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Brigham Young University Idaho

Interoffice memorandum TO: Brother Phil Murdock FROM: Derek Hildreth DATE: July 3rd, 2007 SUBJECT: Transmittal for Research Paper Project I am pleased to present the findings of my research on computer processor limitations and reasonings for why there there has been no increase in speed since 2005. Enclosed is the research paper package which includes an abstract, table of contents, a list of figures and tables, the research body, references, and an appendix. My research has led me to a few different answers as to why there has been such a delay in releasing a processor with a speed of more than 4GHz. The answers include marketing strategies used by CPU manufactures, electrical migration, and electrical current jumps. All of these issues are related in one way or another, and I believe that they are the reason why CPU manufactures haven't released a processor of this power. I also found that the future of the CPU is basically treading down a path that doesn't involve the same type of design methods used in traditional processor designs. New designs include processors with multiple cores, or processing units, used to distribute the work load that the average user demands. Other designs are even more radically different, including quantum computing which utilizes the laws of quantum physics to process information. Thank you for allowing the research in this area to press forward. I think you will find that the work taken to complete this project satisfied the deadlines that were set while drafting the project. If you have any further questions or concerns, please contact me at HIL03015@byui.edu. Sincerely,

Derek Hildreth Encl: Research Paper

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RunningHead:HIGHSPEEDCOMPUTERDEVELOPMENT

HIGHSPEEDCOMPUTERDEVELOPMENTINPARK: THEDELAYSOFA4GHZPROCESSOR
By DerekHildreth BYUIdaho English316C June27,2007

Professor Dr.PhilMurdock EnglishDepartment BYUIdaho

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ABSTRACT
Thisresearchfocusesonthereasonsbehindthefactthattherehasn'tbeenaprocessorreleasing tothepublicwithclockspeedsofover4GHz.Thecurrentfastestcommercialprocessoris3.8GHzand hasbeenthatwayfortwoyearsandcounting.Reasonsastowhythishasoccurredinthemarkettoday includeIntel'smarketingstrategies,electricalmigration(electromigration),andelectricalcurrentjumps (subthresholdvoltage).Asolutiontotheselimitationsincludesbuildingasmarterprocessor,rather thanonewithsheerstrength.ProcessorsliketherecentCoreDuoprocessorfromIntelincluding multiplecoreshassteppeduptothechallengeandhashadhugesuccess.Anotherwayofsmart computingisbytheuseofquantummechanics,usingthelawsofphysicstodesignanewtypeof processor.Thisresearchintendstoinvestigatethesefindings.

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Title Abstract ListofFiguresandTables

TABLEOFCONTENTS

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1. Introduction MeasuringCPUs CPUConstruction DelayReasoning 2. IntelMarketing CompanyBackground NewProducts SalesFigures 3. ElectronicMigration Background Definition ElectromigrationDamage Solutions 4. ElectricalCurrentJumps Background IntegratedCircuits Nanotechnology HowSubthresholdLeakageOccurs Solutions 5. QuantumComputing 6. Conclusion ReviewofConcepts Solutions References Appendixes

1 1 1 2 2 23 3 3 34 5 5 5 5 6 67 7 78 8 9 10

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LISTOFFIGURESANDTABLES
Figure 1 2 ThevonNeumannarchitecture. TimelineofIntelCPUspeeds over7years(84months)from 2000to2007. Intelgrossmarginalsalesfrom 2001to2006. Theeffectsofelectromigration onaCPUsinnerwire. Adrawingofaninterconnect. Twocommoneffectsof electromigration. J.R.Black'sformulaforMMTF (meantimetofailure). Aschematicssymbol representinganANDgate. IntelProcessorsincomparison withMoore'sLaw. Avisualrepresentationofone typicalcircuitfoundonaCPU. Animageofqubits. Page 1 1

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Table 1

2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 Page

Comparisonofsynthetic benchmarkscores.

