Aquacultural production systems

J. Colt

J Anim Sci 1991. 69:4183-4192.

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 AQUACULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS’
John Colt

James M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Bellevug, WA 98005

ABSTRACT

The wide range of species reared, species requirements, water resources, and regional
preferences create the need for a wide variety of aquaculture production systems. Factors
such as the interaction between water temperature and water quality and the feeding,
growth, and survival of aquatic species cause the design of aquatic production systems to
be much more location-specific and site-specific than the designs of systems for terrestrial
animal agriculture. Economic and regulatory pressures are continuing to change the
characteristics of aquatic production systems.
Key Words: Aquaculture, Systems, Design, Environmental Control, Aquatic Environment
J. Anim. Sci. 1991. 69:41834192

Introduction Classification.The simplest type of system

is the static pond (Figure la), and it is
Current aquatic animal culture in North
commonly used for channel catfish. Under
America is estimated at 500,000 t (Nash and
normal operating conditions, water is added to
Kensler, 1990). Major groups are channel make up evaporation and Sitration losses.
catfish, trout and salmon, crayfish, and oysters. Trout and salmon are typically reared in flow-
Minor species include such diverse groups as through systems at high density (Figure lb)
frogs, turtles, alligators, sea-squirts, abalone, using large water flows to remove metabolic
sturgeon, striped bass, and redfish. A wide wastes. Commonly, pretreatment is required to
variety of production systems are used in remove suspended solids, iron or manganese,
aquaculture. This paper presents basic informa- nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases, or to add
tion on the characteristics of impor&ant produc- oxygen (Figure IC). Environmental regulations
tion systems, their limitations, and future typically require some type of posttreatment
trends in system development. Emphasis is before discharge cl;“igure IC). In areas of
placed on commercial systems used in the limited water, the water may be treated to
United States. remove metabolic wastes and reused (Figure
Id). This type of system is called a reuse,
Aquatic Productlon Systems recycle or closed system. Hybrid pond systems
(Figure le) using ponds and algae or aquatic
Aquatic production systems are typically macrophytes (water hyacinths, cattails, Ulva,
classified according to type, biomass density, etc.) are being developed for warm-water
and feeding practices. Division based on water aquaculture. A cage system can be considered
flow provides a fundamentally more useful a flow-through system (Figure lf), although in
way of describing water quality processes that areas with restricted flushing, the system may
control production (Krom et al., 1989). function as a reuse system with minimal
treatment of the water.
Using the nomenclature developed by
chemical engineers, the hydraulic mixing char-
l~cscnteci at a symposium titled “Aqwwulture in acteristics of the different types of culture
Animal Science” at the ASAS 82nd h u . Mtg., Ames. systems can be classified into three groups:
IA. plug-flow reactor (PFR), continuous-flow
22375 130th Avenue NE, Suite 200.
Received August 27, 1990. stirred tank reactor (CFSTR), or arbitrary flow
Accepted April IS, 1991. reactor (AFR).
4183

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4184 COLT
To Atmosphere
(4 4 v 4 4
m *
0

Bilogical Solids

I Filtration Removal

figure 1. Water flow in aquatic culture systems: (a) static system, @) flow-through system, (c) flw-through witb
pretreatment and posttnamcnt, (d) reuse system, (e) reuse system wing natural p m m , and (0 cagc system.

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 Length from Head of Raceway

Dischange
Influent
I, I - *
water

Length Across Circular Tank

Distance from Water Surface

Figure 2. Hydyraulic miXing characteristics of aquatic culture systems: (a) raceway, @) circular tank, and (c) pond.

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4186 COLT
1000 g Feed
In an ideal PFR, the water moves through
the rearing unit as a plug of water with no \ \

longitudinal mixing. As a result, the concentra-

tion of metabolic wastes such as ammonia
increases linearly along the longitudinal direc-
tion (Figure 2a). The common raceway used to 250 g 0 1
rear salmon and trout approximates a PFR. 500 g Fecal Solids

