Weimar Photographic War

Cultural Battlegrounds: Weimar Photographic Narratives of War Author(s): Dora Apel Source: New German Critique, No.
76, Special Issue on Weimar Visual Culture (Winter, 1999), pp. 49-84 Published by: New German Critique Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/488658 . Accessed: 12/06/2013 07:25
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Cultural Battlegrounds: Weimar Narratives Photographic Of War

DoraApel
in Germany in the"antiactivities At theheight of commemorative of theanarwaryear"of 1924,thetenth war mobilization, anniversary Ernst the International Friedrich founded propagandist cho-pacifist his photographic narrative Antiwar Museumin Berlinand published the book Krieg dem Kriege! [WarAgainstWar].Whenimagesfrom in hisbookstore Berlin werepublicly window, policestormed displayed the premises and confiscated themat bayonet point.Otherbookstore whodisplayed from Friedrich's book weresimilarly harowners images rassedor arrested, veterans' who encouraged by patriotic organizations thebook. Friedrich's was called forbanning use of war photographs of a antiwar visual that included larger part campaign paintings, graphic art and photography The antimilitarist visual exhibitions. portfolios, coincided withpublicrevelations of Germany's secret rearcampaign theBlack mament and theorganization of a new secret program army, Reichswehr. with of working-class rebelthedefeat By 1925,however, of theeconomy, theorganized lionsand therelative stabilization pacifist movement was politically contained Social Democrats by theruling war imagery and effectively shifted moribund; awayfrom dramatically in in graphic heroicimagery statements artandpainting toward antiwar albums. hugely popular patriotic photography of on an identification Friedrich's visualstrategy depended primarily soldier as a univertheviewer with thehumanist imageofthesuffering a picture of war Like other he attempted to convey sal subject. pacifists, shattered visionsof mutilation and meaningless thatcalled forth death, 49
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Narratives Weimar of War Photographic
of modemmilitary and thedevastating technolconsequences identity, to lay bare the horrors of combatand the ogy. Pacifists attempted of militarist rhetoric andconstruct a national collective memhypocrisy to the into and that would serve ory galvanize population opposing prefuture wars. Patriotic albumscountered not on by focusing venting but on the of war's destructive drama battle camconsequences, bodily and the German of power. Patriots paigns mastery technological linkedtechnological advancement to nationalist increasingly ideology the impersonal of weaponry and aerial abstraction, through imagery heroic narratives that encouraged constructing generalized political withthesoldier'smilitary rolewhileavoiding identification anyemotionalidentification with Suchpatriotic thesoldier.1 albums werepored overby a new generation of German who had notfought in the youth war and dreamed of a chanceto provetheir manhood. My aim hereis to show how patriotic in ideologically succeeded imagery overcoming theonusof Germany's in WorldWar I. It achieved defeat devastating visual and cultural dominance its ability to trump the liberal through humanist discourse of universal based on the dehistoribrotherhood, witha strongly cized individual, nationalist based on the subordione, nation of theindividual to thenational An of community.2 examination the visual debatebetween and patriotic pacifist imagery photographic weakness of pacifist made helpsrevealhow thepolitical representation to heroic andhowpatriotic construcpossibleitssubordination imagery, tions wereable to successfully in visualterms, remilitarize in Germany, for a new historical preparation catastrophe. TheProblem ofPhotography Weimar of bothpacifist and patriotic albums publishers photographic of WorldWar I put forth claimsto representational that authenticity were based on the postwar of photography as the undisemergence for"documentary" The authority of the putedmedium representation.
1. See George theMemory Wars Mosse,FallenSoldiers: Reshaping oftheWorld UP, 1990). (NewYork:Oxford 2. Cf. Bernd ofModemWarfare andtheCrisisof RepreHiippauf, "Experiences NewGerman 59 (Spring/Summer that sentation," Critique 1993): 130-51. Hiippauf argues that didas much toobscure thereality ofwaras pacifist imagery helped shapea discourse to exposeitbycreating an imaginary andtraditional viewofwarbasedon thehumanist of thesoldier, an argument subjectivity uponwhichI build.Hiippauf goes on to argue, that heroic was theflipsideofthis on an however, imagery paradigm, equally dependent obsolete humanist with I disagree. which image,
Dora Apel
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on a technological seemedto foundation, image, premised photographic assureobjectivity virtue of "scientific" and allowed theproby being motion of photography as an unmediated of reality, mirror one that a prior so clearly reflected truth as to require no further In explanation. the issue of was a highly contested one. reality, authenticity Tens of thousands of photographs of thewar in publicand private a massive archives of warimagesthat produced presence helpedshape collective and determine the publicdiscourse on the publicmemory of war imagesin itself war. An archive seemedto confirm the existence of a linear from and offered thepossiprogression pastto present as Allan Sekula has of an retrieval of bility, suggested, "unproblematic the past" fromthe "superior of the The viewer position present."3 seemedto be confronted notby a subjective historical of representation a geographically and nonlinear but by "history itself." diffuse event, of a massivenumber of photographs The veryavailability and their use that the war could be as a pictured sequential widespread suggested and historical narration became"a matter of appealing to progression, of thearchive, of unobtrusively incontestthe silentauthority linking in a seamlessaccount."4 The linksbetweenphotoable documents of thewarwerefurther imagesand thenature by graphic complicated of war changed the factthatthestructure earlyon intoa technologiClose combat and evena visibleenemy became reality. callymediated withtheadvent of machine and anachronistic guns, artillery, airplanes; divisions between the"front" and civilian wereblurred by populations of war as German theend of the first month burned, troops pillaged, and executedcivilianpopulations, whichwere latertargets of aerial narratives of faced the problem how to bombing.5 Photographic a war thathad becomeso huge and decentralized as to "remember" defy comprehensive representation. with It has beenamply demonstrated that guaranteed correspondences of do a preexisting at the heart reality, "documentary" photography, not exist. are can be seen That photographs easilymanipulated necessarily
Photo3. Allan Sekula,"Photography Between Labor and Capital,"in Mining and Other eds. B. Buchloh & R. Wilkie(Nova Scotia:P of Pictures 1948-1968, graphs theNova ScotiaCollegeofDesign,1983) 198. 4. Sekula, Between LaborandCapital"198. "Photography and Franco-German 5. See J.Home andA. Kramer, "German 'Atrocities' OpinofGerman Soldiers' Journal 66.1 Diaries," ion,1914- TheEvidence History ofModern (1994): 1-33.
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Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic
and McCarthyist on a gross level fromStalinist exploitsto even of and Timemagazine NationalGeographic practices montage, cropIt has beendemof light.6 and the"creative" altering ping,airbrushing of WorldWar I by the German thatofficial onstrated photographs of falsification, overt includwere to such practices government subject the that weredeliberately forthecamera behind staged ingphotographs On a moresubtle linesand later as authentic.7 front level,as presented is a result of subjective have argued, manycritics everyphotograph rulesthat render their relation to a prior choicesor formal reality probThusall photographs are constructions. Whatmakestheprolematic.8 duction of a subject arethepractices through representation meaningful which the can exercise an effect. and institutions through photograph thefacts" claimsto "present "first-hand through Thoughdocumentary is basedon a claimfortheprivileged thisassertion experience," place But it is onlyin thecontext of a photoof photographic technology. In thecase of use that we can see howmeaning is established. graph's albumsof WorldWar I, photographs Weimarpicture were carefully to producevisual narratives selectedand ordered thatwere ideologithe for Thus it couldhapby callyinterpreted captions provided them. different versionsof the same photographs were pen that slightly in politically hostilephotographic albumswithmanifestly published madeapparent meanings opposed bythetext. Ernst Friedrich's KriegdemKriege! A conscientious thewar,Ernst Friedrich was thefirst objector during to drawon photographic archives of World WarI in order to publish a albumof imagescensored theconflict picture during by the German Disturbed militarization, government. by postwar signs of continued of photographing suchas thesocial practice in miliyoung schoolboys Friedrich first war photographs and taryuniform, began collecting
6. See, for example, Alain Jaubert,Making People Disappear: An Amazing Chronicle of Photographic Deception (Paris, 1986) and the Time 23 June 1994 cover 7. " Amateurfotografie See Bodo von Dewitz, "So wirdbei uns der Krieg gefiihrt.
ofO. J.Simpson. photo
8. See JohnTagg, The Burdenof Representation.Essays on Photographiesand Histories (Amherst:U of MassachusettsP, 1988); Photographyand Language, ed. Lew
imErsten Tudur (Munich: Weltkrieg Verlagsgesellschaft, 1989)esp.266 ff.
Thomas(San Francisco: Camerawork theGrain P, 1979); Sekula, Photography Against MIT ed. Richard Bolton (Nova Scotia,1984);and TheContest ofMeaning, (Cambridge: P, 1989).
