logic that establishes a framework of thought and conceptualisation that enables organised ac-
tion to occur, and problem situations to be addressed. Formal logic provides a standard of va-
lidity and a means of assessing validity17. While groups may offer behaviour in ways that are
consistent with their shared weltanschauung, paradigms emerge when the groups become co-
herent through formalisation.
Informal worldviews are more or less composed of a set of undeclared assumptions and propo-
sitions, while formal ones are more or less declared. More, since paradigms are forms of
worldviews they are by their very nature bounded, and thus constrain the way in which situa-
tions can be described. Now paradigms can change16 so that the nature of the constraint is sub-
ject to a degree of change - however bounded it might be.
It is easy to provide examples of paradigms. In pedagogic learning environments like universi-
ties, it is possible to distinguish between at least three types. These are shown in terms of a set
of common attributes in Table 129.

4. Viable Learning Theory

Viable learning theory derives from viable systems theory as developed by Yolles31, 32, 33, that
itself develops from a base of work in cybernetics2 and systems theory25. The viable system is
an organisation that survives. In doing so, it can respond to changes (whether or not they have
been foreseen) that can generate sufficient variety through self-organisation to deal with that
variety impacting on it from its environment (called requisite variety). A measure of variety can
also be referred as the complexity of a situation. As such the organisation will be able to sup-
port adaptability and change while maintaining stability in its behaviour. In particular, a system
is viable if it can maintain stable states of behaviour as it adapts to perturbations from its envi-
ronment. Such systems are normally considered to be at least semi-autonomous in that they are
taken to be analytically and empirically independent. In the learning context, a learner will un-
dertake viable learning if s/he can maintain stable learning behaviour while being able to adapt
to changes in a given learning environment that changes the learning situation. We refer to the
model that describes such learning capabilities as the viable learning model (VLM), first intro-
duced by Yolles28.
If a learning situation is to be thought of as a viable system, then the question must be raised:
what is its systemic nature? A system can be seen as a non-separable entity that is composed of
objects of attention that are defined in mutual relation to each other, and which is not reducible
into a sum of its objects. If each object is thought of as a component of the system, then com-
monly it is a set of components that interrelate. A system is bounded through a frame of refer-
ence. This boundary will change according to the learning purpose and weltanschauung of the
learner. A system may also be seen in terms of the degree of interaction between the parts that
define it. The parts may be richly or poorly interactive. In modelling a situation systemically,
an inquirer will make a judgement about what constitutes a rich set of interactions. It will dif-
ferentiate this group by creating a boundary around it that distinguishes the set of rich interac-
tions from the poor ones.
To see learning systemically, we can define a set of analytically and empirically independent
objects of attention that together form a rich learning situation. Other objects of attention that
are less rich in terms of their mutual learning interactions are not part of the system, even
though they may influence it. Three objects of attention are a:
(a) learner;
(b) learning source (such as predesigned courseware or a natural learning situation);
(c) target situation (that may exist in either a “real” behavioural world or an artificial one).
Thus, within the context of a learning system, consideration of a learner also implies considera-
tion of (b) and (c). The learner is part of a purposeful “system” defined by a structured relation-
ship between the learner, learning source, and the target situation. This effectively drives the
learning behaviour of a learner. Clearly, this is a different context from non-purposeful learn-
ing, that can occur when learners learn “retrospectively” through the influence of events that
become “life” teachers. Each of the objects of attention (a)-(c) can have associated with them a
worldview27, an idea that will be explored shortly.

