xiv 3.24 3.25 3.26 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.

11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

List of gures State variable with 50 s step length and step length optimisation Both x check and step length optimisation Error comparison Resistor Inductor Norton equivalent of the inductor Capacitor Norton equivalent of the capacitor Reduction of RL branch Reduction of RLC branch Propagation of a wave on a transmission line Equivalent two-port network for a lossless line Node 1 of an interconnected circuit Example using conversion of voltage source to current source Network solution with voltage sources Network solution with switches Block diagonal structure Flow chart of EMT algorithm Simple switched RL load Equivalent circuit for simple switched RL load Step response of an RL branch for step lengths of t = /10 and t = Step response of an RL branch for step lengths of t = 5 and t = 10 Piecewise linear inductor represented by current source Pictorial view of simultaneous solution of two equations Articial negative damping Piecewise linear inductor Separation of two coupled subsystems by means of linearised equivalent sources Interfacing for HVDC link Example of sparse network Norton equivalent for RL branch Switching test system Step response of switching test system for t = Step response of switching test system for t = 5 Step response of switching test system for t = 10 Resonance test system Comparison between exponential form and Dommels method to a 5 kHz excitation for resonance test system. t = 25 s Comparison between exponential form and Dommels method to a 5 kHz excitation for resonance test system. t = 10 s Comparison between exponential form and Dommels method to 10 kHz excitation for resonance test system 63 63 64 68 68 69 70 71 73 74 74 76 77 78 80 81 81 82 83 83 86 87 89 91 92 92 93 94 96 106 107 107 108 108 109 109 110 110

List of gures 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 Response of resonance test system to 10 kHz excitation, blow-up of exponential forms response Diode test system Response to diode test system (a) Voltage (b) Current Input as function of time Control or electrical system as rst order lag Comparison step response of switching test system for t = Comparison step response of switching test system for t = 5 Comparison of step response of switching test system for t = 10 Root-matching type (d) approximation to a step Comparison with a.c. excitation (5 kHz) ( t = ) Comparison with a.c. excitation (10 kHz) ( t = ) Frequency response for various simulation methods Decision tree for transmission line model selection Nominal PI section Equivalent two-port network for line with lumped losses Equivalent two-port network for half-line section Bergeron transmission line model Schematic of frequency-dependent line Thevenin equivalent for frequency-dependent transmission line Norton equivalent for frequency-dependent transmission line Magnitude and phase angle of propagation function Fitted propagation function Magnitude and phase angle of characteristic impedance Transmission line geometry Matrix elimination of subconductors Cable cross-section Step response of a lossless line terminated by its characteristic impedance Step response of a lossless line with a loading of double characteristic impedance Step response of a lossless line with a loading of half its characteristic impedance Step response of Bergeron line model for characteristic impedance termination Step response of Bergeron line model for a loading of half its characteristic impedance Step response of Bergeron line model for a loading of double characteristic impedance Comparison of attenuation (or propagation) constant Error in tted attenuation constant Comparison of surge impedance Error in tted surge impedance

xv

111 111 112 113 113 114 115 115 116 116 117 118 124 124 125 125 126 129 132 132 134 135 137 138 141 142 147 148 149 149 150 150 151 151 152 152

xvi 6.25 6.26 6.27 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11

List of gures Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 100 ) Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 1000 ) Step response of frequency-dependent transmission line model (load = 50 ) Equivalent circuit of the two-winding transformer Equivalent circuit of the two-winding transformer, without the magnetising branch Transformer example Transformer equivalent after discretisation Transformer test system Non-linear transformer Non-linear transformer model with in-rush Stardelta three-phase transformer UMEC single-phase transformer model Magnetic equivalent circuit for branch Incremental and actual permeance UMEC Norton equivalent UMEC implementation in PSCAD/EMTDC UMEC PSCAD/EMTDC three-limb three-phase transformer model UMEC three-limb three-phase Norton equivalent for blue phase (Y-g/Y-g) Cross-section of a salient pole machine Equivalent circuit for synchronous machine equations The a.c. machine equivalent circuit d -axis ux paths Multimass model Interfacing electrical machines Electrical machine solution procedure The a.c. machine system Block diagram synchronous machine model Interface between network and TACS solution Continuous system model function library (PSCAD/EMTDC) First-order lag Simulation results for a time step of 5 s Simulation results for a time step of 50 s Simulation results for a time step of 500 s Simple bipolar PWM inverter Simple bipolar PWM inverter with interpolated turn ON and OFF Detailed model of a current transformer Comparison of EMTP simulation (solid line) and laboratory data (dotted line) with high secondary burden Detailed model of a capacitive voltage transformer