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themin his home on Petersburgerstrafe in Berlin9in the exhibiting of a growing When early 1920s,in the context pacifist movement.l0 antiwar commemorative demonstrations tookplace all over Germany the 1924anniversary Friedrich War War during year, published Against in Berlinwithtextand captions in four He not assembled languages.11 of of the horrors war the of the dead onlypictures decaying corpses - withironic and mutilated bodiesof survivors and partisan subtexts, in theopening butalso reproduced documents and photographs pages of children'stoys, and the showinghow schools, manufacturers in alliancewith thestate and themilitary, wereresponsible for church, the continuous militarization of society. The book becamean instant KurtTucholsky The leftist writer described its contents as sensation. unlike "themostshocking and horrible anyimaginable, photographs" workcan come that"no written he had ever seen and warned thing sees theseand does not nearthepowerof theseimages.... Whoever The first is nota human shudder 70,000 copbeing,buta patriot."12 were sold out within a few months. of five at a marks, ies, By price
toserve in in 1911butrefused hadjoinedtheSocialDemocratic 9. Friedrich Party ill.He orgainan observation station for thementally thewarandwas placedtemporarily inhisnative in 1916andwasjailed inPotsdam Breslau nizedan antimilitarist youth group in 1918.He then until theNovember Revolution went andnotfreed for an actofsabotage, takYouthfounded andLuxemburg, toBerlin andjoinedtheFreeSocialist byLiebknecht events. whatbecametheofficial He departed youth ing an activepartin revolutionary on radical a perspective social oftheGerman Communist Party, having developed group andorganizational decenbasedon transformation oftheself, youthful autonomy, change and Pierre Proudhon as Influenced ideasof Peter tralization. bytheanarchist Kropotkin in 1919Friedrich and ofLeo Tolstoy, toanarchist wellas themoral fervor turned politics ofthesamename. as wellas a bimonthly founded theyouth FreieJugend group journal in Germany and was sociallyconservative 10. Before1914 organized pacifism Thissituation at theendof WorldWarI when radicalism. changed opposedto political and engagedthe mass demonstrations disarmament sentiment foruniversal produced When Socialists andthelabor movement. theIndependent ofsocialists efforts organizing itbegantodecline andby 1924was effecin 1922,however, themovement (USPD) left Fora ofTradeUnions. Federation overbythesocial-democratic taken International tively "Basismomovement see Reinhold oftheWeimar discussion Liltgemeier-Davin, pacifist in derWeimarer RepubBewegung bilisierung gegenden Krieg:Die Nie-wieder-Krieg lik," in Pazifismus in der WeimarerRepublik. Beitrage zur historischen F. Schiningh, Wette eds.KarlHoll andWolfrom 1981). (Paderborn: Friedensforschung, Press War! waspublished War 11. AnAmerican (SeatbyRealComet Against reprint, in Weimarer Thebookis also reprinted an introduction tle,1987)with byDouglasKellner. derUniunddemInstitut exh.cat.,Kunstamt flrTheaterwissenschaft Kreuzberg Republik, 1992.The four Elefanten andHamburg: versit~t P, 1977)andFrankfurt/Main, Ki1n(Berlin thelastlanguage varied. andDutch, areGerman, French, though English, languages Die Weltbiihne "Waffe denKrieg," 12. Kurt (23 Feb. 1926). Tucholsky, gegen
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Weimar Narratives Photographic ofWar
1930 WarAgainstWarhad gone through teneditions and was transmore than 40 languages. latedinto in War War Friedrich's rhetorical was tojuxtapose strategy Against optiand militarist official rhetoric and mistic, images by captioned patriotic, with the horror and atrociflowery shocking photographs showing phrases tiesof warcaptioned official byhisownironic commentary; propaganda and rhetoric were thus with illustrations of whatthisdisimages paired Toward course theendof thebookFriedrich switched hisnarproduced. rativestrategy to an accretion of Schreckensbilder, that horror-photos mounted an emotional of war relentlessly appeal forthe renunciation to universal based on visceralrepulsion humanphysicalsuffering. his "a collection as of War,objectively true Friedrich presented picture ina claimtounmediated and faithful to nature" that transparency maybe in seenas a rhetorical the over inphotography. battle strategy authenticity This claimis belied, use of text to interpret the however, by Friedrich's on theimageto "speakforitself," Not relying his captions photographs. militarist on every in other challenge ideology page. The photographs, whileoften in to a words, themselves, powerful images significant degree derive their emotional andmeaning from Friedrich's charge commentary. Friedrich love and desireforpeace,whilecallappealedto humanist war.Sharing beliefthat a new "pure ing forstruggle against Tolstoy's Christian" and societywould be based on brotherhood, community, Friedrich also emphasized in the individual draft resistance nonviolence, introduction to hisbook.His pacifist anarchism was directed state against violence rather than or state the Friedrich se. power capitalist system per triedto position himself somewhere between conscientious bourgeois and socialists with the idealist objectors proletarian vague, slogan, "Fight within He calledon proletarians to prevent war capitalism yourselves!" notonlybyrefusing to serve butbydisrupting themilitarization of socitheinstitution of thefamily. The socialpractices of dressing etythrough uniforms and playing with wartoyswerecondemned on up in soldiers' thebasis of their alliancewithviolence rather thananyconsymbolic crete links with orxenophobia. chauvinism, ideological imperialism, Of morethan180 photographs in WarAgainstWar, overtwo-thirds are horror-photos, that were censored thewar. images officially during Whilethere are no breaks in theflowofphotographs from to beginning I four main between end, distinguish photographic sequenceswhich cover:1) enthusiastic warexperience, andviolent voluntarism, death; 2)
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and theprostitute; brief soldier of imagesof thefemale 3) destruction thelandscape and thewar-wounded, leadingto a long seriesof mutilatedfaces; 4) soldiers' graves. in The first and longest overhalfthephotographs sequence comprises of thebook.The stageis setwith thefirst marchvolunteers image eager in which thecaption asks,"FromtheAugust ing in thestreets, daysof a heap of corpses graphon thefacing page showing by theside of a
1914 ... Enthusiastic forwhat... ." and is answeredby the photo". .. forthe 'fieldof honor'."Pictures of the first Gertrench, captioned,
manreserves for thefront andhappy soldiers for thecamstarting posing the era are followed Kaiser the the distribution battlefield, by inspecting andtheGerman of warmedalsin thefield, Crown Prince with his greywithphotosof houndsbehindthe lines.These photosare juxtaposed mutilated to remnants shattered, by flame corpsesand bodies burned in their carsor in their downed andburned incinerated armored throwers, thelanguage ofwarreports later utilized outairplanes. by Erich Echoing of Friedrich several Maria Remarque, captions photographs ironically at thefront," and "At thefront "No particular occurrences dead soldiers, with and figures all is quiet."Decapitated bodies, skulls, rigor stiffening in in to in or left rot thefield. mass mortis are heaped trenches, graves, nationalities. notonlyGermans butmany other Imagesof Theyrepresent ofa soldier thedeadareperiodically pospictures punctuated bypatriotic in a or officers studio his gunfora formal drinking photograph ingwith of and meant to fueltheresentment now bitterly ironic lavishsetting, of mine officers. These are followed soldiers by pictures against regular who have died of starvation, dehumanemaciated soldiers explosions, in gas masks, andhuman rowsofthewounded, deadhorses ized soldiers in barbed coordinated withthe wire.Thusthepictures, corpses tangled dialectic. areorganized as a "rhetoric versus text, reality" with a sequence ofa dozenhangings of consciThissection concludes - a priest womenprisoners, exeand unidentified entiousobjectors children or their allies - and photosof Armenian cutedby Germans alludeto thehighly controversial starved to death.These photographs which "atrocities" the for and the issueof German Germany during war, The debate Alliesconstructed different definitions. beganwhen93 Gera declaration 1914denying German manacademics on 4 October signed in of atrocities Alliedcharges forthewar and rejecting responsibility a statement German that identified The declaration endedwith Belgium.
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and scholarship withGerman militarism.13 culture Bedier,an Joseph and professor at theCollegede France, eminent wrote two philologist based on Germansoldiers'diaries, widely disseminated pamphlets, which constituted themainAlliedintervention intothisissue.14 Halfthe incidents concerned cited executions of the civilians; byB6dier summary restprimarily involved the use of civilians as incendiarism, pillaging, human thekilling of wounded Alliedsoldiers and prisoners of shields, of atrocity was basedon war,and one case of rape.B6dier'sdefinition thestandard of military conduct established of bytheHagueConvention 1907 (to whichGermany was a signatory), whichfound killpillaging, or surrendered and above all, executing soldiers, ing wounded enemy inreprisal civilians for actsofresistance, andcontrary abhorrent to international law.The German on the other that civilheld hand, philologists, ian anarchyand insurgence an constituted outrageagainst "loyal soldiers" andjustified theseverest thesame posirepression, adopting tionas the93 German who claimedthenecessity of "bitter professors self-defense" civilianresistance.15 Friedrich's and against photographs an indictment of German and Allied extendrepresent captions atrocities, overthekilling ofenemy andpresumed civilian ingthedebate prisoners "resisters" toinclude conscientious and children. priests, objectors thisfirst thecruelindignities Captions throughout sequencedescribe of death, the illusions of patriotic and the suffering of those rhetoric, whodied,returning overand overto thehollowness of theconcepts of "heroism" on the"field of honor." The combined and text photographs theeffect create thedeadwereeverywhere that andthat death was painfuland grotesque. As Robert Whalenhas pointed for those who out, to the heroic on the death be clung homefront, might painful metaphor butwas nevergrotesque. Dead heroes werenever intopits"but "flung buried heroes werenottorn comrades; solemnly among apart screaming