5. The Cybernetics of Learning

The relationship between the worldviews and the perceived real world is illustrated in a para-
digm cycle given in Figure 2 that we shall return to in a moment. If the paradigm cycle pro-
vides a satisfactory vehicle to describe learning processes and behaviour, then we should be
able to link it with the ideas of learning behaviour, strategy, and metalearning. This is done
through a systemic model of Viable Learning30. To explain this we need to adopt the founda-
tional principles in cybernetics, distinguishing between the system and the metasystem - the
former being structural and behavioural, and the latter defining the “cognitive” domain that
 drives the system. In particular, in any purposeful activity system it is possible to distinguish
between cognitive, strategic, and behavioural aspects of a situation.
Table 1: Three Paradigms Associated with Educational Institutions
Attributes Programmed Learning
Worldview Adopts the tutor’s paradigm.
Knowledge view Knowledge seen as a valuable
commodity.
Learning Knowledge can be stored
acquisition externally and disseminated for
learner acquisition in solitary
environments.
Assumption about The acquisition and addition of
learning facts, concepts, skills.
Structure of Highly structured learning
learning processes are those which are
predetermined or pre-
programmed.
Learning process To transfer facts, skills, and
knowledge to those who lack it.
Basis of learner Tightly guided through pre-
choice defined menu.
Learning mode Individualisation.
Course structure Based on syllabus, involving the
organisation and sequencing of
course materials.
Knowledge type Perceptual - the knowledge of
precepts and propositions of the
definitively known; descriptions
about the world are normally
transmitted from a tutor to a
learner as predefined models.
Concerns for Course design criteria involve
relevance application and transfer.
Learning purpose Improve study skills.
Metalearning Provided by tutors.
Learning Provided by tutors, course
motivation materials, and learner purposes.
The role of others Seen as source for moral support,
encouragement, comparison for
learning task.
Tutor's role Subject expert, guardian of
knowledge. Responsible for
teaching and instructing. May
delegate to course media and
materials.
Assessment Measure of proficiency against
externally recognised standard.
Tutor as subject expert is best to
judge quality of work.
Action Learning
Developing weltanschauung
Knowledge is seen in
humanistic terms of “knowing
as process” to develop meaning
and is centred on self.
Knowledge is seen as a
condition, a knowing, and
learning is an elaboration of
change of the process of
relating meaning to doing and
of the enhancement of personal
competence.
The elaboration and change of
meaning-making process,
personal competence
enhancement.
Unstructured learning processes
within which no constraints
have been imposed in a totally
free learning domain.
To develop the individual as a
whole, especially in the
relationship between the self
and the environment.
Self-selecting and organising.
Autonomy.
Based on process of planning,
deciding and experimenting.
Experiential - learners build
their own models according to
their own perceptions and
developed conceptions, and are
learning about descriptions of
the world.
Experience from working life
of learner a prime source of
learning material.
Learn to learn.
Self-development enables
learning to learn.
Provided by stimulation of
learning situation.
Seen as inherent part of
learning process, providing
challenge in construction of
personal meaning.
Facilitator, resource person and
co-learner, whose meaning
attributed to events is as valid
as learner's.
Part of learning process. Based
on collaborative assessment
against mutually agreed criteria.
Cooperative Learning
Developing group paradigm within which
individual weltanschauungen develop.
Knowledge is seen in humanistic terms of
“knowing as process” to develop meaning,
centres on self, but works through the
group.
As in action learning, but through group
research and practice. It is also a way of
learning about groups and develops group
working competencies.
Proves for enhancing academic learning
and the development of abilities in
cooperative work for later life.
Unstructured learning processes within
which constraints are imposed by the
group to develop the learning domain.
To develop the individual as a whole,
especially in the relationship between the
self and the group that develops through
impacts from the environment.
Involves exploration through group talking
to consolidate individual knowledge
Group.
Based on process of planning, deciding,
and group modification.
Discovery – learners build their own
models according to their developing
group perceptions and conceptions, and
are learning about descriptions of the
world.
Group learning process provides a prime
learning source.
Independent learning.
As in action learning, but through group
processes.
Provided through group dynamics.
Essential to the learning process. Without
it, the learning process is poorer.
Preferably, invisible facilitator, resource
person and co-learner, whose meaning
attributed to events is as valid as group’s
and learner's.
Essentially a group process, that may be
independent of the facilitator.
This lies at the basis of viable systems that, through transformational self-organising processes, are
able to support adaptability and change while maintaining stability in their behaviour. In the
learning context, an individual will undertake viable learning if s/he can maintain stable learn-
ing behaviour while being able to adapt to changes in a given learning environment and differ-
ent learning situations. We refer to the model that describes such learning capabilities as the
viable learning model (VLM).