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HighSpeedComputerDevelopment INTRODUCTION

MEASURINGCPUS
Traditionally,computerperformancehasbeenmeasuredwithaunit calledHz(hertz)whichreportstheclockspeedofaCPU(centralprocessing unit)incyclespersecond.Forexample,acomputerwitha1GHzprocessor willcomplete1billioncyclespersecond.Thehighertheclockspeedofthe CPU,thefasteritcanprocesses,whichequatestolesswaittimewhenauser openstheirdocumentsandprograms.Suggestively,consumersusedthis measurementtohelpthemshopforaCPUwiththehighestclockspeedsthat Figure1:Thevon wouldhelpthemgetthingsontheircomputerdonefaster.

CPUCONSTRUCTION OneCPUismadeupofseveraldifferentpiecesthatallworktogetherincludingbuiltinmemory (storageforinstruction),acontrolunit(directsoperations),anALU(arithmeticlogicunitthatperforms basicarithmeticoperations),anaccumulator(accumulatesresultsofarithmeticoperations),andan inputandoutput(gatherscommandinputsandsendscommandoutputs).Thesepiecesformthebasis foratraditionalCPUdesigncalledthevonNeumannarchitecture(seeFigure1).Thespeedatwhich theseinteractwithoneanotherismeasuredbytheclockspeedasdiscussedpreviously.Therearetwo majorCPUmanufactures:IntelandAMD.Althoughitisimportantnottointroducebias,thisresearch topicwillfocusonIntel,astheyhaveexcellent Clock Speeds Over Time documentationoftheirprocessorsandmarketing. From2000to2005,Intelhadincreasedtheclock 3700 speedssteadilyfrom2GHzto3.8GHz(Intel, 3200 2006,p.16).However,clockspeedshavebeenat 2700 astandstillsince2005andhavenotbeenreleased 2200 intotheconsumermarketwithspeedsgreaterthan 1700 3.8GHz(seeFigure2).
Clock Speeds
1200

Neumannarchitecture.

DELAYREASONING 700 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 Thisstandstillhasthesethreestrong Months reasonstoblame:(1)Intel'smarketingstrategies,Figure2:TimelineofIntelCPUspeedsover7years(84 whichconcentratesonsmarterdesignratherthan months)from2000to2007. sheerclockspeedbrawn,(2)electronicmigration, causedbytheheatgeneratedfromfasterCPUsandsmallerwires,and(3)electriccurrentjumpscaused byevershrinkingCPUcomponents.Itisimportanttounderstandthesebecausetheyhavechangedthe wayconsumersshopforcomputers.Allthreeofthesereasonsmaycollectivelybecontributingtothe standstillofclockspeedsandthisresearchwillmoredeeplyexplainthesecausesaswellastouchupon theresearchbeingdoneinquantumcomputing.

HighSpeedComputerDevelopment INTELMARKETING

COMPANYBACKGROUND

IntelisbasedoutofSantaClara,CaliforniaintheheartofSiliconValleywherethemajor materialofcomputercomponents,Silicon,isfound.InAprilof2007,theywereproducing80.5%of CPUsinthecomputerindustry(Krazit,2007,para.1).Aswithanycompany,themoremarketshare youhavethebetterofftheyareandIntel'smarketingstrategieshaveprovedtobesufficientatdoingso. NEWPRODUCTS In2005,IntelhadreleasedanewCPUtechnologythatutilizedradicallydifferentdesignthan thatofatraditionalprocessorcalledthedualcoreprocessor(Intel,2006,p.4).Theseprocessorshave twomainprocessingunitsratherthanthesingleoneinthevonNeumannarchitecture.Withthisnew design,CPUscanoutperformasinglecoredesignwithahigherclockspeedbecausetheyarenowable toexecutemorethanonecommandatatimewhereas before,onlyonecommandcouldbeexecuted.Lookingat Processor Clock Speed Score anexamplecomparisonbetweenanoldersinglecoreIntel Core 2 Duo E6400 2.1GHz 1892 Pentium 4 570 3.8GHz 1162 processor(Pentium4570)andanewerdualcoreprocessor (Core2DuoE6400)asshowninTable1,onecanclearly Table1:Comparisonofsyntheticbenchmark seethebenefitsofhavingtwocores(Toms,2006).Forthis scoresbetweenasinglecoreanddualcore processorwithasmallerclockspeed. reason,Intelsimplygavethedesignofamultiplecore processormoreattentionthanbreakingclockspeedrecords.Thishasallowedthemtoproduceamore costeffectiveCPUthatoutperformsolderdesignsthatrequiredhighermanufacturingexpensesto achievethesameperformance.