13. "Andie Kulturwelt! Thedeclaration waspublished inall themain EinAufruf." in Germany andwas widely commented on in theAlliedcountries. It dailynewspapers was signedby such respected scholarsand cultural as Gerhart figures Hauptmann, Friedrich Max Planck,and Max Reinhardt. See Naumann, Engelbert Humperdinck, Home & Kramer 5. 14. The pamphlets werepartof a seriesof brochures in 1915 by the published Comit d'Etudeset Documents sur la Guerre of eminent French academics composed from theSorbonne, theColl6gede France, andtheAcad6mie It was presided Francaise. overby thehistorian Ernest Lavisse and its secretary was Emile Durkheim. Home & Kramer 6. 15. Home& Kramer 9-10.
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in theextensive and withdignity."'6 but"died neatly Moreover, postin thefield;solwas never defeated warright-wing literature, Germany 17 intheendthewarwas lost. wonbattle battle until diers after MedicalPhotography A NewCategory ofDocumentation: The second seriesof photographs, militarized females representing notions reinscribes dominant of German male purity, and prostitutes, and thecorruption of theprostitute.18 The third traditional roles, gender and bombedcastles,houses,and seriesbeginswithtorpedoed ships of homes and lamentsthe destruction churches. Though Friedrich in others in someof thephotographs, attacks instihe harshly churches ofa ruined He captions, for a photograph tutionalized example, religion. withpriests fearand horchurch about,"'You mustwitness standing the debrisof a of PastorSchettler.) still ror.' (Utterance By smoking assemble and discuss the vultures ways again Belgianchurch, priestly the people in the newly and deceiving and meansof again cheating and horror of death, The accumulating erected destruction, church."'9 however,in the bandaged head and culminates, decomposition "The Visage in a hospital faceof a soldier deformed gown.Captioned closea series of of War,"thisimageis followed twenty-three tight by mutilated soldiers' with fill the frame that severely ups physiognomies, knownin themedicalworldas "menwithout faces."20 It is a forced the loss of facialand psychic withtheagonizing confrontation identity, that whenthey discovered musthave felt that disabledveterans horror are largely to thesephotographs Captions theyhad becomegrotesque. dateof injury, thesoldiers' often rank, matter-of-fact, descripincluding how of treatment, and status tionof injury, manyoperations including
Bitter Wounds: GermanVictims WeldonWhalen, 16. Robert of the Great War, Cornell 1914-1939 UP, 1984)43. (Ithaca: the Male Fantasies.Male Bodies: Psychoanalyzing 17. See Klaus Theweleit, U ofMinneTurner andChris vol. 2, trans. White Terror, (Minneapolis: byEricaCarter sotaP, 1989)70. inthese andfemininity ofmasculinity oftheconstruction 18. Fora discussion phosee my"'Heroes' and and in antiwar Kollwitz, imagesbyOttoDix andKdithe tographs Vol. TheArtBulletin, in Weimar Antiwar of Gender 'Whores':The Politics Imagery," LXXIX,No. 3 (September 1997):366-84. War War 19. Friedrich, (1987) 201. Against in Keiner sich hier des Ersten derKriegsopfer wiihrend Weltkriegs," Behandlung fiihlt eds.Gerhard Hirschfeld desErsten undWirkung ... Erlebnis mehr als Mensch Weltkriegs, et.al. (Essen:Klartext, 1993).
20. See Bernd Ulrich,"'... zur als wenn nichtsgeschehen wire.' Anmerkungen
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Friedrich with alternates suchinformation undergone. theyhad already toevokethepathos oftheir situation: remarks meant occasional refused information. Other Somewarcripples wounded, particularly didnotallowthemselves to be photothose mutilated, gruesomely their whohadnot as they feared relatives seenthem again, graphed, atthe oftheir orwould turn either would away collapse sight misery, forever from them inhorror and disgust.21 and his methodof juxtaposedofficialstatements Friedrich reprises in next-tothe last two this section. The with ironic images commentary woundof themouth and cheek revealsa raw-looking last photograph "War two devices, agreeswith surgical captioned, beingpulledopenby the comment to notorious me likea stayat a health resort," referring by a man in profile whose face is The finalimagedepicts Hindenburg. "The 'health resort' of theproletarbitterly missing, captioned, largely I and2). thewholefaceblown ian.Almost away"(figures set up clinical soldiers' facesare carefully The pictures of individual In his Friedrich several sources afterword, acknowledges photographs. which he no sources from forhis photographs including anonymous thecloseupsof "menwithout faces"takenin veterans' doubtacquired The factthatthe photographs came supplied withdetailed hospitals. therank oftheir butthe notonlyabout andidentity information, subjects, of injury and thestatus of medical dateand descriptions treatment, sugas do the surgical geststhatthesewereofficial hospital photographs, hands that areusedto pullopenthevicheldbyanonymous implements in order to maketheir morevisibleto thecamera tims'mouths injuries also suggests a clinicalsetlens.22 The method of representation itself faces- thetight closeof photographing ting.The process disfigured to an unreturnable subjection gaze, intense ups, neutral backgrounds, - produces in an intimate observation of face and features scrutiny
21. Ulrich 217. inhis 22. Further theinstitutional context for these Friedrich verifying photographs, of War a group secondvolume twoyearslater, included War, Against published photoof sevenveterans with of whomare identifiable faces,four graph consisting disfigured from individual in Friedrich's first volume. The caption identifies them as invaportraits lidsmutilated for lives.Moreinstituinmilitary their entire bywarwhowillstay hospitals tional for showstanding nudemendisplaying their injuries photographs leg andbuttock thecamera, withfactual suchas, "Upperthigh torn (40% captions by grenade splinter See Friedrich, vol. 2 by war,receives14,60Mk. monthly)." injured KriegdemKriege, (Berlin, 1926) 198,222.
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me likea stayat a health resort.' Figure1. "'War agreeswith (HininErnst dem Friedrich, denburg)," photograph, Krieg (1924). Kriege
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Narratives Weimar Photographic of War
Almostthe whole of the proletarian. Figure2. "The 'healthresort' in Ernst face blownaway,"photograph, Friedrich, KriegdemKriege (1924).
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to a dominant whicha passivesubjectis made to submit gaze. This in which institution thepowerof couldonlybe thegaze of themedical weregenerally thestate resided doctors notprivate entre(sinceGerman with in but civil servants affiliated institutions or, the public preneurs doctors and university of the case of military professors, employees the lives of war of Doctors dominated victims and thousands disstate). neverleft themedical world. abled soldiers Manyhospitals specialized or facialwounds. The in particular areassuchas blindness, psychiatry, the massivedocumentation of facial medicalarchivecreated through and greater conan evermoreintimate observation woundsfacilitated institution to be benevolent and trolin whichthesupervising appeared of dependence Identiwhilecreating relations and consent. disinterested and status as patients; their social ties were reduced to their injuries of society was reduced to their value to themedical value as members of medicalscience.23 The rhetoric of and theadvancement institution close medical by a setof rulesbasedon precision, guided photography, of emotional a newcateand an avoidance examination, appeal,created a to the of of consequences representation, response gory documentary of new that methods warfare documentation, required technological as passiveandpathetic veterans wounded which objectssubpositioned state.24 paternal jecttothegazeofthe created its own protocols of medicalphotography The new practice of themedical thehuman thatsubordinated subjectto thedominance instituofficial institution. Friedrich, apparently by publishing pirated in their order to cremedical "truth" tionalphotographs, appropriated their kindof truth. ate a different He shifted role,detaching political in whichtheywere the powerof the medicalinstitution themfrom This altered thepoliticsof pacifism. and projected meantto operate, of neutral "scientific was notbasedon theassumption discourse objecbutwas thedominance ofthemedicalinstitution, that facilitated tivity" a feltsense of horror and animated by a visceraland moralreaction,
in Berlin, of war 23. According to a 1917 order from theWarMinistry all types wereto be discouraged from cities where makepublicnuiwounded they entering might See Marquard, andbecomepoliticized. sancesof themselves KriegKriegsministerium, undBettler," UA Tiibingen, als Hausierer samt, Berlin,19.7.1917, "Kriegsbeschidigte Bodies:Psychiatry andInduscited inPaulLerner, "Irrational Minds/Rationalized 308/42, oftheGerman AssociinWorld WarI," Paper attheannual Studies try meeting presented 24 Sept.1995,5, 15n. 41. ation, Chicago, theIntroduction. 24. See Tagg,Burden especially ofRepresentation,
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Narratives WeimarPhotographic of War
forthe instituthatimplicated thestateand themilitary victimization The mutilated on thebody.25 tionof war and its consequences faces, and forty whichin somecases had already undergone thirty operations of the medicalworld's inability to adewere evidence,moreover, of thebody;hencetheneed to destruction theviolent remedy quately medical so as notto disturb hidethem secret institutions, awayin often of mass and permanent facial the general publicwiththe knowledge a In thissense,photographic site of became mutilation. representation in to which these which the contested photographs prereality meaning was transformed referred by the way in whichtheyentered sumably Friedrich them intothepublicdomain, discursive By entering practice. of warbased an emotional appealfortherenunciation hopedto mount human touniversal on visceral suffering.26 physical repulsion thewar in a soldiers had beenpublished during Imagesof mutilated in as context not medical but well, only journals, in advertisepositivist and medico-mechanical and of theorthopedic ment brochures industry, Relieforganizations; in information of "War Cripples" brochures they One such 1916publication to invalid homes. also wereused in lectures