O r g a n i s i n g d o m a in B e h a vio u r a l
d o m a in
B e h a v i o u r a l d o m a in P a r a d ig m
r ep r ese n ta tion ( fo r m a l w o r l d v i e w ) O r g a n is in g
d o m a in

C o g n it i v e
o r g a n isa tio n o f d ev elo p m en t/ fo r m a tio n / C o g n itiv e = > d o m a in
B eh a vio u r a l w o r ld a ctio n /lea r n in g lea r n in g c o n s o l i d a ti o n d o m a i n

in ter p r eta tio n

W elta n sch a u u n g
( in fo r m a l w o r ld v ie w )
r e f l e c ti o n / c r e a t i o n

Figure 2: The Paradigm Cycle, showing the homeomorphic potential of the organising domain

In the paradigm cycle for the VLM, it may be noted that the organising process is a transforma-
tion that manifests worldview constructs (seated in the cognitive domain) into the behavioural
world (seated in the behavioural domain). This conceptualisation enables us to collapse the
worldview domain into a single cognitive domain that defines what may be called a learning
metasystem. Whatever outcomes derive from this domain, they are transformed. The nature of
the transformation is determined by who makes up the groups that define the cognitive basis of
the learning system. This may change according to the perceived world that it is to be delivered
to. In this way, the transformation has a morphology, and the transformational process is poten-
tially homeomorphic - having the possibility of any number of behavioural manifestations in a
“one to many process”. An example of such a process is translating meaning into any number
of languages - meaning is manifested into the different language structures (e.g., Chinese and
English) that may have little to do one with the other. This homeomorphic potentiality is also
illustrated to the right of Figure 2 through the organising process that takes place during trans-
formation. It is a representation reminiscent of the model developed by Chomsky8, in his struc-
tural model of the relationship between syntax and semantics in language theory. It is also
structurally similar to that used in the field of artificial intelligence by Clancy and Letsinger9
that distinguishes between deep knowledge and surface knowledge. Here. “deep” knowledge
(e.g., principles) can potentially be applied to a variety of application domains. This “variety”
is strictly represented as a homeomorphic potential that has a status similar to that of a quantum
field31. Thus, it can be argued to be expressible in the terms of quantum theory that Pessa23 has
for instance applied to systems and the notion of emergence.
It is now possible to assign cognitive properties to each of the domains shown in Figure 2. To
do this we develop on work by Habermas13 within the context of the complementary use of sys-
tems methodologies. As shown in Table 2, the behavioural domain has cognitive interests12, the
organising domain has cognitive purposes, and the cognitive domain cognitive influences31.
These cognitive properties exist, and are projected from the cognitive domain.
 Table 2: Relationship between human cognitive interests, purpose, and influences
COGNITIVE LEARNING INTERESTS OF THE BEHAVIOURAL DOMAIN
Technical Practical Critical Deconstraining
Work as learning. This enables Learning interaction. This requires that Emancipation. This enables people to (i)
people to achieve goals and people as individuals and groups in a liberate themselves from the learning
generate material conse- social system learn to gain and develop constraints imposed by power structures
quences. It involves technical the possibilities of an understanding of (ii) learn through precipitation in social
ability to undertake learning each others subjective views. It is con- and political processes to control their
action in the environment, and sistent with a practical interest in mutual own destinies.
the ability to make prediction understanding that can address dis-
and establish control. agreements, which can be a threat to the
social form of life
COGNITIVE PURPOSES OF LEARNING WITHIN THE ORGANISING DOMAIN
Cybernetical Rational Ideological
Learning intention. This is Logico-relational. Enables learning Manner of thinking about learning. An
through the creation and stra- source missions, goals, and aims to be intellectual framework through which
tegic pursuit of learning goals defined, and approached through plan- policy makers observe and interpret real-
and aims that may change over ning. It involves logical, relational, and ity that has a politically correct ethical
time, enables people through rational abilities to organise thought and and moral orientation, provides an image
learning control and commu- learning action and thus to define sets of of the future that enables action through
nications processes to redirect possible systemic and learning behav- politically correct strategic policy, and
their futures. iour possibilities. gives a politically correct view of stages
of historical development in respect of
interaction with the external environment
and related learning processes.
COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LEARNING WITHIN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Social Cultural Political
Formation. Enables individu- Thinking. Influences occur from knowl- Freedom. Influences occur from knowl-
als/groups to be influenced by edges about learning that derive from the edges about learning that affect our pol-
knowledges about learning cognitive organisation (beliefs, attitudes, ity determined in part, by how we think
that relate to our social envi- values) other worldviews. It ultimately about the constraints on group and indi-
ronment. This has a conse- determines how we learn to interact and vidual freedoms to learn and in connec-
quence for our learning about defines our logico-relational understand- tion with this to organise and behave. It
social structures and processes ings. ultimately has impact on our learning
that define our social forms related ideology and our degree of eman-
that are related to our inten- cipation.
tions and behaviours.