SALESFIGURES
ThechangetodualcoreCPUdesignhasalso madereflectionsinthemarketsalesandsharesinthe Intel Sales 25000 industry.Marketshareisessentiallythepercentageof 22500 salesinaspecificbusinessnichethatacompanyhas. 20000 17500 AMD,Intelsbusinessrival,hashadacompetitiveedge Dual Core 15000 Introduced onIntelbysteadilytakingmarketsharepercentfromIntel 12500 10000 (Spooner,2002,para.2).Itwasn'tuntil2007,when 7500 5000 Intel'sdualcoreprocessorsstartedtobecome 2500 mainstream,thattheywereabletoregainthemarket 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 sharesthatAMDhadtakenfromthem.Also,lookingat Year pastlevelsofgrossmargin(orgrossprofit)from2001to Figure3:Intelgrossmarginalsalesfrom2001to 2006,Intelhadthegreatestchangewhenthedualcore 2006. processorswereintroducedin2005,asshowninFigure3 (Collantes,2007,p.1).Naturally,whensalesincrease,companieslikeIntelwillkeepsellingtheitem thatwillbringthemmoreprofits.Thisevidencesupportstheconclusionthatthereasona4GHz
Gross Margin

HighSpeedComputerDevelopment processorhasnotbeenpubliclyreleasedisbecauseofIntel'smarketingstrategies.However,thereare somephysicalroadblocksthatalmostforcedIntelintoredesigningtheprocessor. ELECTRONICMIGRATION

BACKGROUND

Indesigningaprocessor,thereareafewdifferentmethodsusedtohelpincreaseclockspeeds. OneofthemistogivetheCPUahighervoltagefromapowersupply.Thisallowstheelectricalcurrent toflowmorefreely,givingtheCPUahigherclockspeed.BycloselymonitoringthevoltageonaCPU throughthemaincontrolboardofacomputer,enthusiastshavebeenabletotakeaCPUfromfactory andchangethesettingsforcingtheclockspeedtoincrease.Usershavereportedlybeenabletoboost theirclockspeedsupto8Ghz(Andreas,2007).Atfirst,itsoundslikeatotallyviablesolutionto breakingthe4GHzbarrierandcompanieslikeIntelshouldjustreleasetheseoverclockedCPUstothe public.Theproblemis,thesespeedboostscomeatthecostofanexpensivecoolingsystemandheavy modificationstothecomputersystem,creatingexpensesthattheconsumerisn'twillingtopay.Oneof theprimaryreasonsfornotreleasingCPUsliketheseisbecausewithoutthepropercooling(below 80C),theyaresubjectedtoelectronicmigration,aphenomenonalsoknownaselectromigration.

DEFINITION

Electromigrationisofficiallydefinedasthemovementofatomswithinacrystal. (electromigration,2000)Thisdefinitionisveryvagueandseemsincomplete.Polkowski(2007),a journalistforTomsHardware,describedelectromigrationinthisway: Electromigrationoccursasaresultofmetalatomsbeingmovedviathemomentumof electrons.Picturethisasasandblasterwherethesand,athighvelocity,iserodingthewalls ofthegun.Inthecaseofelectromigration,theelectronsaremovingthemetalatomsaway fromoneanother.Thiscancauseacircuittofailbytwomeans:eithertheatomsaremoved apartbreakingthecircuit,ortheyaremovedcloser,so thecircuittouchesanothercausingashort.Eitherway, itisbadnewsforthecomponents.(para.2)

ELECTROMIGRATIONDAMAGE

Agraphicalrepresentationofthisoccurrenceis showninFigure4wherethehorizontalpipeinthecenteris thewallofthegunthathasbeenbadlydamageddueto electromigration.Noticethatitlookssimilartoabadly damagedwaterhosewithwallsthatareweakfromwearand tear.Whenwaterispushedthroughthishose,hardlyanyof Figure4:Theeffectsofelectromigrationona CPUsinnerwire. itisgoingtomakeittotheotherside.Thisisasimilar situationfortheinterconnects,orinnerwireconnections,