25. Atleastthree ofthe hadalso appeared inthe published photographs byFriedrich in 1920,inwhich "We itwas noted, lastissueoftheUSPD illustrated FreieWelt weekly menafter a visit, saw these at theinvitation oftheBerlin-Brandenburger Military paying in Thiiringer to theMilitary Allee (Berlin-West Commission, End) and Hospital Hospital at Tempelhof Ufer." Given thesecrecy ofthese hostheLuther postwar military Lyceum of thisinvitation wouldbe interesting to know.It was further thecircumstances pitals, with2,500 in Berlin. which notedthat Freie Welt, 48,000menwerestillin hospitals, was limited in itsdistribution, from itwas existed however; 1920, May 1919toDecember notuntilFriedrich WarAgainstWarthatthesephotographs achievedwidepublished ina provocative context. pacifist spread public exposure these the 26. ThatFriedrich from medical world is mademore acquired photographs subversion ofofficial establishintriguing protocols bytheevident byone ofthemedical ment's most to Ernst Friedrich's members; respected grandson, Spree, according Tommy 15Aug. 1993, ina conversation theauthor inBerlin, were toFriedrich with given they by a world-famous Dr. Ferdinand thoracic the distinguished Sauerbruch, surgeonwho the"ironlung"pressure chamber. thewar Sauerbruch was appointed invented During to theFifteenth nearYpres;in thepostwar consulting Corpsand served surgeon Army his treatment of thewar-wounded, General Ludendorff. including periodhe continued in the MunichUniversity was head of surgery in 1918 and was Sauerbruch hospital to theBavarian The exactsource of hisphotographs, Surgeon-General Army. appointed In hisautobiography, is notknown. Sauerbruch makes no allusions to Friedrich however, ofmutilated orphotographs ofhis onceinthecontext soldiers, onlymentioning pacifism with a Professor Stodola ofZurich Technical professional productive relationship College in 1915-1916, with whom he invented artificial hands for disabled andwhom he soldiers, describes as "a convinced See Ferdinand Master trans. Sauerbruch, pacifist." Surgeon, by Fernand G. Renier andAnneCliff (NewYork:Crowell, 1953) 121.
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which 85 photographs, wereoften included republished by newspapers and magazinessuch as LeipzigerIllustrierte Zeitungand GartenThe weekly Die Umschau a single laube.27 magazine published periodiin techniques, and medicine cal in 1916 on new developments science, withphotographs of eight The purpose jawbonesand facialinjuries.28 and theuse of photographs in lectures of thesepublications was twosuffered so fold:to makeeventhemutilations soldiers by many presentthemintotriumphs of prosthesis able to the publicby transforming disabledveterans intotheproducand to help reintegrate technology, boththe shrinking of German industrial tionprocessso as to prevent to thefront.29 and thehindering of further recruitment capacity Mutiwho failedto return to theworkforce latedsoldiers outof shamewere while those who did so were dismissedas having"weak nerves," will" and the "better nerves" of a German. for "iron praised showing in the meant on oneself theregimen medical context, Will, "imposing whether thewar to thebattlefront thedoctor ordered," returning during "In effect, it was a demandthatthe afterwards. or to the workforce in whichthe his will- akinto thepolitical surrender ideology patient it of the was for of life the surrendering good highestexpression of feminization the discourse nation."30 Ironically, impliedby "weak of in which the soldier/veteran was in ques"manliness" the nerves," obedience. self-subordination and could be countered tion, by only to adverFriedrich, too,madeuse ofphotographs originally published to construct an ironic butin order tisemedico-mechanical engineering, theGerman Crown Prince for counternarrative. He juxtaposed, example, Prince as the The German Crown "After war: tennis, captioned, playing in device an amputee a . . ." with worker thehardest wearing prosthetic at his ". . . the war-wounded his of arm, proletarian captioned, and place or is at workin a factory 3 and 4). The amputee dailysport" (figures while to to hold arm a attempting spikesteady shopanduseshisartificial is typical of those his good arm.Friedrich's it with hammer photograph
zum Troste was Kriegskriippelfuirsorge. 27. This publication Ein Aufklirungswort in 1916 L. Voss,1915).Itappeared ed.K. Biesalski undzur (Leipzig/Hamburg: Mahnung, des "Die Bedeutung Other include of 140,000. inan edition Dipl. Ing.Jacobi, publications - Fir die Arbeit Aus der Arbeit Lichtbildes fir unsereKriegsbeschadigtenftirsorge," "Wie unsere (1917/18),and the 1917 filmby Monopol-Film-Vertriebs-Gesellschaft, In Ulrich wieder arbeiten 128,n. 17. Kriegsinvaliden lemen." 28. Ulrich121. 29. Ulrich 121. 65. 30. Whalen
64
CrownPrinceas thehardest thewar: theGerman Figure3. "After dem inErnst worker... ," photograph, Friedrich, (1924). Kriege Krieg
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at his daily'sport'," 4. "... and thewar-wounded proletarian Figure dem in Friedrich, (1924). Kriege Krieg photograph,Ernst
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used to advertise theproud successesof prosthetic engineering during the war,whose principle of designwas efficiency, not aesthetics.31 thephotographic and textto subFriedrich, however, employs pairing vertadmiration forthetriumphs of prosthesis technology by creating a bitingobservation on aristocratic and working-class vicprivilege he draws on the resentment soldiers bore toward those timization; who exempted themselves from theinferno of warwhichtheyhelped to create andimpose on others. Medicalphotographs of themutilated thustraversed a seriesof contexts. used during thewar itself to represent German Theywerefirst thewounded vettechnological prowessin successfully reintegrating eranintotheworkforce. Parallelto themodern industrial of might the German war machine, could the prosthetic engineering keep economy medicalphotographs wereused to visually goingat home.Secondly, recordand catalog typesof injury and surgicalresultsin medical archives.A third use was the transformation of these photographs from both an industrial advertisement and object of techno-medical to imagesmeantto shockthe publicout of its moral investigation intoantimilitarist This was to be achieved complacency opposition. the realization that after of the mutilated, through years invisibility, the "men without had not been fixedup and faces," especially simply into but still hidden and groreintegrated society were away,ashamed as dead or missing tesque,in secret hospitals. Manysoldiers reported wereinreality inthese living hospitals.32 book concludes withphotographs of vast cemeteries Friedrich's that to theimmense scaleofdestruction. The encompassing structure of point thephoto album endows eachimage with thepower to makea meaningfulstatement; at thesametime, thesingle can be viewedas part images of a logicalorder or historical that leads from war totality ineluctably enthusiasm to grotesque destruction and thecasual disposalof physical
31. In February Deutscher an artificial arm 1916,theVerband Ingenieure sponsored a totalof 82 armsweresubmitted. The highest contest; prizewentto the"Jagendberg which of"twometal consisted rods can be arm," joinedbya ball-and-socket jointwhich turned inanydirection, a grip ofthewellhand tofixorloosenit.Itis fastened to sufficing thestump leather cuff. With thearmis furnished a setof20 attachments bya tight-fitting suitable for all theordinary of life[.... ]" DouglasMcMurtrie, TheEvolution operations Reeducation andSailors(WashofNational Systems of Vocational forDisabledSoldiers FilmBoardof Vocational Education, ington: 1918),quotedin Whalen61. Friedrich's tobe an illustration ofthis ofarm. photograph appears type 32. See Ulrich 125-126.
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of theenvironment, moralcorruption and the shatcorpses,to devastation teredlives of woundedsurvivors whose numbers are overwhelmed by the a near excruciating graves of the millionslost. Presenting sequence of to the Germanpublic in the connever-before publishedhorror-photos textof a provocative, textproduceda fearful politicallyconfrontational who subjected these images to reaction among Prussian authorities, and censorshipwhen displayedin leftist harassment and workingclass bookstores.In additionto the shockingphotographs of disfigured faces, the numerouscloseups of burned,decayed and mutilated corpses cona terrifying vision of the "reality"of war. The still contentious structed accusationsof Germanand Allied atrocities were visually supported by and mass starvation, while the images of civilian executions,hangings, of heroicdeathforthe Fatherland rhetoric was subverted by photographs of dismemberment, of mass gravesand indications of a belyingthe myth burial dead for soldier. every dignified Friedrich's secondvolumeof WarAgainstWar, publishedin 1926, was, if anything, even more gruesomein some of its images than the first, though probably not as potent in its overall impact, since it largely in the first book. Morerepeatedor extendedthemesalreadyestablished distinct note bitterness and entered a of Friedrich's over, despair impasof sioned protestover public tolerancefor the continuedmilitarization A new was an reference to the ecoelement, however, society. explicit of war in theintroduction to thesecondvolume: nomicmotives therecent lookat these mass-murders: do notforget Soldiers, pictures howyouinflated bodiesinthedirt andclayofthe andremember your All youwho also: youwar-enthusiasts! trenches.... Butyouothers toothers) on "hero's" death recommend havenotdiedthat (which you in thestillness of You all, look at these thefieldof infamy. pictures - look at them withunderstanding!! then, Perhaps yourchambers someofyouwillcometoyourselves andacknowledge: "Yes,waris a willbe onlya fewof you,forthe Butthat crimeagainst humanity." of warmongers Waris waris a profitable pieceofbusiness. majority The of all lands A in human flesh. business! trade always capitalists withtheproceeds of thiswar-busifilltheir money-safes shot-proof - theproletarimasters sendthecattle ness.The well-paid slaughter is made!33 a profit ans- to"heroes"' deaths. Andevenon these Friedrichhere makes a desperate entreatyto the humanityof the militaristsabove political considerations:"But you others also: you
33. vol.2 16. demKriege, Friedrich, Krieg