The Habermasian classification of cognitive interest has technical and practical attributes. The
former of these relates to work. In our context this can also be directly connected to Kolb’s be-
havioural phases of the learning process, so that, the notion of work refers to the work of learn-
ing. An interpretation of the practical attribute is concerned with learners interaction within a
learning process that can also be related to Kolb’s ideas. From Habermas’ perspective, this
should ideally be accompanied by emancipation in the way learning occurs to enable learners
the opportunity to maximise their learning potential.
Learning also occurs according to cognitive purpose, and the cybernetic attributes of this relate
to intention by the strategic pursuit of learning goals and control processes. Rational and ideo-
logical attributes also affect cognitive learning purposes. Finally, cognitive influences can oc-
cur with respect to social, cultural or political attributes that guide learners to learn according to
their embedded knowledges about learning (i.e. metalearning). The social attribute is connected
to structures, processes (including facilitating technologies), and roles, and learning will have
attributes that relate to this. Similarly one is able to identify cultural and political attributes, the
meaning of these being relative to the nature of the learning situation that one is concerned
with. Thus for instance, in the political nature of learning, polity is seen as being concerned
with engineering the enablement of group form, condition of order, and related processes. It
relates to the learning situation that a learner wishes to be in. Its commodity is power that de-
termines who directs the learning process, and how it is directed. It also relates, for instance, to
Table 1.
It is clear that learning processes can occur at three levels: cognitive, strategic, and behavioural.
The cognitive domain is knowledge related, some of this being knowledge about the learning
process itself (metalearning). Part of this process also concerns planning as considered by Les-
ter and Kroll19. It is through metalearning that an ability to develop learning strategy is devel-
oped that itself determines the nature of learning behaviour and associated style. Metalearning
operates from a learner paradigm which has within it a learning system as its metaphorical
“cognitive consciousness” that provides the system with direction and guidance. Learning be-
haviour can therefore be seen as a manifestation of this. Thus, for instance, a learner (who may
be an individual, a group of individuals, or an organisation), enters a learning situation. Learn-
ing strategy is determined from the learner’s metasystem, but is an organising process that ul-
timately determines behaviour. It is a result of cognitive purpose that Kroll15 refers to as meta-
cognitition. It involves cybernetic and rational process that operate as transformations that may
be subject to surprises, and that will constrain learning behaviour. As an example of this, learn-
ing strategy may break down, when the learning process become destabilised, and learning be-
comes an ad hoc affair. This can occur in situations of learning “chaos”.
We are aware that according to VLM, metalearning, learning strategy, and learning behaviour
are all directly linked, and any change in one domain can directly affect the others. Thus for
instance, suppose that a perturbation caused by the environment occurs in the domain of a
learner’s learning strategy. Then under the appropriate conditions we should see an effect in
either learning behaviour and/or metalearning. In the event that these perturbations are very se-
vere, then chaos can be induced and the learning system becomes divorced from its metasys-
tem. This may appear to occur as an arbitrary learning behaviour from the perspective of an
observer. However, according to propositions by Yolles31 that conform to chaos theory, a new
metasystem may spontaneously arise that provides a metalearning basis for the new learning
behaviour.

