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Chemistry II AP Chapter 1: Basics of Matter and Measurement in Chemistry (a review)

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Chapter 1 reviews how we do chemistry
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Slide 1

Matter in basic forms

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Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It is the physical stuff of the universe. Atoms are the basic building block of matter. Elements are the elementary substances of matterthe types of atoms available Atoms are formed from three types of subatomic particles protons, neutrons, and electrons. The subatomic particles are formed from six types of quarks up, down, strange, charm, Want to know more about quarks: check top and bottom. out education.jlab.org for more info
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Matter can be in three basic forms (only three?) Solid Matter has a definite shape and volume. Particles are close together, vibrating, but in a fixed position Liquid Matter has an indefinite shape and definite volume it will move to fill its container Particles are close together, but slide over one another Gas Matter has an indefinite shape and indefinite volume it will expand (or be compressed) Particles are far apart and moving rapidly
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Matter in its many states

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Table on page 7

A pure substance has a fixed composition and distinct (and unchanging) properties. Elements are composed of one type of atom and have individual, constant properties. Compounds are made of two or more elements, generally having properties unlike any of its composing elements. Mixtures are two or more substances (elements or compounds) where each substance retains its properties. Mixtures that have a uniform consistency are homogenous. (Not uniform = heterogeneous) Mixtures that can be separated with physical (not chemical) means are solutions.
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Pure and our water

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Flowchart from text page 7

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Is milk really homogenous?

Using this flowchart, what is our water?

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Some ways we can separate the substances in a homogenous mixture

Distillation: Using varied boiling points to remove the more volatile solvent from solution, leaving the solute. Filtration: Using a semi-permeable barrier to block the passage of larger particles (like a sieve). Chromatography: Some substances will be dragged by a sticky solvent faster than others, separating substances as a function of time. Density: a centrifuge is used to rapidly separate dense compounds from less dense compounds.
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By what physical means?

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Matters properties

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When observing matter, we observe many of its properties. An Extensive Property depends upon how large your sample of matter is. Mass and volume are extensive properties. An Intensive Property is unique to that type of matter, and does not depend on sample size. Density, and melting point are intensive properties.
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A physical property is a quality that can be observed without changing the substance. Examples would be density or mass. Others? When a substance undergoes a physical state change, the makeup of the substance does not change, just the form. It can also revert back to its original stateie: melting and vaporization A chemical property requires that the substance be changed in order for the observation to occur. An example would be flammability. When a substance undergoes a chemical change, the original substance is lost, and a new substance is formed. Slide 8
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Properties and Changes

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Chemical Reactions
When chemicals react, we call them reactants and they are placed on the left side of a chemical reaction equation:

chemical A chemical B chemical C

The chemical(s) that is produced is called a product, placed on the right. Remember:

Reactants react to produce products

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Energy Transfer
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. We can force energy to change form and store energy in various forms. How is a flashlight battery like gasoline in a car? When a process releases energy, we say the process is exothermic. (think exit energy) When a process absorbs energy, we say the process is endothermic. (think into energy) Can you think of an exothermic reaction? Can you think of an endothermic reaction?
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The scientific method is a process of solving problems by asking and testing questions. The steps of the method you should learn are:

The Scientific Method (p29 in text)

Observation: Observation of a natural phenomena. Question: Create a question to test your observations. Hypothesis: A reasonable explanation of your observations. A possible answer to your question. This is NOT a guess. Your text: A tentative explanation Experiment/Test: A controlled observation (a test of your hypothesis). Collect and Analyze Data: Experimental results must be collected and interpreted. A valid experiment must be reproducible. Conclusions: Data is explained and compared to the hypothesis. The final step What next? How can I this new information?
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A more complex model of the S.M.

