Chapter 21 Galaxy Evolution Universe is always expanding When you watch into space, you see the universe

is younger. Can see the universe evolves. Because it takes that much time for the light to reach us. First set of clues come from deep images of the universe, such as the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field NASA hope to launch a much more infrared-sensitive successor to the HST called the James Webb Space Telescope How did Galaxies Form Hydrogen and helium gas filled all of space more or less uniformly when the universe was very young say, in the first million years after its birth. The distribution of matter in the universe not perfectly uniform certain regions of the universe started out ever so slightly denser than others. Regions of enhanced density also expanded. However, eventually they stopped expanding. Eventually since their gravity was larger, protogalactic clouds began to form. (cloud of matter) o These protogalactic clouds then initially began to contract. Cooled as it contracted, radiating away their thermal energy o First generation of stars grew from the densest, coldest clumps of gas. o These stars were massive. When they died (Supernova explosion) seeded the galaxy with its first sprinkling of heavy elements and generated shock waves that heated the surrounding interstellar gas. o This heating slowed the collapse of the protogalactic clouds and the rate at which stars formed within them, allowing for each newly formed galaxy to settle into a rotating disk o Explains why other spiral galaxies have basic structure as Milky Way Disk Population of stars Orbit the glactic center in a fairly flat plane, Born after gas settled into rotating disk, which is why have similar orbits around center of galaxy Spheroidal population of stars Random orbits Born before galaxys rotation became organized, which is why they have randomly oriented orbits

Galaxy Formation and Evolution Gravity is the driving force behind the formation and evolution of galaxies

Dark Matter dominates the total mass of a galaxy and so is critical to the formation and evolution of galaxies Basic Picture: Early universe filled with hydrogen and helium gas; and dark matter Distribution of matter was nearly, but not perfectly uniform.

The Lives of Galaxies Why do Galaxies differ? Two main reasons o 1. Galaxies may have ended up looking different because they began with slightly different conditions in their protogalactic clouds o 2. Galaxies may have begun their lives similarly, but changed due to interactions with other galaxies What are Galaxies elliptical? o Spirals before which had its arms ripped off. o Left with just the bulge o Formed by mergers Why do spiral galaxies have gas-rich disks, while elliptical galaxies do not? However the main differences are o Differences in angular momentum Protogalactic spin. Significant amount of angular momentum, rotated quickly as it collapsed Will tend to form a disk, spiral galaxy Little or no angular momentum Resulting galaxy will be elliptical. o Differences in initial density Protogalactic Density Higher Density = Elliptical Radiate energy more effectively, and cooled more quickly. Allowing for more rapid star formation. Star formation faster, gas turns into stars before time to settle in disks. Thus, Elliptical Lower Density = Spiral Opposite of above. Slower forming stars have time to go into disks. Spirals are late time galaxies Elliptical galaxies are early time galaxies o This is about when the stars form o Elliptical galaxies are early time galaxies because the stars crystalize first o Spirals are late time galaxies because stars crystalize later. o All the stars in these elliptical galaxies formed almost simultaneously and very early in history of universe. Very Old.

At least some elliptical galaxies are formed by collisions/mergers

Currently, a small elliptical galaxy (The Sagittarius Dwarf) is intersecting the Milky Way Computer Models show that the collision between two spiral galaxies can create an elliptical galaxy Tremendous tidal forces between colliding galaxies tear apart the two disks, randomizing the orbits of their stars. Some evidence o Elliptical galaxies dominate the galaxy population at the cores of dense clusters of galaxies. Interactions are the strongest o Stronger evidence Structural details of elliptical galaxies often attest to a violent past Some elliptical galaxies have stars and gas clouds with orbits suggesting they are leftover pieces of galaxies that merged in a past collision. Example, NGC 3923. o Most decisive evidence Central Dominant Galaxies Found at center of many dense clusters Giant elliptical galaxies o Apparently grew to huge sizes by consuming other galaxies through collisions Also called galactic cannibalism Side note: o Spiral galaxy without gaseous disk is called lenticular galaxy

Abell 3827 There are phases of galaxy evolution Galaxies start with a lot of gas and dust. They first go through a Starburst phase. Active Galactic Nuclei (AG) and Quasars. Starburst Galaxies Most galaxies in the universe today are forming stars at a moderate rate A small percentage of galaxies are forming stars at extremely high rates 100 times or more the rate of star formation in the Milky Way Such rapid star formation, will soon exhaust the gas supply in a gas, so must be a temporary phase in the evolution of the galaxy o About 100 stars per year o As opposed to the Milky Way forming about 1 star per year o Afterwards, returns to spiral, elliptical, or irregular state Dust absorbs most of the light from the newly formed stars starburst galaxies are very bright in the infrared

Observations of Starburst Galaxies M82 Intensity of supernova explosions in starburst galaxies can drive galactic winds. Galactic Winds Star formation rate 100 times that of Milky Way = Supernovae rate 100 times that of Milky Way. Each supernova generates a shock wave. Creates bubble of hot gas Supernova overlap, generates superbubble In starburst galaxy, supernovae continue to explode adding thermal and kinetic energy Superbubble breaks through disrupted gaseous disk. Hot gas erupts into intergalactic space, creating galactic wind Galactic Wind o 10-100 million K o Generate X Rays o Bursts can eject all the gas in small galaxies, thus halting star formation for billions of years Recognized about two decades ago Hard to see in visible wavelength because molecular clouds hide it. Dust grains absorb most of the visible and ultraviolet radiation in Starburst Galaxies. Hard to see in visible and ultraviolet. Can see them clearly in infrared light because of the interstellar dust Visible and ultraviolet radiation heats dust. Eventually dust re-emits in infrared. Visible output: 1010LSun Infrared output: 1012LSun

Causes of Starbursts Many of the most luminous starburst galaxies appear to have resulted from collision between galaxies Causes of smaller-scale starbursts are not yet clear. Not all irregular galaxies are colliding For example, Large Magellanic Cloud (currently orbits Milky Way) is undergoing starburst o Probably triggered by close reaction with Milky Way. Not Collision.