6. Learning is a Viable Systems Framework

Earlier we considered three objects of attention (a)-(c). For the VLM this suggests that there are
also a triad of worldviews that in some way complement one another. Worldview complemen-
tarism has been criticised by those that we refer to as the “fundamentalists” of paradigm in-
commensurability31 that suggests that worldviews cannot be made complementary since they
are conceptually or qualitatively different. Approaches to counter this have occurred using table
2. The nature of complementarism is of interest in this section, arguing that from it a worldview
results that provides a learning model that the learner pursues.
We can consider that each of these objects of attention is itself a viable system in its own right.
In the case of (a), this means that the learner is able to be purposeful and adaptable in his or her
learning behaviour, and is able to survive as a learner. In the case of (b) and (c), a learning
source and target situation seen to form the basis of a viable system will have associated with
them groups of people who themselves form a viable learning organisation. As a consequence,
each of the three objects of attention can be thought of as having cognitive, organising, and
behavioural domains. Concentrating on the former of these for a moment, we can represent the
embedded worldviews associated with each as in Figure 3. The intention of this diagram is to
illustrate that the three objects of attention can be kept analytically apart the relationship
between the target situation, the inquirer, and the targeting methodology clearly indicate that
the processes of learning, and learning sources influences, are distinct. The diagram is also in-
tended to highlight the idea that in learning situations:
 the worldviews of the actors in a situation are seen as an abstract property
 learning involves a learner with a worldview (or worldviews for a plural inquirer)
 there is an interaction and influence between the formalised worldview(s) of a learning source, the
worldviews of a learner, and the target situation through their cultures and “truths”.

In ter a ctiv e sp a c e o f w o r ld
v ie w s d e fin in g th e
m e ta syste m
o f lea r n in g P a ra d ig m (s) o f
le a r n in g so u r c e

P a r a d ig m (s)/w o r ld W o r ld v iew (s)

