THE SEED SYSTEM Seed is the indispensable input for all agricultural production.

For thousands of years, seeds were selected and preserved in an empirical way, but great progress has been made since the end of the 18th century thanks to the systematic improvement of plants. The improvement of seed was immensely advanced by the discovery of the double helical nature of DNA and the understanding of mechanism of genetic inheritance. This led to be ability of man to transfer desirable characteristics from plant parents to their offsprings. This way, varieties were obtained thanks to a better knowledge of their development. Consequently, significant progress has been registered in agricultural production at world level, although Africa is lagging behind and still relies largely upon traditional varieties. African agricultural productivity is low, partly because the seed used is not frequently renewed and therefore loses its quality. More than 80% of producers still depend on the traditional or informal seed production system which is based on family on farm seedsaving practices. The availability of quality and/or improved seed in due time has therefore become a precondition for obtaining a good level of agricultural yield. What is a seed? In order to better understand what a seed system is, we need to break it down into its three components: technological, economic, and legal. The technological component has to do with variety selection; the economic one involves production and marketing; the legal to do with the rules and regulations governing the previous two aspects. Over the centuries, selectors of improved varieties and seed growers have become increasingly specialised. Unlike grain production, seed production requires great care, more precision in procedures and more technical skill. In order to have access to quality seed, one must follow the rules for plant breeding, systematic increase of the limited quantity of breeder to obtain larger quantity of seed to be distributed to farmers, introduction of quality control procedures to ensure genetic and physiological quality of seed during the process of multiplication, post-harvest management, and storage, until the next time for sowing comes. Thanks to technological progress, seed systems have evolved. In developing countries and in Africa in particular, there are two types of seed systems: the formal system, which is market-oriented and is developed by the public and/or private sectors, and the family or community production system which is based mainly seed selfprovisioning exchanges and gifts among neighbours, and the informal market. While the informal system rests on ancestral practices and the experience of producers with field selection, the formal system is based on scientific research coupled with variety selection, field laboratory seed control and testing. The formal system also makes it possible to introduce new varieties that perform better and are more resistant to disease, drought and other a-biotic or biotic vield-limiting factors. Some technical definitions to better understand the development of seed systems A series of biological and technological factors are involved in the development of seed systems. That is why when we speak of seeds it is important to bear in mind some technical definitions. There are two types of plants: autogamous and allagamous types. Autogamous plants are selffertilizing, so they do not need another plant of the same species or an external for their reproduction. However, allagamous (cross- and/or open-pollinated) plants are fertilized through the transfer of pollen from the flower of one plant to another plant by means of insects, winds or other agents. When a plant is autogamous and it is capable for reproducing, there is no need for external intervention. The tradition way to preserve seed is perfectly suited to this type of plant.

On the contrary, if a plant is allogamous, that is it reproduces through cross or open pollination, it requires the contribution of pollen from another plant. This is where the intervention of seed technology and of selectors makes it possible to introduce genes that can strengthen a plant's intrinsic features. With allogamous or open-pollinating plants, producers tend to resort to the market to stock up on seed because the seeds from their field lose genetic purity, and as a consequence vigour very quickly, particularly in hybrid varieties. On the contrary, autogamous plants stay strong longer and producers tend to select their seeds in the field and to keep them for themselves. Therefore, autogamous plants are better suited to the traditional or informal seed system, while allogamous plants offer advantages for the formal sector and private investment which thus have the opportunity to develop improved varieties that are much better performing than traditional varieties but have higher production costs than traditional seed. In most African countries, the formal seed systems are still at the early stages and most seed production is obtained by means of the traditional or informal system. One of the main problems seed systems encounter in developing countries is seed quality control Seed production follows the same technical process as grain production, the difference being that in the case of seed the process must be more rigorous and closely monitored. Crop inspection and seed testing must be performed at various levels to preserve the seed's genetic purity and germination capacity. Regardless of whether the seed is autogamous or open-pollinating and of whether it comes from the traditional sector or the formal sector, it is important that, above all things, it be of good quality. Seed quality is achieved through quality control procedures of the seed crop started in the field: prior to sowing, during the phases of development, ripening and harvesting, and then continued on the harvested and conditioned seed in the laboratory. The seed must be tested for moisture, physical and varietal purity, viability, weed content, presence of diseases. In order to check these different parameters, it is necessary to conduct tests on crop samples first in the field and then seed in the laboratory. Quality control in the field involves testing during the various phases of the production cycle: before sowing, in the course of development, when the seed has ripened, and during harvesting. Special equipments - which countries are not always provided with - are necessary to run these quality tests. However, better training of seed growers can be a first step towards guaranteeing that these various procedures of obtaining good quality seed crop are carried out correctly. The market-oriented seed production system recognises various stages in seed production such as variety selection, actual seed crop production, seed conditioning, packaging, storage, quality control, certification and finally distribution/marketing. The private and public sectors participate in this chain and the seed system is governed by legislation. In any event, a traditional variety of good quality is better than an improved variety of mediocre quality With proper care taken, the traditional seed production system allows farmers to obtain good quality seed of traditional varieties that comply with the requirements listed above. Such a system is based on community production and is closely linked with grain production, although new genes or varieties are often introduced through trade, the local market or research which tests the