HighSpeedComputerDevelopment insideaCPU.Theelectricalcurrent(comparetothewaterinahose)istryingtoflowthrougha damagedwireandwillnotsucceed,thusrenderingtheCPUasnonfunctional.Theprocessinwhich thisoccursishighlytechnicalandinvolvescomplexscientificlawsofphysicsandchemistry.In Failureisnotanoption,Lienig(2006)summarizeshowthisphenomenonoccurs: Thecopperoraluminuminterconnectsofanelectroniccircuitarepolycrystalline,thatis, theyconsistofgrainscontainingcrystallatticesofidenticalconstructionbutdifferent orientation.Ascurrentflowsthroughsuchawire,thereisinteractionbetweenthemoving electronsasortofelectronwindandthemetalionsintheselatticestructures.Atoms atthegrainboundariesespeciallywillfallvictimtotheelectronwind,thatis,theywillbe forcedtomoveinthedirectionoftheflowofelectrons.(p.39) Inotherwords,thestructuralpropertiesofthewireitselfareshapedinsuchawaythattheylook similartoabeehivehoneycomb,onlynotasuniform,asshownin Figure5.Aselectricitypassesthroughthisstructuredwire,the honeycombhasatendencytomovewithit.Compareittoafast flowingriverwithlooserockonthebottom.Theriveristhe Figure5:Adrawingofan electricityandthelooserockaretheatomsofthewire.Therockswill interconnect.Theredarrowisthe move,ormigrate,withthecurrentoftheriver.Thisisalsoknownas flowofelectricityand(a)represents grainboundarydiffusion(seeFigure5).Lieningcontinueswithan grainboundarydiffusion. explanationofwhatgrainboundarydiffusionwilldooveraperiodof time: Thus,intime,copperoraluminumatomswillaccumulateatindividualgrainboundaries, formingsocalledhillocksinthedirectionof thecurrent.Atthesametime,socalledvoids canappearatthegrainboundaries[Figure6]. Whilethehillockscanshortconnectadjacent interconnects,thevoidsreducethecurrentflowin particularlocationsuntilthepointofinterconnect failure.(p.39) Toparaphrase,therearetwocommonsideeffectsof electromigration:1)Hillockswhichareformedbyan Figure6:Twocommoneffectsofelectromigration. accumulationofatomsinthewire,and2)voids,ordeadspots,whichoccurwhenaclusterofatoms havemigratedawayfromtheiroriginalgrainboundaries,muchlikeadeltaattheendofariver.As suspected,thesecommonoccurrenceswilleventuallyleadtohardwarefailure.

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SOLUTIONS

Inthe1960's,physicistJ.R.Blackderivedamathematicalequationthat willfindtheaveragelifespanofaCPU,takingelectromigrationintoeffect(see Figure1).Withoutgoingintotoomuchdetailabouttheformula,akeen Figure7:J.R.Black's observationwillseethatthetemperature(T)stronglyeffectsthelifespanasitisinformulaforMMTF (meantimetofailure). theexponentoftheformula.Simply,inordertoavoidCPUfailure,adequate coolingisrequiredasdiscussedearlierinthissection.Thestrongerthevoltage, themoresusceptibletheatomsoftheinnerconnectionswillbetoelectromigrationwhichwillleadto CPUfailure. ELECTRICALCURRENTJUMPS

BACKGROUND

Electricalcurrentjumps(subthresholdleakage)occurwithinthecontrolcenterofaprocessor causingunwantedCPUbehavior.Inordertobetterunderstandelectricalcurrentjumps,boththeterms integratedcircuitsandnanotechnologymustbeunderstood.

