The Ductile Iron News - Shrinkage in Nodular Iron

To Promote the production and application of ductile iron castings Issue 3, 2001
Shrinkage in Nodular Iron
Eli David Senior Manager Technical Services, Globe Metallurgical
With increasing complexity in casting geometry and continued stringent
requirements for completely sound castings, understanding and predicting the
shrinkage behavior of ductile cast iron parts is all the more crucial for successful
foundry operations.
Four distinct regions can be isolated when observing ductile iron solidify.
A. Liquid contraction from the superheat temperature to the liquidus. This
contraction is very predictable since it is dependent on the coefficient of
expansion of the alloy (generally around 1.5% by volume per 100
o
C).
B. Liquid shrinkage through the liquidus temperature. A phase change takes
place at this juncture. A portion of the liquid iron transforms to solid
austenite. Occasionally for highly hypereutectic irons graphite precipitates at
the liquidus instead of austenite, resulting in expansion rather than
contraction.
C. Eutectic expansion follows the liquidus. The remaining liquid transforms into
austenite and graphite. Expansion always occurs during the eutectic
transformation and it is very significant. This is because all of the carbon in
the liquid iron minus the carbon dissolved in the austenite precipitates as
graphite during the eutectic. The volume fraction of graphite (in the eutectic)
that precipitates can be calculated using the lever rule. For an iron with a
typical 3.65% carbon (Co =3.65%) the fraction percent of graphite in the
eutectic is as follows:
G/G+g = Co-Cg/CG-Cg = (3.65-1.90)/(100-1.90) = 1.78%
The eutectic consists of 98.22% austenite and 1.78% graphite by weight.
The amount of carbon dissolved in the austenite is roughly 1.90%. Therefore
of the 3.65% compositional carbon, 1.87% is dissolved in the austenite and
1.78% precipitates, hopefully, as graphite.
Graphite has a much higher specific volume compared to iron causing the
expansion that is observed. The density of graphite is 2.2 g/cc compared to
7 g/cc for that of iron.
D. Solid contraction is also dependent on the expansion coefficient.
These changes are depicted schematically in Fig.1 for three different irons.
The following should be noted:
a. All three irons undergo a net expansion during solidification. The volume of
the solidified iron at the end of solidification (before solid contraction) is
greater than the volume of the liquid poured into the mold!
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b. Hypereutectic ductile irons have been measured to exhibit volumetric

expansion as high as 4%.
c. For the same carbon equivalent ductile will expand more than gray.
d. Feed metal must be supplied by risers and/or the gating system for all cast
irons in zone A. Additional feed metal must be provided in zone B for
hypoeutectic irons.
e. The reason eutectic expansion cannot be effectively utilized to compensate
for earlier contraction and shrinkage is that green sand mold walls dilate
(move outward) when subject to the enormous expansion forces. Note (in
Fig. 2) that at the end of solidification when the metal contracts the mold
wall stays at its maximum dilated position.
Solidification Mechanisms: Cast iron solidification is very different from that of a
pure metal. Pure metals solidify with a solidification front that is very well defined
and a clearly delineated solid liquid interface. Ductile cast iron solidification, on the
other hand, is characterized by a very thin solidified skin and if conditions are not
optimal a large mushy zone. The outer skin formed during gray cast iron
solidification is much heavier than that of ductile. Flake graphite is a better
conductor of heat compared to nodular. The heavier skin prevents the transmission
of the eutectic expansion forces to the mold walls. This is the reason why gray
irons need less risering than ductile even though ductile iron solidification results in
a larger net expansion.
The width of the mushy zone and the aspect ratio of the austenite dendrites have
been linked to the feeding capability of the riser. Generally short stubby dendrites in
a narrower mushy zone will produce better feeding characteristics. Narrower mushy
zones are obtained when nodular iron solidifies as a eutectic with very little
separation between the liquidus and eutectic temperatures. Austenite that
precipitates during the liquidus tends to grow much larger in size. Finer eutectic
austenite is also believed to improve feeding capability and to be associated with
higher nodule counts. Most foundry engineers have to rely on experience or guess
at how far a particular riser will feed. Even though research has produced test
patterns that can evaluate feeding distances, very few foundries take the time to
evaluate this key variable. The problem is compounded particularly since the
mushy zone changes from tap to tap depending on the metallurgy and quality of
the iron. Therefore the feeding distance itself is a function of the metallurgical
integrity of the iron.
Comparative Solidification Schematic - Fig. 3
file:///C|/WEBSHARE/062013/magazine/2001_3/elidavid.htm[6/19/2013 10:21:24 AM]
For the purposes of this paper shrinkage
will be divided into four categories:
1. Pull downs or suckins.
2. Macro shrink larger than 5 mm
3. Micro shrink or shrinkage porosity
less than 3 mm
4. Microscopic grain boundary
shrinkage. Generally only visible
under a microscope at a
magnification greater than 100X.
Fig. 4
The current paper will focus on the first three types only. These defects occur at
very different and distinct times during solidification as depicted in Fig.5.
The Ductile Iron News - Shrinkage in Nodular Iron
file:///C|/WEBSHARE/062013/magazine/2001_3/elidavid.htm[6/19/2013 10:21:24 AM]
Thermal analysis is probably the strongest tool available in the foundry man's
arsenal to understand and combat shrinkage defects.