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Narratives WeimarPhotographic of War
inthestillness ofyour war-enthusiasts! ... You all,lookat these pictures - look at them withunderstanding!! some of chambers then, Perhaps and acknowledge: 'Yes, war is a crime you will come to yourselves In next the Friedrich concedes the breath, however, against humanity."' "But will limited valueofthis humanist that be a few of you, appeal: only for themajority ofwarmongers waris a profitable His pieceofbusiness." oftheir for reductionist motives waras simple economic ones,an analysis whichavoidspolitics, was later used as an implicit for analysis target attack whopublished their ownphotographic albums. bynationalists War! Reception ofWar Against in the storefront Friedrich's of windisplay gruesome photographs in Berlin Antiwar dow ofhis newly founded Museum metwith an order from the Berlinpolice fortheir immediate the orderfurther removal; in Berlin all other workers' from exhibitbookshops prohibited publicly from his book. WhenFriedrich refused to carry out ing any pictures two officials of the Prussian and an official of the orders, police police his bookshop their SecretPolice entered and removed them with bayomostof thereproduced and issued nets.Police confiscated photographs a receipt, dated30 September terrible 1924,for"77 leaflets showing ofwounds andmutilations causedbythewar."34 pictures In February 1925 thepacifist/Social Democratic Konigsnewspaper exhibited of thesephotographs in itsbookseveral berger Volkszeitung store with a placard window which read"Hindenburgs Badekur together which was over a of War War. 1914-1918," placed copydisplay Against Two local nationalist associations to the protested publicprosecutor who had theoffending confiscated placard by policeand thebookstore owner arrested on a charge of disturbing thepublicpeace. The Konigsclaimed to havereceived hundreds of burger Volkszeitung subsequently from letters workers whofound thebookstirring, ofwhom volunmany toassist initsdistribution.35 teered At leastone nationalist in itsprotests went further organization against Friedrich's bookand attempted to haveit banned In thesame altogether. month that theNazi Party was refounded after Hitler's release from early
34. SchwarzeFahne 2 (1925). The handwritten in receiptis also reproduced War War Friedrich, Against (1987) 250. 35. Thebookstore owner was sentenced tosixweeksinjail anda fine of 150marks. 52 and in 7.3 andFreie Freie 96, Volkszeitung (Feb. 1925) quoted Jugend Konigsberger 7.5 (Mar. 1925). Jugend
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thepresidium of theBayerischen SolKriegerbundes [Bavarian prison, of any help from the "swamp"of Berlin, diers' League],despairing in February office 1925. It publicprosecutor's appealedto theMunich War the War as insidious condemned "incredible, calumny against Against and destruction of these books."36 and calledfor"theseizure old army" a certain Traub in an editorial for the Othernationalists, including thebook notonlycalledfor banning Abendzeitung, Miinchen-Augsburger Ernst Friedrich andhis newspaper butalso for FreieJugend, prosecuting The development of nationalfrom thecountry.37 Friedrich andexpelling was taken to itslogitotheantimilitarist use ofwarimagery istopposition of Friedrich's for the the demand cal conclusion complete suppression by the of Friedrich as a non-citizen, andtheredefinition paving photographs the of and thelegitimized thought expulpersecution antimilitarist wayfor Friedrich to National Socialism. under sion of itspractitioners appeared whohadhelped traitors" causethe as one of the"internal thenationalists inthefield itinthebackat home, defeat oftheGerman bystabbing army heldtantamount to"un-German." that nationalists a category ofidentity was that Friedrich constructed of the war The historical memory it but because not for its lack of authenticity documentary challenged nationalist of the war anti-humanist ridiculedthe distinctly history withthe of thesoldier whichdepended alignment upona metaphorical nation throughthe rhetoricof heroism and honor. Moreover, refused to acknowlbookcame at a timewhennationalists Friedrich's in formed the the war and Black a to resolution Reichswehr,38 edge von Seektand General of theChiefof Staff thedirection 1923 under
7.3 (Mar. 47 (20 Feb. 1925),quotedin FreieJugend 36. Schweinfurter Tageblatt 1925). 7.5 (Mar. 1925). 37. FreieJugend of 50,000to 80,000 reserve a secret constituted 38. The Black Reichswehr army at thelastmoment was defeated oftheBlack Reichswehr men.A putsch bytheregular was subsequently on 1 October1923andtheorganization onlyto be suppressed, army of almost a policeforce armed 70,000men.The Schutzpolizei, by theheavily replaced FutAlexander tooutright ofpacifists a number radical terror, murdering subjected right OttoLehmann-Russbiildt, ran and Hans Paasche,and beating including manyothers, on the Reichswehr Weissbuch who in 1925 coauthored [Whitebook iiberdie Schwarze on a seriesof articles The radicaldemocratic Black Reichswehr]. published Weltbiihne conwas notonlya regular in thesameyear;Lehmann-Russbtildt theBlackReichswehr fora New Fatherland Federation buta founder of thepacifist to theWeltbiihne tributor See Istvan Human in 1922becametheGerman which Deak, Weimar Rights. Leaguefor and Its Circle the A Political Intellectuals: 'Weltbiihne' History of Germany Left-Wing 's U ofCalifornia P, 1968) 119-20. (Berkeley:
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withtheconsent of President embarked on a secret rearmament Ebert, in violation of theVersailles It was thepacifist Treaty. program press which was primarily for the rearmament responsible exposing proof the Black Reichswehr, gramand the secretorganization revealing itsintimate totheregular Reichswehr. connections Whenthedraconian demands of thepolitical Friedrich right against and his bookwerenotmetbythegovernment, becauseofpopulargely thenationalists lar support forFriedrich,39 devisedanother to strategy thepacifist counter visualdiscourse own method of usingFriedrich's inphotographic narrative warimagery andevocative text albums. Albums:TheResponse toFriedrich Patriotic Photograph Therewerea number in of patriotic albumspublished photographic to pacifist andrepresentations. thelater1920sin response Done politics in text in a chronological, countered style, they documentary implicitly Friedrich's antimilitarism not and photographs by focusing outspoken of battle the of war,buton thedrama on theconsequences campaigns, and its German of destructive on mastery technological power impact viewsof thesoldier the landscape, and by presenting thatencouraged withhis military role whileavoiding emotional politicalidentification The patriotic war albumselaborated identification. truth claims that basedon assertions that thephotographs wereoften usedweretaken by soldiers themselves in thefield. Bodo vonDewitzhas demonstrated that The albumswerenotonlyillussuch claimswerehighly misleading. taken trated with official theair,butovert many photographs from phosuch as behind thelines,and tographic manipulations cropping, staging wereemployed to promote theidea that theGerman airbrushing army was undefeated in the field.Such soldiers'photographs as wereused
39. The left andliberal a cryofprotest that credits with Friedrich pressraised pretheban of his book.Supporting War forexample, were Vorwarts War, venting Against "Theeffect ofthis bookis stronger than that ofa hundred edi(socialdemocratic): pacifist andtalks"; torials Die RoteFahne(communist): "Thefirst bookofthe large photographic war.An inextinguishable document. of Authentic, unimpeachable photographic recording thecarnage oftheWorld Waranditsconsequences. Thetrue faceofwar.";Berliner Tage"A staggering book. Withan insistence whichcannotbe blatt(liberaldemocratic): thestepis taken from thehorror of fighting toward thegoal of a realpeople's ignored, "Either ofwardie with this Deutschland book,or peace.";Das andere (pacifist): thoughts deserves to die with ofwar.Whoever sees thisandsimilar booksand humanity thoughts remains enthusiastic about wardeserves tobe putina madhouse." inEuropiiische Quoted ed. Andreas W. Mytze Ideen,Specialissueon Ernst Friedrich, (Berlin, 1977)24.
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wereusually to thepoint no longer that resembled the they manipulated or the for served which were taken originals purposes they originally to find their as souvenirs andto allowsoldiers ownidentity andplace in wereoften thewar.Claimsof objectivity further underscored by short, that weremeant to echo thedirect, unmediated nature factual captions and to imply unlikeFriedrich's of the experience that, theyrecorded there herebecausethese was no needforinterpretation ironic captions, in for themselves."40 as Friedrich's Nonetheless, book, pictures "spoke relied on the text for their and constructed a these meaning photographs of sacrifice of theselfto thecollective idealof thenation and narrative theFatherland. thehigh moral ofprotecting purpose The mostdirect and immediate to Friedrich's book,one that response Rex's Der Weltwas Hermann also servesas a representative example, 1914-1918[The World Warin its kriegin seinerrauhenWirklichkeit in 1926.41 HarshReality 1914-1918], published Visuallyorganized by withthemajority of space devoted to theWestern military campaigns thebook openswithinspiring and cheering crowdsin Front, speeches enthusiastic off to war. The idealfollowed Berlin, marching by troops to theend of thebook. ismof theseopening imagesis carried through mounted aroundenormous Soldiersstanding guns are followedby thepowerand impact of those showing villagesin France, destroyed of cratered and aerial shots and aestheticized ground patterned guns; a vancreated German different shell holes grenades by provide huge 5 and 6). These German firepower (figures tage pointforadmiring landchurch ruins and are followed destroyed by picturesque images The viewer someGerman dead. and,eventually, corpses scapes,enemy folare immediately to dwellon suchimages, is notleft however; they This French and German of wounded lowedby photographs prisoners. to evokethesenseof a seriesof combat times is repeated many pattern he an enormous 600 pictures, book includes Rex's inventory campaigns. as theheadof theFilmand PhotoOffice to his service attributes [Bildfrom 1914 to undFilmamt or BUFA] fortheGerman HighCommand was to servethenational 1918. BUFA's purpose interest, i.e., promote