INTEGRATEDCIRCUITS

Anintegratedcircuitisatinyelectroniccircuitthatislocatedonablockofmaterialthatcan carryanelectriccurrent.Theyareprimarilymadeupofcomponentsthathelpregulatetheelectric current.Thesecomponentsareconnectedtogetherbysmalllinesofmetalcalledinterconnects(as discussedearlierinelectromigration).Thesecircuitscanbearrangedtoperformavarietyofspecific functionsthatacomputerprogramcanuse(Integrated,2002). Theseintegratedcircuitsaremostcommonlyusedtocreate what'scalledalogicgate.Alogicgateissimplyagatethateitherallow ordisallowacurrentfromflowingthroughit.Thisisthefoundationfor whyacomputerrunsononesandzeros(onandoff).Anexampleofa Figure8:Aschematicssymbol logicgateiswhat'scalledanANDgate(seeFigure7).Ifthereisan representinganANDgate. electriccurrentflowingonbothlineA'AND'B,thenthegatewillallow thecurrenttoflowthroughit.However,ifthereisonlycurrentflowingonlineAandNOTB,thenthe gatewillnotallowanycurrenttoflowthroughit.So,theoutputiseitheronoroff(oneorzero).Itis herewhereelectricalcurrentjumpsoccur,butstillareviewofnanotechnologyisinorder.

NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnologyisthescienceandtechnologyofbuildingelectroniccircuitsanddevicesfrom singleatomsandmolecules(Nanotechnology,2003).Thisisaverypowerfultechnologywhere electroniccircuits,likeintegratedcircuits,aremadesosmall,thatmillionsofthemcanbeincludedina verysmallpackagethesizeofapostagestamp.Theintegratedcircuitsaremeasuredinnanometers,or

HighSpeedComputerDevelopment onebillionthofameter.Themostrecentnanotechnology beingusedbyInteltobuildprocessorstodayis45nm.Toput thisintoperspective,thewidthofahumanhairisabout 80,000nanometers(National,n.d.).Understandably,the amountofintegratedcircuitsandlogicgatesresidingonone single2.5squareisimpressive.Itisdesirabletomake smallerintegratedcircuitsbecausethemoreamanufacture canfitintoaCPU,themorepowerfulitwillbe.And, accordingtoMoore'sLaw,thenumberofintegratedcircuits Figure9:IntelProcessorsincomparisonwith onaCPUwilldoubleabouteverytwoyears(seeFigure8). Moore'sLaw. ThetroublesthatmanufactureslikeIntelarefacingare increasedcoststoproducethesecircuits,andthephysicalproblemsthatappearlikeelectricalcurrent jumps.

HOWSUBTHRESHOLDLEAKAGEOCCURS

Electricalcurrentjumps(a.k.a.subthreshold leakage)occurwhenanelectriccurrentliterally jumpsdirectlyfromaninlettoanoutletofalogic gatebecausethedistancebetweenthetwoareso small(Subthreshold,2007).Ineverycircuitthereis acurrentsource,alogicgatetopassthrough,anda currentdrain(seeFigure9).Normally,thecurrent willflowfromthesourceintothelogicgate,whereit willeitherbeallowedbythelogicgatetopass throughtothedrainornot.Subthresholdleakage Figure10:Avisualrepresentationofonetypicalcircuit occurswhenthecurrentflowsdirectlyunderneath foundonaCPU. thelogicgatetothedrain.Thiseliminatesthe logicalsetofinstructionsthattheprocessorneedsandleavesadirectcurrentflowingthroughitallof thetime.Instructionsorcommandsarebeingexecutedincorrectlyandessentiallybecomesthe equivalenttopushinggasolinethroughanengineblockwithnopistons,sparkplugs,orsensorstomake thecarmove.However,inacomputer,itdoesnotrendertheCPUcompletelyuseless.TheCPUwill continuetoworkandexecutecommands,butthedownsideisthatsubthresholdleakagemayaccountfor upto50%oftotalpowerconsumptionwhichispreciousinsuchapowerhungrydevice.

SOLUTIONS

Inthepast,thisleakagewasnotahugeconcernbecausecomputercomponentssuchastheCPU weremadeupofmuchlargercomponentsandtheyweren'tbuilttotailoraftertheneedsofvoltage awareconsumers.Asofrecently,thecomponentsusedinsidetheCPUhavereachedthesizeof45nm andarerequiringmuchmorevoltageawaredesignforapplicationssuchasmobilecomputing.When reducingthepowerconsumption,engineersdecreasethesupplypower(orthepowerrequiredforthe