For example a high value for the area S1 is associated with a lot of primary
austenite and a large mushy zone and therefore with an iron that is more likely to
produce pull down and macro shrinkage upon solidification.
n fact large variations in S1 have been observed from treatment batch to batch
(before post inoculation) in the same foundry on the very same day. Base iron
holding time appears to be the single most dominant variable contributing to this
deviation. Strong post inoculation appears to mitigate the variance in S1.
Pull downs or suckins are produced very early in solidification. The skin formed
at the top cope surface is extremely thin. f feed metal is not provided then
contraction will cause a negative pressure just below the skin. The atmospheric
pressure then pushes the wall inward producing the "pull down" or "outer sunk"
defect
Macro shrink generally appears a little later. The skin formed is thick enough and
will not cave in. The negative pressure consequently produces rather large shrink
holes. f this defect appears at the riser contact or inside the casting cavity
relatively close to the riser (as it generally does) proper risering technique can and
should be utilized to solve the problem.
The first observation when trouble-shooting macro shrink should be "Did the riser
pipe?" The remedies applied are very different depending on whether the riser
piped or not.
f the riser piped properly then possible solutions are:
1. ncrease riser size
2. Check carbon equivalent. t may be too low
3. Lower pouring temperature
However, if the riser did not pipe then the analysis is not as straight forward and
the following are recommended:
1. Reduce riser contact modulus. The contact modulus may be too large
keeping the contact open during the casting eutectic expansion leading to
back feeding.
2. Reduce the modulus of the ingate feeding the riser. f the ingate stays open
too long initial feed metal will be delivered to the casting cavity from the
gating system rather than the riser. The top of the riser will then freeze off
The Ductile Iron News - Shrinkage in Nodular Iron
preventing proper piping. Conical risers are particularly vulnerable to this
phenomenon.
3. Check carbon equivalent. t may be too high
4. There may be too many risers present
5. Pouring temperature may be too cold
f macro shrink appears infrequently and intermittently (comes and goes) and still
within the known limit of the risers feeding capability, then variations in metallurgical
integrity (larger mushy zone and S1 inhibiting feeding) or poor sand compaction
with soft molds are more than likely the culprits particularly if the chemistry checks
out OK. From a chemistry point of view, hypoeutectic irons (both gray and ductile)
are far more susceptible to macro shrink and outer sunks. A large separation
between liquidus and eutectic (as would be expected with hypoeutectic irons)
produces a lot more primary austenite thereby reducing the riser's ability to feed. n
ductile irons, which tend to be hypereutectic except when pouring very heavy
sections, it is desirable for the casting to freeze as a eutectic alloy i.e. with the
liquidus arrest as close as possible to the eutectic. Generally when the liquidus
appears at a much higher temperature from that of the eutectic, primary austenite is
precipitating from the melt even though the chemical composition is hypereutectic.
n ductile irons this happens because of the strong undercooling effects of elements
such as magnesium and rare earths. Furthermore, highly oxidizing conditions in the
melt coupled with high melting temperatures and long holding times reduce the
carbon activity causing a chemically hypereutectic iron to solidify as if it were
hypoeutectic.
Micro shrinkage porosity appears very late in solidification. At this stage feed
paths are well closed. This type of shrink commonly appears on isolated bosses or
outside the riser's ability to feed. The only possibility to obtain sound castings is to
rely on late eutectic graphite precipitation, with its inherent expansion, to "fill in" the
shrinkage voids. Eutectic solidification patterns where most of the graphite comes
out early are undesirable.
A uniform precipitation pattern is preferred. A good thermal analysis program can
help measure such variables.
Since it is helpful to have graphite come out late then, by definition, a
microstructure with varying nodule sizes (nodule bifurcation) or a bi - modal nodule
size distribution will be less likely to produce micro shrink. Graphite that comes out
early in the eutectic will grow to a larger size when compared to that of graphite
that precipitates toward the end of the eutectic, since the late graphite will not have
sufficient time for growth.
Care must be taken when evaluating structures since one is viewing a three-
dimension picture in 2D. The size of any given nodule will not only depend on the
nodule size but also where the nodule happened to be sectioned. Furthermore,
great care should be taken, when making such analysis, that the bimodal
distribution is not due to pre-eutectic graphite precipitation. Pre-eutectic arrests
associated with exceedingly hypereutectic irons can also exhibit a bi -modal
distribution. Graphite that precipitates during the liquidus generally ends up much
larger in size than the eutectic graphite. This is generally an undesirable outcome.
Therefore thermal analysis curves should be viewed concurrently with the
microstructure. Furthermore, several late solidification phenomena can also be
evaluated from the cooling curves. These will not be discussed in this paper other
than to add that they are invaluable in determining the amount of graphite that
precipitates late in the eutectic and therefore the susceptibility of the iron to micro
shrinkage defects.
General Foundry Practice: There can be no substitute for good common sense
foundry practice. Avoid super heating, long holding times, oxidized charge materials
and poorly compacted soft molds. Keep carbon as high as possible, silicon
maintained at the lower end of normal operational ranges, appears to reduce shrink
defects. Residual magnesium should be maintained at levels to ensure proper
nodularity and no higher. Rare Earth elements should be optimized depending on
the level of tramp elements such as sulfur, oxygen and bismuth (if added).
noculant addition should be precisely controlled and the type and quantity should
be optimized. Clamping cope and drag molds will help reduce shrink defects. For
flask less molding ensure that mold weighting is sufficient.
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