In an ideal CFSTR, the contents of the

340 g CO?
30 g Ammonia ’”
rearing unit are well-mixed and the effluent
Figure 3. Waste outpat of fish consuming 1 kg of feed
concentration of a metabolic waste such as arad 250 g of oxygea.
ammonia is equal to the bulk concentration in
the rearing unit (Figure 2b). The circular tank
approximates a CFSTR. The lack of a gradient
in a CFSTR has important advantages in high- exchange rate (rearing unit volumes/h), =
intensity systems (Colt and Watten, 1988). mean hydraulic detention time (d), COC =
In ponds, thermal heating, photosynthesis, cumulative oxygen consumption (mgfliter),
chemical reactions in the sediment, and wind DOi, = influent dissolved oxygen (mg/liter),
action produce an AFR that is either a PFR or and DOout = effluent dissolved oxygen ( m u
a CFSTR. Many of these processes tend to liter).
result in thermal and chemical stratification in System Characteristics. Based on m n t
the vertical direction (Figure 2c). Wind action commercial production in the United States,
will tend to mix the pond but may result in the system characteristics of typical production
significant horizontal gradients. systems are presented in Table 1. Ponds and
Although it is necessary to use some type of flow-through systems account for the majority
classification as a basis for discussion, it is of commexial facilities. Although there are a
important to note that many graduations and number of more complex reuse systems built
combinations exist. Few simple flow-through in the past years, their contribution to commer-
systems exist, and some type of pretreatment cial production is very limited at this time.
and posttreatment is typically needed. Based
on fundamental water treatment processes, a
pond system should be classified as a reuse Environmental Quallty Management
In Aquatlc Systems
system.
Pelfonnance Criteria. Compared to other The c u l m of aquatic animals is fundamen-
types of animal agriculture, aquaculture sys- tally different from most conventional forms of
tems are described in different terms. Some of animal agriculture. First, the animals are
the more common terms are listed below: temperature conformers and, as a result,
temperature has a major effect on metabolic
D, = E processes such as feeding, growth, and repro-
A duction. Second, environmental quality is more
D, = important because feed, dissolved oxygen, and
V metabolic wastes are all contained or transmit-
L = M
- ted through the liquid phase. As a result,
Q culture practices and metabolic activities are
Exc = .o64 tightly interrelated. For example, overfeedjng
V
e,=- V in ponds and the resulting oxygen demand can
1.444 decrease the dissolved oxygen to lethal levels.
Zmpact of Culture Animals on Water Quali-
ty. The metabolic activities of culture animals
where Da = areal density of culture animal (kg/ result in significant changes in water quality.
m2 of rearing area), M = mass of culture For fed fish, some of the most important
animal (kg), A = area of rearing unit (m2), D metabolic processes are shown in Figure 3.
= volumetric density of culture animal (kg/mil The ammonia excretion, oxygen consumption,
of rearing volume), V = volume of rearing unit and carbon dioxide excretion rate show a
(m3), L = loading (kgfliters per min), Q = flow significant daily fluctuation, depending primar-
to rearing unit (litershin), Exc = water ily on the time of feeding.

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 AQUACULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 4187

TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON AQUATIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

USED IN THE UNITED STATES

Hydraulic Annual
detentiontime, Density, Loading. production, Common
system type d m3 k@literspermin Lgma species
~~ ~

Unfed, monoculture 100-300 .03-.05 - 300-500 Channel catfish

Fertihed, polyculture 100-300 s.7 - 5,000-7,000 Chinese carps
Fed.no aeration 100-300 .2-.3 - 2,000-3.000 channel catfish
Fed, aeration 100-200 3-1.0 - 3.000-10,OOO Channel catfsh
Cages
Freshwater .02-.04 100-200 - 2.000-3,000 Channel catfish
Marine .00&.010 50-100 - 2,000.000 Salmon
Flow-through (cold water)
No aeration .oW-.014 15-30 "5-2 - Salmon and trout
Aeration 014-.020 20-40 1-3 - Salmon and trout
Pure oxygen .mo-.040 30-50 2-6 - Salmon and irout
Flow-through (warm water)
Aeration .014-.020 30-50 2-4 - Channel catfish
striped bass
Pure Oxygen .020-.040 40-80 3-8 - hybrids
Reuse
Mechanical 014-.030 20-50 2-4 - Salmon and trout
-
Ecoloaical
.~ . ~
.Mo-.040
.
10-20 4-8 - Tilapia

With the exception of pond systems, the
water quality changes due to the culture
animals can be computed from the application
of mass balance principles using the metabolic
characteristics of the culture animals. In ponds,
the water quality is driven by the metabolic
activity of microalgae and bacteria.
Water Quality Requirements. Water quality
criteria for typical cold and warmwater fish are
presented in Table 2. The concentrations of
calcium, heavy metals (copper, zinc, lead,
mercury, etc.), toxic compounds. and biocides
may be important under some conditions.
Physical Requirements. Some species and
life stages may have special requirements such
as substrate, hiding places, or specific light
levels. These requirements are typically more
critical during broodstock maturation, egg
development, and early fry rearhg.
Density and Density-Loading Interactions.
Criteria for volumetric and areal densities are
influenced by the animals' response to crowd-