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CPUtooperate).Whenthesupplypowerisdecreased,anothervoltage,knownasthethresholdvoltage, mustalsobedecreasedinthesameproportion.Thresholdvoltageistheamountofvoltagenecessary foralogicgatetodetectasignal(Threshold,2003,para.2).Subthresholdleakageisexponentially dependentuponthethresholdvoltage.Thesmallerthethresholdvoltage,thehigherthechancefor leakagetooccur(Dimitrios,2002,p.20).Subthresholdleakageisalsodependentuponthedistance betweenthesourceanddrainofthelogicgate,butnotasdrasticallyasthethresholdvoltage.AsCPUs getsmaller,faster,andmorepowerefficient,theriskofrunningintosubthresholdvoltageincreasesand themoreinefficientCPUsbecome. QUANTUMCOMPUTING Onepossiblesolutiontocomputerprocessorlimitationsisbystudyingandimplementingthe lawsofquantumphysicswithinacomputer.AccordingtoMoore'slaw,sometimebetween2010and 2020,thecomponentsthatareusedtoconstructtheCPUwillbesosmallthattheywouldonlyconsist ofafewatomseach.Whenthecomponentsbecomethissmall,theywillstopfunctioningreliably accordingtothelawsofquantumphysics(Computer,2007a,para.2).So,inordertodesignand produceaprocessorcapableofrunningathigherspeedsinasmallerpackage,thelawsofquantum physicsmustbeapplied. Acomputerprocessoronlyrequiredtwobitsofinformation:onoroff. Andaccordingtoquantummechanics,anelectronalsosharesthispropertyof havinganonandanoffvalue(Inthequantummechanicsworld,thisisknown asaspin).Asystemoftheseparticlesarecalledquantumbitsorqubits,as seeninFigure10.Thissuggeststhatbuildingacomputerbasedonelectrons andtheirpropertiesispossible(Computer,2007b,para.1).Thiswouldallow engineerstobuildapersonalcomputerinthefuturethatwillbefasterthanany supercomputerinexistencetoday. CONCLUSION

Figure11:Animageof qubits.

REVIEWOFCONCEPTS

Recently,theCPUhasbeenrethoughtandredesignedtoaccommodatethelimitationsfoundon traditionalprocessorsbyusingmultiplecoresorprocessingunitstohelpalleviatethestressonsingle coreprocessors.Thestressesincludeelectricalmigrationandelectricalcurrentjumpswhichhave ultimatelyleadcompanieslikeInteltodisregardthevonNeumannmodelandconcentrateonmore efficientdesignslikethemultiplecoreorquantumcomputing. Electricalmigration,orelectromigrationisoccurringinprocessorslikethePentium4(3.8GHz) becausethevoltagethatisrequiredtorunat3.8billioncyclespersecondiscreatingmuchheat.This

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heatandfaststreamofvoltagegoingacrosstheinterconnectionsoftheprocessorisforcingtheatoms tomovewithit,causingdamagetotheline.Onceenoughdamagehasbeendone,theprocessorwillbe rendereduselessand,dependingonthevoltagestrength,canreachthatpointinaslittleasafew months.Withonlyafewmonthsexpectedtimetolive,marketingandsellingtheseCPUsisworthless. Electricalcurrentjumps,orsubthresholdleakage,isalsoarisingconcernasthecomponents (integratedcircuits)tomanufactureCPUsaregrowingsmalleratarateof1:2everytwoyears. Betweenshrinkingtheintegratedcircuitsanddesigningmoreenergyefficientprocessorsthetenancy fortheelectriccurrenttojumpfromaninlettoanoutletandskippingthelogicrises.Thisoccurs frequentlyinprocessorsrunningabove3.8GHzandleadstowastedenergyandincreaseddamage controldonebytheCPU,thuswastingprecioustime.