Quasars and other Active Galactic Nuclei Active Galactic Nuceli (AGN) o Extreme amounts of radiation and sometimes powerful jets of material from deep in their centers (of galaxies). Unusually bright galactic centers are called AGN Quasars: The brightest of all AGN. Produce more light than 1000 galaxies the size of Milky Way o Like starbursts, another temporary stage of galaxy evolution

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Most common billions of years ago, when galaxies in their youth No evidence nearby. Thus, they must become dormant as they get older Quasars are found at great distances, when the universe was considerably younger

What are Quasars? The energy output of a quasar comes from a gigantic accretion disk surrounding a supermassive black hole (millions to billion of times of our sun) Discovery of Quasars o Caltech Professor named Maarten Schmidt (early 1960s) Discovery came from identifying cosmic sources of radio-wave emission o Radio source called 3C 273 (3rd Cambridge Radio Catalogue, object 273) o Quasar: Quasi Stellar Radio source Later Astronomers realized they were not powerful radio sources, but name stuck o The extraordinary power output of quasars explains why they were at first so mysterious. They generally emit so much light that they swamp the light of the galaxies that contain them, making the surrounding galaxies hard to detect

Evidence from Nearby Active Galactic Nuclei Quasars are difficult to study because they are far away Quasarlike objects are closer. 1% of present-day galaxies galaxies we see nearbyhave AGN that look like quasars but are less powerful The incredible luminosities of active galactic nuclei and quasars are apparently being generated in a volume of space not much bigger than our solar system

Radio Galaxies and Jets Another Clue to the nature of quasars came in the early 1950s, decade before discobery of quasars Radio Galaxies: emit unusually strong radio waves o Upon further inspection, much of the radio emission comes not from the galaxies themselves but rather from pairs of huge radio lobes, one on either side of the galaxy o AGN is power source o Drives two jets of particles that stream outward in opposite direction at nearly the speed of light o Jets shoot out far beyond the bounds of stars in radio galaxy, eventually ram into surrounding intergalactic gas o Places where the jets ram into gas show up as hot spots within radio lobes o Particles are then deflected to make larger radio lobes

What is the power source for quasars and other AGN?

Energy comes from matter falling into a supermassive black hole o Potential energy of matter is converted into kinetic energy o Collisions convert kinetic to thermal o Resulting heat causes matter to emit intense radiation we observe o During its fall to the event horizon, as much as 10-40% of the mass energy can be converted into thermal energy and into radiation o Compared to fusion, which is less than 1%. o Remember, light is coming not from the black hole itself, but rather from the hot gas in the accretion disk that surrounds it. o Unresolved questions of the supermassive black hole theory Do not know why quasars eventually run out of gas to accrete and stop shining We also do not know how black holes formed in the first place

Do supermassive black holes really exist? Some good evidence Galaxies M 87 NGC 4258 o We see orbital motions of gas. Suggests clouds are circling a single, invisible object with a mass of A LOT of solar masses. Strong possibility it is supermassive black hole

Black Holes and Galaxy Formation The mass of the black hole at the center of a galaxy appears to be closely related to the properties of the galaxys spheroidal component Mass of central black hole is about 1/500 mass of galaxys bulge Relationship holds for all types of galaxies, we conclude that the growth of a black hole must be closely linked with the process of galaxy formation

How do Quasars let us study gas between the galaxies? Quasar spectra contain valuable information about the properties of hydrogen clouds in the early universe since it probably intersected a lot of these clouds. Studies of the absorption lines can tell us what happened in protogalactic clouds during the epoch of galaxy formation and provide clues about how galaxies evolve Most prominent hydrogen lines are associated with newly forming galaxies. Least prominent are nearby galaxies (older galaxies) Mature galaxies have heavier elements, experienced more supernovae

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Found in 1963? Third Cambridge Catalog, Quai-Satellite Radio Source (Quasar) z stands for redshift Shift of about 0.1 angstrom stands for about 50 kmsec. Quasar is flying out of the galaxy. Some galaxies emit huge amounts of radiation from their galactic center, and are called actice galactic nuclei (AGN) The very brightest AGN are called quasars, and can be 1000 times more luminous than the Milky Way They are another stage in the evolution of galaxies Quasars powerfully radiate energy

Nearby Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) Radio Galaxies contain active nuclei shooting out vast jets of plasma that emits radio waves coming from electrons moving at near light speed. Putting it together Matter falling into a supermassive black hole produces the huge energy output observed in quasars and active galactic nuclei These supermassive black hole swallow the equivalent of one Sun/year, as the matter swirls into the black hole from an accretion disk, the gas heats up and emits radiation.

Black holes are the most efficient means of making energy Radio galaxies dont appear as quasars because dusty gas clouds block our view of accretion disk What characterizes the jets? Magnetic fields Evolution in the Quasar density Direct Evidence for Supermassive Black Holes The bigger the galaxy, the bigger the black hole. We have four black holes. Seeing Gas in Intergalactic Space 1216 angstrom (10^-10 m) redshift occurs in the UV, Absorption lines due to clouds between us and the quasar.