153 154 154 160 161 161 163 163 164 165 165 166 167 168 170 171 173 175 177 180 182 183 184 186 187 188 189 194 196/7 198 201 202 202 204 204 206 207 208

List of gures xvii 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 Diagram of relay model showing the combination of electrical, magnetic and mechanical parts Main components of digital relay Voltagetime characteristic of a gap Voltagetime characteristic of silicon carbide arrestor Voltagetime characteristic of metal oxide arrestor Frequency-dependent model of metal oxide arrestor Equivalencing and reduction of a converter valve Current chopping Illustration of numerical chatter Numerical chatter in a diode-fed RL load RON = 1010 , ROFF = 1010 Forced commutation benchmark system Interpolation for GTO turn-OFF (switching and integration in one step) Interpolation for GTO turn-OFF (using instantaneous solution) Interpolating to point of switching Jumps in variables Double interpolation method (interpolating back to the switching instant) Chatter removal by interpolation Combined zero-crossing and chatter removal by interpolation Interpolated/extrapolated source values due to chatter removal algorithm (a) The six-pulse group converter, (b) thyristor and snubber equivalent circuit Phase-vector phase-locked oscillator Firing control for the PSCAD/EMTDC valve group model Classic V I converter control characteristic CIGRE benchmark model as entered into the PSCAD draft software Controller for the PSCAD/EMTDC simulation of the CIGRE benchmark model Response of the CIGRE model to ve-cycle three-phase fault at the inverter bus SVC circuit diagram Thyristor switch-OFF with variable time step Interfacing between the SVC model and the EMTDC program SVC controls Basic STATCOM circuit Basic STATCOM controller Pulse width modulation Division of a network The converter system to be divided The divided HVDC system

209 210 211 212 213 213 218 221 222 223 223 224 224 226 226 227 228 229 230 231 231 232 232 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246

xviii List of gures 9.31 9.32 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 Timing synchronisation Control systems in EMTDC Curve-tting options Current injection Voltage injection PSCAD/EMTDC schematic with current injection Voltage waveform from time domain simulation Typical frequency response of a system Reduction of admittance matrices Multifrequency admittance matrix Frequency response Two-port frequency dependent network equivalent (admittance implementation) Three-phase frequency dependent network equivalent (impedance implementation) Ladder circuit of Hingorani and Burbery Ladder circuit of Morched and Brandwajn Magnitude and phase response of a rational function Comparison of methods for the tting of a rational function Error for various tted methods Small passive network Magnitude and phase t for the test system Comparison of full and a passive FDNE for an energisation transient Active FDNE Comparison of active FDNE response Energisation Fault inception and removal Fault inception and removal with current chopping Norton equivalent circuit Description of the iterative algorithm Test system at the rectier end of a d.c. link Frequency dependent network equivalent of the test system Impedance/frequency of the frequency dependent equivalent Voltage sag at a plant bus due to a three-phase fault Test circuit for transfer switch Transfer for a 30 per cent sag at 0.8 power factor with a 3325 kVA load EAF system single line diagram EAF without compensation EAF with SVC compensation EAF with STATCOM compensation Test system for icker penetration (the circles indicate busbars and the squares transmission lines) 246 247 254 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 261 262 263 264 268 269 269 270 271 272 272 273 273 274 274 282 283 288 288 289 290 291 292 293 293 294 294 295

List of gures 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.7 A.8 C.1 D.1 D.2 D.3 D.4 D.5 Comparison of Pst indices resulting from a positive sequence current injection Test system for the simulation of voltage notching Impedance/frequency spectrum at the 25 kV bus Simulated 25 kV system voltage with drive in operation Simulated waveform at the 4.16 kV bus (surge capacitor location) The hybrid concept Example of interfacing procedure Modied TS steering routine Hybrid interface Representative circuit Derivation of Thevenin equivalent circuit Comparison of total r.m.s. power, fundamental frequency power and fundamental frequency positive sequence power Normal interaction protocol Interaction protocol around a disturbance Rectier terminal d.c. voltage comparisons Real and reactive power across interface Machine variables TSE (TS variables) Schematic of real-time digital simulator Prototype real-time digital simulator Basic RTDS rack RTDS relay set-up Phase distance relay results HVDC control system testing Typical output waveforms from an HVDC control study General structure of the DTNA system Test system Current and voltage waveforms following a single-phase short-circuit The PSCAD/EMTDC Version 2 suite DRAFT program RUNTIME program RUNTIME program showing controls and metering available MULTIPLOT program Interaction in PSCAD/EMTDC Version 2 PSCAD/EMTDC ow chart PSCAD Version 3 interface Numerical integration from the sampled data viewpoint CIGRE HVDC benchmark test system Frequency scan of the CIGRE rectier a.c. system impedance Frequency scan of the CIGRE inverter a.c. system impedance Frequency scan of the CIGRE d.c. system impedance Lower South Island of New Zealand test system