SOLUTIONS

Technologywillcontinuetobecomemoreadvancedandassistinmakingtheintegratedcircuits onaprocessorsmaller.Thesmallertheybecome,themorewillfitintoaCPU,givingitevenmore processingpower.Eventually,however,theywillbecomesosmallthattheyareonlyacoupleatoms thick,makingitimpossibletomountalogicgateoranyothercomponentontoit.Thishasintroduceda newkindoftechnologycalledquantumcomputing,whichisstillunderresearch.Quantumcomputers willtakeadvantageofthelawsofquantumphysicsandprovideawaytomakeanatombehaveina mannerthattheCPUwillunderstandazeroandaone. Therearesomeproblemsintheworldthatcanbesolvedbylookingintothepast,butthe problemsandlimitationsthatsurroundthecomputingworldwillonlybesolvedbylookingaheadinto thefuture.Thefutureincludessmarterprocessorswithfouroreveneightyprocessingcoresbuiltin, eachhelpingdistributetheload,andquantumcomputingallowingincrediblyfastsupercomputer strengthinapersonalcomputerinsomebody'soffice.Thesecomputerswillbefasterandbetterthan processorsrunningbeyond4GHz,onlyhavingaclockspeedhalfthesize,whileavoidingthecurrent problemsthatsinglecoreprocessorsfacetodayincludingelectromigrationandsubthresholdleakage. Thesearethereasonsastowhytherehasbeenaflatlineonthetimelineofprocessingspeedsformore thantwoyearssince2005.

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REFERENCES
Andreas,G.(2007,January22).OCTeamItalysetsanewworldrecordat8GHz!RetrievedJuly1,2007from http://www.nordichardware.com/news,5505.html Collantes,K.(2007,March2).SelectedFinancialDataFiveYearsEndedDecember30,2006.RetrievedJuly1,2007,from IntelCorporation:http://media.corporateir.net/media_files/irol/10/101302/06financials3_07.pdf Computer.(2007a).InEncyclopdiaBritannica.RetrieveJuly3,2007,fromEncyclopdiaBritannicaOnline: http://search.eb.com/eb/article235895 Computer.(2007b).InEncyclopdiaBritannica.RetrievedJuly3,2007,fromEncyclopdiaBritannicaOnline: http://search.eb.com/eb/article235908 DimitriosSoudris,ChristianPiguet,andCostasGoutis(2002).DesigningCmosCircuitsforLowPower.Berlin,Germany: Springer. Electromigration.(2000).InCollinsDictionaryofComputing.RetrievedJuly1,2007,from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/1252826 IntelCorporation.(2006,August1).IntelHighPerformanceConsumerDesktopMicroprocessorTimeline.RetrievedJune 28,2007,fromwww.intel.com/pressroom/kits/core2duo/pdf/microprocessor_timeline.pdf IntegratedCircuit.(2002).InFunk&WagnallsNewWorldEncyclopedia.RetrievedJuly2,2007,from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=funk&AN=IN028100&site=ehostlive Krazit,T.(2007,April24).Intel'smarketsharerisesonAMD'sproblems.CnetNewsOnline.RetrievedJuly1,2007,from http://news.com.com/Intels+market+share+rises+on+AMDs+problems/21001006_36178921.html Lienig,J.(2006).Failureisnotanoption:Introductiontoelectromigrationawarephysicaldesign.Proceedingsofthe2006 internationalsymposiumonPhysicaldesignISPD'06;ACMPress, Nanotechnology.(2003).InTheAmericanHeritageDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.RetrievedJuly02,2007,from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/4111488 NationalNanotechnologyInitiative.(n.d.).NanotechFactsFAQ.RetrievedJuly2,2007,from http://www.nano.gov/html/facts/faqs.html Polkowski,D.(2007,February12).ExtremeOverclocking.RetrievedJuly1,2007from http://www.tomshardware.com/2007/02/12/extreme_overclocking/page3.html Spooner,J.(2002,January4).AMDScoresPointsAgainstIntelin2001.CnetNewsOnline.RetrievedJuly1,2007,from http://news.com.com/21001001822642.html Subthresholdleakage.(2007,June20).InWikipedia,TheFreeEncyclopedia.RetrievedJuly2,2007,from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subthreshold_leakage&oldid=139483538 Thresholdvoltage.(2003).InMcGrawHillDictionaryofScientificandTechnicalTerms.RetrievedJuly03,2007,from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/5648822 TomsHardware.(2006).CPUCharts.RetrievedJuly1,2007,from www23.tomshardware.com/cpu.html?modelx=33&model1=439&model2=433&chart=174

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APPENDIXES
A) B) C) D) E) F) Proposal AnnotatedBibliography ProgressReport ResearchBreadcrumbTrail HandwrittenNotes DraftingOutline