40. Dewitz266-96. rauhenWirklichkeit in seiner 41. Herman 1914-1918; Rex,Der Weltkrieg Kriegsaus allen Fronten nach authentischen, mit600 Bildern bilderwerk wahrheitsgetreuen, HermannRex durchden Kriegsphotographen Originalaufnahmen photographischen n.d.[1926]).Thefull title itself indicates thecontested nature ofauthen(Oberammergau, it. andtheimportance ofclaiming ticity
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ia
I"~~~il~ :i? iiiii:i:i:i:iiii-i ::i:.:::::::.::.::: :..u ::::::_ i---i:ilii:i:i-~i--?:-i
,-::,,i-r:,----::i:::: :i-::::i: :::::::::::::::-i-i:I:iiii?:?.-::ii ;~:i:: ::::?:::::r:i: i~y::-i::' Ilj:~:_,:r:;ii i?i: iiii:i:i-i:i-i-i-i-ii'::ii:i:i:i:s:-i: iii::::::r:._--?.;::::i :: :::::::-,: i:i:i:i:i:: :::::::::::;::::i:: ::::;: ?:;_:,::r:-,,r:,:
ii?i'iiiii:i ii'i::iiiiiiii
Verdun before 24-cm railroad ofGerman 5. "Thefiring artillery Figure rauhen seiner in Der in Hermann Rex, Weltkrieg 1916,"photograph, Wirklichkeit (1926).
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arounda former Germanartillery Figure6. "Demolished grounds in at Chemin des Dames. 1917,"photograph, Hermann Rex, position Der Weltkrieg inseiner rauhen Wirklichkeit (1926). thewareffort. Sinceitwasn'torganized Rex obviuntil 1916,however, relied on and other sources some ously manipulated images, including of themostegregious the behind lines and cases of photographs staged later as authentic battle presented photographs.42 The appearance of German that casualties thepolitical indicates right could no longeravoid showing dead and wounded German soldiers;
42. see Dewitz Forexamples, 271-74.
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Narratives Weimar Photographic ofWar
also dealtwith theproblem albums of horrorsubsequent photographic to transfigure thememory ofthewarfrom by attempting images photos aimlessdestruction, and deprivation on the of repulsive disfigurement, of self-sacrifice, to waras a testof manliness, thehonor and homefront in smalldoses death. The deadwereshown either romantic, redemptive albums or frugally at theendof longphotographic sprinkled throughout sense of and them, carefully avoiding any mounting physical suffering such with destruction by quicklyfollowing images resting, waiting, In this and buildings. soldiersor shelledenemylandscapes fighting were redefined as partof the counter-discareful way, horror-photos their courseto Friedrich's use, in thewordsof book; though meager, was nonetheless crucial: "So that thewaras something DetlevHoffmann, in thememory, thehorrifying itself had to be horrible wouldnotremain made to seem without German vicWar was no longer heroized."43 were some German shown,including tims;they discreetly gruesome the"true"meaning of corpsesin Rex's book,in orderto underscore and honor as nobleself-sacrifice and to broaden theappealof heroism as a vindication ofthose whomadethegreatest sacrifice for nationalism German dead are seen from a distheir however, country. Typically, from in which thelandscape and debris tance,nearly indistinguishable with no are found and discernible facial features. they Rex's imageof a lifesizefigure of Christ on thecross leftundamtwo bombedbuildings is also typical of patriotic aged between photo in whichcaptions thesephenomena resonate withthe albums, marking wartime God on ourSide." The patriotic use of Christian slogan"With contrasts with Friedrich's which the narrative, symbols sharply rejected ofreligious indicted the reification and collaboration of the iconography Church andthemilitary. mostpolemical, is Rex's use of severalimagesthat Perhaps though, are identical to thosepublished by Friedrich, thereby directly contesting Friedrich had assigned themeaning them andrecontextualizing in them a nationalist discourse. Aside from theshocking closeupsof disfigured faces,someof Friedrich's mostly grisly imageswerethoseof severely bodies.Among burned his600 photographs, Rex published a handful of such pictures, two thatare clearly including onlyslightly differentlyof photographs versions usedby Friedrich. One of theseshows cropped
43. Hoffmann, Die Dekoration der Gewalt,Kunstund Medienim Faschismus inDewitz271. (Gief3en: 1979),quoted Anabas-Verlag Kampf,
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in a destroyed bodiestrapped tank. burned Friedrich's "Human caption, to identify remains of a battered armored declines theindividucar,"44 als as national theidentity of theburned victims subjects, universalizing and striving foran emotional forthenearly identiappeal.Rex'scaption tone: a more assumes cal image, reproduced darkly, gloating flame Tanksubdued throwers. tanks can be by battle Although incharging alsoprotogreat German lines, they employed advantage videa goodtarget for German defense Theheavy armorequipment. be usedbythe cannot when, gunners enveloped byfire, gas plating Thepicture andsmoke, suffocate. alsoshows howa man inside they with tries the the a heavily wounded hand tograsp tank tank opening inhisdeath struggle.45 thedead as non-German and implies Rex's caption identifies gratificathat theimageofan outwitted andoutmaneuvered tionwith enemy profor German videda "goodtarget" artillery.46 The second horror-image deployedin both textsdepictsa burned is brief Friedrich sarcastic: aircraft. and darkly bodynextto a downed "After "A 'meritorious' Rex writes, the air battle.The achievement." and demolwarpilotnext to hisburned and mutilated French blackened the dismisses Friedrich's comment ished flyingmachine."47 again of instead notions the of nationality, challenging figure's importance for which medals "meritoriand honor, recognizing courage, patriotism countries. Rex's were dispensed ous achievement" by all combatant of thefigure; on thenationality remarks center thinly disguised by the withthe evisatisfaction of his tone is a distinct seeming neutrality as the was regarded denceof a thoroughly enemy. Burning vanquished results of theenemy, its horrifying thedestruction best way to insure and charred who saw in the twisted to patriots wreckage comforting will to win.48 and greater of German character bodies a superiority butwith and graveyards, Rex's book ends,notwithimagesof invalids islandof Helgolandin the on thesmallfortified of cannons thefiring
War War 44. Friedrich, (1987) 87. Against otherwise aremine unless noted. 45. Rex 194.All translations thesoldiers areidenina later album where also appears 46. Thisphotograph photo in 221 Bildern im Westen: See Kamerad tified as English. Ein Bericht (Frankfurt/Main: inBerlin. is Archive ofDr. Bossert credit 1930) 152.Thephotographic Societats-Verlag, War War 47. Friedrich, (1987) 91; Rex 338. Against A Nation Aviation andthe 48. See Peter Fritzsche, ofFliers:German PopularImagHarvard ination UP, 1992)93-95. (Cambridge:
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Weimar Narratives ofWar Photographic
NorthSea offthe German mainland after the ceasefire in November the return of German and the 1918, Gate, troops through Brandenburg Thisimage an army inthefield." "undefeated flags flying. portrays ThatRex was responding to thepacifist discourse is spelled outin the forward to hisbookwhich refers to those "on all sideswhowishto pale intoinsignificance of theevents thememory of theWorld Warand the achievements of the German front-line soldiers." Rex asserts undying that the he reveal thetrue only powerful pictures presents authentically of war: "thehorror of thebattle, nature of beingshotat by infantry, and mine-throwers, of experiencing aerial machine-guns, artillery, excessiveheat bombs,gas, butalso theravagesof windand weather, and icy cold,rainand snowendured foryears!"Not death unprotected and mass destruction, but the rugged individual in a primalstruggle - and theglory the the elements the and horror against enemy portray - ofwar.What motivated thesoldier's was "thedeepest moral bravery of of the will to for self-sacrifice a moral feeling selflessness, higher for the of the What Fatherland." lendsthestruggle true idea, protection is that itwas notconducted to defend one's ownmortal nobility merely existence butto protect nationalist ideals.Finally, Rex declares that the theviewer will acquirethrough theseimageswill bind understanding himto "theundying oftheundefeated German whosededspirit army," icationto thesehigher ideas "has madea peoplegreatand strong.'"49 notonlyto admit buteffectively thedevasdefeat, Refusing dismissing of effect the on the war in German of the"spiritating economy favor tual"rejuvenation Rex constructs and reinforces provided bymilitarism, his argument notonlythrough theordering of his photographs butby his positivist of gruesome war imagery, the interpretations including oftwoofFriedrich's most horrible reinterpretation pictures. As Bernd Huippauf has suggested, the emotionally detachedand amoral of mass environmental destruction deathwas and representation adumbrated the convention of the a already by pictorial picturesque, visualcode that embodied intimations of violent destruction and helped createtheperception of war as "natural." allowed"the This,in turn, mildthrill of thepicturesque with sublime and [to]be replaced horror," reified ina waythat Romanticism allowedtheheroic nineteenth-century
49. Rex,"Vorwort," inDer Weltkrieg inseiner rauhen Wirklichkeit. Thisforward is omitted from thesecondedition in 1927which is given thesubtitle "Frontkilmpferwerk," butis included inthethird edition ofthesameyear.