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Theory vs. Law

A theory is an explanation of observations of natural phenomena. A theory cannot be proven, but it has never been disproven. If a theory is disproven, it must be modified or rejected. A theory explains why things do what they do. A law is a description of observations and experiences. A law describes what will happen. Because a law is a description of fact, it cannot be broken. A law states what things do.
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MeasuringStandard Units

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Table on 14

There are several standard units we use in the sciences. They are: The Kelvin Scale: Meter length (m) 0K = absolute zero Kilogram* mass (kg) 273.15K = water freezes Second time (s) 373.15K = water boils Kelvin temperature (K) Liter** volume (L) 5 Mole amount of substance (mol) 9 AMU atomic mass (amu) We will learn more about the mole and amu when we study the periodic table later. Slide 14

C (F 32)

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MeasuringSI Prefixes

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We use prefixes added to the standard units to express measurements that are very large or very small. Common prefixes include: Metric Conversion kilo (k) x103 (x 1,000) milli (m) x10-3 (x 1/1,000) micro () x10-6 (x 1/1,000,000) Mega (M) x106 (x 1,000,000) centi (c) x10-2 (x 1/100) nano (n) x10-9 (x 1/1,000,000,000)
Tera = 1012 T Giga = 109 G centi = 10-2 c milli = 10-3 m Mega = 106 M kilo = 103 k nano = 10-9 n hecto = 102 h pico = 10-12 p deka = 101 da
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micro = 10-6

femto = 10-15 f

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See page 16

Derived Units

Derived units are products of standard units. **Volume a derived unit (b x h x w). The SI units is the cubic meter m3. m3 is huge, so we use the L, or mL (cm3). Density Density can be defined as the amount of mass that is crammed into a certain volume. Mathematically, D=m / V. Each compound has a unique density. (g/ml, g/cm3, or kg/m3) Pressure Pressure is a force applied over an area (like PSI). The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal, Pa. (more on this later)
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Your book defines accuracy as closeness to an accepted value. Your book defines precision as closeness of a set of measurements. In chemistry, understand that we strive for accuracy and demand precision! All equipment has a level of precision and error that you must record in lab. We use a percent error calculations when working with data. The exp value The ideal value

Accuracy and Precision

whatyoushouldhavegot whatyougot Percent error whatyoushouldhavegot

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The ideal value Slide 17

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When we need to convert one metric prefix to another, we simply multiply by a power of ten. Example: 10-2 base unit To convert 12 meters to centimeters Always

Metric conversion factors

12 x 102 = 120 cm
x 10-3
base unit

use units!

Or to convert 345 milligrams to grams

345 x 10-3 = 0.345 g

REMEMBER: If the unit gets bigger, the number gets smaller! (and vice versa)
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MeasuringScientific Notation

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We can use scientific notation as a form of shorthand when we need to express numbers that are very large or very small. SciNot is expressed with a real decimal number, multiplied by a base-ten exponent. The number is expressed with one digit to the left of the decimal, and the base-ten exponent We moved the decimal five places is always an integer. For instance, 135000 becomes 1.35 x105. Can you figure what 4500 is? How about moving the decimal the other waytry 0.0056.
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MeasuringSignificant Digits

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Significant Digits tells us how many digits to include in our measurements, calculations, and answers. We use only those numbers that are significant. The rules are somewhat complex, Rules on but become natural with practice. page 21 All non-zero numbers are significant. Zeros between non-zero numbers are significant. Zeros to the RIGHT of a decimal are significant. Zeroes to the LEFT of a decimal are NOT.
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SigDigssome examples

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Can you see why 2450 has 3 significant digits. significant digits is 245.0 has 4 significant digits important? 0.082 has two significant digits 0.0820 has three significant digits For this class, consider fractions exempt from the rules, so would not necessarily have only 1 sig fig. Figure the number of sigfigs for the following: 6.781 0.0563 1200 63003 1.42x10-2 4 3 2 5 3
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Why Use Significant Digits?

We use Significant Digits to express precision of measurements. When you measure something, your measurement is only as accurate as your weakest instrument. When you add figures, round your answer to the least number of digits after the decimal. When you multiply, express your result with the least significant digits. What is the volume of a box 2.34m wide, 3.1m deep, and 3.56m long?
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Factor Label Analysis (AKA: dimensional analysis)

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Factor analysis is a way of converting between a number of units. For instance: How would go about finding the cost of 132 eggs if they are normally sold for $1.80 a dozen? (try this) Next, convert 32,000 inches into miles, knowing that there are 1609 meters in a mile and 39.4 inches in a meter. Using factor analysis helps keep us from making costly mistakes by using the units (labels) as a check.
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Next: Chapter 2 Major topics:

Atomic structure and history The modern atom (including quantum The periodic table Ions, allotropes, and isotopes Inorganic nomenclature

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