TABLE 2. CRITICAL WATER QUALITY CRITERLA FOR AQUATIC SYSTEMS

Cold W m
Trait water water
Ammonia N, pg/liter as NH3 loto 15 20 to 30
Nitrite N, mglliter .1 1.0
Nitrate N, mg/liter > 100 > 1,Ooo
Dissolved oxygen, mgAiter 6to7 3 to 4
Dissolved oxygen,mm Hg 300 300
Gas supersaturation,mm Hg 10 to 20 30 to 40
Hydrogen sulfide, peter 1 2
Carbon dioxide, m t e r 10 to 20 20 to 40
Residual chlorine, pghter 2 10
PH 6.5 to 8.5 6.0 to 10.0
Temperature, 'C Depends on species and age Depends on species and age
Iron,mgllitex < 1 (Incubation) -
Manganese, mg/liter < l(kubation) -

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4188 COLT

ing and water quality. When water quality is permits include the following types: county
not limiting, some of the most commonly building permits and zoning regulations,
reared animals can be cultured at densities in regional management agencies, state fish and
the range of 100 to 200 kg/m3. The effects of game agencies, water rights, waste discharge,
density and loading are confounded in many navigation, dredging or filling in wetlands, and
“density” studies. When water flow remains lease for the use of public land.
constant, increasing density increases both Design Basis. Before the start of detailed
density and loading. The two parameters are design, it is necessary to define the process
related by L = .06Dv/Exc. Densities as high as criteria for both the species and system
540 kg/m3 have been achieved in experimental components or culture steps. This includes
salmonid culture (Buss et al., 1970) by such items as data on growth rate, fecundity,
increasing the exchanges to 50h. and survival and water quality criteria. Even
for widely cultured animals, much of this
System Design
information is not readily available in con-
venient form. Additional information on
Because of the impact of temperature on detailed design of aquatic systems can be
animal growth, the available locations for the found in the publications by Huguenin and
culture of a particular species are more limited Colt (1989) and Wheaton (1977).
than for terrestrial animal agriculture. In In flow-through and reuse systems, the
addition, water quality problems such as low computation of required water flow can be
dissolved oxygen, high concentrations of nitro- computed from a mass balance approach.
gen gas or carbon dioxide, or dissolved Commonly, it is assumed that dissolved
compounds may require pretreatment at a oxygen is the most limiting factor in these
given site. systems. In high-intensity systems, the limiting
Sire Selection. Ideally, the site should be water quality factor can also be ammonia,
selected by means of a thorough site recon- carbon dioxide, or pH. The degree of intensity
naissance and selection process (Webber, in these types of systems is more accurately
1971). Important factors in site selection measured by the cumulative oxygen consump-
include physical, climatic, and biological com- tion (COC) through the system (Meade, 1988).
ponents, as well as social, legal, and economic The effect of excreted carbon dioxide on pH
aspects. In many private and public projects and ammonia cannot be ignored (Colt and
the site selection process is very abbreviated Orwicz, 1991). For a flow-through system
because the site options are either few or the without aeration, the most limiting factor is pH
site is already determined at the start. Trying to at low pHs, dissolved oxygen at intermediate
design a culture system for a site chosen for pHs, and un-ionized ammonia at high pHs
reasons independent of technical considera- (Figure 4a). In systems using pure oxygen,
tions may prove to be very expensive or even carbon dioxide can become limiting at inter-
impossible. One reason for the construction of mediate pHs (Figure 4b). In an open system in
several commercial-sized reuse systems has which oxygen and carbon dioxide can be
been the realization after the completion of the exchanged across the air-water interface, un-
site selection process that water was very ionized ammonia is the most limiting factor
limited or of unusable quality. (Figure 4c). The use of power plant effluent to
Permits. The time and expense of obtaining accelerate the growth of warmwater fish has
all the necessary permits for a given project attracted significant research and pilot-scale
may have a significant impact on the feasibil- money fliews, 1981). This type of culture
ity of the whole project, especially in the system has proven to be largely unsuccessful,
marine area or in “wetlands.” The actual cost primarily because of operational and manage
of the permits themselves is typically low. The ment problems. With a few notable exceptions,
major costs associated with the permitting the use of geothermal waters has also been
process are indirect costs (Bowden, 1981), unsuccessful.
such as costs associated with time delays and Although ponds seem to be a simple
increased financial uncertainty. The total cost production system, the complex interactions
of obtaining permits for marine aquaculture in between the culture animals, algae, zooplank-
California may constitute up to 5.7% of the ton, bacteria, and physical and chemical
total project costs (Bowden, 1981). Common processes are not fully understood. As a result,