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to be identified notwith but"manmade geologic physical cataclysm."50 On another the physical level, the ideologyof nationalism justified of "others" destruction and their and themytholterritory legitimized of and visual the consolidation soldier-male as "hero" and a ogy of German defender While Friedrich's book a sovereignty. represented to theexperience of relentlessly mounting, visually explicit subjection thatwas heightened humansuffering and emotionally by manipulated theaccompanying nationalist narratives an emotionally text, employed andamoral tiedtoa picturesque detached aesthetic. perspective Laterpatriotic albumssuchas FranzSchauwecker's So photographic war der Krieg(1928), Ernst Das Antlitz des Ersten Weltkreig Jiinger's imBild (1930) extended the (1930), and GeorgSoldan'sDer Weltkrieg rhetorical devicesestablished Rex.51FranzSchauwecker, by Hermann forexample,in his introduction to So war der Krieg [Thuswas the writes an impassioned of nationalism on the War], paean to thebirth in of war,verbally the battlefield horrible" a series of liter"heroizing of sweat and of "earth made mud, ary imagescomposed explosions, of battle ofwhich almost a images holyby blood,"and in photographic The remarkable thirdare devotedto explosions.52 between analogy manmade and thesymbolic of the selfwiththe explosions "merging" of militarist whichdrawson nationsuggests a mystification ideology of the "sublime" and "creation notions destructhe romantic through as theseimages tion";at thesametime suggest explosive power a supein which is thebirth with riorform of "manliness" masculinity charged to be conceived Whilethenew nation out of war was of thenation.53 as freed from materialist construed corruption by theexpresoriginally nation based for itwas a new,more militarized theradical sionists, right ofmen. on a community
in EarlyPhotograWarImagery "The Emergence of Modern 50. Bernd Hiippauf, 5.1 (1991): 138-39. & Memory History phy," albumin the late 51. The onlyother exampleof an antimilitarist photographic 1924photographic Weimar thecontinual ofFriedrich's album) (asidefrom reprints period bookDeutschland, Deutschland Heartfield andKurt was John fiber picture Tucholsky's satire on Weimar's andmilitary leaderin 1929.It was a caustic Allespublished political a contrast with texts notonlyforitssubject photographic provided patriotic shipwhich thewaythetechnique ofphotographic butparticularly for matter, montage problematized ofphotographic theclaimstoauthenticity andtransparency representation. aus der Front So war der Krieg:200 Kampfaufnahmen 52. FranzSchauwecker, (Berlin, 1928). 53. See MariaTatar, for Life:Figurations ofWar, andtheCity in Women, "Fighting 32 (1994): 28-57. theWork ofOttoDix,"German Politics andSociety
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Weimar Narratives of War Photographic
The most polemical of the patrioticphoto albums, Schauwecker's book suggests that nationalismcan encompass all who are willing to recognize and embrace it, that it is a cross-class phenomenon,which will not only strengthen the future nationbut offer equalityof statusto of his each individualwithin it. Schauweckerasserts the authenticity as "the true face of war, undeformed, not prettified, and photographs of the photographs revealed in the hard,candid, unchangedobjectivity of the modem war ... a diaryin pictures."54 of the depressingtragedy caused by warfarebut The "tragedy,"of course, is not the destruction then sets and knocksdown a vulgar defeat. Schauwecker up Germany's of the war: pacifist analysis of comThepacifist sees in theWorld Waronlya warofmachines, totheexclusion ofthepersonal andthespircannon factories, peting left to personal as one of and sees theonlydecision itual, judgement ofthemeans him ofwar.The driving force for thetechnical qualities is themarket andtheeconomic goal. Thishe calls"theIdea ofwar." As a result he has onlythisto see, whichhe is able to grasp:the which he calls "foolish," andthedecimation ofthe mutual slaughter In theend,thewarforhimis onlythemostmiserable population. in modem Whoever warfare can ofcapitalist economy. consequence likea calculating machine see onlythis, he is certainly constructed likeone. andalso works Though couched in general terms,Schauwecker's attack reads like a in the introduction to his response to Friedrich'sappeal to militarists second volume of WarAgainst War.Having dismissedthe "ostensible" whetherfoundedon Friedrich'soverbasis of an antiwarperspective, analysisor not,Schauweckerproceedsto challengethe moral simplified or grounds for a pacifiststance by questioningthe personal integrity, "manliness"of pacifists: in waronlysees "thefoolish Whoever he proves slaughter," thereby in thewar.Whoever, he himself different as a result that saw nothing for him ofthis becomes a pacifist, realizes hisownnaked life that matI holdsuchpeopleto be unimportant. If tersaboveall. I confess that still he atleastinhisownwarexperience hada senseofdreadful tragin the andpossessed a senseofseeingdestiny edy,of darkgreatness he rejected, then one could,with before sucha war,which sympathy livedandhonest suchan error. for For conviction, experience respect
54. So warderKrieg3. "Vorwort derHerausgeber," Schauwecker,
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of ourday,however, theaverage one never loses thefeeling pacifist that all is saidanddone, is cowardly andwomanish andthat he,when here is a holeinhischaracter.55
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Das Antlitz des Weltkrieges. deutscher Ernst Fronterlebnisse Jiinger's War:Experiences Soldaten[The Countenance of the World of German
of the war as was meantas a culturalhistory Soldiers on the Front],57 soldiers' of their through descriptions experiencesand their represented from the It follows a similar to thatof other battlefields. pattern pictures In Das his forward to Antlitz, "Krieg und Lichtphoto albums. patriotic a writer and novelistof the intelbild" [War and Photography], Jiinger, lectual right,also takes on the pacifistdiscourse, attackingthe "onesidedness"of Friedrich's book without namingit: explicitly it has Insofar as life tendsto forget veryquicklythe difficulties that makethemisery of warpresent are especially endured, pictures cannot excludesuchphotosanymore valuable.A photoanthology ofthem, atthe itcanconsist there havebeenattempts than though only would be a betrayal toourrevulsion tosuffering latter. only Appealing ofsucha serious matas woulda beautification ofourmoral essence, war.58 was embodied ter as that which bythis equates a simple humanist appeal to "our revulsionto sufferJiinger "moral which may be definedas subwith a of essence," ing" betrayal to nationalist ideals. subordinated Though allowing thatimages jectivity includes "that make the miseryof war present,"are valuable, Jiinger veryfewof them.
"Vorwort derHerausgeber" 7-8. 55. Schauwecker, werea threat homosexuals to Germany's 56. The conviction that military strength of homosexuals feltcomevenadvocates of therights was so strongly entrenched that which wouldaidthenational manliness" tothem a "respectable struggle pelledtoattribute itnecesofhomosexual felt an early for survival. Benedict rights, champion Friedlinder, towagewar. for homosexuals would weaken thenation's todeny that freedom ability sary vol. 1 (1905) 463-70, citedin Jahrbuch sexuelle Benedict Friedlinder, Zwischenstufen fiir in and Abnormal and Sexuality: Sexuality Respectability GeorgeMosse, Nationalism Modern 1985)34. Europe(NewYork:H. Fertig, deutscher Sol57. Ernst des Weltkrieges. Fronterlebnisse ed., Das Antlitz Jiinger, sowieeiner Mitetwa200photo-graphischen daten. Aufnahmen aufTafeln, Kartenanhang in Tabelle 1930). (Berlin, chronologischen Kriegsgeschichte 59 (Spring/Summer 58. Translated inNewGerman 1993):25. Critique
Terms such as "womanish"were,if not an allusion to homosexuality, at that attributed best a formof feminization "characterweakness" to a lack of manliness.56
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Weimar Narratives ofWar Photographic
in a The frontispage to Jiinger's soldiers bookis an imageof sleeping in sunlight trench withone sentry on duty. and the Theyare drenched "Calm before thestorm," a senseof anticipation. creates The caption, twohundred which follow to the attempt convey progress photographs in chronological of the war as a singlelinearnarrative development, An imageof German and countercharges. solincluding troop charges dierssolemnly in thefield whilea mineexplodesin comrades burying thebackground showsthatthey did notneglect their dutyeven under adverseconditions. This imagecontrasts with thoseof mass sharply Friedrich. graves published by in Jiinger's An unusual section notbasedon book,andone obviously amateur soldiers'photographs, consistsof twenty-four facial photoof "enemy them French, Italian, graphs types," among Belgian, English, as well as Indian, Russianand American Arabic, Portuguese, Japanese, and Somalian soldiers. of uncharacteristic Sudanese, Though Senegalese most it is a of German racist albums, patriotic photo typical display phys"science"whichturned to social Darwinism as a tool for iognomic "national" behavior. andfocuses on the"othexplaining highlights Jiinger of theenemy whiletheantiwar humanist discourse erness" exemplified toassimilate andovercome otherness.59 byFriedrich attempts The final overa dozenimages of corpses, idenpagescontain largely as enemy dead. The impact of theseimagesas horror-photos is tified their blunted small the distant and their number, views, by consignment to theendofa longpictorial narrative to reconstruct meant batexciting tlecampaigns; after the "battle" between German and witnessing enemy the book, we are meantto cheerfor "our" side, troopsthroughout admirethe heroism of the few representative dead, and perhapsfeel relief at thesight of enemy casualties. "The concluding Jiinger's image, A Field Cross of the Christ Calm After the Storm. FigureRemains a statue of Christ in an empty fieldwitha draUndamaged," depicts maticskyas a backdrop. Once again we are meant to readthisfinal of an undamaged Christ as a signthat "God was withus." As picture
59. Germans werenottheonly onestoemploy themethods ofSocial Darwinism. J. H. Morgan, theauthor ofa British into theKriegtagebiicher to turn this inquiry attempted toolagainst theGermans that the "moral was byconcluding puzzleofGerman perversion" there in thecontention of "one fortheanthropologist maybe someforce .. .[andthat] thosewhobelievethat thePrussian is nota member of theTeutonic at all, buta family back'tosomeTartar stock." J.H. Morgan, AnOfficial German Atrocities: Investi'throw inHome& Kramer 12-13. (London, 1916)52-53, gation quoted
Dora Apel
