Personality Theory & Research:

An International Perspective Gordon L. Flett

Prepared by Brenda Baird, University of Ottawa

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Chapter 8 Overview
Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson Operant Conditioning and B. F. Skinner Dollard and Millers Social Learning Theory Rotters Social Learning Theory Banduras Social Cognitive Theory The Aggressive Personality and the Learning of Aggressive Behaviour
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Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Learning Perspective Views individual differences in personality as the result of learning and different environmental experiences Learning the process whereby behaviour changes in response to external and situational contingencies

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning If a neutral stimulus is paired with a nonneutral stimulus, the organism will learn to respond to the neutral stimulus as it does to the non-neutral stimulus

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned and Conditioned Stimulus and Response Unconditioned stimulus (US) Elicits a reflexive, innate response in the absence of learning Unconditioned response (UR) The reflexive, innate response to a stimulus in the absence of learning

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned and Conditioned Stimulus and Response Conditioned stimulus (CS) Elicits a learned response after pairing a unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR) The learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned and Conditioned Stimulus and Response Extinction is the gradual disappearance of a conditioned (learned) response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus Flooding is a therapeutic technique that relies on the principles of extinction to treat phobias
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Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Unconditioned and Conditioned Stimulus and Response Differentiation is learning to distinguish and respond to only one conditioned stimulus among similar stimuli Generalization is responding to several stimuli that are very similar to a previously conditioned stimulus A blocking effect occurs when a response to a second UCS is blocked by an established UCS

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Personality Differences among Pavlovs Dogs Pavlov observed a form of experimental neurosis in his dogs when they were forced to make a choice between two equally strong CRs Specifically, highly active dogs became more active (excitation), and less active dogs became depressed and helpless (inhibition)

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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

John B. Watson formulated radical behaviourism with a sole focus on observable behaviours that can be measured, predicted, and controlled For Watson, the environment is more important than genetics in determining behaviour (radical environmentalism) Albert, an 11-month old boy, was conditioned to fear a white lab rat by pairing its arrival with a loud noise, showing even emotions can be conditioned

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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Watsons Views on Personality Watson believed that personality is the result of habit systems: repeated behaviours to eternal contingencies formed in early childhood and set by age 30, which he called nest attachments Watson emphasized the power of the situation in releasing habit systems Watson believed that unconditioning bad habit systems could result in personality change
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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Classical Conditioning with People Plaud and Martini (1999) observed conditioned sexual responses in males but not females Aversion therapy pairs a noxious stimulus with an undesirable behaviour to reduce its occurrence Covert sensitization pairs aversive thoughts with an undesirable behaviour to reduce its occurrence
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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Classical Conditioning with People Exposure therapy involves confrontation with a feared stimulus to treat anxiety and phobias Wolpes (1958) systematic desensitization pairs relaxation techniques with a hierarchy of fears to combat phobias

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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Sensitivity to Punishment and Reinforcement Current research investigates individual differences in sensitivity to punishment and reward Eysencks (1957) postulate of individual differences asserts personality differences result from differences in excitation and inhibition during conditioning (introverts are more easily conditioned than extroverts)
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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Sensitivity to Punishment and Reinforcement Eysencks (1957) typological postulate linked extroversion and introversion to different levels of cortical arousal and associated clinical conditions: Extroverts are slow to generate excitatory potentials Introverts are quick to generate excitatory potentials
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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Sensitivity to Punishment and Reinforcement Gray (1972, 1981) extended Eysencks work to differentiate between reward and punishment Gray suggested that extroverts learn better from reward whereas introverts learn better from punishment, based on a differential sensitivity to positive and negative outcomes

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Radical Behaviourism and John B. Watson

Sensitivity to Punishment and Reinforcement Gray (1981) described two neurophysiological systems to explain differences in approach and avoidance behaviours:

Behavioural Approach System (BAS): sensitivity to reward (linked to extroversion) Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS): sensitivity to punishment (linked to introversion)
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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Skinner based his principles of operant conditioning and stimulus-response paired learning (S-R) on Thorndikes law of effect The Law of Effect: Thorndikes idea that the consequences of a behaviour determines the probability that the behaviour will be repeated in the future

Positive outcomes have a higher probability Negative outcomes have a lower probability
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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Skinner coined several terms of operant conditioning:

Positive reinforcement increases likelihood of behaviour due to positive consequences following a behaviour Negative reinforcement increases likelihood behaviour due to the removal of aversive consequences following a behaviour

Primary reinforcers are inherently rewarding (food) Secondary reinforcers are rewarding via the link with a primary reinforcer (money for food)
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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

An important distinction is that punishment refers to decreasing the likelihood of a behaviour occurring, whereas reinforcement increases the likelihood Shaping is a learning technique that involves successive approximations to desired behaviour (e.g., learning to form letters and then to write) As in classical conditioning, discriminative stimuli and stimulus generalization also apply

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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Schedules of Reinforcement Skinner outlined four schedules of reinforcement in the environment as a function of time or probability:
1. 2. 3. Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (frequent buyer cards) Fixed Interval schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed period of time (pay dates) Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses (gambling) Variable Interval schedule: reinforcement occurs after a variable period of time (fishing)
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4.

Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Schedules of Reinforcement Partial enforcement schedules, such as a variable ratio schedule, result in behaviour that is highly resistant to extinction because the failure to receive reinforcement on one trial does not indicate a permanent absence of reinforcement on subsequent trials The VR schedule explains gambling behaviour

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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Skinners Views on Personality and Individual Differences Skinner viewed personality as a product of genetics and ones personal history of reinforcement Skinner rejected subjective measures (selfreport, questionnaires) and advocated an objective analysis of an individuals reinforcers and punishers
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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Skinners Views on Culture Skinner believed that cultures shape behaviours, and behaviours differ across cultures due to differences in behavioural contingencies For Skinner, cultural change results when a society changes the behaviours that are reinforced or punished

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Operant Conditioning and B.F. Skinner

Skinners Views on Humanistic Psychology Skinner outlined three points in his argument that behaviourism was humanistic:
1. Analysis of rewards and punishment leads to a greater understanding of people 2. Effective environments bring out the best in humanity 3. Promoting the self is misguided; selfactualization should place more importance on the culture as a whole
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Dollard and Millers Social Learning Theory

1. 2. 3. 4. Social learning theory is centred on four terms: Drive is the motivational state Cue is a stimulus that elicits a behaviour Response is the behaviour Reinforcement is the reward following a behaviour Response hierarchy acknowledges that although the same cue can incite several different responses, one response is dominant
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Dollard and Millers Social Learning Theory

Types of Imitation Bandura, Miller, and Dollard (1941) identified three types of imitative behaviour:

Same behaviour Matched-dependent behaviour Copying

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Dollard and Millers Social Learning Theory

Drives, Motives, and Conflicts Miller (1944) outlined three forms of conflict: 1. Approach-avoidance 2. Approach-approach 3. Avoidance-avoidance Dollard et al.s (1939) frustrationaggression hypothesis isolated frustration as a specific conflict situation
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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Rotters theory focuses on five basic concepts: Behavioural potential Expectancy Reinforcement value Psychological situations Needs

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Behavioural Potential The potential of a behaviour to occur is a function of reinforcement Rotter stressed the potential of both implicit and explicit behaviours

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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Expectancy Rogers emphasized differences in the probabilities held by individuals for a reinforcer to occur following a specific behaviour Individual differences in expectancy form the basis for the concepts of external and internal locus of control

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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Reinforcement Value Reinforcement value is the personal value placed on a particular reinforcer Rogers hypothesized that the behavioural potential is a mathematical function of both expectancy and reinforcement value BP = f (E & RV)

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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Psychological Situations The psychological situation includes reinforcement value and associated cues for reinforcement For Rogers, a psychological situation was defined by a range of cues that incite various expectations of reinforcement for specific behaviours

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Rotters Social Learning Theory

Needs Rogers viewed a need as providing direction for behaviour, and not as a state of deficiency Rogers stressed an interpersonal component to six needs:

Recognition Independence Protection Love/Affection Dominance Physical Comfort

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura believed that personality is influenced by external factors in the environment, particularly the imitation of other's behaviours Personality is comprised of behaviours shaped by operant conditioning and observational learning Banduras (1963) Bobo Doll Study is a classic study on aggression that demonstrates the power of imitation
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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Observational Learning in Action Bandura identified four processes in observational learning: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motivation 4. Reproduction

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Social Learning, Imitation, and Sex Role Development Sex role development refers to the acquisition of culturally defined emotional, cognitive, and behavioural characteristics of a sex Research has identified that the role of learning in the development of sex roles is based in imitating the same-sex parent
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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the personal belief in ones ability to perform a specific behaviour Bandura stressed the roles of internal dialogue and self-regulation in the reinforcement of behaviour:

Self-reinforcement: internal self-talk Self-regulation: self-reward and selfpunishment

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Reciprocal Determinism Banduras (1978) Model of Reciprocal Determinism depicts the view that personal characteristics and behaviours constantly interact with environmental variables The interactive concept is also referred to as triadic reciprocal causation

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Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

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The Aggressive Personality and the Learning of Aggressive Behaviour

Significant findings from Erons (1987) study on aggression (aggression was defined in terms of injury to another person, regardless if intent)

Aggression reflects confluence of multiple learning processes and influences Cognitive factors play an important role in the learning of aggression and long-term development of aggressive personality There are changes over time in the predictors of aggression There is long-term stability in aggressive behaviour when people are studied as children and into adulthood

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Copyright
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