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 AQUACULTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 4189
16 I I
. (a) I I
I I
14 - I
I Oxygen
I
I Ammonia
PH I
Limited Limited Limited
12 - Region
I
I Region I Kegion
I I
I
10 - I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
8- I I
I I
I I
6- I I
I I
I I
I I
4- I
I

- I

6 7 8 9
PH
Figure 4. Overall cumulative oxygen consumption as a function of equilibrium p H (a) closed system with no gas
transfer, (b) closed system with pure oxygen addition, and (c) open system with no loss of ammonia (water temperature =
15'C. barometric pressure = 760 mm Hg,intluent dissolved oxygen = 90% of saturation, influent carbon dioxide = 100%
of saturation, an-ionized ammonia criteria = 12.5 @iter NH3. dissolved oxygen criteria = 6.5 mg/liter, pH &tax = 6.0,
and carbon dioxide criteria = 20 @ter).

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4190
the design and operation of ponds are based
largely on empirical information. Depletion of
dissolved oxygen is a serious problem in many
pond systems and may be caused by a) daily
fluctuations in dissolved oxygen due to photo-
synthesis and respiration or b) the sudden die-
off of algae. In channel catfish ponds in the
southern United States, mechanical aeration is
typically required when the daily feed input
exceeds 40 to 50 kgha (Tucker et al., 1979).
Operational problems with ponds also include
high pHs and off-flavor.
Cages and netpens depend on natural
flushing to remove metabolic waste products
and to supply dissolved oxygen. An ideal
location for marine cages is an area with good
flushing that is protected from extreme wind
and wave action. A number of rugged offshore
cages and netpens have recently been deve-
loped and may allow sitting away from
pollution and developed shorelines. Fouling of
nets in the marine environment can be a
serious problem and requires frequent chang-
ing of nets. In the United States, legal
restrictions on the use of cages and netpens
and local opposition by adjacent property
owners are serious impediments to their use.
When cages are placed in static freshwater,
production cannot be increased beyond that for
a static pond without producing adverse water
quality changes.
Reuse systems potentially can be sited in
areas with inadequate water resources or close
to markets. They have great appeal to venture
capitalists, business school graduates, and
entrepreneurs, and also to shysters. Compared
to pond or flow-through systems, reuse sys-
tems have significantly higher capital and
operating costs (Muir, 1981). The successful
economic use of reuse systems for the produc-
tion of food animals in the United States
remains to be demonstrated. Reuse systems
seem to have their best potential for research
systems, larval rearing systems, and high-
priced specialty products such as tropical and
ornamental fish.
Size and Number of Rearing Units. The size
of rearing units is usually a trade-off between
decreased cost per unit volume (or surface
area) vs diseconomies resulting from the
greater operational difficulties and decreased
efficiencies often associated with larger units
(Huguenin and Colt, 1986). Increasing rearing
unit size may also allow the efficient and
advantageous use of expensive equipment.
Another set of important considerations in
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COLT
determining rearing unit size involves the
operational advantages of having multiple
independent units. These advantages may
result from increased flexibility to meet mar-
keting requirements and decreased conse-
quence of individual failures.
Material SeZection. The design of commer-
cial aquatic culture systems involves serious
material selection problems, especially in the
marine area. This involves not only structural
problems resulting from fouling, boring
animals, and corrosion, but also the effects of
metals and organic compounds leaching from
materials or the adsorption of materials from
the water. Many of the common plastic and
rubber products may be toxic, at least initially,
to sensitive species.
Reliability. Reliability is a key concern in
the design of aquatic culture systems. Intermp-
tion of the water or air supply for 1 to 6 h may
result in total mortality in flow-through or
recycle systems. On a yearly basis, the system
reliability can be better than 99.9% but still
result in dead animals.
Operational problem areas tend to arise
from two sources (Huguenin and Colt, 1989).
One source is internal problems resulting from
design errors or inadequate operating proce-
dures and includes problems arising from
material selection, use of chlorine, gas super-
saturation, and monitoring and control limita-
tions. Another source of problems is climate or
weather-induced failures (Table 3) that are
external to the facility.
A good review of types of failures and
emergency procedures can be found in the
publication of Shepherd and Moms (1987). In
some systems it may be necessary to provide
secondary water sources, standby generators to
power pumps and blowers, and a variety of
alarms, phone dialers, and automatic control.
Future Trends
Increasing production costs and resource
limitations create a strong pressure for the
development of more cost- and watereffective
production systems. In warm-water ponds,
there is a trend toward the use of aeration to
prevent oxygen depletion problems. Continu-
ous aeration with electric paddlewheels is
more economic than tractor-powered emer-
gency units (Engle and Hatch, 1988). A
number of potentially more efficient aerators
for pond systems are currently under develop-
ment. The intensity of flow-through systems is
 AQUACIXTURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 4191