xix

296 298 299 299 300 304 305 306 308 308 309 314 315 315 318 318 319 321 323 324 326 327 327 328 328 329 330 333 334 335 335 336 337 338 339 353 359 361 361 362 363

List of tables

1.1 1.2 2.1 3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 9.1 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 11.1 C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5

EMTP-type programs Other transient simulation programs First eight steps for simulation of leadlag function State variable analysis error Norton components for different integration formulae Step response of RL circuit to various step lengths Integrator characteristics Exponential form of difference equation Response for t = = 50 s Response for t = 5 = 250 s Response for t = 10 = 500 s Parameters for transmission line example Single phase test transmission line s -domain tting of characteristic impedance Partial fraction expansion of characteristic admittance Fitted attenuation function (s -domain) Partial fraction expansion of tted attenuation function (s -domain) Pole/zero information from PSCAD V2 (characteristic impedance) Pole/zero information from PSCAD V2 (attenuation function) Overheads associated with repeated conductance matrix refactorisation Numerator and denominator coefcients Poles and zeros Coefcients of z1 (no weighting factors) Coefcients of z1 (weighting-factor) Frequency dependent equivalent circuit parameters Classical integration formulae as special cases of the tunable integrator Integrator formulae Linear inductor Linear capacitor Comparison of numerical integration algorithms ( T = /10)

8 8 29 61 72 85 101 104 119 119 120 146 146 153 153 155 155 155 156 219 268 268 270 271 289 353 354 354 355 356

xxii List of tables C.6 C.7 D.1 D.2 D.3 D.4 D.5 D.6 D.7 D.8 D.9 E.1 E.2 E.3 Comparison of numerical integration algorithms ( T = ) Stability region CIGRE model main parameters CIGRE model extra information Converter information for the Lower South Island test system Transmission line parameters for Lower South Island test system Conductor geometry for Lower South Island transmission lines (in metres) Generator information for Lower South Island test system Transformer information for the Lower South Island test system System loads for Lower South Island test system (MW, MVar) Filters at the Tiwai-033 busbar Coefcients of a rational function in the z-domain for admittance Coefcients of a rational function in the z-domain for impedance Summary of difference equations 356 357 360 360 362 362 363 363 364 364 364 370 371 372

Preface

The analysis of electromagnetic transients has traditionally been discussed under the umbrella of circuit theory, the main core course in the electrical engineering curriculum, and therefore the subject of very many textbooks. However, some of the special characteristics of power plant components, such as machine non-linearities and transmission line frequency dependence, have not been adequately covered in conventional circuit theory. Among the specialist books written to try and remedy the situation are H. A. Petersons Transient performance in power systems (1951) and A. Greenwoods Electric transients in power systems (1971). The former described the use of the transient network analyser to study the behaviour of linear and nonlinear power networks. The latter described the fundamental concepts of the subject and provided many examples of transient simulation based on the Laplace transform. By the mid-1960s the digital computer began to determine the future pattern of power system transients simulation. In 1976 the IEE published an important monograph, Computation of power system transients, based on pioneering computer simulation work carried out in the UK by engineers and mathematicians. However, it was the IEEE classic paper by H. W. Dommel Digital computer solution of electromagnetic transients in single and multiphase networks (1969), that set up the permanent basic framework for the simulation of power system electromagnetic transients in digital computers. Electromagnetic transient programs based on Dommels algorithm, commonly known as the EMTP method, have now become an essential part of the design of power apparatus and systems. They are also being gradually introduced in the power curriculum of electrical engineering courses and play an increasing role in their research and development programs. Applications of the EMTP method are constantly reported in the IEE, IEEE and other international journals, as well as in the proceedings of many conferences, some of them specically devoted to the subject, like the International Conference on Power System Transients (IPST) and the International Conference on Digital Power System Simulators (ICDS). In 1997 the IEEE published a volume entitled Computer analysis of electric power system transients, which contained a comprehensive selection of papers considered as important contributions in this area. This was followed in 1998 by the special publication TP-133-0 Modeling and analysis of system transients using