v iew (s) o f ta r g e t situ a tio n o f lea r n e r

Figure 3: Learning triad defining an interactive space of worldviews and their knowledges
The context of the situation can be defined within a framework of thought that constructs these
three objects of attention as its orthogonalities against which changes in one can be related to
the other. This visualisation is not unlike traditional approaches where independent but related
variables (e.g. space and time) are graphed one against another within a frame of reference to
enable changes (e.g., velocity) to be represented.
Part of our interest here is to argue that learning can be represented as a viable system, and we
do this through a direct translation from systems theory to the learning domain. Thus, the ex-
planations that we propose will be subject to experimental verification, yet to come.
The precepts that define a viable learning system will involve the argument that a metasystem
can be formed that is manifested as a purposeful adaptive learning system, that can evolve ac-
cording to the principles of viable systems theory as proposed by Schwarz25. The formation of
a cognitive domain as represented in Figure 4 requires the creation of shared paradigms
through the establishment of a common cognitive model. This enables at least some of the
knowledge of a learner to be used to apply at least some of the knowledge of a learning source
to at least some of the knowledge of the worldviews that make up a target situation. The selec-
tion of knowledge comes from the frame of reference that enables a learner to learn within a
given context.
If we think in terms of systems having learning structure and related behaviour, then the cogni-
tive domain can be thought of as forming a metasystem that directs learning into complex tar-
get situations. We can refer to this as metalearning. When the learning metasystem couples
with a system we refer to it as a purposive in its learning behaviour. If the three apexes of
worldview do not relate to each other in a common model, then the triad of Figure 3 is not seen
to form the basis of a systemic learning process. As a result the learning process will be seen to
be composed of an arbitrary selection and application of learning to the target situation. Some
might refer to it as illustrating a misunderstanding of a learning material, of a target situation
that manifests as behaviour what has been learned, of source learning, or of the application of
the latter to the former. Any learning behaviour that results from a strategic learning process
will likely be meaningless and of little value.
When a learning process falls into chaos, it loses its connection with the learning metasystem,
and in response to stimulus from a target situation the learning process behaves spontaneously
in a way that is structure determined. To understand this, we can say that if a learner’s struc-
tural approach is defined as an ordered set of procedural steps of learning, then only these steps
are available for selection in that order by a learner.
If learning behaviour is stable then its scheduling process of these steps is controlled. Contrary
to this, under chaos the scheduling process will be arbitrary. Let us suppose that the learning
system passes from a condition of stability to one of chaos, and then back to one of stability. As
stability is regained, a new metasystem arises so that the system has passed through a meta-
morphosis. To understand the nature of the new metasystem, we must explore the learning
process a little further.
In the formation of a viable learning system, we have proposed three objects of attention to be
required. Each has its worldview, but together they do not define a whole metasystem. What
functions as a metasystem is a disconnected and disjointed set of worldviews that simply con-
tributes to the confusion of chaos. It is only when the objects of attention come together by
forming a whole metasystem (that defines purpose), that the system will be able to achieve and
maintain that purpose. The emerging metasystem occurs through the formation of a virtual
paradigm that may endure for the duration of a learning period into the situation. Three func-
tions of the metasystem are that it will:
1. Define a shared worldview that enables a structured learning approach to be applied to a situation by
a learner meaningfully,
2. Constrain the learner by use of a structured learning approach suitable for complex learning situa-
tions
3. Establish the basis of control on the selection or use of structured learning to make it appropriate for
the target situation, having care in how learning is applied to the situation.
The first of these results come through the creation of a virtual paradigm that formalises a
learner’s approach. Part of this process is to define the purposes of a learning. This comes from
the learner’s understanding of the actors’ view(s) of the target situation, the mission and goals
of the structured learning, and his own purposes in applying the learned knowledge and skills
to the target situation.
Within the learning process, a learner will adopt a set of propositions from the different world-
views that represents its “truths” and enables knowledges to be recognised. In structured learn-
ing situations this is guided by the selection of a learning approach such as illustrated in Table
1, or a circumstantial one that comes through action learning. In the former case the learning
content is directed by the institution, while in action learning it is directed by the circumstances
of the target situation. Sometimes it can also be a result of both of these as in cooperative learn-
ing, where we see the target situation as being the cooperative group.
The idea that there are three autonomous worldviews in interaction is complexified, because the
worldviews attached to each autonomous apex of Figure 4 are themselves likely to be plural.
This means that:
 there may be many worldviews in a target situation that must be addressed;
 the learner may be a group that involves a number of worldviews;
 the paradigm that defines learning content may also be pluralistic.
The nature of cooperative learning is of particular interest since it consists of a plurality of
learner worldviews. The group assembles, and the individuals more or less together form a set
of common cognitive purposes within a single frame of reference defined within a virtual (or
working) paradigm that enables them to work together (more or less) as a team. Group behav-
iour is possible because of the formation of a shared weltanschauungen. This occurs through a
common cognitive model that enables meaning to be shared. Its boundaries are defined as a
frame of reference for group behaviour. The individual weltanschauungen are maintained,
though through association there may well be a learning process in which weltanschauungen
are changed in some way. If failure of a group process occurs, then one explanation is through
weltanschauung incommensurability.
In a situation worldview plurality can occur with respect to both the informal and formal
worldviews of an organisation. There is always an interaction between weltanschauungen and
paradigms in the same way as there is between different weltanschauungen and different para-
digms. The plurality of informal worldviews is often ignored by supposing that there is a con-
sensus in a situation. Often, little is done to determine what the consensus actually means in a
given context, and whether it has any value in respect of a learning strategy. With respect to
formal worldviews, it is normally the dominant paradigm that is referred to by a novice learner
during learning. This can also be seen as a supraparadigm of the organisation.

7. Conclusion
In this paper we have attempted to show that learning situations can be seen as viable learning
systems that are subject to chaos. As a result, it is possible to see learners within a given definable
context having properties of viable systems, including purposefulness, adaptability, and learning
survivability. It also provides the opportunity of discussing such problems as complexity and
evolutionary learning within this context. More, it offers the possibility of encompassing and de-
veloping existing learning theory, subject to experimental evidence, that the propositions of vi-
able system do indeed operate. The potential of such theory is to enable a learning auditing sys-
tem to be developed that can assess whether learning may become subject to chaotic interference
that differentiates learning intention from learning strategy and behaviour. This would operate by
establishing tests that would evaluate learners at the cognitive, strategic, and behavioural levels of
learning, and evaluate any changes that might have occurred. For this to work, we must be sure
about the nature of the relationships between these three domains.
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Maurice Yolles, Liverpool Business School, John Moores University, 98 Mount Pleasant, UK -
Liverpool L3 5UZ. m.yolles@livjm.ac.uk
Short title: Viable Learning Systems