new varieties out in the country. Within these systems, variety selection, seed production and trade form part of the grain production system. One of the advantages of the traditional systems is that there is greater diversity of genetic resources (broad genetic base) in community production systems than in market-oriented systems, where there is a need for uniformity and varietal purity leading to a narrow genetic base. Although the traditional system is the primary source of seed supply in developing countries, it is nevertheless subject to various constraints resulting from: the difficulty in accessing improved varieties adapted to local conditions the absence of infrastructure for multiplying quality seed the absence of quality control and storage and post-harvest management infrastructure lack of official recognition and in some cases a target of prohibitive law.

In Africa, it is difficult for the formal seed production systems to comply with production requirements that makes it possible to obtain quality seed. It is therefore necessary to provide seed growers with training and suitable equipment. Even when seeds result from variety improvement, it may be that the conditions required for good production are not in place and it is not possible to obtain quality seed. In this case, traditional seed produced in a suitable environment will prove more useful produce better quality seed than improved seed that is produced in sub-optimum conditions Strategies aimed to bring the two seed systems closer could help to make up for the shortcomings of the traditional system and to facilitate technology transfer. They should work to improve the skills of producers in the area of seed production, promote better co-operation between the private and public sectors, which are both useful and indeed complementary in view of making the seed system work effectively. FAO has issued a directive specifying seed quality standards In each country, it should be possible to draw up a list of varieties that qualify as Quality Declared Seed . The registration of seed growers by the competent authorities in charge of testing a sample of the batch of seeds to be sold as Quality Declared Seed is also recommended. In this way, producers can buy their products exclusively from these vendors and no longer have to depend on vendors who offer seed of doubtful origin and quality. The NERICA rice variety has been developed by the West African Rice Development Association (WARDA)It results from the inter-specific hybridization of the African and Asian rice species (types). The African variety is very resistant to local stress conditions (droughts, diseases) but has low yields and was therefore low vielding and used mainly by peasant farmers in marginal areas, but not by commercial producers. The Asian rice species instead is not very resistant to local conditions of Africa but has high yields and better protein types. Varieties of the new rice type that was thus created offers only the advantages of the two species without presenting their drawbacks. It is therefore suitable for rice growing on high plateaus, where close to 70% of rice growers and over 40% of rice fields are located in West and Central Africa. To facilitate its adoption by the populations, WARDA, researchers use privileged the participatory approach by making attempts to adapt it to the local needs, through the direct participation farmers in the selection of the varieties they considered best for their situation. In this way, producers are more willing to adopt the variety if they see that it is suited to their environment and offers advantages over the other varieties in terms of yield, price and income.

A small glossary Variety refers to group of plants within a population that are distinct in a number of characteristics Physical purity refers to percentage of pure seed in the working sample regardless of whether it is of the same or different species from the one being tested. Varietal purity refers to percentage of pure seed of the seed of the specified crop species under consideration. Germination is ability of a seed to produce all essential structures required for normal plant growth under ideal conditions (adequate moisture, aeration) required for plant growth.

CONTACTS Michael A. Larinde, Ph.D. Agricultural Officer (Seed Production) Seed and Plant Genetic Resources Service, Plant Production and Protection Division mailto: Michael.Larinde@fao.org Jean Pierre Ilboudo, Communication for Development Officer Research, Education and Extension Sustainable Development FAO, Rome mailto:JeanPierre.Ilboudo@fao.org

BIBLIOGRAPHY Le systme de protection des obtentions vgtales de lUPOV, www.upov.int/fr/about/upov Background information quality declared seed, Presentation at the expert consultation of the review of FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 117- Technical Guidelines for Standards and Procedures for Quality Declared Seed (QDS)

Sub-themes can be developed for specific 1. Variety selection (traditional and modern) 2. Seed conservation (standards to be met) 3. Seed production (standards to be met: identify the cultures and production conditions) 4. Organising the seed production process (place and culture to be specified - adapted to the context: how to improve it) 5. Seed quality control 6. Legal implications