xxiv Preface digital programs, a collection of published guidelines produced by various IEEE taskforces. Although there are well documented manuals to introduce the user to the various existing electromagnetic transients simulation packages, there is a need for a book with cohesive technical information to help students and professional engineers to understand the topic better and minimise the effort normally required to become effective users of the EMT programs. Hopefully this book will ll that gap. Basic knowledge of power system theory, matrix analysis and numerical techniques is presumed, but many references are given to help the readers to ll the gaps in their understanding of the relevant material. The authors would like to acknowledge the considerable help received from many experts in the eld, prior to and during the preparation of the book. In particular they want to single out Hermann Dommel himself, who, during his study leave in Canterbury during 1983, directed our early attempts to contribute to the topic. They also acknowledge the continuous help received from the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, specially the former director Dennis Woodford, as well as Garth Irwin, now both with Electranix Corporation. Also, thanks are due to Ani Gole of the University of Manitoba for his help and for providing some of the material covered in this book. The providing of the paper by K. Strunz is also appreciated. The authors also wish to thank the contributions made by a number of their colleagues, early on at UMIST (Manchester) and later at the University of Canterbury (New Zealand), such as J. G. Campos Barros, H. Al Kashali, Chris Arnold, Pat Bodger, M. D. Heffernan, K. S. Turner, Mohammed Zavahir, Wade Enright, Glenn Anderson and Y.-P. Wang. Finally J. Arrillaga wishes to thank the Royal Society of New Zealand for the nancial support received during the preparation of the book, in the form of the James Cook Senior Research Fellowship.

Acronyms and constants

Acronyms
APSCOM Advances in Power System Control, Operation and Management ATP Alternative Transient Program BPA Bonneville Power Administration (USA) CIGRE Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques (International Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems) DCG Development Coordination Group EMT Electromagnetic Transient EMTP Electromagnetic Transients Program EMTDC1 Electromagnetic Transients Program for DC EPRI Electric Power Research Institute (USA) FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems ICDS International Conference on Digital Power System Simulators ICHQP International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power IEE The Institution of Electrical Engineers IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IREQ Laboratoire Simulation de Reseaux, Institut de Recherche dHydro-Quebec NIS Numerical Integration Substitution MMF Magneto-Motive Force PES Power Engineering Society Power System Computer Aided Design PSCAD2 RTDS3 Real-Time Digital Simulator SSTS Solid State Transfer Switch TACS Transient Analysis of Control Systems

1 EMTDC is a registered trademark of the Manitoba Hydro 2 PSCAD is a registered trademark of the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre 3 RTDS is a registered trademark of the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre

xxvi Acronyms and constants TCS TRV UIE Transient Converter Simulation (state variable analysis program) Transient Recovery Voltage Union International dElectrothermie/International Union of Electroheat

Constants
0 0 c permittivity of free space (8.85 1012 C2 N1 m2 or F m1 ) permeability of free space (4 107 Wb A1 m1 or H m1 ) 3.1415926535 Speed of light (2.99793 108 m s1 )

Chapter 1

Denitions, objectives and background

1.1

Introduction

The operation of an electrical power system involves continuous electromechanical and electromagnetic distribution of energy among the system components. During normal operation, under constant load and topology, these energy exchanges are not modelled explicitly and the system behaviour can be represented by voltage and current phasors in the frequency domain. However, following switching events and system disturbances the energy exchanges subject the circuit components to higher stresses, resulting from excessive currents or voltage variations, the prediction of which is the main objective of power system transient simulation. Figure 1.1 shows typical time frames for a full range of power system transients. The transients on the left of the gure involve predominantly interactions between the magnetic elds of inductances and the electric elds of capacitances in the system; they are referred to as electromagnetic transients. The transients on the right of the gure are mainly affected by interactions between the mechanical energy stored in the rotating machines and the electrical energy stored in the network; they are accordingly referred to as electromechanical transients. There is a grey area in the middle, namely the transient stability region, where both effects play a part and may need adequate representation. In general the lightning stroke produces the highest voltage surges and thus determines the insulation levels. However at operating voltages of 400 kV and above, system generated overvoltages, such as those caused by the energisation of transmission lines, can often be the determining factor for insulation coordination. From the analysis point of view the electromagnetic transients solution involves a set of rst order differential equations based on Kirchhoffs laws, that describe the behaviour of RLC circuits when excited by specied stimuli. This is a well documented subject in electrical engineering texts and it is therefore assumed that the reader is familiar with the terminology and concepts involved, as well as their physical interpretation.