increasing through the use of aeration and
reuse of the water. The use of supplemental
pure oxygen is becoming more common in
both private and public sector facilities (Colt
and Watten, 1988). A number of advanced
reuse systems based on European technology
have been constructed in the United States in
the past several years. This construction and
other factors have renewed interest in reuse
systems. Further development in reuse technol-
ogy will result from this interest. Based on
encouraging results in Israel, systematic r e
search on the use of ecologically based pond/
reuse systems has started. These systems use
natural pixesses such as algal uptake, photo-
synthesis, and bacterial activity to remove
metabolic wastes and add dissolved oxygen
and may have significantly lower capital and
operating costs than conventional reuse sys-
tems. The integration of flow-through and

TABLE 3. CLIMATE- OR WEATHER-INDUCED SYSTEM FAILURES

~~

Component Impacts
Intake structures
Biofouling of intake
Clogging of intake structure due to debris
Damage to intake structure due to ice, rocks,or floating debris
Intake screen collapse due to clogging and pressure drop
Wave damage
Scouring (under mining) or deposition due to water currents
Collision (anchors, boats, fuhing gear) damage
Piping
Clogging due to biofouling
Collision damage
inadequate burial and being run over by moving vehicle
Gunshot damage
Erosion due to enhainment of abrasive particles in water
Ground movement or earth slides
Earthquake damage
Stom waves and current depositingintake piping 011 beach
Pumps and motor
Gunshotdamage
Loss of eleceical power or loss of one leg in three-phase powex
Poor regulation of frequency or voltage
Power transients
Poor alignment of motor, sbafts, and pumps
Debris lodged in impeller or against the shaft
Cavitation due to blockage of suction lines
Flooding of controls
Inadequate lubrication or maintenance
Corrosion
Overspeed due to being run dry
Overheating due to being run against a closed valve
Blowers
Flooding with water when shut down
Excessive pressure resulting in surging
Electrical supply
Tree or animaldamage to power lines
Flooding of conduit and shorting of lines
Wind or storm damage to power lines
Culture systems
Foulii of valves, drains, and pipes due to biofouling or silt
Collapse damage
Excessive freshwater or waste water M o w
Earthquake damage
Sinking of criticalfloating componentsdue to biofoulii
Direct wave damage including breaching of dikes
Excessive higbwater due to storms and flooding
Clogging of fiters and other equipment due to storm-related turbidity
Loss of temperature control due to storm efftxts
Oxygen depletion resulting from several days of cloud cover

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4192 COLT
pond system with conventional agriculture
may have the potential to expand aquacultural
production in areas of limited water.
Two regulatory areas will have a major
impact on aquatic system design and operation.
Following the lead of Europe, stricter limits on
the discharge of nutrients, solids, organic
compounds, and therapeutics are being a p
plied. Flow-through systems are the most
affected by these regulations. Control of bird
predation in ponds is becoming more difficult
because of restrictions on the use of lethal
control measures. The impact of these two
regulatory areas coupled with economic pres-
sures will tend to change significantly the
characteristics of aquatic production systems in
the United States.
Implications
New and more intensive types of aquatic
production systems are being driven by eco-
nomic and regulatory pressure. Advances in
aquaculture and aquacultural production sys-
tems will be based on a fundamental under-
standing of the physiological, nutritional, and
behavioral requirements of the culture animals.
The ability to predict reliably the interaction
between the culture animal and the physical,
chemical, and biological environment will be
needed for design and operation. Long-term
fundamental and applied research at the
regional and national level is needed to
accelerate aquacultural development.
Literature Clted
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Case Study of California. Westview Press, Boulder,
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Colt, J. and B.Wattcn. 1988. Application of pure oxygen in
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