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Bodo von Dewitzhas suggested, thestatue of Christ, whichwas actuat thebeginning ofthewar,represents bothan endto allyphotographed In thenextone, the"last"storm and the"calm"before thenextone.60 likeChrist, willbe symbolically resurrected. thefallen, in thesupremely landThe heroic idea of warculminated impersonal of Aerial such as those shelled from the air. taken photographs scapes in thepressand in patriotic albums, published photographic territory, of the German war effort the technological efficiency helpedconfirm or madepossible and thephotographic Zeppelin, efficiency by balloon, who were of these were devoid Because humans, any photos airplane.61 the of theair cameras, theextreme distance too smallto be seen from reduced to surface were further aestheticized, patterns composed images lines. The space of of dugouts, trenches, supplyand communication in techcontent and reconstituted was emptied ofmoral aeriallandscape of themodem The impersonal visualabstraction environnicalterms.62 fascination and abstract ment of warfareevoked an aestheticized a positivist, that allowedfor "scientific" mathematical proquantification used to of war and could be imperialist justify aggression.63 jection individual seemsinadequate, Whilethehumanist imageof thesuffering of photographic to findforms difficult it is nonetheless representation are uniformly of soldiers theway thatthousands capableof capturing
60. Dewitz280-81. Warand Cinema:TheLogistics 61. Cf. Paul Virilio, (London/New ofPerception ofradiofwaris primarily thehistory asserts that thehistory York:Verso,1989).Virilio - searchnewforms of illumination ofperception associated with fields callychanging - andnewforms ofvision, suchas "telescopic aviation military camera-pigeons, lights, lensfunctioned less as a of perception that thecamera Thesenewforms suggest sight." efficient device and moreas thetechnologically "eyes" of themilitary, documentary andafter thewar.Also see for both control a newweaponin thebattle during becoming 14 (1990): 40-42. ofVirilio's bookinFilmReview SabineHake's review of ModemWarfare and theCrisisof Representa62. See Hiippauf, "Experiences in the of German thisevidence tion"56-59.Not surprisingly superiority, technological of thedaring that of theairplane, form pilots young imagery, gave riseto a newheroic became the Airmen vonRichthofen. "RedBaron" Manfred ofthe bythe myth exemplified whoweretechnologically heroes as tough-minded ofGerman emblems superiority perfect 85. See Fritzsche nationalistic. capableandruthlessly ofwarfare ofrepresentation was experienced this kind 63. Exactly bytheAmerican andtechnical the abstract Warthrough the1991Gulf produced images highly during public of the dominant atleast, itbecame On the videoscreens. American onaerial side, experience coordiof mathematically manifestations one ofthemost thewar,representing disturbing ofmassdestruction everinvented, anddepersonalized nated effectively obscuring imagery Also noted of Iraqisoldiers andcivilians killed. of thethousands by anyclearrealization ofRepresentation" 73. andtheCrisis ofModern Warfare "Experiences Hiippauf,
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Weimar Narratives Photographic of War
ormasspopulations arephysically techsubsumed, destroyed bymilitary without the viewer from the is What is clear nology, distancing subject. thattechnology and nationalism wereinextricably boundtogether durWorld WarI in Germany andhelped ingand after pave thewayforthe further of society mobilization and theculminating disastechnological terof thetwentieth a decorated war-veteran whosefirst century. Jiinger, in 1920,was well-known for book,In theStorm ofSteel,was published his hallucinatory of mechanized its relation to warfare, descriptions and his ardent of embrace the as basis heightened perception, technology for a newsociety which later influenced the National Socialists.64 In Der Weltkrieg imBild [Portrait oftheWorld War]65 by GeorgSolto theReichsarchiv in Potsdam, advisor thefamiliar dan,official images are recycled, a photographic through reinforcing repetition repertoire in patriotic embedded visualculture. Soldanmaintains an already firmly in 1927 note his edition "circles of soft explicit polemical accusing pacifists" of endeavoring to exploit warphotographs fortheir own ends.66 thepacifists weredeemedless of a threat and this By 1930,however, was deleted reference from thetwo-page forward. UnlikeFriedrich's albumsof Rex, Schaubook, the photographic and Soldanemphasized notdeathand dying butcourwecker, Jiinger, and In of and manliness, age, fighting. images marching, fighting to it the was and heroism of the that preparing fight, daring army becamethelessonforpostwar to learn, with thepooroutcome of youth thewar blamedon other causes.67 The patriotic waralbumsgave little sense of thevastscale of human destruction wrought by thewar,nor was there a senseof theindividuality of soldiers; there wereno facial to the dead. closeups of livingsoldiersor uncomfortable proximity WhileFriedrich's senseof suffering on an emotional identifidepended
64. Jiinger that the mechanization ofwarextended tothestrucargued technological ofthemodem ture andhe projected a right-wing ofthemodern in city utopian image city a constant ofmobilization. state See Anton on Mobilization andModernity," Kaes,"Notes NewGerman 59 (Spring/Summer Critique 1993): 105-17. 65. GeorgSoldan,Der Weltkrieg im Bild: Originalaufnahmen des Kriegs-, BildundFilmamtes aus der modernen vol. 1 (Berlin& Oldenburg, 1927. Materialschlacht, 2ndEdition. 1930). 66. Soldan, "ZumGeleit!" Der Weltkrieg imBild,n.p., inDewitz271-72. quoted 67. A concomitant inthe shift rhetoric ofwarmemorial after ideological inscriptions World WarI, as compared tothose after theFranco-Prussian is evident ininscriptions war, which no longer butinstead thewilltodo battle as thehighest proclaimed victory glorified the War167. good.See Mosse,FallenSoldiers: oftheWorld Reshaping Memory
Dora Apel
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cation with the humanface, the patriotic albumswere deliberately in this Because amateur of soldiers lookoblique regard. photographs at the were camera the "face" not of war human was a eliminated, ing heroic "idea" of war,represented without face,butan impersonal, specificdatesandplacesthat included of soldiers the images staged during warandpresented afterwards as authentic. The purpose ofamateur phothewar in establishing was thereby inverted tography during identity theerasure of individual and theabstraction of subjecthrough identity tiveexperience intogeneralized heroic The negation of subnarratives. and the of an autonomous meant jectivity veryconcept subject closing offthepossibility of emotional on thepartof theviewerand empathy theidentity of thesoldieras a constituent element of a reconstituting rolecarried a political outin a military machine, technological capacity with which theviewer was meant toidentify. TheLimits Discourse ofthePacifist Friedrich a thateffectively reduced presented politicalperspective the ideologyof militarism to simple economicmotives;individual refusal to serveor to perpetuate of violenceconstituted his symbols defenseagainstmilitarization. To underscore primary programmatic he employed thesecalls forindividual resistance war imagery searing with text to evoke horror at the of together gut-wrenching consequences foritsvictims. A characteristic warand compassion of the aspect pacihe created, fist discourse was thepresentation of waras havhowever, The weaknessof pacifism and no perpetrators. lies ing only victims in of warparticipants as universal precisely thehumanist representation withno historical or agency.68 The viewer subjects/victims specificity senseof thepolitical or greater social dimendynamics gainsno larger is presented sionsof thecataclysmic event that as a timeless, placeless War. Friedrich to construct an alternative collective visual attempted that to destabilize heroic of thewarand to keep memory sought myths
68. Similarly, itshould notbe surprising that to represent theHolocaust as attempts a parableof universal also have failed.A recent of suffering exampleis theshowing Steven film Listinethnically Schindler's mixed schooldistricts the Spielberg's throughout The assumption United States. that victimized Jews wouldbe perceived as uniEuropean versalsubjects andimprove relations between inthis established blacksandJews country a policywhichinstead has helpedtrigger bitter as different ethnic controversy groups overwhosehistory has beenmore "The traumatic. See MichaelAndre Berstein, compete Schindler's ListEffect," TheAmerican Scholar 63 (1994): 429-32.
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Weimar Narratives Photographic ofWar
in official alive thepainful memories histories. The practical repressed of this did not thesubjechowever, application perspective, go beyond tive expression of compassionto insightinto collectivestruggle. in his appeals,Friedrich ardent created a narrative that Though emphasized notthecritical causesof warbutwar's terrible his consequences; could not channel antiwar sentiment intoorganized political program to theriseofNational in thelateWeimar Socialism political opposition becauseitrelied on individual, moral outidealist, period fundamentally in was its of a construction rage.The powerof thenationalist appeal national one that the notion of kinuniversal positive identity, rejected of a heroicGerman that was bestexpressed shipin favor particularity an national rather thanthehumanist unified, by imagined, community oftheindividual. subjectivity

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Cultural Battlegrounds: Weimar Photographic Narratives of War Author(s): Dora Apel Source: New German Critique, No.

Cultural Battlegrounds: Weimar Narratives Photographic Of War

Narratives Weimar of War Photographic

Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic

ofO. J.Simpson. photo

imErsten Tudur (Munich: Weltkrieg Verlagsgesellschaft, 1989)esp.266 ff.

Weimar Narratives Photographic ofWar

Narratives Weimar of War Photographic

Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic

Narratives Weimar Photographic of War

Narratives WeimarPhotographic of War

Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic

Narratives Weimar of War Photographic

Narratives WeimarPhotographic of War

Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic

Narratives Weimar ofWar Photographic

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Narratives Weimar Photographic ofWar

Weimar Narratives ofWar Photographic

Weimar Narratives of War Photographic

Weimar Narratives ofWar Photographic

Weimar Narratives Photographic of War

Weimar Narratives Photographic ofWar

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